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C American Museum of Natural History t, N. Y. 

The Willamette Meteor found at Portland, Oregon in 1902, is the largest ever discovered in the United States. 









HOME UNIVERSITY 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 

—An Illustrated Treasury of Knowledge _ 

Prepared under the Editorship of 

C. RALPH TAYLOR 

Advisory Editor 

l 

CARL VAN DOREN 


WITH SPECIAL ARTICLES AND DEPART¬ 
MENTAL SUPERVISION BY 462 LEADING EDITORS, 
EDUCATORS AND SPECIALISTS IN THE 

UNITED; %TATES AND EUROPE 

(Revised Edition) 

1946 

Complete in Twelve Volumes 
VoLUMte-^, 



NELSON NEW LOOSE-LEAF ENCYCLOPEDIA 
FIRST PUBLISHED AND COPYRIGHTED, 1905 
REVISED AND COPYRIGHTED, 1934, 

BY THOMAS NELSON &l SONS, NEW YORK 
REVISED, ABRIDGED AND COPYRIGHTED, 
1935, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1944, 1945, 1946 
BY BOOKS INC., NEW YORK 


All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this 
book, or portions thereof, in any form 


PRINTED AND BOUND IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



VOLUME X 


Peninsular 

Peninsular War. For the causes of the 
outbreak of hostilities between Britain, Port¬ 
ugal, and Spain on the one part and France 
on the other, see Spain. Napoleon, hav- 
ing come to a fresh understanding with Alex¬ 
ander i. of Russia, at Erfurt, hastened to 
Spain, which had been invaded by a British 
force under Sir John Moore. The death of 
Moore was a disaster, and was followed by 
the evacuation of Portugal by the British 
troops. In April Sir Arthur Wellesley landed 
in the Tagus, in May effected a passage of the 
Douro, and on July 27 and 28 fought and 
won the battle of Talavera. After the battle 
Wellesley, who was continually hampered by 
the pride and indolence of the Spaniards, 
abandoned Spain, and took up a position 
near Almeida. On June 13 Wellington en¬ 
tered Spain, winning Salamanca on July 22, 
and occupying Madrid. From August to 
September, 1813, Soult endeavored, though 
in vain, to prevent Wellington from cross¬ 
ing the Pyrenees, and numerous battles were 
fought. The British, however, steadily ad¬ 
vanced. On April 4 Napoleon abdicated. 

• Penitential Psalms, a group of seven 
psalms chosen from the Psalter on account 
of the marked penitence they exhibit. They 
are Psalms 6, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130 and 143, of 
which the 51st (the Miserere) may be re¬ 
garded as the most characteristic. 

Penitentiary, in the Roman Catholic 
Church, is a priest attached to cathedral 
churches who considers cases of grave sin 
and imposes the appropriate penance. 

Penn, William (1644-1718), English Qua- 
ker, founder of the colony, of Pennsylvania. 
The goodwill of Charles 11. and James n. for 
Admiral Penn was of great value to his son 
and enabled him to protect the Quakers from 
persecution, and to obtain the grant of the 
province of Pennsylvania. The admiral had 
lent to the Crown various sums of money, 
and these with his arrears of pay amounted' 
to over £12,000. Afterwards this debt was 
liquidated by the grant to the son of the 
province of Pennsylvania. The admiral in¬ 
tended his son to be a man of fashion and 
a courtier; but the boy imbibed Whig ideas 
in politics and Puritanical ideas in religion at 
Wanstead, where he lived with his mother 
until his twelfth year, while his father was 


Eenii' 

away at sea. He indulged in athletic sports, 
studied fairly well, and no doubt his father 
thought his hopes would be realized.-But the 
Quakers as well as tire Puritans were irr Ox¬ 
ford, and one day young Penn listened to the 
preaching of one Thomas Loe. His natural 
serious-mindedness was touched. He was ban¬ 
ished from college, he tells us, because of his 
new belief, or protests against what he calls 
‘that hellish darkness and debauchery. 5 But 
Penn clung to his new faith and the admiral 
sent him with some of the gay people of the 
court to travel in France. He returned, 
speaking French fluently, and to the great de¬ 
light of the admiral, very much of a cavalier. 
But one day he went to Cork on some busi- 
ness, heard his old friend Thomas Loe preach, 
and this time the doctrine struck home. Penn 
joined the Quaker faith and remained in it, 
although he retained many of the habits of 
the cavalier. He became a controversial writer 
of great vigor. The Quakers had for many 
years desired a colony or refuge for themselves 
in the American wilderness; and in 1680 Penn 
applied to the crown for a grant of the land 
north of Maryland. Charles 11. was glad 
enough to establish a distant colony which 
would rid England of the troublesome Quak¬ 
ers, and he readily gave Penn a charter 
(March 4, 1681). Penn was the sole proprietor 
and governor. The Quakers flocked to Penn’s 
colony, which received the name of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, and readily co-operated in establishing 
a very liberal government. Philadelphia was 
founded and was soon a thriving town with 
many inhabitants. Penn became famous 
throughout the whole world for his fairness in 
dealing with the Indians and the fidelity with 
which he kept his promises to them. But his 
province, though a great success politically 
and a valuable refuge for the Quakers, never 
brought in the money returns he expected; on 
the contrary, it ultimately involved him in 
debt and financial ruin. James 11. was deu 
throned in 1688, and the Prince of Orange be-, 
came king of England as William m. Penn 
was in a dangerous position as the friend of 
the dethroned and exiled monarch, and was 
obliged to seek exile for a time in France. 
The government of Pennsylvania was taken 
from him. In the reign of Queen Anne he again 
appeared at court. The financial difficulties 


3661 



Pennacook 


3662 


were increasing, and he was imprisoned for 
debt until released by subscriptions among 
his friends. 

Pennacook, an Algonquin Indian word of 
uncertain meaning, but probably signifying ‘a 
twisted place;’ historically applied to an In¬ 
dian league or confederation occupying the 
adjacent parts of New Hampshire, Maine, 
and Massachusetts. During the long period 
of intercolonial strife between the French and 
the English the Pennacooks were for a time 
friendly to the English, but later joined the 
French. A few of their descendants are sup¬ 
posed to reside near Saint Francis, Quebec. 

Pennant, or Pendant, a long, narrow flag 
with two pointed ends. Near the staff is the 
‘unionbeyond this the ‘fly’ consists of two 
stripes. 



William Penn. 

Pennell, Joseph (1860-1926), American 
artist and author, was bom in Philadelphia, 
of Quaker descent. While engaged as a rail¬ 
road clerk he studied at the Philadelphia art 
schools in etching and illustrating, and 
gained a reputation for his etchings of Phila¬ 
delphia scenes before he was of age. In 18S1 
he began work as an illustrator for the Cen¬ 
tury magazine. He married Elizabeth (Rob¬ 
ins) Pennell (1855), who acted as his literary 
collaborator in the preparation of numerous 
illustrated books of travel and description. 
Together they prepared Modem Illustration 
(1895) and Lithography and Lithographers 
(1898), and in 1906 a Life of James McNeill 
Whistler, done at his request. Mrs. Pennell 
also assisted in the preparation of Pen Draw- 


Pennsylvania 

mg and Pen Draughtsmen (1889), an import¬ 
ant work descriptive of the art at the time of 
the books’ publication. After 1884 Pennell 
resided chiefly in London, where he occasion¬ 
ally gave lectures at the art schools. He 
wrote Etchers and Etching (1919) and was 
editor (with wife) of Whistler Journal 
(1921). See E. Pennell’s Life and Letters of 
Joseph Pennell (2 vols. 1929). 

Pennine Alps extend from Little St. Ber¬ 
nard to Simplon Pass. But usually the west¬ 
ern portion (Little St. Bernard to Col. Fer¬ 
ret) is termed the chain of Mont Blanc, and 
the name Pennines applied to the rest only. 

Pennsylvania (named after William 
Penn’s father; popularly called the ‘Keystone 
State 1 ). One of the North Atlantic- States, be 
ing one of the Middle States. The Delaware 
River markes its entire eastern boundary line, 
and its southern boundary is known as ‘Ma¬ 
son and Dixon’s line.’ The surface of the 
State is divided into three natural sections 
by ranges of the Appalachian Mountains. 
The s.e. corner lies in the Coastal Plain and 
Piedmont regions, and is generally level; but 
it is diversified toward the north and west 
by beautiful rounded hills, interspersed with 
broad, fertile valleys. The Blue Mountains 
are a continuation of the Kittatinny range of 
Northwestern New Jersey and the Shaw- 
wangunk Mountains of New York. The 
break in the mountains admitting the pas¬ 
sage of the Delaware River is known as the 
Delaware Water Gap. The? elevated region 
between the two main ranges is known as 
the Alleghany Plateau. The general elevation 
of the Blue Mountains is somewhat Jess than 
2,000 feet, while no peak of this range at¬ 
tains to as much as 2,400 feet. That portion 
of the State to the north and west, of the 
mountain ranges is a broad plateau or table 
land, occupying about one-half of the total 
area, and having a rolling surface, broken 
here and there by low, flat-topped hills. 

The drainage of the State is comprised in 
three main basins—the Delaware, the Susque¬ 
hanna, and the Ohio. The Delaware flows 
along the entire eastern boundary, receiving 
as tributaries the Lackawanna, the Lehigh., 
and the Schuylkill. The Susquehanna crosses 
the State from north to south, making its de¬ 
vious way among the numerous mountain 
ranges and flowing into Chesapeake Bay. The 
climate varies considerably in different parts 
of the State. The mean temperature of Phil¬ 
adelphia is 32 0 f. for January and 76° for 
July, with extremes of -6° and 103 At 


Pennsylvania 


3663 


Pennsylvania 


Pittsburgh the mean for January is 30°, for 
July 74°, and the extremes are -20 0 and 103°. 
The winters are long and colder north and 
west of the mountains. The mean annual 
precipitation of 39.8 inches at Philadelphia, 
36.7 inches at Pittsburgh, and 41.3 inches at 
Erie. The snowfall on the western plateau 
is heavy. The soils are generally fertile, be¬ 
ing composed either of alluvial deposits or of 
eroded limestone. Some of the valleys, not¬ 
ably the beautiful Wyoming and the pictur¬ 
esque Lebanon, are remarkably fertile, the 
soil being peculiarly suited to grain growing. 
To the west of the Susquehanna, in the south¬ 
ern part of the State, is the Cumberland Val¬ 
ley, also noted for its fertility. The most re- 


550,741 tons, (the peak years), while that 
for 1940 was, 125,000,000 tons. This coal is 
mined in the western part of the State, and 
covers an area of 12,200 sq. m. Pennsylvania 
produces about 33 per cent, of the annual out¬ 
put of coke in the United States. In 1859 
petroleum was discovered in the submerged 
basal Carboniferous strata of Northwest 
Pennsylvania. The output increased at a re¬ 
markable rate. The output in 1929 was 11,- 
820,000 bbls., which was the highest recorded 
since 1902. In 1939 the production was 17,- 
337,000 bbls. The natural gas region includes 
nearly all the Alleghany plateau. Pennsylva¬ 
nia ranks very high in the total value of the 
: product of its stone quarries. Especially 



cent formations in Pennsylvania are the 
Cretaceous and Triassic along the Delaware 
River, covering most of the Bucks and parts 
of Lehigh and Montgomery counties. The 
remainder of the State belongs to the Azoic 
and Palaeozoic periods. 

Pennsylvania is a leading State in the 
annual value of its mineral products. By 
far the most valuable and most abundant re¬ 
source is coal. From 1830 to 1880 Penn¬ 
sylvania produced two-thirds of the annual 
tonnage of coal mined in the United States. 
Anthracite coal was discovered at the mouth j 
of Mill Creek, on the Susquehanna, in 1762. 
Since 1870 anthracite has been mined regu¬ 
larly. This coal is obtained in four narrow 
fields, having a total area of only 484 sq. 
m.—-the Northern of Wyoming, the Eastern 
Middle, or Lehigh, the Middle—-the last two 
being sometimes combined as the Schuylkill. 
The Pennsylvania fields represent practically 
the entire supply of anthracite in the United 
States. Scranton is the largest hard coal cen¬ 
ter of the country and makes much steel. The 
mining of bituminous coal began prior to 
1790. By 1918 the total production was 1.78,- 


important are limestone, basalt, graphite, 
slate, sand and clay. Iron ore occurs in 
commercial quantities in every county of 
the State. Previous to 1850 the produc¬ 
tion was sufficient to supply the iron and 
steel mills of the State, but the discovery 
that rich ore could be obtained from the 
Lake Superior region at less cost resulted in 
a decreased output. Pennsylvania has large 
areas of limestone rock suitable for making 
cement, and Northampton and Lehigh coun¬ 
ties are centers of the cement industry. Cop¬ 
per, feldspar, gold recovered from pyritifer- 
ous magnetite, mineral paints, peat, silica, 
talc, tripoli, silver, and mineral waters are also 
produced. 

Pennsylvania has always been of import¬ 
ance in the lumber industry. The principal 
trees are the hemlock, oak, chestnut, maple, 
beech, white pine, birch, yellow poplar, hick¬ 
ory and larch. According to the Federal Cen¬ 
sus for 1930, there were 172,419 farms in the 
State, comprising an area of 1$>309*485 acres. 
Market gardening is important in the south¬ 
eastern part of the State. Tobacco is raised 
chiefly In- Lancaster' and York counties. The 



3664 


Pennsylvania 

principal orchard fruits are apples, peaches 
and pears. From the colonial period until the 
present time Pennsylvania has been among 
the leading States in manufactures, and now 
is second only to New York. Pennsylvania 
is favored by its unique geographical posi¬ 
tion, being the only State touching the At¬ 
lantic seaboard and the Great Lakes, and 
having direct connection by river navigation 
with the great Southwest. Some of the ma¬ 
terials used in manufacture, such as petro¬ 
leum, natural gas, bituminous coal, anthracite 
coal, iron ore, limestone, clay, glass sand, tim¬ 
ber and tobacco are produced in large quan¬ 
tities. Pennsylvania has always ranked first 
among the States in the production of iron 
and steel. The first blast furnace began op¬ 
erations in 1790 in Fayette co. ^ Following 
the opening of the Sault Ste. Marie Canal in 
1855, Lake Superior iron ore was used in in¬ 
creasing quantities. The great centers now are 
Allegheny co. (Pittsburgh, Homestead, Brad- 
dock, McKeesport) and in Newcastle, Beth¬ 
lehem and Johnstown. The combined iron 
and steel industries, including steel works and 
rolling mills, blast furnaces, and the manu¬ 
facture of tin plate, rank far ahead of all 
other industries in the State. Second in im¬ 
portance is the textile group of industries, 
including the manufacture of woolen, worsted, 
cotton, silk and rayon goods, knit goods, 
carpets and rugs, cordage and twine. 

Allied to the iron and steel industries are 
the products of foundries and machine shops 
—a classification covering products of great 
diversity. Other industries of Pennsylvania 
include electrical machinery, apparatus, and 
supplies;' petroleum. refining; steam railroad 
car construction and repairs, printing and pub¬ 
lishing; including newspapers and periodic- 
cals; book and job; music; bread and other 
bakery products, wholesale meat packing, 
coke, not including gashouse coke, cigars and 
cigarettes; motor vehicles, bodies and parts; 
clay products. ■ Philadelphia is the largest and 
most important city in the State. The lead¬ 
ing industries in the Philadelphia area are 
petroleum refining, knit goods, electrical ma¬ 
chinery, printing and publishing, foundry and 
machine shop products. Pittsburgh, called 
'The City of Steel,’ is the second city in the 
State in value of manufactured products. The 
leading industries are those which use ore and 
metal as the principal materials. Johnstown, 
Allentown, Reading and Erie are also im¬ 
portant. Philadelphia is the principal port of 
entry for foreign commerce. Pittsburgh is an 


Pennsylvania 

interior port. Erie is prominent in internal 
commerce, especially in the shipment of iron 
ore, soft coal and grain. According to the 
Federal Census for 1940, the population of 
Pennsylvania was 9,900,180. Of this total, 
foreign-born whites numbered 1,250,000. The 
urban population, in towns and cities of at 
least 2,500 inhabitants, comprises 66.5 per 
cent, of the total. 

Pennsylvania has a State Council of Edu¬ 
cation which regulates the chartering of col¬ 
leges, and has general administrative control 
of the public school system; a State Superin¬ 
tendent of Public Instruction,. appointed by 
the governor and senate for four years, hav¬ 
ing general supervision of public schools; a 
county superintendent in each county chosen 
by the school directors in each district who 
are elected for four years. Institutions 
for higher education in the State include: 
University of Pennsylvania at Philadel¬ 
phia, Bryn Mawr College, for women at 
Bryn Mawr; University of Pittsburgh at 
Pittsburgh; Lehigh University at Bethlehem; 
Lafayette College at Easton; Washington and 
Jefferson College at Washington; Muhlen- 
burg College at Allentown; Temple Univer¬ 
sity at Philadelphia; Lebanon Valley Col¬ 
lege at Annville; Carnegie Institute at Pitts¬ 
burgh ; Drexel Institute at Philadephia; Du- 
quesne University, at Pittsburgh; Geneva 
College, at Beaver Falls; Irving College, at 
Mechanicsburg;.. Juanita'College, at Hunting¬ 
don; Ursinus College, at Collegeville; Al¬ 
bright College, at Myerstown; Wilson Col¬ 
lege, at Chambersburg; Villa Nova College 
(R. C.), at Villa Nova; Dickinson College, 
at Carlisle; Gettysburg College at Gettys¬ 
burg; ■ Haverford College, at Haverford; 
Grove City College; Franklin and Marshall 
College at Lancaster; Buckneli University, at 
Lewisburg; Allegheny College,; at Meadville; 
Susquehanna University, at Selingsgrove; 
Westminster College,, at New Wilmington.; 
Swarthmore College, at Swarthmore; Penn¬ 
sylvania College for Women at Pittsburgh; 
and the publicly controlled Pennsylvania 
State College, at State College, and Pennsyl¬ 
vania State Forest School, at Mont Alto. Gir¬ 
ard College, a school for orphan boys at 
Philadelphia, is one of the most richly en¬ 
dowed institutions in the United States. 

The charitable and penal institutions of 
Pennsylvania are under the control of the 
Department of Public Welfare created in 
1921, and consisting of four bureaus directed 
by the Secretary of Public Welfare. There 



Pennsylvania 


3665 


Pennsylvania 


are State medical and surgical hospitals in the 

coal mining districts. Industrial work in the 
penitentiaries and reformatories is an im¬ 
portant activity of the Bureau of Restoration. 
The products of these instiutions are numer¬ 
ous, including brushes, shoes, sheeting, and 
furniture. The present constitution of Penn¬ 
sylvania was adopted in 1873. The legisla¬ 
ture consists of a Senate, one-half of which 
Is chosen every two years, and a House of 
Representatives chosen biennially. Regular 
sessions convene in January of odd years. 
The chief executive officers are the Governor, 
Lieutenant-Governor, and a Secretary of 
State, all elected for a term of four years; 
an Auditor-General, elected for three years; 
a Treasurer, elected for four years; and an 
Attorney-General, appointed by the governor 
(with the approval of two-thirds of the Sen¬ 
ate) during pleasure. The Superintendent of 
Public Instruction is similarly appointed for 
a term of four years. The governor is not 
eligible for the next succeeding term. The 
judicial authority is vested in a Supreme 
Court of seven justices, elected at large for a 
term of twenty- one years, and ineligible for 
re-election; in a Superior Court of seven 
judges elected also at large for ten years; in 
Courts of Common Pleas, for which one 
judge is elected for a term of ten years, in 
each of the judicial districts of one or more 
counties, holding sessions in each county of 
the district; and in Justices of the Peace. 
Under the Reapportionment Act Pennsyl¬ 
vania has 33 Representatives in the National 
Congress. Harrisburg is the capital of the 
State. 

In 1638 the Swedes under Peter Minuit 
settled along the Delaware and founded New 
Sweden, but in 1655 they were conquered by 
the Dutch of New Netherland. In 1664 these 
settlements on the Delaware were granted to 
the Duke of York, together with all the lands 
between the Delaware and the Connecticut. 
The Duke of York, in turn, granted the re¬ 
gion to William Penn, a zealous Quaker, In 
1680 Penn received a grant of the region 
forming the present State of Pennsylvania, 
He was made absolute lord of all the lands, 
paying to the crown a fixed rent of two 
beaver skins. Penn sent over William Mark¬ 
ham as deputy until he came himself. Phila¬ 
delphia was laid out in 1682. Penn arrived 
in the colony in the fall of 1682, and imme¬ 
diately concluded a treaty with the Indians. 
He submitted several schemes of govern¬ 
ment before one was firmly established. The 


constitution as revised in 1701 was in force 
until the Revolution. Liberty of conscience 
was granted to all who acknowledged God. 
In 1682 Penn received from the Duke of 
York the right to the soil of the three lower 
counties on the Delaware, and with the con¬ 
sent of the inhabitants assumed the govern¬ 
ment of these counties. They remained a 
part of Pennsylvania though with a separate 
legislature after 1703, until they formed the 
State of Delaware in 1776. Pennsylvania 
had long disputes over its boundaries on every 
side. Penn accepted 42° as the northern 
boundary, and insisted on 39 0 as the south¬ 
ern. It was not until 1760 that the line was 
settled, on a compromise made in 1732, be¬ 
ing fixed at the parallel of 39 0 43 / The line 
was surveyed for 264 miles by Mason and 
Dixon in 1763-7. In the west there were dis¬ 
putes with Virginia and Connecticut. The 
boundary with Virginia was settled in 1779 
by extending Mason and Dixon’s line to a 
point five degrees w. of the Delaware River. 

The dispute with Connecticut was more 
serious. The Tennamite and Yankee War’ 
was fought over the possession of the Wyo¬ 
ming Valley. Finally the Continental Con¬ 
gress interfered, by virtue of the Articles of 
Confederation, and for State reasons gave 
the disputed tract to Pennsylvania. In 1792. 
by act of Congress, Pennsylvania obtained 
the triangular strip west of New York and 
north of the parallel of 42 °, on Lake Erie, 
thus securing a lake frontage. Soon after the 
adoption of the Declaration of Independence, 
which was signed at Philadelphia, a State 
government was organized (1776). During 
the greater part of the war Pennsylvania 
served as a base of operations for Washing¬ 
ton, Except for the brief period that it was 
held by Howe (1777-8), Philadelphia was 
the seat of Congress. During the first few 
years of the Union the large foreign popula¬ 
tion in Western Pennsylvania caused trouble 
for the Federal Government, through their 
ignorance of the true nature of the new con¬ 
ditions. The Scotch-Irish resisted the excise 
tax on liquors, which led to the Whiskey In¬ 
surrection of 1794. In 1798 the Germans re¬ 
sisted the assessment of a direct tax, and this 
resulted in Fries’ Rebellion. About 1820 the 
State began a series of internal developments, 
and built many miles of roads, canals, and 
railroads. At the outbreak of the Civil War, 
Pennsylvania was the first to respond to 
Lincoln’s call to arms, and at once sent troops 
to defend the National Capital. During the 



Pennsylvania 


3666 


war it was invaded by the Confederates in 
1863 and 1864. At Gettysburg,, on July 1-3, 
1863, one of the decisive battles of the war 
was fought. Since the Civil War Pennsyl¬ 
vania has had a remarkable industrial growth, 
especially in the coal, oil, and steel industries. 
In 1876 the Centennial Exhibition, the first 
international exposition in the United States, 
was held in Philadelphia, and was attended 
by more than 8,000,000 people. In 1889 oc¬ 
curred the flood at Johnstown, in which 2,000 
persons lost their lives. In 1897 the State 
capitol at Harrisburg was burned, causing 
a loss of $1,500,000. Following this a new 
capitol costing upward of $13,000,000 was 
erected. Republican for many years, Penn- 


Pemny 

Pennsylvania, and reorganized in 1874 under 
its present title, with greatly enlarged scope. 
Its grounds of over 2,000 acres are occupied 
by a campus of 100 acres, 9 model farms, 140 
acres for the use of the Experiment Station, 
and 100 acres for orchard experiments of the 
Department of Horticulture. There are 
Schools of Agriculture, Chemistry and Phys¬ 
ics, Education, Engineering, Liberal Arts, 
Mineral Industries, Physical Education and a 
Graduate School, a summer session for teach¬ 
ers, correspondence and extension courses, 
and the Institute uf Animal Nutrition (1907). 
Military drill is required in the first two 
years. See University. 

Pennsylvania, University of, an unde¬ 



University of Pennsylvania: Provost*s Tower and dormitories. 


sylvania went Democratic in 1934 and 1936; 
and Republican in 1938. 

' Pennsylvania Dutch, or Pennsylvania 
German, a High German dialect, spoken 
chiefly in the southeastern counties of Penn¬ 
sylvania. It first entered the United States in 
1683, when emigrants iron the Lower Rhine, 
Alsace, Bavaria, and Saxony, and especially 
from the Rhenish Palatinate, Wurtemberg, 
and ^ Switzerland, fled before the armies of 
Louis xiv., or endeavored to escape persecu¬ 
tion on account of certain religious tenets. 
The language is primarily a Franconian dia¬ 
lect of German, although in the course of 
time, many English words have been added. 
The term Dutch’ is, however, a misnomer, 
and is due merely to the fact that tin immi¬ 
grants called themselves Deitsch (Le., Deutsch, 
German). The term ‘Pennsylvania Dutch 5 
is commonly applied to the people who speak 
that dialect. 

. Pennsylvania State College, a non-sec¬ 
tarian institution for both sexes at State Col¬ 
lege, 12 m. from Bellefonte, Pa.; founded in 
1855 as the Farmers 5 High School, organ¬ 
ized in 1862 as the Agricultural College of 


nominational institution of higher learning in 
Philadelphia, founded in 1740 as a charity 
school, reorganized as an academy in 1749, 
chartered in 1753 by Thomas and Richard 
Penn, and again chartered in 1755 as a col¬ 
lege through the influence of Benjamin Frank¬ 
lin. A large number of scholarships and fel¬ 
lowships are offered in undergraduate and 
graduate courses. Graduate courses and de¬ 
grees are open to women, as are also the 
courses in Law, Medicine, Dentistry, Educa¬ 
tion, Biology and Music. The School of 
Medicine, founded in 1765, was the first in 
the United Shd.es. Among the buildings 
erected in recent years are: the Laboratory of 
Anatomy and Biology-Chemistry, the Ma¬ 
loney Clinic Building, additions to the Uni¬ 
versity Library building, additional Dorm¬ 
itory buildings and the Franklin Society 
Building, for publications and administrative 
offices. See University. 

Penny, an Anglo-Saxon silver coin, thinner 
and broader than the sccat, which it sup¬ 
planted during the middle or end of the eighth 
century. It superseded Roman and Mero¬ 
vingian coinage. Copper was introduced for 




Pennypacker 


3667 


Pensacola 


halfpence and farthings in 1672, for pennies 
in 1786. 

Pennypacker, Samuel Whitaker (1843- 
1916), American public official, was born in 
Phoenixville, Pa. He served with the troops 
called out to resist the invasion of Pennsyl¬ 
vania in 1863 and in 1902 was elected gov¬ 
ernor of Pennsylvania. 

• Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium ), the pop¬ 
ular name of a mint common in Europe and 
Western Asia. The whole plant has a char¬ 
acteristic fragrance. 

Penobscot, a tribe of American Indians 
which in early colonial times occupied the 
territory along the Penobscot River, the lar¬ 
gest river in Maine. 

Penobscot Bay, a bay on the coast of 
Maine. 

Penology, that branch of criminology 
which deals with the punishment of criminals 
in both its deterrent and reformative aspects. 
Such punishment undoubtedly had its origin 
in private vengeance, passing as society devel¬ 
oped, under the authority of the state. Be¬ 
cause of the almost universal practice of im¬ 
prisonment as a punishment for crime, the 
emphasis of modern penology is largely upon 
prison management. The honor system, has 
been tried in certain State prisons, chiefly in 
the West. Groups of convicts are sent out to 
work on the roads or on farms under some¬ 
what relaxed discipline, being put on their 
honor not to attempt escape. In 1932 about 
65 per cent of productive prison labor was 
under the state-use system. Of the prisoners 
not at productive labor, 52,986 were engaged 
in various prison duties; 6,658 were on the 
sick list; 17,027 were idle. Overcrowding in 
prisons is a serious problem. Management of 
prisons is a fairly new science, discussed by 
Lewis E. Lawes in Sing Sing, by Thomas Mott 
Osborne, and by 0 . F. Lewis in Development 
of American Prisons. The indeterminate sen¬ 
tence system at Elmira Reformatory, depend¬ 
ent on the individual factors of a case, is an 
interesting experiment. 

Much attention has been attracted by the 
system of self-government introduced by 
Thomas Mott Osborne at Auburn and Sing 
Sing Prisons, New York State. The prisoners 
are organized in a Mutual Welfare League, 
in which membership is open to all. The 
League is in almost complete control of the 
discipline, and the prisoners enjoy large priv¬ 
ileges as to correspondence, freedom to see 
visitors, recreation, etc. The past century has 
witnessed a remarkable advance in the gen¬ 
eral matter of the punishment of criminal of¬ 


fenders. Riots, however, and disorder show 
that not all the problems have been solved. 
See Prisons. The State Medium Security 
Prison at Wallkill, N. Y. is designed to be an 
educational factor. It is a new experiment in 
criminal rehabilitation, one of the present 
problems of penology being to fit inmates 
for gainful employment. Professional penolo¬ 
gists now 7 seem opposed to isolated prisons. 
The Georgia penal system, the chain gang, 
has met much criticism also, although it is 
ably defended. 

The psychiatrist is taking a leading place in 
modern penology. The factors, individual 
and social, w r hich make for the prevention of 
crime are now considered more the subject of 
research than are the penalties inflicted. 

In recent years penologists have advocated 
the separation of youthful and first offenders 
from the hardened criminals, and some prog¬ 
ress has been made along these lines. The 
Federal government has built a prison on 
Alcatraz rock in San Francisco Bay for dan¬ 
gerous and incorrigible criminals. The build¬ 
ing on the huge rock, which is surrounded by 
the swiftly running waters of the Golden 
Gate, is believed to be absolutely escape- 
proof and the prisoners are permitted few of 
the privileges common to the average peno¬ 
logical institution. 

Penrose, Boies (1860-1921), American 
legislator and political leader. In 1897 he 
was elected United States Senator, and was 
re-elected in 1903, 1909, and 1915. He served 
as chairman and member of important com¬ 
mittees in the national Senate and became 
the leader of the Republican Party in that 
body. For more than two decades, Penrose 
was master of the Pennsylvania Republican 
machine when that machine ruled the state. 
He became chairman of the powerful Finance 
Committee of the U. S. Senate and was cred¬ 
ited with guiding the choice of Warren G. 
Harding as Republican Presidential nominee 
from his sickbed in 1920. He was an im¬ 
portant factor in Republican Presidential 
campaigns from 1896 until his death. Penrose 
was supposed to have joined with Senator 
Thomas Platt of New York in nominating 
Theodore Roosevelt for the Vice-Presidency 
in 1900 in an effort to get Roosevelt out of 
Platt’s way in New York State politics. 
“Power and Glory,” a life of Penrose by 
Walter Penrose, was published in 1931. 

Pensacola, city, Florida, county seat ol 
Escambia co., on Pensacola Bay. It has a 
splendid land-locked harbor. Features of in¬ 
terest are the old .historic forts. At the old 



Pensacola 


3668 


Pensions 


Navy Yard is now located the Pensacola 
Naval Air Station. The historic Plaza Fer¬ 
dinand, where the transfer of Florida took 
place, is the civic center of the city. Pen¬ 
sacola has an extensive foreign trade, the 
chief items of shipment being cotton, lum¬ 
ber, naval stores, hides, fertilizers, and. iron 
and steel articles. Founded in 1559 by the 
Spaniards under Luna, it fell before the 
French arms in 1719 and by the Treaty of 
Paris (1763) passed with West Florida into 
the hands of the French. In 17S3 the terri¬ 
tory was restored to Spain by treaty. Al¬ 
though the United States claimed Pensacola 
by the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, Spain 
consented to its occupation by the English in 
the War of 1812. It was taken by General 
Jackson in 1814, and again in 1818, and was 
formally ceded by Spain the following year; 
P* 37449- 

Pensacola Bay, an inlet of the Gulf of 
Mexico on the west coast of Florida. It 
affords an excellent harbor. 

Pensions, pecuniary allowances payable at 
regularly recurring periods, usually in rec¬ 
ognition of past services. The first national 
pension law was enacted by the Continental 
Congress on Aug. 26, 1776, giving half pay 
for life to any officer, soldier, or sailor who 
had lost a limb in an engagement, or had 
been otherwise incapacitated for earning a 
living. The principle of pension for service, 
without regard to disabilities incurred in line 
of duty, was introduced in 18x8. By act of 
July 4, 1836, widows of Revolutionary sol¬ 
diers were pensioned. Pensions for the regu¬ 
lar military establishment were first granted 
in 1790, but the fundamental law for regular 
army pensions up to 1886 was that of 1802, 
which declared that officers and privates dis¬ 
abled by wounds.' or otherwise while in the 
line of duty should be placed on the pension 
list... In 1802, also, a grant of half pay was 
made to the widows or children of com¬ 
missioned officers dying in consequence of 
wounds. The first important legislation re¬ 
lating to Civil War pensions was the act of 
July 14, 1862, by which pensions ranging 
from $8 to $30 per month were granted for 
disabilities arising from service in the Union 
Army or Navy after March 4, 1861. The 
law of July 4, 1864, introduced the principle 
of fixed rates for specific disabilities. In 1866 
the provisions of the act of 1862 and sup¬ 
plementary acts were extended to all pen¬ 
sions granted under previous acts except Rev¬ 
olutionary pensions. 


Since the dose of the Civil War the ten¬ 
dency of pension legislation has been in the 
direction of even greater liberality. Accord¬ 
ing to the National Defence Act of 1916, offi¬ 
cers and enlisted men of the National Guard 
drafted into the service of the United States 
in time of war are entitled to all the bene¬ 
fits of the pension laws existing at the time 
of their service. Further provision urns made 
for soldiers and sailors in the Great War in 
the War Risk Insurance Act of Oct. 6, 1917 
designed to do away with the evils of the 
pension system. World War compensations 
were handled along with insurance and dis¬ 
ability compensation by the Veterans’ Bu¬ 
reau. A system of loans to Veterans on Ad¬ 
justed Service Certificates was arranged. Pay¬ 
ments differ from pensions in not being paid 
at stated intervals. They were not, however, 
loans; as they did not have to be paid back. 
In 1:931, over President Hoover’s veto, the 
amount of loan obtainable was increased to 
50 per cent of the face value of the Certifi¬ 
cates instead of 25 per cent as in 1924. The 
time limit for making application for a cer¬ 
tificate was extended to Jan, 2, 1935. These 
payments are in effect cash bonuses, dispensed 
at will of Congress before maturity of the 
certificate—which was previously given in 
the form of a 20-year insurance policy. See 
Bonus. 

In 1930 a pension bill was passed in which 
the rates stand at $12 a month minimum and 
$40 a month maximum. Veterans will be 
deprived of compensation for diseases due to 
their wilful misconduct. Veterans of suffi¬ 
cient means to pay an income tax are ex¬ 
cluded from the benefits of the act. In ad¬ 
dition to pensions granted under the general 
laws, a large number of claimants rejected by 
the regularly constituted authorities have been 
pensioned by special .act of .Congress, Span¬ 
ish War veterans come under the general 
measures, applicable to soldiers of the Civil 
War. In 1930 a bill which increased the 
compensation of Spanish-American War vet¬ 
erans by $11,000,000 was passed over the 
veto of President Hoover. By executive or¬ 
der of July 21, 1930 the Veterans’ Bureau, 
Bureau of Pensions and the National Home 
for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers were con¬ 
solidated. The combined organization is the 
Veterans’ Administration. The total disburse¬ 
ments to June 30, 1940, exclusive of the 
amount disbursed under Civil Service and 
Canal Zone Retirement acts, was $23,999,- 
282,000, The largest items are Army and 



Pentagon 


3669 


Penzance 


Navy pensions from 1790 to 1940: $14,131,- 
846,000. The number of veterans receiving 
compensation was 610,122; deceased vet¬ 
erans’ beneficiaries, 239,176. The pensions 
paid in 1940 were: Civil War, $27,790,000; 
War with Spain, $127,427,000; World War, 
$254,846,000; other wars, $19,075,000. 608,- 
923 service and ex-service men and women 
were carrying government Life Insurance. 
There were 3,792,432 Service Certificates 
with total indebtedness outstanding of 

$ 3 , 709 , 945 * 000 . 

In the Seventy-second Congress, of Janu¬ 
ary to March 1932, the appropriation bill of 
$1,000,000,000, of which $960,000,000 was 
for costs of the Veterans’ Administration, 
was vetoed by President Hoover, who rec¬ 
ommended a curtailment of $127,000,000 in 
payments to Veterans on disabilities not 
traceable to service in war. In the Seventy- 
third Congress, meeting in March 1932, the 
Economy Act was passed. This act reduced 
the pensions of veterans of wars previous to 
1917 10 per cent; maximum and minimum 
rates were provided for disabilities in wars 
subsequent to the Civil War; no reduction 
was to be more than 25 per cent. The Presi¬ 
dent was authorized within these limits to 
set pension rates to be paid. One of the chief 
effects was to separate from the roll some 
328,000 men who could not show service 
connection for disabilities. In 1936 the Ad¬ 
justed Compensation Act was enacted, which 
made veterans’ World War adjusted com¬ 
pensation certificates immediately payable, 
in $50 U. S. bonds, bearing interest at 3 per 
cent unless cashed within one year, dated 
June 15, 1936, to mature June 15, 1945, re¬ 
deemable in cash at any time. This action 
taken by Congress over the President’s veto, 
cost the government about 27 per cent more 
than payment in 1945 would have cost. 
Most of the bonds were cashed within a 
year. In the 1939 conventions of veterans’ 
groups efforts were blocked to start move¬ 
ments for World War pensions. See Old Age 
Pensions; Labor Legislation; United 
States, New Deal. . 

Many industrial pension and insurance 
plans in the United States are entirely at the 
expense of the employers, though in an in¬ 
creasing number of plants some contribution 
from the employee is required. The contribu¬ 
tion is usually returned if the employee leaves 
the company. See Employers’ Liability. 

Pentagon, a geometrical figure of five sides. 
A regular pentagon is one having both sides 
and angles equal. When a pentagon takes the 


form of a star, it is called a pentacle or penta¬ 
gram. The name pentagon is also applied 
to a fort with five bastions. 

Pentateuch, a Greek word ( pentateuchos ) 
meaning The five-volumed (book),’ is the 
name used by Origen to denote what the 
Jews of his time called The law’ (Torah ). 

Pentathlon, or Pentathlum, one of the 
regular contests in the Greek games. Its victor 
was the man who gained the greatest success 
in five different events—leaping, foot running, 
throwing the quoit, casting the javelin, and 
wrestling. 

Pentecost, a Jewish festival observed fifty 
days after the offering of the wave sheaf on 
the second day of unleavened bread (Pass- 
over) , and intended to indicate the end of the 
harvest. The later Jews associated the feast 
with the deliverance of the law at Sinai, be¬ 
lieved to have taken place fifty days after 
the Exodus from Egypt. The festival has 
passed into the Christian Church as commem¬ 
orative of the descent of the Holy Spirit 
Pentecost is one of the great festivals of the 
Christian year, and it was chosen as one oi 
the times for the administration of baptism. 
The English name Whit Sunday is derived 
from the white robes in which the newly 
baptized were clad. 

Pentelicus, mountain range (3,640 ft.) ir 
Attica, 10 m. n.e. of Athens. Its marble which 
was much quarried in ancient times is still in 
great demand at the present day. It is of a 
brilliant white color, with a yellowish tinge 
and it was employed for the Parthenon and 
other public buildings in Athens. 

Pentland Hills, mountain range, Scotland, 
running s.w. through the counties of Edin¬ 
burgh, Peebles, and Lanark. The highest 
summit is Scald Law (1,898 ft.). 

Penumbra, in astronomy, means the par¬ 
tial shadow between the umbra, or region of 
total eclipse, and the region of entire freedom 
from eclipse. 

Penza, province, Soviet Republic of Russia, 
a rolling plain, cut by deep river valleys, and 
rising highest toward the s. and s.w., where 
lies the watershed between the Don and the 
Volga. The climate is severe. Cattle breeding 
is an important industry. The non-Russian 
population is composed of Mordvins, Mesh- 
cheriaks, and Tartars. Trade centers are Pen¬ 
za, a fine city in its modern part, and the 
capital; Nijni-Lomov, Mokshani, and Sar¬ 
ansk; p. 2,207,000. 

Penzance, seaport town, England, in 
Cornwall, on Mount’s Bay, nearly opposite 
St. Michael’s Mount. It enjoys a mild climate ; 



Peonage 

and is a winter invalid and summer bathing 

resort; p. 12,087. 

Peonage, a term loosely used to denote the 
system of labor formerly prevalent in Mexico 
and other parts of Spanish America. Event¬ 
ually, through the aggressions of the upper 
classes, the laborer was reduced to a state 
resembling serfdom. 

Peony (. Pceonia ), a genus of perennial her¬ 
baceous plants and shrubs belonging to the 
order Ranunculaceae. They generally bear 
large show3 r flowers, some double, and some 
recent garden hybrids being of great beauty. 
They like deeply dug, somewhat rich soil, and 
plenty of space. 

People’s Party, the official designation of 
an American political party now commonly 
called the Populist Party. It was organized 


Pepper 

site on a broad plateau, 40 ft. above the river, 
which widens above into the expanse known 
as Peoria Lake. Rolling prairies surround the 
city. 

Peoria is an important manufacturing cen¬ 
ter. Products include: tractors, lawn sprink¬ 
lers, washing machines, commercial solvents, 
food products, whiskies, clothing, agricultural 
implements, oil burners, watches, barrels, pa¬ 
per, candies, cereals, steel and wire fence, beef 
and pork goods; p. 105,087. There is a live¬ 
stock market and, nearby, a rich coal area. 
The city is the seat of Bradley Polytechnic 
Institute. 

Pepin, or Pippin, the name of several 

Carlovingian rulers. 

Pepper, or Piper, a genus of plants, chiefly 
tropical, belonging to the order Piperaccae. The 


3670 



in 1891 to represent the interests of farmers 
and workingmen. The platform of the party 
demanded free coinage of silver; the issue of 
paper money to be loaned directly to farmers 
on the security of agricultural crops; the abo¬ 
lition of national banks; government owner¬ 
ship of railways; telegraphs and telephones; 
a graduated income tax; and the prohibition 
of alien ownership of land. At the National 
Convention of the People’s Party in 1892 the 
above-mentioned principles were embodied in 
the platform, and James B. Weaver of Iowa 
was nominated for President. In 1896, the 
Democratic Party having adopted many of 
the principles advocated by the People’s 
Party, the latter organization endorsed the 
candidacy of W. J. Bryan, but nominated, a 
candidate of its own, Thomas E. Watson, for 
the vice-presidency. In the end the party 
lost the greater part of its following through 
absorption into the radical wing of the Demo¬ 
cratic party. 

Peoria, city, Illinois, occupies a beautiful 


most important species is P. nigrum, from 
which is obtained the black and white pepper 
of commerce. The berries are briirht scarlet 
when ripe; the dried berries, collected before 
maturity, black and wrinkled, constitute black 
pepper. White pepper is obtained by remov¬ 
ing the outer skin of the ripe fruit. Red or 
Cayenne pepper comes from Capsicum, a 
native of the New World. 

..Pepper, George Wharton (1867- ), 

American lawyer and public official, was bom 
in Philadelphia, graduated from the University 
of Pennsylvania, and practised law in Phila¬ 
delphia where he was active in political, finan¬ 
cial and civic circles. In 1915 he delivered the 
Lyman Beecher .lecture at Yale College. In 
1922 he was appointed United States Senator 
to fill the vacancy caused by the death of 
Boies Penrose, and was subsequently elected 
for the termn ending in 1927. Among his 
writings are Men and Issues (1924) ; In the 
Senate (1930); Family Quarrels (1931). 

Pepper, William (1843-98), American 



Pepperell 


3671 


Per Capita 


physician, was bom in Philadelphia. He was 
professor of clinical medicine in the University 
of Pennsylvania in 1874-84, professor of the 
theory and practice of medicine in 1884-98, 
and provost of the university in 1881-94. He 
took a prominent part in establishing the Uni¬ 
versity of Pennsylvania Hospital and was also 
one of the founders of the American Society 
for the Extension of University Teaching, and 
the Pennsylvania Museum and School of In- 



1, Part of catkin; 2, flower; 3, 
stamen; 4, vertical section of 
fruit. 


dustrial Art. He founded the Philadelphia 
Medical Times , and edited it in 1870-1. In 
conjunction with John F. Meigs he edited a 
System of Medicine by American Authors 
(S vols., 1885-86). He was author of Tre¬ 
phining in Cerebral Disease (1871) ; Theory 
and Practice of Medicine (1893) 5 etc. 

Pepperell, Sir William (1696-1759), Am¬ 
erican colonial soldier, bom in Kittery, Me. 
When King George’s War broke out in 1744, 
Pepperell was very active in raising troops 
and was asked to take command of the col¬ 
onial expedition against the strong fortress of 
Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, tie landed 
before Louisburg late in April, 1745, and, being 
supported by a British fleet under Commodore 
Warren, succeeded by June 17 in forcing the 
place to capitulate. When Pepperell returned 
to New England in 1746 he was highly hon¬ 
ored, was created a baronet by King George 
n. When the French and Indian War broke 
out, he was created a major-general, and was 
put in command of the defenses of the borders 
of New England. He was acting governor of 
Massachusetts during ■ 1756-1758, was pro¬ 


moted to be a lieutenant-general in 1759, and 
died in the same year. 

Peppermint (Mentha Piperita ), a herba¬ 
ceous European plant with a creeping root, a 
smooth stem, stalked ovate leaves, and lax 
spikes of labiate flowers. The whole plant 
yields a marked aromatic odor. An essential 
oil is distilled from the fresh flowering tops, 
cut in August and dried on the ground before 
being distilled. Preparations of this oil are 
used in medicine as stimulants and carmina¬ 
tives. 

Peppergrass, a name given to members of 
the genus Lepidium, a division of the order 
Cruciferae The only member of the genus of 
any importance is L. sativum , the common 
garden cress. 

Pepsin, an enzyme secreted by glands in the 
gastric mucous membrane; it has the power, 
when in acid solution, of converting proteids 
into soluble peptones. 

Peptones are the soluble primary products 
formed in digestion by the breaking down of 
proteid food substances through the action of 
the pancreatic and gastric ferments. 

Pepys, Samuel (1633-1703), English dia¬ 
rist, was born probably in London. In 1659 
he entered official employ, and began his 
Diary. This, for the next ten years, forms a 
minute record of his official and personal inter¬ 
ests, of his amours and his disputes with his 
wife, and of the habits and scandals of Lon¬ 
don. In 1673 he was appointed secretary for 
the affairs of the navy, and in the same year 
entered Parliament as member for Castle Ris¬ 
ing. In 1684 he was again appointed secretary 
to the Admiralty, and was also president of the 
Royal Society. In 1690 he published his Mem¬ 
oirs of the Navy. He left his library to Mag¬ 
dalene College, Cambridge, and there his 
Diary remained until it was deciphered by J. 
Smith and published in 1825. 

Pequot, a former Algonquin tribe of s.e. 
Connecticut. They were practically one tribe 
with the M'ohegans before the English settle¬ 
ment, but about that time a party under Uncas 
seceded, retaining the name Mohegan. The 
Pequots numbered at least 3,000. 

Perak, British protected state, Malay Pen¬ 
insula, with Strait of Malacca on w. Area, 
about 8,000 sq. m. Perak is traversed by two 
chains of mountains (7,000 ft.), and is well 
watered, the chief river being the Perak. 
Thaipeng, or Taiping, is the chief town; Port 
Weld is the seaport; p. 600,000. Exports in¬ 
clude tin, sugar, indigo, cocoanuts, tanning 
barks, and rattans. 

Per Capita, Per Stirpes. These terms 



Perception 

mean literally acca cling to heads, according 
to stock. They are expressions in frequent use 
in statutes of distribution of property in case 
of intestacy. When property descends per 
capita it goes in equal shares to those of equal 
degree of kinship to the common ancestor. 
When, however, the surviving kindred are of 
different degrees of relationship it descends per 
stirpes—as, for instance, if a man dies leaving 
two sons and three grandchildren, the children 
of a deceased son, the two surviving sons take 
each one-third, the grandchildren one third 
divided between them. See Diltribution, 
Statutes op; Inheritance. 

Perception, as a technical term of psychol¬ 
ogy, means the direct apprehension of objects 
in space. Perception is thus contrasted with 
the processes of memory and conceptual think¬ 
ing, which are later developed and obviously 
presuppose perception, and mere sensation; 
there is no perception in the strict sense of the 
term where there is no apprehension of an 
object. 

Perceval, Sir, a knight of King Arthur’s 
court, hero of a group of tales originally inde¬ 
pendent of the Arthurian tradition. He be¬ 
comes, by the discipline of experience, a wise 
and valiant knight, and eventually king of 
che mysterious Grail Castle. 

P erch, a common ‘spiny-finned’ fresh-water 
nsh, represented throughout most of the 
northern hemisphere. The most typical and 
best known are the ‘yellow’ perches of Europe, 
Asia and North America, which are substan¬ 
tially alike, and are favorites with anglers 
and excellent to eat. The name of perch is 
given to various other fishes, both fluviatile 
and marine, which have only a more or less 
distant relationship to the true perches. 

. Perchloric Acid, HCICh is prepared by 
distilling potassium perchlorate with concen¬ 
trated sulphuric acid. It is a fuming, volatile, 
colorless liquid, which dissolves in water with 
evolution of heat, and is a violent oxidizing 
agent, usually acting explosively. 

. Percussion, a means of medical examina¬ 
tion, .which depends on the varying resonance 
of the different organs and tissues of the body. 
When a sharp tap is made with the fingers over 
air-containing organs such as the lungs, the 
note elicited is resonant and clear, unlike 
that produced by a blow over a solid organ 
such as the liver. 

Percussion Caps are small, hat-shaped 
cups made from sheet copper. To the interior 
adheres detonating powder. 

. Percy, a family in the n. of .England. Wil¬ 
liam de Percy (? 1030-96), the founder, came 


Perfumery 

over with William the Conqueror, and re¬ 
ceived lands in Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, and 
Hampshire. At the coronation of Richard 11. 
(1377) the fourth Lord Percy of Alnwick, 
then marshal of England, was created Earl of 
Northumberland. See Northumberland, 
Dukes op. 

Percy, George (1580-1632), American 
colonial governor. He served for a time in 
the Low Countries, and in 1606 sailed with 
the first expedition to Virginia. He was gov¬ 
ernor of that colony, after the departure of 
John Smith, in September, 1609, till the ar¬ 
rival of Gates in May, x6i:o—the period of the 
terrible ‘starving time’—and when Lord de la 
Warr left in March, 1611, he again held 
the same position until the arrival of Dale 
in the following May. He - returned to 
England in 1612, and again fought in the 
Low Countries, where he distinguished him¬ 
self. 

Percy, Thomas (1729-1811), bishop of 
Dromore, was born in Bridgnorth, Shropshire. 
He published Miscellaneous Pieces relating to 
the Chinese (1762), and Five Pieces of Runic 
Poetry (1763). The Reliques of Ancient Eng¬ 
lish Poetry was published (1765), and by re¬ 
newing interest in the older poetry marked an 
epoch in English literature. 

Pereda, Jose Maria de (1833-1906), 
Spanish novelist, a strong and virile portrayer 
of the humors and foibles of his countrymen, 
was born at Polanco. His most brilliant works 
are Escenas Montanesas (1870), El Sab or de 
la Tierruca (1882), Penas Arriba (1895), and 
Sotileza (1S85). Of another style, but not less 
brilliant, is Don Gonzalo Gonzales dela Gon- 
zalera, a socio-political satire. As a descriptive 
writer of nervous prose Pereda has no equal 
in Spain. 

Perennials, a term, applied to plants that 
live for several years, as distinguished from 
annuals and biennials, whose life is only of 
one and two years respectively. 

Perfectionism, or Perfectibility, the 
doctrine that a perfect Christian life is at¬ 
tainable in this life. 

Perfectionists. Sec Communism. 
Perfumery deals with the preparation and 
properties of those fragrant-smelling sub¬ 
stances used for toilet purposes, or in indus¬ 
tries such as the soap trade. The art of per¬ 
fumery consists in extracting the odors of 
plants, the leaves and flower-buds being the 
chief source of supply. By various means the 
odors or perfumes of such plants are isolated, 
and, to render them applicable for use, are ab¬ 
sorbed in various materials, such as grease. 


3672 





Perga 


3673 


Pericles 


fats, oil, spirits, soaps, inodorous inert mate¬ 
rials such as starch or talc. The process of 
extraction is carried out by distillation, by en- 
fleurage, by maceration, and by expression. 

All the ottos obtained by distillation, en- 
fleurage, and maceration are soluble in alco¬ 
hol, whence is obtained a spirit essence which 
is in many cases more serviceable than the 
essential oil. A ready way of producing some 
kinds of concentrated essence is to dissolve 
the essential oil in the spirit to form a tincture. 
Musk, orris root, ambergris, tonka beans, cas¬ 
tor, vanilla, civet and a few other odorous 
substances yield their odors to spirits in this 
way. The great bulk of the finest quality 
perfumes are also produced by extracting the 
fragrance from the enfleurage pomades and 
oils by contact with alcohol. Besides the per¬ 
fumes extracted from plants, some few are 
obtained from animal sources—as, for exam¬ 
ple, musk, civet, ambergris, and castor. With 
the exception of musk, they are chiefly used 
for fixing the more volatile perfumes, though 
in a less concentrated form they are used as" a 
base, the odors of the base being disguised by 
a judicious blending of other odors. Many 
perfumes and flavoring essences originally ob¬ 
tained from animal or vegetable sources are 
now imitated by artificial preparations. These 
are in general aromatic aldehydes, esters, or 
ethers, and may be divided into two classes— 
those which are substantially identical 
with the naturally occurring substance, and 
are reproduced as a result of the elucidation 
of its chemical constitution; and those which 
may have similar odor and other properties, 
but are constituted quite differently. 

Perga, a city in Pamphylia, Asia Minor, 
about 10 m. from the coast; was celebrated 
for the worship of Artemis, and was the first 
town in Asia Minor visited by St. Paul on his 
missionary journeys. 

Pergamino, tn., Buenos Ayres, prov., Ar¬ 
gentina, an important railway center, 64 m, 
s.e. of Rosario; p. 39,000. 

Pergamum, or Pergamus. (1) The cita- 
adel of Troy, also the city of Troy. (2) A 
city of Mysia in Asia Minor, on n. bk. of riv. 
Cai'cus, about 20 m. from the sea. About 280 
b.c. Philetaerus established there the kingdom 
of Pergamum, which was held by seven kings. 
Pergamum was celebrated for its library, 
founded by Burnettes 11,, king from 197 to 159 
b.c. The word ‘parchment’ is derived from 
charta Pergamena, ‘paper from Pergamum.’ 
This city was the capital of the Roman prov¬ 
ince of Asia, and an early seat of Christianity. 
The modern name is Bergama. 


Pergolesi, or Perogolese, Giovanni Bat> 
tkta (1710-36), Italian musical composer, a 
native of Jesi, near Ancona. After several at¬ 
tempts at opera he produced his masterpiece, 
La Serva Padrona (1731 or 1733). He also 
composed Orjeo ed Euridice, and his famous 
Stabat Mater. 

Peri, or Pairika, is, in Oriental folklore, a 
being of beneficent nature and having super¬ 
natural attributes. A notable example is the 
Peri Banu of the Arabian Nights. 

Perianth, the outer floral envelope—calyx 
and corolla—which surrounds and to some 
extent protects the essential organs of gener¬ 
ation in a flower. 

Pericardium, a fibro-serous sac arranged 
in two layers, the inner of which is closely 
adherent to the surface of the heart and to 
the roots of the great vessels, while the outer 
is reflected from the vessels and continued 
downwards to the diaphragm, to part of 
which its external basal surface is adherent. 
The space between the outer and inner layers 
is occupied by the pericardial fluid, which by 
acting as a lubricant facilitates the cardiac 
movements. The most important pathological 
condition of the pericardium is pericarditis. 

Pericarp, the covering or envelope of 
fruits. It usually consists of three layers— 
epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. 

Pericles (c. 500-429 B.c.), Athenian states¬ 
man, and perhaps the greatest constitutional 
statesman of antiquity, belonged by birth to 
the noblest families in Athens. In spite of 
his noble birth and aristocratic temper, Peri¬ 
cles came forward from the beginning as a 
democrat, his first appearance in politics be¬ 
ing about 469 b.c., as an opponent of Cimon. 
In domestic politics he introduced the sys¬ 
tem of payment for the performance of pub¬ 
lic duties, such as the archonship, and serv¬ 
ing in the law courts on juries; as these offi¬ 
ces were filled by lot, every citizen had an 
equal chance of holding political office. In 
foreign politics his aim was imperial ; at one 
time he seems to have hoped to make Athens 
head of a confederacy of all the Greeks. He 
also adorned Athens with magnificent build¬ 
ings, of which the Parthenon and the Propy- 
kea were the finest. One great factor in his 
success was his power of oratory; the sub¬ 
stance of several of his speeches may be found 
in Thucydides. In 440 he put down the revolt 
of Samos, and in 433 he supported the con¬ 
clusion of an alliance with Corcyra, which 
led directly to the outbreak of the Pelopon¬ 
nesian War. After his divorce from his wife 
he lived in a close relationship with the fa- 



Peridotites 


3674 


rnous Aspasia. Pericles was a man of the 
highest principle, integrity, nobility, and dig¬ 
nity. 

Peridotites, a group of crystalline igneous 
rocks, of which olivine is an abundant in¬ 
gredient. 

Perigueux, chief tn. of French dep. Dor¬ 
dogne. The old town, with many Renaissance 
houses, contains the remarkable cathedral of 
St. Front in the Byzantine style (984-1047). 
Perigueux was the Vesunna of the Romans, 
and has a large amphitheatre and the circular 
tower of Vesone, 89 ft. high. It is famous 
for its pates de foie gras and truffled par¬ 
tridges; p. 33,144. 

Perihelion, the point of its orbit at which 
a planet or comet makes its nearest approach 
to the sun. 


Peristalsis 



Perim, isl. in Strait of Rabel-Mandeb, at s. 
entrance of Red Sea. It is 354 m. long and 
wide. The British took possession in 
1857. It is a telegraph and coaling-station. 

P erimeter, in any figure, the sum of the 
lengths of the bounding lines. See Rectifica¬ 
tion - . 

Perineum, the soft external floor of the 
pelvis, plays an important part in childbirth, 
and is frequently ruptured in primiparous pa¬ 
tients. In the male the perinaeum derives its 
importance chiefly from the various forms of 
perineal lithotomy. 

.. PeriocI and Periodicity. The most famil¬ 
iar example of a periodic process is the alter¬ 
nation of day and night, brought about by 
the rotation of the earth upon its axis in 
presence of the sun. Perhaps the simplest type 
of periodicity is the oscillation of a pendulum 
or the vibration, of a tuning-fork. Periodicity 
is one of the most widely spread phenomena 
in nature. AH kinds of wave motion are peri¬ 
odic; and there seems to be little doubt that 
the molecules of matter are all capable of 
vibrating in definite periods. In the organic 
world many of the ordinary vital processes 
are periodic—such as the pulsations of the 
heart and the arteries. From the dynamical 
point of view periodicity means stability, and 


instability is associated with motion or ten¬ 
dency to motion which has no periodic char¬ 
acter. 

Periodicals. See Magazines. 

Periodic Law, in chemistry. About 1868 
Newlands, Lothar Meyer, and Mendeleeff dis¬ 
covered that if the elements are arranged in 
the order of their • atomic weights, those 01. 
similar properties are separated by regular in¬ 
tervals—a fact summarized by Mendeleeff as 
follows: The properties of the elements are a 
periodic function of the atomic weight. 
Periosteum. See Bone. 

Periostitis, inflammation of the perios¬ 
teum, the tough, fibrous membrane which in¬ 
vests the bones. Its chief causes are a syphi¬ 
litic taint, rheumatism, and tuberculosis, but 
its occurrence is often due to injury of the 
part. 

Peripatetics, a philosophical school found¬ 
ed by Aristotle. The name is supposedly de¬ 
rived either from Aristotle’s custom of walk¬ 
ing about ( peripatein ) during the delivery of 
his lectures, or from the place in which they 
were delivered. See Aristotle. 

Periscope, an instrument by means of 
which an observer may view his entire sur¬ 
roundings through a fixed eyepiece. It is of 
especial value in submarine warfare as by its 
use observations may be made without com¬ 
ing to the surface, only the top of the instru¬ 
ment^ projecting above the water. Many mod¬ 
ifications exist, but the essential features' are 
the same. They include a heavy steel tube 
which, when not in use, can be lowered into 
the hull of the boat; a series of prisms and 
lenses,, and an eyepiece. The rays of light 
enter the periscope horizontally, are reflected 
by the first prism into a second prism, from 
which they pass through an object glass, and 
thence through a third prism to the eyepiece... 
The first prism inverts the image, but this 
effect is counteracted by the second prism. 
The image is again inverted by the object 
lens and again restored by the third prism. 
Other applications of the periscope arc to 
gim sights, and to trench warfare, the field 
or trench periscope being used behind earth¬ 
works and parapets for obtaining, unob¬ 
served, a view of the surrounding terrain. 

Perlssodactyla, the odd-toed ungulates, 
as t the horse and rhinoceros, in which the 
third toe is larger than the others, and is 
symmetrical upon itself. 

# ( p eristalsis, the worm like movement of the 
intestine, which presses forward the food by 
muscular contraction behind it. See Intes¬ 
tines.. 



Peritoneum 


3675 


Perkins 


Peritoneum* the largest serous membrane 
in the bod}”, situated in the abdominal cav¬ 
ity. Like the pleura and pericardium it con¬ 
sists of two layers—a parietal lining the walls 
of the cavity and a visceral closely investing 
the majority of the abdominal organs, and 
mooring them firmly in position. Between 
the two layers lies a potential space, the peri¬ 
toneal cavity, which in the male is closed— 
but in the female is in direct communication 
with the Fallopian tubes to enable the ova 
to reach the cavity of the uterus. 

Various folds of peritoneum pass between 
the different viscera and the enclosing walls. 
Similarly there are folds binding the small 
and large intestine to the posterior wall, and 
finally a third group of folds connecting 
other viscera with the abdominal or pelvic 
walls. While the functions of the peritone¬ 
um are chiefly mechanical in diminishing 
friction and mooring the viscera, the mem¬ 
brane also possesses marked secretory and 
absorptive powers. Peritonitis, or inflamma¬ 
tion of the peritoneum, may be acute or 
chronic, general or local. A general peritonitis 
is most usually caused by the introduction of 
septic organisms into the peritoneal cavity, 
such as may follow a perforating wound of 
the abdominal wall. | 

Periwinkle, a plant. 

Periwinkle ( Littorina ), a genus of gaster- 
opods, several species of which are common 
between tidemarks on North Atlantic shores. 
The shell is top-shaped, with a short spire 
and an entire and nearly circular mouth. Of 
the common forms the largest is the common 
periwinkle (X. littorea), which is commonly 
boiled and eaten in England. This mollusk, 
since about i860, has been acclimated to the 
North American coast, and now swarms from 
Nova Scotia to Long Island Sound. Native 
America species are X. rudis and X. palliata. 

Perszzites, a tribe which, before the Is¬ 
raelite invasion, occupied part of Canaan— 
probably the central and southern districts. 

Perjury. The criminal offence of know¬ 
ingly giving false testimony in a judicial pro¬ 
ceeding. It has been the subject of legisla¬ 
tion from an early period and is today de¬ 
fined by statute in most jurisdictions, but it 
is a common law offence as well and punish¬ 
able as such. To constitute perjury at com¬ 
mon law a statement must not only be made 
under oath in a judicial proceeding, but must 
be material to the issue which is being tried. 
To constitute perjury the statement must 
have been made wilfully and with knowledge 
of its falsity or at least without an honest 


belief in its truth. Perjury .is generally re¬ 
garded as a felony and an ‘infamous crime,’ 
as that phrase is employed in the courts of 
the United States. 

Subornation of perjury consists of coun¬ 
selling, inciting, or procuring a witness to 
commit a perjury which is actually commut¬ 
ed. See Evidence; Oath. Consult Stephens’ 
History of Criminal Law. 

Perkin, Sir William Henry (1838-1907), 
English chemist, born in London, and became 
assistant to Hofmann at the Royal College of 
Chemistry. In 1856 he discovered a purple or 
mauve dye formed by the oxidation of ani¬ 
line, and started its manufacture. He thus 
founded the aniline or rather coal-tar color 
industry. He also discovered two processes 
of manufacturing alizarin. 

Perkins, Charles Callahan (1822-86), 
American art critic and historian. Fie was one 
of the founders and leading spirits of the 
Boston Museum of Fine Arts. He was also 
interested in music, and as president of the 
Boston Handel and Haydn Society (iS70-83) 
sometimes conducted its concerts. His books 
include: Tuscan Sculptors (1868), both with 
etchings by the author; Art in Education 
(1870); Ghiberti et son Ecole (1885). 

. Perkins, Elisha (1741-99), American phy¬ 
sician, born in Norwich, Conn. In 1796 he 
patented an instrument which he called a 
metallic tractor’ for use in local inflamma¬ 
tion. The use of the instruments became very 
popular and medical authorities attributed 
the cures to a new influence which they 
called ‘Perkinsism.’ In 1799 there was a seri¬ 
ous epidemic of yellow fever in New York 
City, and Dr. Perkins volunteered his serv¬ 
ices in the fever hospital in order to test an 
antiseptic remedy he had compounded. He 
was attacked by the fever and succumbed to 
it. 

Perkins, Frances (1882- ), first 

woman to serve in a President’s cabinet, was 
born in Boston. From 1910-12, she was ex¬ 
ecutive secretary of the Consumers’ League. 
She served on numerous industrial commis¬ 
sions and in 1928 was appointed Indus¬ 
trial Commissioner at the head of the New 
York State Department of Labor. In March 
1933 ) she was appointed Secretary of Labor 
and served until 1945. (In private life, 
Miss Perkins is Mrs. Paul Wilson.) 

Perkins, Jacob (1766-1849), American 
inventor, born in Newburyport, Mass. In 
1787 the state of Massachusetts employed 
him to prepare the dies for its copper coin¬ 
age. In 1790 he invented a machine for 



Perkins 


3676 


making nails. He greatly improved the 
process for engraving bank notes, and in 
1814 removed to Philadelphia and entered 
the business of bank-note engraving and 
printing. In 18iS he settled in England, and 
established a bank-note printing business. He 
introduced many improvements in steam en¬ 
gines and printing presses, in printing proc¬ 
esses and in engraving. 

Perkins, Thomas Handasyd (1764- 
1854), American philanthropist, was born in 
Boston, Mass. From 1S05 he served in one or 
the other houses of the Mass, legislature for 
many years, tie gave Ms house and lot in 
Boston for the Perkins Institution for the 
Blind, besides aiding the Bunker Hill Monu¬ 
ment project. Mr. Perkins was a principal 
organizer of the Quincy Railroad, the first 
in the U. S. 

Perlitic Structure, in volcanic rocks, con¬ 
sists in the presence of small concentric 
cracks, along which the rock readily breaks 
down, yielding rounded pearl-like fragments. 
Rocks having this structure are often called 
Perlites . 

Perm, town and river port in Soviet 
Russia, 900 m. by water e. n.e. of Moscow, 
and on the Kama R. It was formerly a de¬ 
pot for convicts bound for Siberia, and is 
now the center of the large transit trade be¬ 
tween Central Russia and Siberia; p.85,000. 

Permanganic Acid, HMnO.t, is unknown 
in the pure state, but can be obtained as a 
crimson, strongly acid solution by decom¬ 
posing barium permanganate with dilute sul¬ 
phuric acid. 

Permutations and Combinations, the 
branch of algebra which has to do with the 
simpler problems of arrangement. Let there 
be, say, .ten objects—for example, ten boys 
in a class. In how many ways may these 
boys be arranged in groups of four? If no 
regard be taken of the order in each group, 
then the problem is one of combinations; but 
if regard be had to the order, the problem 
becomes one of permutations. The theory of 
permutations and combinations has many 
important applications in the discussion of 
series, probability, and statistics. 

Pernambuco, state, Brazil, on Atlantic 
coast. The interior is mountainous, rising to 
over 3,000 ft. In the coast lands known as 
the Mata are plantations of sugar-cane and 
cotton; coffee, tobacco, and rice are also 
grown. The fruits of Pernambuco are fa¬ 
mous. Recife is the capital. Area, 49,570 sq. 
m.; p. 2,900,000. 


Perpetuity 

| Pernambuco, city, state of Pernambuco, 
■.Brazil. 

Peronne, tn., France, dep. Somme, on riv. 
Somme, 30 m. e. of Amiens. Here Louis xi. 
was forced to sign a treaty with Charles the 
Bold of Burgundy in 1468. During the World 
War Peronne was occupied by German 
troops, but in March 1917, they were driven 
out by the British. A year later the Germans 
recovered the town, but lost it to the Aus¬ 
tralians in September 1918; p. 4,500. 

Perpetual Motion. According to the doc¬ 
trine of the conservation of energy it is not 
possible to do work without expenditure of 
energy in some form. Nevertheless many 
forms of apparatus have been devised by 
which the inventor believed it possible to 
gain work without expenditure of effort. If 
a system could be devised so as to be able 
to keep up its motion perpetually and at the 
same time to do useful work, the law of the 
conservation of energy would be disproved 
and the perpetual motion discovered. The 
true perpetual motion must be carefully distin¬ 
guished from an apparent perpetual motion, 
in which a system may be made to continue 
moving indefinitely, but only because it is 
able to tap some more or less hidden source 
of energy. 

P erpetuities. Rule against. A rule of law 
designed to prevent the limitation of future 
estates in real and personal property, subject 
to such contingencies that they will not nec¬ 
essarily become vested within a certain peri¬ 
od, considered to be a reasonable time. This 
period varies in different states, and the sub¬ 
ject is.generally regulated by statutes. This 
name is also commonly applied to statutes 
prohibiting the suspension of the power of 
alienation of property beyond a fixed period. 
The English rule provides that future estates 
must vest within a life or lives in being and 
twenty-one years, and this is followed in 
many of the United States. Several states 
have fixed the.period, at two lives''■ in being 
and twenty-one years, and In New York and 
a few other states it is two. lives in being' 
and the period of a minority. The rule 
against perpetuities applies to estates in trust 
as well as legal estates. Consult Gray, Rules 
Against Perpetuities. 

P erpetuity. When property is so held that 
no one can dispose of the absolute ownership 
thereof it is said to be held in perpetuity. 
Various rules have been passed to prevent 
perpetuities for any great length of time. 
The rule applies to personal property as well 



Perpignan 


3677 


Perry 


as real property, and is of great importance 
in the creation of trusts. 

^Perpignan, chief tn. of French dep. Pyre¬ 
nees Oiientales, stands on river Tet, 7 ni. from 
the Mediterranean. A fortress of great 
strength, it commands the passage from Spain 
across the E. Pyrenees. Perpignan did not 
become French till 1642, and is still half- 
Spanish, half-Moorish in appearance, while 
its people resemble those of Catalonia. It 
has a 14th-century cathedral, and from 1349 
to the Revolution had a university. Trade in 
Roussillon red wine, brandy, cork, silk, and 
wool; p. 68,835. 

Perrault, Charles (1628-1703) ; French 
writer, bom at Paris. He is best known by 
his prose fairy tales, published in Paris in 
1697 under the title Histoires ou Contes du 
Temps Passe. A frontispiece bears the words 
‘Contes de Ma Mere l’Oye’ (Tales of Mother 
Goose). 

Perrault, Claude (1613-8S), French ar¬ 
chitect, brother of Charles Perrault, was born 
in Paris. His greatest work was the colon¬ 
nade of the Louvre, one of the most beauti¬ 
ful buildings of the 17th century. He was 
also entrusted with the erection of the Na¬ 
tional Observatory at Paris, and assisted in 
the decoration of Versailles. 

Perrin, Bernadette (1847-1920), Ameri¬ 
can scholar, born in Goshen, Conn., and 
graduated (1868) at Yale. Besides his nu¬ 
merous contributions to philological periodi¬ 
cals he edited texts of Czesar’s Civil War 
(1882), Homer’s Odyssey, books i-viii. (1S99- 
94), and the Classical Series in Twentieth 
Century Text-Books, with J. H. Wright and 
A. F. West, and a translation with introduc¬ 
tion and commentary of Themistocles and 
Aristides in Plutarch’s Greek Lives (1901). 

Perry, Bliss (i860- ), American edu¬ 

cator and author, was bom at Williamstown, 
Mass. In 1899 he accepted the editorship of 
the Atlantic Monthly, In 1906 he accepted, 
in addition, the professorship of belles let- 
tres at Harvard. Mr. Perry edited editions of 
Scott’s Woodstock and Ivanhoe, and a series 
of Little Masterpieces, and he published three 
novels. He ..also wrote. A Study of Prose Fic¬ 
tion (1902), Walt Whitman, a biographical 
and critical study (1906), A Study of Poetry 
(1920), And Gladly Teach (1935), etc. 

Perry, James De Wolf (1S71- ), bishop, 
was born in Germantown, Pa., studied at 
Cambridge Theological School, entered the 
ministry in 1896. He was rector of Christ 
Church, Fitchburg, Mass., 1897-1904, and of 
St. Paul’s, New Haven, Conn., 1904-1911. He 


was then consecrated bishop of Rhode Island, 
and was elected primate of the Protestant 
Episcopal Church in America in 1930. 

Perry, Matthew Galbraith (1794-1S58), 
American naval officer, born at Newport, R. 
I. In July, 1813, during the War of 1812, 
he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant 
and from 1815 to 1817 he commanded a mer¬ 
chant vessel. He then re-entered the navy, 
and in 1819-20 was first lieutenant of the 
Cyane, which convoyed to Africa the first 
shipload of negroes sent out by the American 
Colonization Society. He spent the years 
1 S3 3"43 on shore duty, for much of the time 
at the Brooklyn Navy Yard, of which he 
was commandant in 1841-3. He here organ¬ 
ized the Brooklyn Naval Lyceum and made 
valuable contributions to the development of 
the U. S. steam navy. In 1837 he was raised 
to the rank of captain, then the highest in 
the U. S. Navy. Perry was made special en¬ 
voy of the U. S. to Japan in 1852, and in 
1854 ho returned to Japan and negotiated a 
treaty by which the U. S. gained permission 
to obtain wood, coal, and necessary stores 
and provisions needed by her ships in Japa¬ 
nese waters, and for her vessels to anchor in 
the ports of Shimoda and Hakodat. The ne¬ 
gotiation of this treaty was Perry’s greatest 
achievement, and is an event of the greatest 
importance in the history of Japan; the trea¬ 
ty marks the first step in the opening of Ja¬ 
pan to foreign commerce and residence. After 
his return Perry prepared his Narrative of 
the Expedition of an American Squadron to 
the China Seas and Japan (3 vols. 1856). He 
died in New York City, Mar. 4, 1858. 

Perry, Oliver Hazard (1785-1819), Am¬ 
erican naval officer, born on Aug. 23, 1785, 
at South Kingston, R. I. He served in the 
Tripolitan War, first on the frigate Adams 
(1802-3) and afterwards, as a lieutenant, on 
the Constellation (1804-5); and in 1807-10 
he commanded a flotilla of seventeen gun¬ 
boats on the Newport Station. Soon after 
the outbreak of the War of 1812 he was again 
placed in command of a flotilla of gunboats 
and in March, 1813, having been raised to 
the rank of captain, he was made master-com¬ 
mandant, and was ordered to superintend, 
under the direction of Com. Chauncey, the 
constructing and equipping of a fleet for 
service on Lake Erie. The squadron was 
ready for service by July 10 but the lack 
of men long kept Perry in the harbor and 
he did not sail from Erie until Aug. 12. 

On Sept. 10, in the famous battle of Lake 
Erie, fought off Put-in-Bay, he defeated the 




Perry 3678 Persepolis 

inferior British squadron under Capt. Robert tianity became the imperial religion, it unhap- 
H. Barclay. During this battle Perry dis- pily proceeded to mete out towards innovat- 
played seamanship of a high order and great ing sects a mode of treatment similar to 
personal bravery. Immediately after the bat- that it had experienced from the heathen, 
tie Perry sent to Gen. W. H. Harrison the The Inquisition, which was established for 
famous message, ‘We have met the enemy the express purpose of discovering heresy and 
and they are ours; two ships, two brigs, one suppressing it, continued its career far into 
schooner, and one sloop.’ Perry’s victory on Reformation times. The reformers were per- 
Lake Erie aroused the greatest enthusiasm secuted everywhere, successfully in Spain and 
throughout the United States. After the war Italy; in France, the Huguenots received 
Perry was again placed in command of the a dreadful blow in the massacre of St. Bar- 
Newport Station, and in 1816-17, as com- tholomew. The Jews 'have suffered severely 
mander of the Java, served under Decatur in most European countries, most lately in 
in the Mediterranean against the Algerine and German}'. 



Perry at the Battle of Lake Eric. 


mand of several vessels, proceeded to the revolving round the sun in an elongated 
West Indian waters to protect American ellipse, which intersects the terrestrial orbit 
commerce, and on his birthday, Aug. 23, died at a point passed by the earth about August 
of yellow fever near Trinidad. 10. 

Perry, Ralph Barton (1876- ),phil- Persephone, in ancient Greek mythology, 
osopher, author and college professor. He was the daughter of Zeus and Demeter; she 
holds degrees from Princeton and Harvard, was the goddess of the lower world. When 
Since 1903 he has been professor of philosophy Pluto carried her off to the shades, her moth- 
at.Harvard. He was .a major, I). i. A., during er refused to let the fruits of the earth grow; 
the World War. He is author of several thus mortals could not sacrifice to the gods, 
books on philosophy, including The Moral and Zeus was driven to compel Pluto to 
Economy, The New Realism and The send her. back. .Hence she..was allowed to 
Thought and Character of William James, to spend part of the year in the upper 
which he wrote in 1935 and which won for world. 

him the Pulitzer Prize. Persepolis, or Istakhr, the cradle of the 

Pexecution, the forcible suppression of Persian kingdom, stood in the heart of Per- 
opinions and practices obnoxious to estab- sia proper, in the valley of Mervdasht, as it 
lished and traditional forms, especially of re- is now called. The palaces of the kings stood 
ligion, has been common in almost every some miles awav, close beneath a mountain, 
age and country. From the time that Chris- on a lofty platform ascended by great stair- 


Perseus 


3679 


Persia 


cases. The ruins which still remain show 
that these buildings were the masterpieces 
of Persian architecture. Persepolis was cap¬ 
tured by Alexander the Great towards the 
end of 331 b.c. 

Perseus, an ancient constellation extending 
from Cassiopeia to Taurus, and traversed by 
the Milky Way. 

Perseus. In ancient Greek legend, was a 
son of Zeus and Danae, the daughter of 
Acrisius, king of Argos. He was worshipped 
as a hero in Greece. 

Perseverance of Saints, the doctrine that 
those who have been elected, justified, and 
sanctified can never totally or finally fall 
away from the state of grace follows neces¬ 
sarily from the doctrine of election. 

Pershing, John Joseph (i860- ), Am¬ 

erican soldier, was born in Linn co., Mo. He 
organized and directed the Bureau of Insu¬ 
lar Affairs in 1899; was executive officer of 
the military department of Mindanao and 
Jolo, Philippines, in 1900; and commander 
of the department and governor of Moro 
province in 1909-1913, during which time he 
disarmed the natives and established peace. 
Pershing became a brigadier-general in 1906. 
He served on the Mexican border in 1914-15, 
and commanded the U. S. expedition into 
Mexico in 1916-17, being promoted major- 
general in 1916. Upon the entrance of the 
United States into the Great War he became 
commander-in-chief of the American forces. 
He was promoted to the rank of general in 
1917, and received the thanks of Congress in 
tgig. He received also the distinguished 
Service Medal, the French Legion of Honor, 
the British Order of the Bath, and many 
other decorations. He was chief of staff from 
1921 to 1924, when he was retired from ac¬ 
tive service. 

Persia (Iran, after Jan. 1, 1935) , a country 
of Asia extending from the Persian Gulf and 
Gulf of Oman to the Caspian Sea. The area 
Is about 628,000 sq. m. The elevated plateau 
constituting the interior of Persia is traversed 
by several. ranges of mountains. On the n. 
the chain of Elburz continues eastward from 
the Armenian plateau, skirting the southern 
shore of the Caspian Sea. Many of Its peaks, 
reach over 12,000 ft., and the range culmi¬ 
nates in the beautifully symmetrical volcan¬ 
ic peak Demavend (18,600 ft.). Farther e. 
Is the main range of Elburz. The province of 
Azerbaijan, in the n.w., is part of the Ar¬ 
menian plateau, and is a land of mountains 
and broad, fertile valleys. The rivers are 
small, and many of them dry up in summer. 


Most important are the Sefid Rud in Azer¬ 
baijan, and the Karum. The latter is the 
only navigable river in Persia; it flows from 
the Bakhtiari country into the Shat-et-Arab. 
There is one large lake in Azerbaijan, the 
Lake of Urmia, 84 m. long by from 20 to 30 
broad. More than half the area of Persia 
drains into inland lakes and swamps. 

On the high plateaus the winters are in¬ 
tensely cold, while the summers, though hot, 
are agreeable, owing to the elevation. The 
forested lowlands about the Caspian Sea are 
moist; the southern section is both hot and 
dry, and subject to fierce, torrid winds which 
sweep over the desert wastes. The rainfall is 
meagre, except in the mountain district of 
the n.w., and in the provinces of Gilan and 
Mazanderan, on the northern side of the 
Elburz range. Between the coast lagoons of 
the Caspian and the summits of the Elburz 
Mountains intervene forests of oak, beech, 
walnut, ash, yew, box, and juniper. Else¬ 
where the trees grow only in scattered 
clumps, and most of them are cultivated fruit 
trees. The fauna include, among wild ani¬ 
mals, the lion, tiger, leopard, bear, wolf, lynx, 
.jackal, wild ass, porcupine, deer, mountain 
goat, and gazelle; the chief domestic animals 
are the horse, camel, sheep, mule, and ox. 
Among the birds are the pelican, bustard, 
pheasant, partridge, grouse, thrush, and bul¬ 
bul. 

The lack of cheap transportation, fuel, and 
water have prevented successful operation of 
the mines of Persia, and the development of 
its great mineral wealth. Some mines of lead 
and copper have been worked in a desultory 
manner for centuries. Coal, copper, lead, tin, 
nickel and iron are also mined. Khorassan 
contains the famous turquoise mines of Nish- 
apur, copper, coal, lead, and iron. The chief 
mineral product is petroleum, obtained in the 
valley of the Karun, and found in a broad 
belt extending from Kurdistan to the Persian 
Gulf. The chief occupation of Persia is stock 
breeding and grazing (sheep and goats). 
Wheat and barley are grown almost every¬ 
where, also rice and fruit in great variety. 
In the absence of sufficient rainfall, irriga¬ 
tion is necessary to successful agriculture. 
Where this is supplied the naturally rich soil 
is very productive. Fisheries, mainly in the 
Caspian Sea, are important and profitable. 

Tabriz, Ramadan, Sultanabad, and Kir- 
man are the chief manufacturing centers. 
Beautiful woolen carpets and silk tapestries 
are made. Shawls are fashioned, especially 
I at Kashmir and Firman, from the soft tm- 



Persia 


3680 


Persia 


derwool of the goat, silk materials, and vel¬ 
vet. There is also a considerable output of 
silver work tiles, embroidery, mosaics, and 
inlaid work of ivory, mother-of-pearl, and 
metal, on wood. The commerce of Persia is 
extensive, considering the general absence of 
railroads and the primitive means of trans¬ 
portation. The principal exports of Persia 
are petroleum, raw cotton, dried fruits, wool¬ 
en carpets, rice, opium, gums, skins, and ce¬ 
reals, of value in the order named. 

The government of Persia is a constitution¬ 
al monarchy. Up to 1906 the Shah was abso¬ 
lute, controlling the lives and property of his 
subjects, and the entire revenue of his king¬ 
dom. After the revolution, which resulted 
in a constitution, the Mejliss, an elective na¬ 
tional assembly, was established. The Shah 
is assisted by a cabinet consisting of the Pre¬ 
mier, and the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, 
War, Education, Finance, and Justice. The 
work of the American financial adviser, A. C. 
Millspaugh, who undertook the reform of 
Persian finances in 1922, has brought about 
a marked change in the financial situation. A 
budget has been introduced, revenues have 
been increased, and important steps have 
been taken for revision of the tax system. 
The population of Persia is estimated at 15,- 
000,000 of which 2,000,000 are nomadic 
tribes, and 6,000 Europeans. The chief city 
is Teheran; p. 350,000. The Persians proper 
are Mohammedans of the Shiite sect; of these 
there are about 8,000,000. The Kurds and 
many of the Arab and Turki tribes are Sun¬ 
nites; in number, about 800,000. Babiism 
(see Babi) , a revolt against the tyranny of 
of the Koran, has made great progress. There 
are also a few Parsis, or fire-worshippers, and 
Armenian and Nestorian Christians. The 
Persian priesthood exerts a powerful influ¬ 
ence, and is generally opposed to the progress 
of European ideas among the people. The 
education of the mass of the people extends 
only to the reading of the Koran, but in re¬ 
cent years schools on European lines have 
been established. 

History .—The ancestors of the Medes and 
Persians at the dawn of their history inhabi¬ 
ted, traditionally, a region known as the 
Airyanem Vaejo (‘the Aryan home’), which, 
doubtless, in some measure corresponded 
with the province of Aria in classical maps. 
The Persians proper are mentioned in the 
Vannic inscriptions as occupying Media, and 
ultimately the province of Persis, now Fars, 
to which they gave their name. 

Zoroaster persuaded his people to abandon 


the worship of the powers of nature, and 
also preached the immortality of the soul. 
The religion thus introduced continued to be 
professed until the Mohammedan conquest of 

Persia. Nothing more is known until the 
time of the Greek historians and the cunei¬ 
form records of the Arsacides. Cyrus the 
Great, king of Persia revolted against his 
suzerain Astyages, the successor of Cyaxares, 
and by his conquest of Media united the 
whole Persian empire under his banner. Cy¬ 
rus’ successor, Cambyses, conquered Egypt 
in 525 b.c. When he died by his own hand 
(521 b.c.) , Darius, a member of the same 
great Achaemenian family, succeeding to the 
throne, was forced to suppress rebellions in 
every part of his vast empire. The Battle of 
Marathon (490 b.c.) for a time delivered 
Greece from Oriental conquest. The .reign of 
Darius’ son and successor, Xerxes 1. (486- 
461), who subdued the Egyptian rebels in 
484, was occupied chiefly by his disastrous 
conflict with Greece, memorable for the over¬ 
throw of the Persians at Salamis (Septem¬ 
ber, 4S0) and Plataea (479). The reigns of 
Artaxerxes 1. (466-424), Xerxes 11., and Dari¬ 
us 11. (423-405) witnessed the rapid decline 
of. the Persian monarchy. The celebrated ex¬ 
pedition of Cyrus the Younger (401) against 
his brother Artaxerxes 11., ended in Cyrus’ 
victory and death at Cunaxa. Crossing the 
Hellespont in 334, Alexander 'defeated the 
Persians at Issus (333) and at Gatigamela 
(Oct. 331), thus overthrowing forever the 
empire of the Achaemenians. Persia then be¬ 
came part of the Macedonian empire; and 
after the troubles that followed Alexander’s 
death in 323 b.c., eventually fell to Seleucus 
Nicator (312-280), who built Seleucia, 
but ultimately transferred his capital to An¬ 
tioch in Syria. Papak, son of Sasan, founded 
the Sasanian dynasty in Persis, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by his son Ardashir. In the latter the 
history of Cyrus the Great repeated itself, 
Defeating the army sent against him by Ar- 
tabanus, Ardashir . took Ispahan and ad¬ 
vanced to Hormuz, where (April 28, 227) he 
overthrew the Parthian monarch and his em¬ 
pire. ■ . 

Istakhr (Persepolis) now became once 
more the capital of the Persian empire, of 
which Ardashir soon made himself sovereign. 
He overran and annexed Armenia and made 
Zoroastrianism, in the form which it had 
then assumed, the only religion tolerated in 
his dominions. Ardashir was succeeded in 
240 by his son Sapor or Shapur 1., one of the 
greatest of the Persian monarchs, and the 



Persia 


3681 


Persia 


Sasanian era endured until the Mohamme¬ 
dans crushed Persian power in 639. For nearly 
two hundred years after the Arab conquest, 
Persia formed part of the dominions of the 
caliphs, and suffered her full share of the al¬ 
most incessant massacres and civil wars 
which ensued. 

Between 1218 and 1224 Persia, then ruled 
by Mohammed Shah of Khvarizm, was over¬ 
run and almost desolated by the Mongol 
Jenghiz Khan, who extended his conquests 
to the Indus. Hulagu, a grandson of Jenghiz, 
completed the conquest of Persia in 1258, 
and his descendants ruled for several genera¬ 
tions. The country was also the scene of the 
conquests of Timur-i-Lang (Tamerlane, 
1380-1393). In Persia the Safavi dynasty 
was established by Ismail Shah (1499-1524). 
The Safavi dynasty was restored by Nadir 
Quli (Kuli) Khan, who in 1736 proclaimed 
himself king, with the title of Nadir Shah. 
Nadir conquered Afghanistan, and carried 
his arms as far as Delhi, which he captured 
and plundered, permitting the' massacre of 
some 100,000 of the inhabitants. He ulti¬ 
mately became a bloodthirsty tyrant, and 
his murder, in 1747, was a great relief to 
his country. Civil wars succeeded until the 
reign of Karim Khan, who made Shiraz his 
capital. The present, or Qajar (Kajar) dyn¬ 
asty is of Tartar origin, and was founded by 
Aqa (Agha) Mohammed Khan in 1794. This 
monster of cruelty re-established the Shiite 
or Shiah form of Islam as the religion of the 
country (1796). Fath £ Ali Shah, who suc¬ 
ceeded on the murder of Aqa Mohammed, 
engaged in a war with Russia, and lost the 
Circassian provinces. Mohammed Shah, his 
grandson, took Herat from the Afghans. 

Mohammed Shah left the throne, in 1848, 
to his son Nasiru’ddin Shah, who was mur¬ 
dered in 1896, and was succeeded by one of 
his younger sons, Muzaffaru’ddin Shah. In 
October, 1906, under pressure, the Shah con¬ 
voked a National Assembly (Mejliss) to 
frame a constitution. He died in January 
1907, and his son, Mohammed Ali, delayed 
■ taking oath to the constitution till Nov. 12, 
1907, and then did not keep his promises. In 
1907 Russia and Great Britain signed an 
agreement by which each assumed a sphere 
of influence in Persia—in the northern and 
southern parts respectively, and recognized 
the independence and integrity of the coun¬ 
try. This agreement was recognized by Per¬ 
sia in 1912. In 1910, at the request of the 
Persian government, U. S. President Taft ap- 
pointed W. Morgan Shuster as financial ad- l 


viser to Persia. Shuster arrived in Teheran 
in May, 1910, and was invested by the Per¬ 
sian Mejliss with plenary powers in fiscal 
affairs. In spite of obstacles, in six months 
the treasury deficit was converted into a 
surplus, besides furnishing funds for the sup¬ 
pression of a rebellion. 

Following the outbreak of the war, the 
National Assembly was summoned and the 
neutrality of Persia proclaimed. Western and 
Northwestern Persia formed a battleground 
for the Turkish and Russian armies, and as 
a result Persia suffered a considerable loss of 
property and some loss of life. The Persian 
province of Azerbaijan was devastated, and 
terrible massacres of Armenian and Nestorian 
Christians occurred. In 1916 a troop of Per¬ 
sian soldiers was organized under the British 
general, Sir Percy Sykes, to restore and 
maintain order in Southern Persia. In 1920 
Bolshevik forces invaded Persia and occu¬ 
pied Resht, and in 1921, a treaty was con¬ 
cluded between Persia and Soviet Russia es¬ 
tablishing diplomatic relations and supersed¬ 
ing all previous Russo-Persian treaties. In 
August 1921, a contract was signed between 
the United States and Persia, whereby Dr. A. 
C. Millspaugh, formerly connected with the 
U. S. State Department, became administra¬ 
tor-general of the finances of Persia. Under 
his guidance, free for the first time in many 
years from foreign influence, there was a 
marked improvement in Persia’s financial 
condition and closer commercial relations 
were established between the two countries. 

In 1933, a new concession for 60 years for 
the Persian oil field, the richest single field 
known, was awarded to the Anglo-Persian 
Oil Co., under the auspices of the Council of 
the League of Nations. 

Among other results of westernizing in¬ 
fluences, the government has restricted the 
wearing of turbans or fezzes to religious 
leaders. In 1930 laws were passed which re¬ 
quired all natives of Persia ’ residing abroad 
to return home within one year or suffer 
the loss of both their citizenship and proper¬ 
ty in Persia, and foreigners were restricted 
to owning no real estate other than dwelling 
houses. The sovereign of Persia, a constitu¬ 
tional monarchy, is called the Shah, and the 
present Shah, Mohammed Riza Pahlevi, was 
enthroned Sept., 1941. In 1941 Britain and 
the Soviet Union partially occupied Iran, driv¬ 
ing out all German nations, and in Jan., 1942 
an Anglo-Soviet-Iranian treaty was signed by 
the three governments. 

Bibliography.— History anp Antiquities; 



Persia 


3682 


Persimmon 


Rawlinson’s Cuneiform Inscriptions of West¬ 
ern Asia (5 vols) ; Jackson’s Persia Past and 
Present ; Browne’s Persian Revolution of 
1905-1919 (1910) ; General ; Cresson’s Per¬ 
sia, Shuster’s The Strangling of Persia 
(1912); Sykes’ History of Persia (2 vols., 
1921). 

Persia, Language and Literature. The 
Persian language is a branch of the great 
Aryan or Indo-European family of lan¬ 
guages. The earliest form of the language 
which has been preserved is found in the 
inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings. The 
oldest form of modern Persian, represented 
by the language of the Shahnamah. This 
was followed by what is known as the class¬ 
ical Persian of the great writers of later 
times. 

The language at present spoken in Persia 
contains a somewhat larger proportion of 
Arabic words, though a considerable number 
of Turkish words may also be met with. The 
date of the composition of the Gdthds has 
been supposed to be about the 14th century 
b.c., while the rest of the Avesta was com¬ 
posed probably between the 5th and 1st cen¬ 
tury before the Christian era. The Moham¬ 
medan conquest for a time put an end to all 
literary life in Persia, but the nation ulti¬ 
mately developed a new literary language. 
The earliest prose work in what is now 
known as Persian is BaPami’s version of Ta¬ 
bari’s Universal History (a.d, 963). The 
greatest epic poet of Persia is Firdausi (940- 
1020), who after thirty-five years’ toil pub¬ 
lished his Shdndmah , or ‘History of the 
Kings of Persia,’ in ion. 

The most renowned of the philosophical 
poets of Persia in Jalalu’ddin Rumi (1207- 
73). Sa’di (died in 1292) is celebrated for his 
Gulistdn and Bustdn. With these may be 
coupled the Gulshdn i Raz of Mahmund i 
Shabistari (died 1320), and the Bdharistdn of 
Jami’ (1487), ’Umar (Omar) ibn Khayyam 
represents the sceptical and Epicurean school; 
Ms verses have obtained great popularity In 
England and. the United States. The greatest 
■lyric, poet, of Persia is undoubtedly 'Hafiz 
(died, in 1389). His verses, breathe the same 
Epicurean, spirit as those of .Omar Khayyam, 
but their sweetness and musical charm are 
far superior. Among prose writers of fiction, 
one of the best known is Muhammed Taqqi 
Khan (1742-56), author of a voluminous 
work entitled Bustdn i Khayal, or ‘The Gar¬ 
den of Imagination. 5 Persia has produced not 
a few able historians, among whom mav be 


mentioned the names of Khvandamir, Mirkh- 
vanci, Juvaini, and Vassaf. 

Among the most important modern works 
in the language are the journals ( Ruzndmah - 
ha) of Nasiru’ddin Shah. These are com¬ 
posed in the ordinary colloquial form of 
modern Persian. They have thus introduced 
a much more simple and intelligible style of 
composition. Consult Browne’s Literary His¬ 
tory of Persia (190.2); Levy’s Persian Liter¬ 
al tire (1923). 

Persian Architecture. In ancient Persian 
architecture sundried brick was chiefly used, 
beautifully enamelled in color for decorative 
purposes. Persian architectural luxury reached 
its height in the great Hall of Persepolis, with 
its huge capitaled pillars, stairs, and vast 
area. Not till after centuries of stagnation 
and. ruin did a new style of architecture ap¬ 
pear with the Mohammedan conquest. This 
style shows at its best in the mosque and 
mausoleum. Use is made ot blue-colored tile 
and bricks and the keel, dome predominates. 
See also Architecture. 

Persian Gulf, an arm of the Arabian Sea, 
running north westward from the shallow 
Strait of Ormuz between Persia and Ara¬ 
bia. Its length is about 550 m., and its great¬ 
est breadth about 200 m. It has an area of 
about 75,000 sq. m. The shores on the Per¬ 
sian side are high and precipitous; on the 
Arabian side they are low and fiat. The wa¬ 
ter is very warm. Great Britain exercises a 
protectorate over the Bahrein Islands, and 
enjoys a measure of domination over the en¬ 
tire Gulf. 

Persian Lamb, a fur obtained from the 
karakul or Arabi sheep, of Bokhara. The 
young lambs are usually jet black, with a 
lustrous wool, closely curled over the entire 
body. When used for fur, they must be ■■ 
killed when not older than ten. clays, as the' . 
.curls open after this period. 

Persigny, Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin, 
Due tie (1808-73), French public official,.was 
bora in Saint-Germain- 1 ’Espinassc, Loire. On 
the overthrow of the Orleans dynasty (1848), ■ 
Persigny secured the election of Louis Napo¬ 
leon to the Constituent Assembly In June 
and September, and to the presidency of the 
republic in December, 1848. In 1855-60 he 
was ambassador at London. 

Persimmon, or Date Plum, belongs to the 
genus Diospyros, a genus of mostly tropical 
trees. D. virginiana is a medium-sized tree, 
often fifty ft. or more in height. Its fruit is 
much like a redclish-vellow plum, containing 




Persiua 


3683 


Perth 


eight or ten seeds, very astringent when im¬ 
mature, but sweet and delicious when ripe or 
touched by frost. 

Persius (34-62 a.d.), Roman satirist, was 
bom at Volaterrae in Etruria; his full name 
was Aulus Persius Flaccus. His one surviving 
work, six satires, attained great popularity. 
The subject of his satire is the Rome of his 
day, with all its vices and follies. See com¬ 
plete bibliography of Persius by Morgan 
(1893). 

Personality (double or multiple), or 
double consciousness, is a name given to cer¬ 
tain striking cases of alternating personal 
identity. The change of identity occurs at a 
hysterical crisis. The normal state can usual¬ 
ly be restored by hypnotic treatment. Some¬ 
times the change lasts only for a few sec¬ 
onds. In normal persons the dream state 
often affords analogous phenomena. The 
identity established in a dream is lost on wak¬ 
ing, and may be re-established on sleeping. 
By minute study of cases it has been shown 
that they are all explicable as cases of dis¬ 
sociation of consciousness. (See Hallucina¬ 
tion, Illusion, Hypnotism.) In a normal 
person such dissociation is usually evanescent. 

Personal Liberty Laws, a series of laws 
passed in various Northern states, prior to 
the Civil War, to prevent or make difficult 
the rendition of fugitive slaves from these 
states to Southern slave owners. These laws 
were an expression of the hostility felt by 
Northern communities for the Fugitive Slave 
Acts and were undoubtedly one of the causes 
of the ultimate outbreak of hostilities be¬ 
tween the North and South. See Fugitive 
Slave Laws. 

Personal Property. In general such prop¬ 
erty rights as, upon the death of the owner 
intestate, pass to his personal representative 
as distinguished from his heir, upon whom 
the real property descends. It includes not 
only chattels proper, or ‘chattels personal,’ 
corresponding to the movables of the Roman 
law, but certain interests in land also, such 
as estates, real mortgages, etc., known as 
‘chattels real/ and which have for years for 
various reasons fallen into the category of 
property deyolving upon the executor or ad¬ 
ministrator. Personal property law is much 
simpler than that of real property and has 
never shared the complexity and artificiality 
of the latter. 

, Personal Representative. An executor or 
administrator of a deceased person. Some¬ 
times the term is used to mean the next of 
kin, or the person or persons to whom the 


personal estate would go by law if there were 
no will. See Executors and Administra¬ 
tors. 

Perspective. A drawing of an object may 
show either its actual or its apparent size and 
shape. The former is geometric or ortho¬ 
graphic drawing— i.e. parallel projection; the 
latter is perspective drawing, or projection 
from a fixed point— i.e. radial projection. 
Perspective deals wholly with appearances, 
but objects have both an apparent form and 
an apparent color. Both seem to differ much 
as we look from different standpoints, and 
they are quite separate studies. The study 
of the apparent forms or shapes is called 
‘linear perspective. 5 The study of the 
apparent changes in color is called ‘aerial 
perspective.’ Because of the varying at¬ 
mospheric conditions no definite rules re¬ 
garding aerial perspective can be laid 
dowm. Linear perspective, however, is an 
exact science, based on the fact that a 
straight line passes from any point in an ob¬ 
ject at which the spectator is looking to the 
eye of the spectator, a ray of light carrying 
with it the impression of the point to the eye. 
From this fact rules or axioms are deduced, 
and by the application of these, drawings of 
objects can be made which will be exactly 
similar in form to the apparent form of ob¬ 
jects as seen from any fixed point. A knowl¬ 
edge of solid geometry or of orthographic 
projection is of great assistance in under¬ 
standing this subject; indeed, perspective 
drawing is but a development of solid geom¬ 
etry. 

Perspiration, an excretion from the sweat 
glands of the human skin. On an average a 
healthy male adult loses daily in this way 
some 18 ounces of water, about 300 grains of 
solid matter, and about 400 grains of carbon 
dioxide. Should perspiration be rapidly ex¬ 
creted or slowly evaporated, it becomes vis¬ 
ible; but even when it does not gather in 
drops, an invisible perspiration is continually 
going on. 

Perth, Ontario, Canada, county seat of 
Lanark co. on the Tay River, which con¬ 
nects with the Rideau Canal. It is a shipping 
point for live-stock and has important man¬ 
ufactures. The district is rich in minerals 
particularly phosphate of lime; p.4,097. 

Perth, city, Scotland, capital of Perthshire, 
on the River Tay. Its beautiful site has won 
for it the name of the ‘Fair City/ and its his- 
toric associations have added to its interest. 
The kings of Scotland frequently resided in 
the Cistercian abbey, and many Parliaments 



Perth 


3684 


Peru 


were held in Perth. Here is St. John’s Church, 
a 13th-century structure in front of whose 
high altar King Edward in. of England 
stabbed his brother, the Duke of Cornwall. 
Near the river are ' vo public parks, known 
as the North and the South Inch, in the for¬ 
mer of which took place in 1396 the famous 
combat between the clans Chattan and 
Quhele described in Scott’s Fair Maid of 


C C 



Sweat Glands from Skin of 
Thumb. 


aa. Sweat glands; bb, ducts; 
cc, openings on surface; d, epi¬ 
dermis; e, derma. 

Perth. Nearby stood the Dominican Convent 
in which James 1. was assassinated. Perth is 
the chief- center of the dyeing industry, and 
has manufactures of linen, carpets, glass, and 
ink. It has also large cattle markets. The 
salmon fisheries of the Tay are valuable; p. 
■28,613. 

. Perth, town, capital of West Australia, on 
Swan River. The situation is one of great 
natural beauty, and the city is well built, 
with wide streets and numerous fine build¬ 
ings, including the Town Hall, House of 
Parliament, Anglican and Roman Catholic 
Cathedrals, and Council Chambers. Perth 
Park and King’s Park are beautiful pleasure 
grounds; p.41,000. 

Perth Amboy, city, New Jersey, Middle¬ 
sex co., on Raritan Bay, at the mouth of the 
Raritan River. It is connected by a bridge 
with South Amboy. A bridge links it to 
Staten Island (New York City) at Tot- 
tenville. Features of interest are the 
capitol building of the province of East 
Jersey, and the barracks used by the English 
soldiery. William Franklin, the last royal 


governor of New Jersey, was captured here 
in 1776. Industrial establishments include 
manufactures of terra cotta, lead, copper, 
steel, cable, emery, and chemicals; and the 
city has shipyards and drydocks. The first 
settlement was made in 1683 and the place 
was named in honor of the Earl of Perth. 
Amboy, a corruption of Ompage, the original 
Indian name, was added by popular usage. 
It was the capital of the province from 1684 
until about the time of the Revolution. 
It is a port of entry and is served by the 
Central Railroad of New Jersey, the Le¬ 
high Valley Railroad and the Pennsylvania 
Railroad; p. 41,242. 

Perthite, a variety of orthoclase feldspar in 
which small veinlets are present. 

Perthshire, county of Scotland, s. of In¬ 
verness and Aberdeen, and n. of Fife and 
Stirling, with an area of 2,493 sq. m., in the 
heart of Scotland. In the north the Gram¬ 
pian Mountains cover a large area. The 
rivers Tay and Forth drain Loch Tay, 
Loch Katrine, and many other picturesque 
lakes. 

Perturbations, an astronomical term de¬ 
noting inequalities in the motions of the heav¬ 
enly bodies due to irregular attractions. Those 
affecting the planets are classed as periodic 
and secular. The first kind depend upon the 
relative positions of the disturbing and dis¬ 
turbed body: they alter the place of the lat¬ 
ter in its orbit, not the orbit itself; and they 
. are compensated when the original configura¬ 
tion of the two planets and the sun is re¬ 
stored. They are hence comparatively tran¬ 
sient and of small amount. Secular perturba¬ 
tions are conditioned by the slowly modified 
relative positions of the various orbits, and 
are compensated when these revert to their 
primitive status as regards each other and 
the plane of the ecliptic. They accordingly 
require immense, lapses of time for their de¬ 
velopment. Lunar disturbances result from 
the unequal action of the sun, and are due to 
the difference in the attraction of the sun at 
a given moment upon the earth and moon. 
They are mostly periodic. The orbits of com¬ 
ets are often radically altered by planetary 
influence. The return to perihelion of known 
comets is, besides, advanced or delayed by 
the attraction of the planets met with on the 
way. ■ 

Peru, republic, South America, extending 
along the Pacific Coast from 3 0 21' to :r8° s. 
lat. It is bounded on the n. by Ecuador and 
Colombia, on the c. by Brazil and Bolivia, 
on the s. by Bolivia and Chile, and on the 



jreru 


iS65& 


rer« 


w. by the Pacific Ocean, The possession of 
a strip of territory north of the Maranon 
is disputed with Ecuador and Colombia. The 
length of the country from n. to s. is about 
1,200 m., while its width varies from 50 to 
780 m. The total area is 481,698 sq. m. The 
greater part of Peru is occupied by the South 
Andes Mountains, which extend in a broad 
belt north and south through the country. 
Between the Western or Maritime Range and 
the Cordillera Central, which is the main con¬ 
tinental divide, lies a series of valleys and 
plateaus in a belt 50 to 150 m. wide, usually 
known as the Sierra. Its elevation varies from 
4,000 to 10,000 ft. East of the Cordillera 
Central, or main range of the Andes, lie a 
still more elevated plateau and series of val¬ 
leys, known as the Puna, varying in altitude 
from 9,000 to 14,000 ft. On the eastern side 
of the Cordillera Oriental lie the upper slopes 
of the great forest-covered plain of the Ama¬ 
zon, known in Peru as the Montana. The 
mountains of the Eastern Range are the 
highest, some of the peaks reaching 16,000 to 
22,000 feet. The mountain passes are among 
the loftiest in the world—that between Lima 
and Tarma being 15,760 ft. The active vol¬ 
canoes belong in the two western ranges. The 
region immediately about Lake Titicaca, one 
of the most noted large lakes in the world, 
because of its elevation (12,545 ft.), is a 
drainage province in itself. Lake Huaca- 
china has attracted attention because of the 
remarkable medicinal properties of its wa- j 
ters. The plateaus of Peru are the highest 
occupied lands in the world, next to those of 
Tibet. 

Although there are more than forty Peru¬ 
vian ports, none has a first-class harbor. 
Callao, the port of Lima, is shielded by the 
large barren island of San Lorenzo. In many 
of the ports the surf is so violent that land¬ 
ings are sometimes delayed for days. On the 
east side ocean steamers can penetrate Peru 
from the Amazon to Iquitos, 3,000 m. from 
the Atlantic Coast, and light-draught vessels 
penetrate several hundred miles farther' on 
the three large tributaries Peru has almost 
every variety of climate from the torrid heat 
of the deeper valleys to the arctic cold of 
the perpetually snow-capped mountains. The 
high plateaus of the interior are exceedingly 
cold, while the intermediate valleys are tem¬ 
perate and salubrious. The table lands have 
an average temperature of 60 0 f. Except 
along the coast, where the south wind is al¬ 
most constant, the winds are prevailingly 


from the east, belonging to the trades, which 
accounts for the unequal distribution of rain. 

The character of the animal and plant life 
of Peru varies with the three main physio¬ 
graphic divisions of the country. The coast, 
owing to its arid nature, has but little vege¬ 
table life, except in the river valleys where 
palms and willows grow, and cotton, Indian 
corn, sugar cane, alfalfa, and rice are cultiva¬ 
ted. Along the sea coast great flocks of sea 
birds are to be found. The mountainous sec¬ 
tion, owing to its variety of elevation and 
temperature, produces many varieties of 
plant and animal life. Here are found the 
potato and other edible roots, as well as 
fruits in great abundance, notably the alliga¬ 
tor pear, chirmoya, paccay, lucuma, and fruit 
of the passion flower. The most important 
animals are the llama, alpaca, and wild vic¬ 
una, all valuable for their wool. Varieties of 
deer, the viscacha, and the chinchilla, are also 
found. The montana is a region of tropical 
forests. Here grow cinchona trees, valuable 
for their yield of quinine and cinchonine, tim¬ 
ber trees of many kinds, rubber trees, incense 
trees, tree ferns and palms, sarsaparilla, va¬ 
nilla, ipecacuanha, and copaiba. Cocoa, coffee, 
sugar, cacao, and tropical fruits are valuable 
products. In the forests are found monkeys, 
venomous snakes, bright-hued parrots, tapirs, 
and other animals common to the South Am¬ 
erican jungle. The Andean bear, called ucu- 
mari, is found on the upper borders of the 
forests. The puma also roams over the 
higher slopes. Lower down there are jaguars, 
and several kinds of wild cats. Deer frequent 
the open ground, and herds of peccaries tra¬ 
verse the forests. Spoonbills, ibis, cranes, 
snipe, and curlew frequent the lagoons. 

Quantities of valuable woods are found in 
the immense forests in the east, but lack of 
transportation facilities has rendered them 
practically inaccessible. Among timber woods 
are cedar, walnut, ironwood, and caoba, a 
kind of mahogany. These forests also pro* 
duce the cinchona, or Peruvian bark, from 
which quinine is made, and other medicinal 
plants. Among the most valuable products 
of the Peruvian forests is rubber. 

The mineral supply of the coast ranges and 
of the Andes constitutes one of the principal 
sources of the nation’s wealth. Gold, silver, 
copper, petroleum, coal, nitrates, vanadium 
and, to a less extent, bismuth, mercury, tung¬ 
sten, nickel, antimony, iron, sulphur, borax- 
salt, and peat are found. Copper occurs in 
abundance, the most extensive deposits be* 



Firm 


3688 


Peru 


ing in the vicinity of Cerro de Pasco, Casa- 
palca, and Morochocha. Considering the pos¬ 
sibilities of regions still undeveloped, Peru is 
likely to become an important factor among 
the world’s copper producers. Silver, together 
with lead, is abundant on the eastern slopes 
of the Andes. Before the development of 
copper mining this was the most important 
metal mined. Over 50,000 tons of pure sil¬ 
ver are said to have been taken from the 
Cerro de Paco region since 1630. Mercury 
was the first metal to be exploited in Peru. 
It was formerly in great demand for the 
treatment of silver ores, and was produced in 
large amounts. Peru is undoubtedly rich in 
both anthracite and bituminous coal, if the 
limited explorations made are a just indica¬ 
tion. The oil fields of Peru are a source of 
considerable wealth, and their development 
is constantly increasing so that petroleum is 
Peru’s most important mineral. There are 
four leading fields. The wells along the coast 
run from out in the sea many miles inland, 
and vary in depth from 250 to 3,048 ft. 
Among non-metallic minerals, the guano 
deposits on the islands of the coast are of 
great value. Nitrates are also found in large 
quantities. 

The most important agricultural product 
is sugar cane. It thrives best along the river 
valleys and in the La Libertad and Lima 
districts. Cotton is also an important pro¬ 
duct, and much coffee is grown. The culti¬ 
vation of coca, from which medicinal co¬ 
caine is obtained, is an important industry in 
some parts of Peru. Grapes, tropical fruits, 
and all kinds of vegetables are raised in large 
quantities. Cassava is cultivated up to an 
altitude of 6,000 ft.; maize is grown in all 
parts of the country, up to 15,000 ft., and 
wheat is raised in the valleys of Central 
Peru. Raising of live stock is an important 
industry, the best known cattle and sheep 
raising districts being on the table lands. 
Peruvian cattle are medium-sized, and rather 
inferior for food and dairy purposes, but are 
commercially valuable for their hides. The 
sheep, llama, alpaca, and vicuna are bred for 
their wool, over 15,000,000 pounds of this 
product being obtained yearly. Goats are con¬ 
sidered valuable for their skins, which are of 
unusually fine texture, soft, and easily 
handled. The leading industries of Peru are 
..agriculture andmining; but there. is every 
reason to believe that it will one day be¬ 
come an important manufacturing country, 
because of its possibilities of developing im¬ 


mense water power and its abundance of raw 
materials. The Peruvian government gives 
active assistance in the matter of increasing 
the trade of Peru and fostering the knowl¬ 
edge of its growth in other countries. 

There are in Peru 2,725 miles of railroads, 
about 70 per cent, owned by the government 
and operated by the Peruvian Corporation. 
Roads in the interior are well developed. 
There are in all 13,000 m. of improved high¬ 
ways. Much progress is being made in road 
construction upon which 25,000,000 soles 
was spent and 20,000 men employed in 1938. 
Peru has well established air transport serv¬ 
ice, both internally and to other countries. 
Telegraph, telephone, post and wireless serv¬ 
ice are in the hands of the Marconi Com¬ 
pany under a contract running from 1921 to 
1946. There is direct cable communication 
between Peruvian and other ports on the 
west coast of South America, with good 
service to all parts of the world. Steamship 
communication is maintained with other 
South American countries and with the ports 
of the United States, Europe and Asia. 

The (estimated) population of Peru is 
6,673,000. Lima, the capital, has a population 
of 450,000. Callao, the port of Lima, has 
a population of 80,000; Arequipa, of 75,000; 
Cuzco, the ancient seat of the Inca empire, 
of 40,000. The state religion is Roman Cath¬ 
olic, with complete religious liberty. The 
churches and monasteries are state property; 
about $150,000 is voted annually for public 
worship. Education is free and compulsory 
from 7 years to 14. There are good higher 
schools; secondary vocational schools; and 
I for higher education there are normal schools 
and universities. The Universidad de San 
Marcos, the oldest university in America 
(1551), is situated at Lima, and there are 
also universities at Arequipa, Cuzco, and 
Tripillo. In 1921 the University of Tech¬ 
nical Schools comprising advanced schools of 
engineering, commerce, pedagogy,, and agri¬ 
culture . was established. 

. The republic of Peru, with, a constitution 
modelled upon that of the United States, is 
politically divided, into .twenty departments 
and three separate, provinces. 

History .—-From ancient times there were 
communities in Peru. Eventually all united un¬ 
der one empire,, and the Incas, in the course 
of some five centuries, had reached an ad¬ 
vanced stage of civilization, previous to the 
Spanish invasion under Pizarro in X 5 .U- Peru 
was made a viceroyalty of Spain in 1544; 




PEONIES 


Fern 


3687 


Perugia 


and the quarrels of successive viceroys and 
their officials, with occasional revolts among 
the natives, constitute the greater part of the 
country’s history from the middle of the six¬ 
teenth to the beginning of the nineteenth cen¬ 
tury. The independence of Peru was pro¬ 
claimed in 1821, but not until 1824 was the 
Spanish rule actually thrown off. A repub¬ 
lic was organized and Simon Bolivar became 
dictator. In 1879 war with Chile broke out. 
Chile was successful, humbling both Peru 
and her ally, Bolivia, and in 1S80 all the 
southern part of Peru was in the power of 
the Chilean commander, Baquedano, who 
finally made his way into Lima. In 1883 a 
treaty of peace was signed, whereby the dis¬ 
trict of Tarapaca became part of Chile, while 
the territories of Tacna and Arica were occu¬ 
pied with the proviso that the people of those 
territories should decide at the expiration of 
ten years with which of the countries they 
would cast their lot. When, however, the 
appointed term had been completed (1894), a 
dispute arose as to who were entitled to vote 
on the matter of the final disposition of the 
province. Peru contended that only those who 
were resident there when the original treaty 
was signed should vote; while Chile, who had 
actively promoted Chilean colonization of the 
provinces, maintained that all the inhabit¬ 
ants should have a voice in the matter. After 
a long period of fruitless negotiations, diplo¬ 
matic relations between the two countries 
were severed in 1910. In 1929 this old dis¬ 
pute with Chile over Tacna and Arica was 
settled (see Tacna-Arica Question) , and 
boundary disputes with Bolivia, Colombia, 
Ecuador and Brazil were satisfactorily ad¬ 
justed. A dispute with Colombia over the 
border region of Leticia, which had involved 
bloodshed in the early part of 1933, was 
settled by an agreement signed by Peru and 
Colombia, May 25, 1933, with the contested 
area administered by a commission of the 
League of Nations. In 1914 a successful 
revolution deposed President Billinghurst, 
who was accused of high-handed methods 
that threatened the destruction of constitu¬ 
tional government. Dr. Jose Pardo was elec¬ 
ted to the presidency on August 18, 1915. On 
October 6, 1917, Peru severed diplomatic re¬ 
lations with Germany. In 1919 Augusto Le- 
guia seized the presidency by a coup d’etat 
which was legalized by Congress. After elev¬ 
en years of dictatorship President Leguia 
was forced out by a revolution on Aug. 25, 
1930 and Col. Cerro was sworn in as prov¬ 


isional President with a military cabinet. 
Civil war broke out; in February-March. 
1931, there were four changes in the presi¬ 
dency. Following the assassination of Presi¬ 
dent Cerro in 1933, a new constitution was 
put into effect debarring the President from 
seeking re-election. Gen. Oscar R. Benavides 
has been President since 1933. The Pan- 
American Conference was in Lima, Decem¬ 
ber 193S. in Jan. 1942, at the Pan-American 
conference held in Brazil, Peru signed the 
declaration against the Axis powers. 

Peru, Ancient Civilization. The Incas, 
a Quichua-speaking race, established their 
capital at Cuzco in the 12th century, and 
gradually extended their dominion from 
Quito to the borders of Chile. In astronom¬ 
ical science and chronology they were infer¬ 
ior to the Aztecs, and their buildings were 
more simple, though massive, being seldom 
more than one story high, and roofed with 
thatch. The arch was not employed, though 
known to the Chimus. In road making, how¬ 
ever, the Incas excelled, as well as in agri¬ 
culture, irrigating their fields by means of 
aqueducts, manuring them with guano, and 
dragging through the soil a kind of coulter 
after the manner of a plough. They were 
also adepts in the working of gold, silver, and 
precious stones, though their tools were only 
of bronze; and their fabrics of cotton and 
vicuna wool were beautiful in both texture 
and coloring. 

The government was despotic, and the 
common people (those not of Inca race) 
were rigidly controlled in all their actions. 
Their work was allotted to them; they were 
even obliged to marry at a certain age. On 
the other hand, no man was suffered to want 
the necessaries of life, and justice was duly 
administered. The Incas worshipped the sun, 
and the moon and stars as subordinate 
deities, and their rites were not attended 
with such cruelty as those of the Aztec war 
god. 

Perugia, province, Central Italy, is moun¬ 
tainous, and is traversed by the River Tibet 
and others, and contains Lake Trasimene. 
The principal products are wheat, wine and 
oil. Area, 3,749 sq. m. 

Perugia, the capital of Perugia province, 
Italy, stands on the right bank of the Tiber. 
The Gothic Cathedral of San Lorenzo, dat¬ 
ing from the end of the 15th century, the 
Church of St. Dominic (1632), and the re¬ 
markable Church of St. Peter (nth century) 
are the best-known churches. The Univer- 



Perugino 


3688 


Petasn 


sity was founded in 1308 by Pope Clement 
v. (1307). Perugia, one of the 12 Etrurian 
republican cities, was incorporated with the 
Papal States in 1512, and annexed to Italy 
in 1S60. In the 15th century it became.the 
center of the Umbrian school of painting; 
p. 81,000. 

Perugino, properly Pietro Vanmicci 
(1446-1524), Italian painter, head of the 
Umbrian school, master of Raphael. He 
painted in Florence, Rome, Venice, and Cre¬ 
mona. At Rome, whither he went about 
1483, Sixtus iv. employed him in the Sistine 
Chapel; his fresco of Christ Giving the Keys 
to Peter is the best of those still visible. In 
1499 he painted the beautiful frescoes in the 
Sala del Cambio of Perugia, the city of his 
adoption. Perugino led a wandering life, but 
after 1^02 worked, mostly in Florence. 

Peruvian Baric, the dried bark of the stem 
and branches of various species of cinchona. 

Peruzzi, Baldassare (1481-1536), Ital¬ 
ian architect and painter, was born^ near 
Siena. In 1516 he designed the Villa Farne- 
sina, remarkable for its graceful design and 
the delicacy of its detail. In 1520 he suc¬ 
ceeded Raphael as architect to St. Peter’s, 
but his design for its completion was not 
carried out. At Siena, he executed a num¬ 
ber of frescoes and panel paintings, the prin¬ 
cipal being The Sibyl Announcing the Na¬ 
tivity to Augustus , in the church of the Ma¬ 
donna di Fontegiusta. He died at Rome, and 
was buried by the side of Raphael in the 
Pantheon. 

Pescadores, or Hokoto, group of about 
twelve islands off the w. coast of Formosa, 
China Sea. The group was ceded by China 
to Japan in 1895. Area, 70 sq. m. 

Peshawar, capital of Northwest Frontier 
Province, India, near the entrance of Khyber 
Pass. It is the terminus of a railway, and 
commands the caravan route between Af¬ 
ghanistan and India. Its bazaars form an im¬ 
portant market for Afghan and other mer¬ 
chants; p. 104,452. 

Peso, a gold or silver coin current in many 
of the South American states, varying in value. 

Pessimism is the doctrine that on the 
whole the world is bad rather than good. It 
may mean either (1) a mood or attitude to¬ 
ward life in which men despair of attaining, 
or regard life as incapable of yielding, any real 
happiness or satisfaction; or (2) a philosoph¬ 
ical theory in which such a view of life is jus¬ 
tified by psychological and metaphysical rea¬ 
soning. . t 

Pessimism, as a comprehensive philosophical 


theory, is modern and even recent, being con¬ 
nected with the names chiefly of Schopcnhauei 
and Hartmann. For these thinkers the mis¬ 
ery of life is only an outcome or expression of 
a profound irrationality in the very nature of 
the world principle itself. In Schopenhauer’s 
philosophy, for example, the world principle 
is conceived as a blind will, whose restless 
striving can bring only dissatisfaction and mis¬ 
ery to'"the beings that are its finite embodi¬ 
ments, so that the only hope for man lies in 
negating, as far as possible, this will in him¬ 
self. And this negation, he holds, is best 
achieved in that passionless or disinterested 
contemplation of beauty and truth which art 
and science open up to us, because in such 
contemplation we are freed for the time be¬ 
ing from the bondage of desire, and raised 
above the cravings and disappointments and 
miseries of our ordinary life into the rest and 
peace of an ideal world. 

Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich (1746- 
1827), Swiss educational theorist, was bom in 
Zurich. About 1775 he gathered together a 
number of destitute children, and put into 
practice his educational theories, which were 
based largely on Rousseau's return to nature. 
After a five years’ struggle, Pestalozzi with¬ 
drew from practical life, to think out the edu¬ 
cational problem. His Evening Hours of a 
Hermit wms the first unit of his meditations. 
Then came a social novel, Leonard and Ger- - 
Prude, which attracted much attention. Under 
the patronage of the Swiss government, he 
opened an experimental school at Berthoud. 
While there he published How Gertrude Edu¬ 
cates Her Children , which is the recognized 
exposition of the Pestalozzian method. In 
1805 Pestalozzi moved his school to Yverdon, 
which here drew upon him the eyes of all 
Europe. Pestalozzi awoke men to a sense of 
responsibility to childhood. The many foreign 
teachers who came to. him for training spread 
abroad his theories, which have become the 
commonplaces of the science of education. 

Pesth. See -Budapest, 

Pestilence, in the Italian medical schools 
of the Renaissance, meant any dangerous, con¬ 
tagious, infectious disease. Later, black death 
or bubonic plague, smallpox, and typhus were 
described under the term pestilence, pest, or 
plague. The name is not now used to signify 
any. specific disease. 

. Petain, Philippe. . (1856- . )■> French 

dictator, was born near Calais, and entered 
the military academy of Saint-Cyr in 1876. 
He was assigned to the famous Chasseurs a 
Pied; was made a captain in 1S90; passed 



Petal 


two years in the Ecole Sup&ieure de Guerre 
became a member of the general staff; and in 
“ a f e P^fesor of infantry tactics 
l h ' E “ 1 I ® Supeneure. At the outbreak of 
the Great War he was placed in command of 
an infantry brigade; on April so, 1915, was 
1 * tenoral of division in command of 
the Thirty-Third Army Corps; and on June 
21, 1915 was put m command of the Second 
Army. After his defence of Verdun he was 
promoted to the command of the Armies of 
the Center, from Soissons to Verdun ; in De- 
cember, 1916, was made a marshal of France 
and adviser to the War Council; and in April 
1917, succeeded General Nivelle as supreme 
head of the French Armies in France. His 
greatest fame is based upon his heroic defence 
of Verdun, February to June, 1916, from the 
repeated assaults of the German armies; and 
his stirring declaration ‘They shall not pass' 
will go down in history. He was elected to 
the French Academy in 1931 and in the same 
year visited the United States to represent 
trance m the celebration of the 150th anni¬ 
versary of the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at 
Yorktown, Va. He was Premier when France 
surrendered to Germany, 1940, and assumed 
dictatorial powers. He was Chief of State 
under Hitler;. in 1945 he was convicted bv 
the French of intelligence with the enemy and 
was given the sentence of national dishonor 
and death In view of his age it was recom- 
mended that the sentence should not be ear¬ 
ned out, and Gen. De Gaulle commuted it 
to perpetual imprisonment. 

Petal, one of the individual parts of the 
corolla of a flower. See Corolla. 


3689 


Peter I. 



Petard, in warfare, a now obsolete engine 
tor blowing open the gates or effecting a 
breach m the walls of a city or a fortress. It 
consisted of an iron receptacle in the shape of 
a half cone, filled with gunpowder. The plank 


to which it was fastened was attached by 
hooks to the wall or palisade to be destroyed. 

Peter, one of the twelve disciples of Jesus. 
His original name was Symeon, for which the 
Gieek name Simon was often used; the sur¬ 
name Peter (Petros) is the Greek translation 
ol the Aramaic Kepha (Graecized Cephas ), ‘a 
lock,’ and w r as given to him by Jesus. Simon 
was probably a native of Bethsaida, and with 
his brother Andrew was a fisherman on the 
Lake of Galilee. Peter began to take a leading 
place in the Christian community after Pente- 
ecst. According to ancient and well authenti¬ 
cated traditions, he was the organizer of the 
church in Antioch (Syria), and spent his last 
years in Rome, being martyred there about 64 
a.d. Tradition says that he was crucified head 
downward. Beside the Epistles (See Peter, 
First and Second Epistles of) , the Gospel of 
Mark is ultimately traceable to him; also a 
Gos'pel of Peter , a Preaching , an Apocalypse } 
and books of Acts bearing his name. 

Peter, First and Second Epistles of, 
two of the catholic epistles. The first epistle is 
addressed.to the dispersed (Christian) Jews 
in Asia Minor. It purports to have been writ¬ 
ten from Babylon, but many scholars under¬ 
stand this as a metaphorical name for Rome, 
in which case it would corroborate the tradi¬ 
tion that Peter spent his closing years in the 
latter city. The second epistle of Peter consists 
mainly of warnings against heretical teachers, 
and exhortations to growth in Christian 
knowledge and character. 

Peter I. (Peter the Great) (1672-1725), 
Tsai of Russia, was the son of Tsar Alexis and 
his second wife, Natalia Naryshkin. At the 
age of 17, Peter took the reins of government 
into his own hands (Sept. 17, 16S9). He be¬ 
gan his military career by entering into war 
with Turkey (1695) . In the meantime he had 
become strongly impressed with the advan¬ 
tages of Western civilization, and in 1697 he 
resolved to travel through part of Europe. He 
went to Zaandam in Holland, where he work¬ 
ed in the dockyard; then to England. In 1699 
Peter joined the Polish and Danish kings in 
an alliance against Sweden. By a series of vic¬ 
tories, he obtained, in 1721, the position of 
supremacy in the Baltic, formerly held by 
Sweden. Westernizing tendencies were seen in 
changes in dress and customs, the establish¬ 
ment of newspapers, encouragement of for¬ 
eign trade, and in the building of St. Peters¬ 
burg to supplant the old capital of Moscow. 
Peter was married in 1712 to Martha Skavron- 
skaya, a Livonian or Lithuanian peasant, who, 
upon her admission to the Greek church took 


Peter II 


3690 


Petersburg 


the name of Catherine. (See Catherine i.) 

Peter II., Alexeivitcfi (1715-30), Tsar of 
Russia, grandson of Peter the Great, succeeded 
Catherine 1. in 1727. 

Peter III. (1728-62), Tsar of Russia, was 
the son of Anne, eldest daughter of Peter the 
Great. He married, Aug. 21, 1745, Sophia Au¬ 
gusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, afterwards Catherine 
11.; was proclaimed emperor Jan. 5, 1762 ; de¬ 
posed by his consort July 10 the same year; 
and murdered at Ropsha, July 18. 

Peter L, Karageorgevitch (1846-1921) 
king of Serbia, and first king of the Serb- 
Croat-Slovene state (See Yugoslavs), was a 
grandson of the Serbian patriot George Czer¬ 
ny, surnamed Karageorge, or Black George, 
and a son of Alexander, who became Prince 
of Serbia in 1842 but was deposed in 1858. He 
was born in Belgrade, served in the French 
army, and on the assassination of Alexander 1. 
and his consort, Queen Draga (June 11,1903), 
became king of Serbia. Shortly after his ac¬ 
cession Peter restored the constitution of 1889, 
which had been abrogated in 1894. He took 
the field with the Serbian troops in the Great 
War and after the organization of the new 
Serb-Croat-Slovene state, became its king. He 
was succeeded on his death, in 1921, by his 
second son, Alexander. 

Peterborough, city, England, in North¬ 
amptonshire on the Nene. The town grew up 
around a Benedictine monastery founded in 
655, destroyed by the Danes 870, refounded 
1117. The magnificient west front of three 
arches, the distinguishing feature of the cathe¬ 
dral, was erected between 1200 and 1238, and 
the eastern chapel in the 15th century. Other 
notable structures are the quaint town hall, the 
Bishop’s palace, and the church of St. John 
the Baptist; p. 43,558. 

. Peter Martyr, name given to Pietro Mar- 
tire di Anghiera (c. 1457-1526), Italian his- 
orian. He was appointed tutor to the Spanish 
royal family, by Ferdinand and Isabella. His ' 
historical works include De Orbe Novo De¬ 
cades (1516), which treats of the first thirty 
years of American discovery. 

. Peter Martyr (1500-1562), Protestant re¬ 
former* native of Florence. Visiting England 
on Cranmer’s invitation, he'became in 1547 
professoral theology at Oxford, and took, part 
in the preparation of the Book of Common 
Prayer (1552), but was forced by the persecu¬ 
tion under Mary to leave England. 

Peters, Karl (1856-1918), German ex- , 
plorer, was born in Neuhaus, on the Elbe. In 
1884 he founded at Berlin the German Coloni- ; 
zation Society, in whose interests he traveled I i 


in East Africa, leading the expedition for the 
: relief of Emin Pasha (1888-90), whom he 
• reached after the latter’s meeting with Stan¬ 
ley. He formed a company in London for ex- 
> pioring the gold fields of Rhodesia and visited 
: Africa in 1889-1901 and in 1905. 

Peters, Madison Clinton (1859-1918), 

■ American Baptist clergyman, was for 11 years 
pastor of the Bloomingdale Reformed Church 
in New York City. After serving in Brooklyn 
and Baltimore, he preached in the Park Thea¬ 
tre in Philadelphia. He was called to New 
York City in 1905, as pastor of the Church of 
the Epiphany, where he remained until 1907. 
His books are: Justice to the Jew (1S99) J The 
Wit and Wisdom of the Talmud (1900) ; The 
Jew as a Patriot (1901) ; The Jews in America 
(1905) J Abraham Lincoln’s Religion (1909); 
All for America (1917). 

Peters, Richard (1744-1828), American 
jurist, was bom in Philadelphia. In 1775 he 
commanded a company of provincial troops, 
and in 1776-81 was secretary of the Conti¬ 
nental board of war. In 1782-3 he was a mem¬ 
ber of the Continental Congress. In 1791 he 
was speaker of the State Senate. In 1792 he 
became judge of the U. S. District Court for 
Pennsylvania. 

Peters, Samuel (1735-1826), American 
clergyman, graduated from Yale, and in 1762 
took charge of the Anglican churches in Hart¬ 
ford and Hebron. Fie lived in sumptuous style 
and was such an ardent Tory that he was 
twice visited by a mob and ultimately went 
to England. He returned to the United States 
in 1805. He is chiefly remembered for having, 
in a very untrustworthy General History of 
Connecticut (17S1), started the story of the 
1 famous ‘Blue Laws’ of Connecticut.. 

Petersburg, city, Illinois, county seat of 
Menard co,, on the Sangamon River. Nearby 
is the old Chautauqua Institute, across the 
river from the site of New Salem, the place 
where Abraham Lincoln, as a young man, kept 
store and was postmaster. In his honor there ' 
has been erected here a building known as the 
Lincoln Memorial; jp. 2,586,; 

Petersburg, leading manufacturing city, 
Virginia, situated in, but independent of, Din¬ 
widdle co., on the. Appomattox River. The 
harbor is accessible to coastwise steamers. The 
educational institutions include Southern Col- . 
lege,'Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute 
ior colored'students, and St. Joseph’s Acad- 
emy. The chief items of export are peanuts, 
tobacco, and cotton. In the Revolution it was 
for a time the headquarters of Cornwallis, and 
it was bombarded by Lafayette. Heavy fight- 



Peterson 


3691 


Petrarch 


ing took place here in the Civil War; p. 30,631. 

Peterson, Frederick (1859-1938), Amer¬ 
ican neurologist, was bom in Faribault, Minn. 
He was graduated in medicine from the Uni¬ 
versity of Buffalo in 1887. In 1888-9 he was 
professor, University of Vermont; in 1890- 
95 at the Woman’s Medical College of the 
New York Infirmary; and in 1892-1902 pres¬ 
ident of the board of managers of Craig Col¬ 
ony for Epileptics. In 1887 Dr. Peterson 
became instructor in Neurology in Columbia 
University, in 1901 was made clinical lecturer 
on psychiatry; and from 1903 to 1916 was 
clinical professor of psychiatry there. He 
was president of the New York State Com¬ 
mission in Lunacy (1901-06). Was joint 
author, with Dr. Church, of Nervous and 
Mental Diseases (1899; 9th eel. 1919). He 
wrote American Text-Book of Legal Medi-\ 
cine and Toxicology (1903; and ed. 1923); 
.4 Song of the Latter Day (1904) ; Chinese 
L vrics (1916). 

Peterson, Sir William (1856-1921), Ca¬ 
nadian educator, was born in Edinburgh, 
Scotland. From 1879 to 1882 he was Assis¬ 
tant Professor of Humanity in the University 
of Edinburgh, and in 1882 was appointed 
Principal of University College, Dundee, 
which position he resigned in 1895 on being 
invited to become Principal of McGill Uni¬ 
versity, Montreal. 

Peter’s Pence, a papal tax, which seems 
to have originated in Saxon England. Each 
family possessed of property worth thirty 
pence a year was to contribute one silver 
penny toward the support of the papal court. 
The practice was discontinued by Henry viii. 
Voluntary contributions of the nature of 
Peter’s pence have been revived by modern 
Roman Catholics. 

Peter the Hermit (c. 1050-1115), monk 
and preacher of the first crusade, was born in 
Amiens. He is said by tradition to have been 
inspired by a vision in the Church of the 
Holy Sepulchre to undertake the mission of 
exhortation on which he traveled through 
Europe, urging upon all the rescue of Jeru¬ 
salem from the Saracens. A great and dis¬ 
orderly company, whom he led toward the 
Holy Land, was destroyed in a battle at 
Nicaea (1096), after which Peter attached 
himself to the army of Godfrey of Bouillon. 
After his return from the crusade he found¬ 
ed an Augustinian monastery at Huy, near 
Liege. 

■... Petigru, James . Louis" (1789-1863), Am¬ 
erican jurist, was bom in Abbeville District, 

S. CIn 1819 he settled in Charleston. In 1822 


he became attorney-general of the State. He 
opposed the movement which took the State 
out of the Union and brought on the Civil 
War. His last important work was the codi¬ 
fication of the State laws. 

Petiole, the stalk of a leaf. When developed 
in a leaf-like manner, so as practically to take 
the place of the leaf, it is called a phyllodium. 
Sometimes petioles are changed into tendrils. 

Pefcion, Alexandre Sabes (1770-1818), 
Haitian president, was born in Port - au - 
Prince. He fought with the French against 
Toussaint POuverture, but in 1802 went over 
to the patriot party. In 1807 he was chosen 
president of the s. and w. of the island of 
Santo Domingo, and successfully defended 
his dominions against President Cristophe. In 
1815 he was again chosen president, this time 
for life. He assisted Bolivar in his expedition 
1 to free Venezuela from Spain. 

Petition, a request, or a remonstrance in 
the form of a request, formally presented to 
an authority. The right of petition is re¬ 
garded as a fundamental part of every con¬ 
stitutional government. In the United States 
the right of petitioning the government is 
guaranteed to the citizens by the Constitu¬ 
tion. 

• Petition of Right, in English history an 
act in the form of a petition from both 
Houses of Parliament, which received the 
assent of King Charles 1. (1628). 

Petofi, Sandor (Alexander) (1822-49), 
the greatest of Hungarian poets. He was two 
years in the army, made several attempts as 
an actor, and eventually received a hearing 
from Vorosmarty, then the leading poet of 
Hungary, under whose patronage he soon be¬ 
came known as a writer of lyrics of un¬ 
rivalled beauty. He identified himself with 
the Hungarian revolutionists, and by his 
patriotic verse aroused great enthusiasm for 
the cause. He fell at the Battle of Schassburg. 
Petofi’s work marked an epoch in Hungar¬ 
ian literature, as the assertion of the more 
simple and romantic type of poetry against 
the old stereotyped and classical form. An 
English translation of his best verse was 
made by Sir John Bowring (1866). 

Petra, ancient town, Arabia Petraea, capi¬ 
tal first of the Idumaeans and afterward of 
the Nabataeans. It stood in a narrow gorge 
midway between the Dead Sea and the 
northeastern extremity of the Red Sea; its 
importance was due to its position on this 
important trade route. 

Petrardb, or Pefrarca, Francesco (1304- 
74) , Italian poet and humanist, was born in 



Petrel 


3692 


Petrifaction 


Arezzo. The family eventually settled at 
Avignon and in 1326 Petrarch entered the 
priesthood. In 1327 he first saw Laura (prob¬ 
ably the wife of Hugo de Sacle), who was 
destined to inspire all his love poetry. His 
friendship with the great Roman family of 
the Colonna dates from this period. In 1333-7 
he travelled in France, Belgium, and Ger¬ 
many, collecting mss. of the classics. In 1340 
he accepted the poet’s laurel wreath from the 
Roman Senate, being crowned at Easter, 
1341. On April 6, 134S, his Laura died; and 
though he went once again to Vaucluse (near 
Avignon), he left his beloved spot for good 
in 1353. 

Petrarch may be considered as the earliest 
of the great humanists of the Renaissance. It 
is upon Ms Latin works that he based his 
hope of immortality. These works may be 
divided into poems, moral and religious prose 
works, historical prose works, minor writ¬ 
ings, and letters. The twelve eclogues which 
compose the Carmen Bucolicum (1347-56) 
narrate, in pastoral guise, events of the poet’s 
life and times. Among works testifying to 
Petrarch’s mysticism and religious feeling the 
finest is perhaps the Secretmn or De Con - 
temptu Mundi ( c . 1342), consisting of three 
dialogues between the author and St. August¬ 
ine. The De Vita Solitaria (1346-56) cele¬ 
brates the hermits of all ages. The Psalmi 
Pcenitentiales were written to solace the 
poet’s grief. The Letters (1326-74) are in¬ 
valuable as a record of the author and his 
age, and are conspicuous for their literary 
merit. The rare and beautiful Canzoniere 
consist of 317 sonnets with canzoni, sestine, 
ballads, and madrigals, nearly all love poems, 
inspired by Laura. Consult English mono¬ 
graphs on the poet by Reeve, Ward, Mills 
(1904), Hollway-Calthrop (1907), and Maud 
and Jerrold (1909). 



Petrel (Procellaria ), a genus of sea birds 
of the family which includes the albatrosses, 
shearwaters, fulmars, and petrels proper, and 
is allied to the gulls. The true petrels, of 


which there are a number of widely distri¬ 
buted species, are long-winged birds of pow¬ 
erful flight. The best-known species is the 
Stormy Petrel (P. pelagica) or Mother 
Carey’s Chicken, which is scarcely larger than 
a lark, and is the smallest web-footed bird 
known. The bird is essentially oceanic, and 
rarely comes on shore save at the breeding 
season, when it lays a single egg in a burrow, 
a rock crevice, or even on the bare ground. 
Because of its frequent appearance before or 
during stormy weather, and possibly also be¬ 
cause of its blackness, it is regarded by sailors 
as a bird of evil omen. 

Petri, Laurentius (.1499-1573)} Swedish 
reformer, studied under Luther at Witten¬ 
berg; was made first Protestant archbishop 
of Upsala. Along with his brother Olaus he 
succeeded in converting Sweden to the Re¬ 
formed doctrines, and with him superintend¬ 
ed the translation of the Bible into Swedish 

(1541). 

Petri, Olaus (1493-1552), Swedish re¬ 
former, brother of Laurentius. He studied 
under Luther and Melanchthon at Witten¬ 
berg. By Gustavus 1. he was recalled to act 
as town clerk of Stockholm, to preach the 
doctrines of the Reformation, and in 1531 to 
become chancellor of the kingdom. Petri was 
the first to introduce the Reformation into 
Sweden. In 1526 he translated the New Tes¬ 
tament into Swedish, and in 1541, 'with his 
brother Laurentius, the Old Testament. He 
also compiled the first Swedish hymn book. 

Petrie, William Matthew Flinders 
(1853-1942), English Egyptologist, was born 
in Charlton, Kent. I11 1880 he turned from 
British archaeology to Egyptian, research. From 
1SS4 to 18S6 he carried out excavations prov¬ 
ing the presence of Greek settlements at 
Naucratis and Daphnae, and in 1892 was ap¬ 
pointed professor of Egyptology in Univer¬ 
sity College, London. His principal discover¬ 
ies have been inscriptions of the Israelite 
War at Thebes, Hyksos camp, the city of 
Onias, the palace of Memphis, Tarkhan, and 
the Treasure of Lahun. His numerous works 
include: Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh 
(1SS3) ; History of Egypt (new eel., 1903- 
25); Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties 
(1901) ; Revolutions of Civilization (1911) ; 
The Formation of the Alphabet (1912); Pre¬ 
historic Egypt (1917); Social Life in Egypt 
(1923) ; Religious Life in Egypt (1924) ; 
Tombs of the Courtiers (1925); Buttons and 
Scarabs (1926); Seventy Years in Archaeol¬ 
ogy (1931). 

Petrifaction. Fossils are said to be petri* 



Petrograd 


3693 


Petrol 


fied when their minute structure is perfectly 
retained in some mineral substance. Fossil 
wood may be so impregnated with mineral 
substances that when sliced and examined 
under the microscope all the woody cells and 
vessels are clearly seen. See Fossils; Fossil 
Forests. 

Petrograd, formerly St. Petersburg, 
changed in 1924 to Leningrad in honor of 
Lenine, the Soviet leader, city, Russia, in the 
government of the same name, capital of the 
former Russian Empire, and one of the larg¬ 
est and most important cities of Europe. It 
is situated at the head of the Gulf of Finland, 
at the mouth of the River Neva, in 59 0 57' 
n. lat. and 30° 20' e. long.; 400 miles north¬ 
west of Moscow. It has railway connection 
with the head of the Volga and Moscow, 
with Poland and Western Europe, the Baltic 
provinces, and Finland. The main avenue of 
communication with the rest of the kingdom, 
however, is the Neva, which is connected by 
canals with the Upper Volga, and has thus 
become the mouth of the immense basin of 
Russia’s chief river and its many tributaries. 
The Neva enters the city from the southeast, 
near the Alexander Nevski Monastery, flows 
n. for a short distance, then turns sharply to 
the w., and divides into three main branches. 
Five bridges cross the main stream, or Great 
Neva, of which the most important are the 
Alexander, Nicholas, and Troitzki (Trinity); 
and a series of semi-circular drainage canals 
empty into it on the eastern bank. 

The climate is raw, damp, and exceedingly 
changeable. There is a short summer, with 
the hottest weather in July, and a long, 
damp winter, with an average temperature of 
15° p. during January, the coldest month. 

The main section of the city lies e. of the 
Neva, and has for its center the Old Ad¬ 
miralty, situated on the river bank. Three 
streets radiate from this in easterly, south¬ 
easterly, and southerly directions: the famous 
Nevski Prospect, the city’s chief thorough¬ 
fare, and one of the finest streets in the 
world; the Gorokhovaya Ulitsa; and the 
Voznesenskii Prospect. Between the river and 
the Moika Canal lies the Admiralty Quar¬ 
ter. A spacious square planted with trees en¬ 
closes on three sides the massive structure of 
the Admiralty Building, founded by Peter 
the Great in 1705, and rebuilt in stone in 
1806-23. To the e. of it rise the magnificent 
mass of the Imperial Winter Palace, an im¬ 
mense quadrilateral of red stucco; the Her¬ 
mitage, the semicircular buildings formerly 
housing the General Staff and containing the 


military achives of Russia and the official 
quarters of the ministries of war, finance 
and foreign affairs; and the Alexander col¬ 
umn, a shaft of red granite nearly a hundred 
ft. high. To the w. of the Admiralty Building 
is Peter Square, with Falconet’s famous 
equestrian statue of Peter the Great, erected 
by Catherine ix. (1729-96). To the s. is the 
great Cathedral of St. Isaac (1819-58), the 
most sumptuous of all orthodox and Slavic 
churches. 

The island of Petrograd has the old fortress 
of St. Peter and St. Paul, facing the Winter 
Palace, and containing the Mint and the 
Cathedral of St. Peter and St. Paul, in which 
the emperors of Russia are buried. The great 
number and variety of its educational, sci¬ 
entific, literary, artistic, and technical institu- 
tions made Petrograd the intellectual center 
of the Empire. Before the collapse incident 
to the Revolution, Petrograd was the second 
industrial city in Russia. The great manufac¬ 
turing establishments, situated chiefly on the 
outskirts, included metal works, iron foun¬ 
dries, sugar refineries, distilleries, breweries, 
ship and boat building yards, printing plants, 
and manufactories. Vessels up to twenty- 
right ft. draught can dock, unload, and re¬ 
ceive cargo at the mouth of the Neva. The 
chief exports are agricultural and dairy prod¬ 
ucts and timber. The population of Petro¬ 
grad increased from 220,000 in 1800 to i,~ 
870,000 in 1908. In 1941 the population was 
3,191,000. 

The territory at the mouth of the Neva 
was settled by the Swedes in 1300. The found¬ 
ations of the fortress of St. Peter and St. 
Paul, the nucleus of St. Petersburg, were laid 
in 1703, and in 1712 the city was formally 
created the imperial capital. After destructive 
fires in 1736 and 1738, St. Petersburg was 
reconstructed with the Winter Palace as its 
center, and under Catherine n. (1729-96) be¬ 
came one of the leading capitals of Europe. 
The marshes were drained by Alexander 1. 
(1801-25), and railroads were constructed to 
join the capital with other parts of the Em¬ 
pire by Nicholas 1. ; (1825-55), The city was 
the center of the Russian political crisis in 
1905 (see Russia, History). Since then civic 
improvement has been rapid. Shortly after' 
the outbreak of the Great War of Europe, 
in 1914, the name of St. Petersburg, because 
of its German origin, was changed to Petro¬ 
grad. In. March 1924 it became Leningrad, 
in honor of Nikolai Lenine. 

Petrography. See Petrology, ;: b 

Petrol, the name applied in Great Britain 



Petrolatum 


3694 


Petroleum 


to one of the distillates of petroleum; prac¬ 
tically the same as gasoline. See Petroleum. 

Petrolatum, or Petroleum Jelly, an am¬ 
ber-colored, translucent, jelly-like substance, 
which is obtained by distilling off the more 
volatile portions of petroleum, and purify¬ 
ing the residue by filtration. It is largely 
used as a lubricant, as a protection for pol¬ 
ished iron and metals, and in pharmacy as 
an unguent and a base for ointments. It is 
sometimes known as Vaseline, though this 
term is a trade-mark. 


Among the first historic records of petro¬ 
leum is that of its use on the walls of Baby¬ 
lon and Nineveh about 2,000 b.c., and for 
ages seepages of crude oil have been drawn 
on and used by the people of Egypt, Meso¬ 
potamia, India, and China. For many cen¬ 
turies hand-dug wells and pits were used for 
the collection of petroleum, while the modem 
method of cable tool drilling, now commonly 
used in oil fields, is believed to have originated 
with the Chinese centuries ago. But the mod¬ 
ern industry really began when the Drake 



Nevski Prospect, Leningrad. 


Petroleum, a liquid consisting of many 
hydrocarbons dissolved in each other, whose 
aggregate composition varies greatly. It is 
probably produced in part by the slow de¬ 
composition of both animal and vegetable 
matter, deeply buried in sedimentary rocks; 
and in part by the fermentation and decay 
of organic matter at the earth’s surface, the 
resulting oil being deposited contemporan¬ 
eously with the rocks in which it is preserved. 
Petroleum is present,'in at least minute- quan¬ 
tities, in nearly all of the unaltered sedi¬ 
mentary rocks from Lower Silurian to Recent 
in age. The commercially important deposits 
occur as concentrations in porous reservoir 
rocks, such as sandstone or limestone, sealed 
by overlying less pervious strata. 


well was drilled near Titusville, Pa., in Aug¬ 
ust, 1859. Besides the United States, Ron- 
mania, Canada, Russia, and Galicia became 
important, producers at an early date, and 
the later important additions to the list in¬ 
clude Mexico, Persia and Venezuela. The in¬ 
dustry is now practically world wide. 

Approximately two-thirds of the world’s 
current supply of oil is obtained from the 
United States. Russia ranks next in impor¬ 
tance and Venezuela third. In the United 
States, Texas leads in output, followed by 
Oklahoma and California. 

Two general methods of drilling are in 
common use in the United States, the stand¬ 
ard or cable-tool method and the rotary 
method. Rotary tools have the advantage 




Petroleum 


3695 


Petroleum 


over cable tools in speed, in reduced casing 
costs, in drilling soft cavey formations, and \ 
in confining the contents of each stratum j 
within that formation. The greatest objec- 1 
tion to the rotary system is the impossibility c 
of recognizing with certainty the various t 
formations penetrated and their contents, i 
This can be remedied by coring at the points 1 
in question, but is expensive. The cable tool i 
system is more suitable for drilling new ter- < 
ritory where oil, gas and water horizons are i 
unknown and for drilling hard rock which < 
rotary tools will not penetrate. < 

The pressure of the accompanying natural i 
gas often forces oil from wells in their early 
life, such wells being knowm as gushers or < 
flowing wells. Later, as the gas pressure is ‘ 
reduced, oil from the wells of the United : 
States and some other countries is lifted by 
specially designed reciprocating plunger 
pumps. A central power plant may pump as . 
many as thirty or forty wells, or a single 
plant may be provided at each well. In some i 
districts oil is bailed from the hole with the 
ordinary bailer; it is also swabbed from the 
hole. A swab both lifts oil and reduces the 
pressure in the well and thus induces flowing. 
The air-lift or gas-lift method of pumping 
has been known for many years but did not 
come into general use until 1926. Another 
factor in production methods is the main¬ 
tenance of the pressure in the producing 
strata by returning to them the gas that is 
recovered from the well. 

Crude petroleum varies in color from very 
light yellow to black, frequently with a 
green fluorescence when viewed by reflected 
fight. The viscosity varies over a wide range, 
some oils being little more viscous than kero¬ 
sene, while others are practically solid at or¬ 
dinary temperatures. The petroleums of the 
United States are frequently classified as 
paraffin base, naphthene (or asphaltic) base, 
and intermediate base crudes. The paraffin 
base crudes are those containing relatively 
high percentages of aliphatic hydrocarbons. 
Naphthene base crudes contain relatively 
high percentages of cyclic hydrocarbons. In¬ 
termediate base crudes, as the name indi¬ 
cates, are intermediate in properties, between j 
the two former classes. The Pennsylvania 
petroleums are typical paraffin base crudes; 
California and Gulf petroleums are typical 
naphthene base crudes. Russian petroleum 
contains considerable proportions of naph¬ 
thenes, whereas petroleum from the East In¬ 
dies frequently contains notable percentages 
of aromatic hydrocarbons. 


In the process of conversion into useful 
products, crude petroleum is usually sub¬ 
jected to fractional distillation, each fraction 
being further purified by distillation and fre¬ 
quently by chemical treatment. The first frac¬ 
tion recovered is known technically as ‘crude 
naphtha* or ‘crude benzine,’ which must not 
be confused with benzene, or benzol derived 
from coal tar. This fraction is usually re¬ 
distilled in a steam still and the final prod¬ 
uct is used as gasoline in internal combustion 
engines. The same crude naphtha fraction 
can also be refined to produce naphtha, which 
is used as a solvent in the arts. 

The second fraction recovered from the 
crude oil is known as ‘kerosene distillate’ or 
‘burning oil’ distillate. This is steam stilled to 
remove naphtha and purified by successive 
treatments with sulphuric acid and caustic 
soda solution. Several different grades of 
kerosene are marketed, the highest quality is 
water-white in color. Other grades of kero¬ 
sene are used for fuel in stoves and to some 
extent as a solvent and for export. The frac¬ 
tion of crude oil distilling at a temperature 
just above kerosene is known as ‘gas oil’ and 
is used for enriching water-gas. In recent 
years it has also served as a base material for 
the manufacture of gasoline by the so-called 
‘cracking’ processes. A third use is as fuel for 
Diesel and semi-Diesel engines and in oil- 
burners for domestic or commercial heating. 

The fourth fraction derived from the crude 
oil is known as ‘wax distillate’ or ‘lubricating 
oil distillate.’ It contains most of the paraffin 
wax originally carried by the crude. Paraffin 
wax is used for water-proofing paper and 
wooden containers for various products, also 
for manufacturing candles, coating matches, 
etc. The oil drained from the wax in the 
filter presses and sweating pans is refined by 
distillation, chemical treatment, and yields a 
large number of lubricating oils, varying 
from the light-colored, non-viscous oil used 
for lubricating typewriters and clocks to the 
viscous oils used in internal combustion en¬ 
gines and for lubricating heavy machinery. 

Oil is usually transported to the refinery 
. and, in some cases, to the seaboard by pipe 
line; it is then loaded into tank steamers, 
which carry it to refineries at distant ports. 

; Refined products are carried principally by 
l tank cars while trans-oceanic shipments are 
l made in tank steamers built for the purpose. 
. The oil pipe line has become a fundamental 
. part of the oil industry and is by far the 
5 most satisfactory method of transporting 
petroleum on land. The net-work of pipe 



Petrology ________ 

lines in the United States has become so com¬ 
plete that it is possible to pump oil produced 
in the central part of Texas to the refineries 
at the Atlantic seaboard, a distance of over 
2,500 miles. 

Since oil is a prime requisite of belligerents, 
during World War II attention was focused 
on location and production of the world’s oil 
fields. In the U. S., in 1942, the_petroleum 
industry was organized for war effort in co¬ 
operation with the petroleum co-ordinator, 
Harold L. Ickes. 

Petrology, Petrography, or Lithology, 
the science of rocks, a branch of geology 
which has many relations with the cognate 
science of mineralogy. It is concerned princi¬ 
pally with the composition, structure, inter¬ 
pretation, and classification of rock. Much 
can be learned about rocks by simple naked- 
eye inspection, or with the aid of a pocket 
lens. For the examination of the finer grained 
rocks, and of the mineral properties which 
characterize the minute crystals and frag¬ 
ments of which most rocks are composed, re¬ 
course must be had to more refined methods 
of investigation. The rock may be chemically 
analyzed, and a knowledge of its bulk com¬ 
position never fails to indicate in which cate¬ 
gory it is to be placed, provided that its 
principal mineral components and its macro¬ 
scopic characters are already known. But an 
even more potent auxiliary is the microscope. 
The great rock groups, as employed in most 
works on petrology, are sedimentary rocks, 
igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks. 

Sedimentary rocks consist of broken, 
rounded fragments (e.g., the conglomerates), 
or of small, worn sand grains ( e.g sand¬ 
stones, grits, arkoses), or of the finest muddy 
and clayey silts (clay, shale, marls). As a 
group they have certain well-defined char¬ 
acters. They are mostly divided up into thin 
sheets or beds, which have parallel upper and 
under surfaces; they consist of broken dibris 
■ of pre-existing rocks, which, having accumu¬ 
lated in seas, lakes and upon land, have been 
subsequently subjected to pressure and pressed 
into solid form. 

Igneous rocks form another well defined 
group, produced as a result of volcanic and 
eruptive forces. Omitting the sedimentary 
and clastic ash beds, they are crystalline, and 
have at one time been in a state of fusion, 
from which they have cooled more or less 
slowly. Their structure and the minerals of 
which they are composed depend mainly on 
two factors— viz., the chemical composition 
of the magma or molten mass from which 


IS___ 'Petty 

they proceeded, and the physical conditions 
under which they solidified. 

Metamorphic rocks, of which the best 
known are the schists and gneisses, very gen- • 
erally have a banded or foliated appearance 
and a crystalline structure. See Rocks. Spec¬ 
ial works on the subject are Rutley’s Study 
of Rocks; Harker’s Petrology for Students 
(190S) ; Iddings* Igneous Rocks (1909). 

Petronel, an ancient and clumsy form of 
pistol. 

Petronius, Gains (d. c. 66 A.D.), surnamed 
Arbiter, from his supposed identity with the 
Petronius whom Tacitus calls ‘arbiter ele- 
gantise 5 at the court of Nero, is generally be¬ 
lieved to be the author of the satirical ro¬ 
mance or collection of satires of which the 
15th and 16th books have come down to us, 
though in a fragmentary state. The Satyricon 
of Petronius, of which the Cena Trimalch- 
ionis is the chief piece, gives a vivid picture 
of the first century on its seamiest side, and 
in style touches the high-water mark of 
silver-age Latinity. 

Petropavlovsk, town, in Autonomous Ka¬ 
zak Socialist Soviet Republic, 175 m. w. of 
Omsk; p.31,000. 

Petropolis, town and summer residence, 
state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; 28 miles n. 
of Rio de Janeiro. It is beautifully situated 
in the valley of the Organ Mountains, at an 
elevation of 2,300 ft. It was originally a col¬ 
ony of Germans (1845), and superseded 
Nichtheroy as capital of the state of Rio de 
Janeiro from 1893 to 1903. Beer, cheese, 
cigars, and cotton goods are manufactured; 
p. 30,000. 

Petrovsk, town of Soviet Russia; 60 m. 
northwest of Saratov city. It has tanneries, 
distilleries, breweries, oil and brick works; 
p. 19,000. 

Petrozavodsk, the capital of the Karelian 
Republic of Soviet Russia; 1 90 miles north¬ 
east of St. Petersburg, on the western shore 
of Lake Onega. It manufactures iron and 
copper ware; p. 27,000. 

Pettenkofer, Max von (1818-1901), Ger¬ 
man chemist, was born near Neubcrg, Ba¬ 
varia. He made many valuable contributions 
to science on subjects as various as gold re¬ 
fining, gas making, ventilation, clothing, the 
influence of soils on health, epidemics, and 
hygiene generally. In particular, his re¬ 
searches laid the foundation of the science 
of experimental hygiene. He founded 
(1883) and edited the Archiv fiir Hygiene. 
He also made notable researches on cholera. 
Petty Officers, Naval, are comparable itt 



Petunia 


3697 


Phallus 


rank with non-commissioned officers of the 
army. They include all grades below those 
of warrant officer, and above those of sea¬ 
man, fireman, etc. In the United States 
Navy, petty officers are of four grades— 
chief petty officers, and petty officers of the 
first, second, and third class. 

Petunia, a genus of herbaceous plants be¬ 
longing to the order Solanaceae, mostly 
South American. They bear showy flowers 
with funnel-shaped corollas of every imag¬ 
inable shade and are easily cultivated in 
sunny, warm places. 

Pewee. A name in the United States for 
several small flycatchers of the family Ty- 
mnnidas, all of which are prevailingly olive- 
green in color. There are six or eight species, 
of which the most familiar are the bridge, 
wood, and least pewees. 

Pews, permanent church seats, alluded to 
in a canon of Exeter (12S1) and in Piers 
Plowman. Originally a pew was a box en¬ 
closure entered through a door and re¬ 
served for a specific family, but the term 
now signifies a church seat with a back. 

Pewter, an alloy, of 80 per cent, tin with 
20 per cent. lead. It is a soft metal, some¬ 
what darker and duller than tin in appear¬ 
ance. Pewter was formerly much employed 
for making plates and drinking cups, and 
has recently been used again largely for the 
manufacture of ornamental and decorative 
articles. 

Peyote Worship, a religious practice 
among the Indians in Mexico and the south¬ 
western part of the United States in which 
several species of plants are eaten to pro¬ 
duce a state of excitement. The name seems 
to be of Aztec origin. 

Pforzheim, tn., grand-duchy of Baden, 
Germany, 22 miles by rail e.s.e. of Ettlin- 
gen, on n. slopes of Black Forest. It manu¬ 
factures gold and silver ornaments, chemi¬ 
cals, paper, and machinery; p. 79,000. 

Phaeacians, a people mentioned in Homer’s 
Odyssey as inhabiting an island, Scheria. 
They were a luxurious race, and skilled 
sailors;. their king was Alcinous. Odysseus 
was wrecked on their coast, and hospitably 
received by. the king. 

: Phaedon, or Phaedo, Greek philosopher, 
a native of Elis, after whom Plato’s dia¬ 
logue describing Socrates’s last hours is 
called. He founded a school of philosophy 
at Elis, but his writings are lost. 

Phaedra, in ancient Greek mythology, a 
daughter of Minos by Pasiphae, and the 
wife of Theseus, Theseus had a son, Hip- 


poiytus, by a former marriage, with whom 
Phaedra fell in love; but Phmdra, seeing her 
love was hopeless, killed herself. This is 
Euripides’s version of the story, finely drama¬ 
tized in Euripides’s Hippolytus, which Ra¬ 
cine has copied in his Phedre. 

Phaedms. An Athenian and friend of 
Plato, who called one of his dialogues after 
him, and also introduced him as a char¬ 
acter in the Symposium (see Plato’s Phce - 
dr us). He wrote ninety-seven fables in 
Latin iambic verse. The best fables are 
those which are closest to ^Esop, whom 
Phsedrus professes to follow. 

Phaethon, an ancient Greek name for the 
sun-god, but more often employed of a son 
of the sun-god, Helius. When a youth he 
started to drive the chariot of the sun, but 
Zeus killed Phaethon with a thunderbolt to 
check his career, and he fell into the river 
Eridanus (the Po). 

Phaeton, an open four-wheeled pleasure 
carriage drawn by one or two horses; named 
after Phaethon, the sun-god. 

Phagocytes, or Eating-cells, a name 
given by Metschnikoff to the leucocytes, or 
white blood-corpuscles. See Blood. 

Phalanx, the name applied to the ordinary 
formation adopted by Greek heavy-armed in¬ 
fantry. The Macedonian phalanx was an im¬ 
provement on the Greek formation, in that 
the men stood in a rather more open order, 
sixteen deep, armed with spears twenty-one 
ft. long. Philip and Alexander employed the 
phalanx of infantry to engage the enemy’s 
attention, while they decided their battles by 
their cavalry. 

Phalaris, a genus of grasses, bearing their 
inflorescences in spikelike panicles. The an¬ 
nual canary grass, P. canariensis, is also some¬ 
times cultivated. Its seed is sold as food for 
singing-birds. 

Phalaris, tyrant of the Greek town Acragas 
(Agrigentum), in Sicily; reigned about 560 
b.c. for some ten or fifteen years. He is said 
to have roasted men alive in a brazen bull. 

Phalarope (Phalaropus) , a genus of limi- 
coline birds belonging to the family Phalaro- 
podidas. The three species may be recognized 
by the fact that the three anterior toes are 
furnished with lobelike expansions recalling 
those of the coot. 

; Phallus and Phallic Worship, one of the 
several phases of the worship of the repro¬ 
ductive powers of nature—a worship com¬ 
mon to most early or primitive races. As a 
natural consequence, the symbols of sex, more 
or less crudely represented, figure prominent- 



Pharaoh 


3698 


Pheasant 


ly in the rites and ceremonies. Phallic wor¬ 
ship is not yet extinct in Japan, and in India, 
under the name of Linga Puja, this worship 
is still practised by the followers of Siva and 
Vishnu. 

Pharaoh, title of the kings of Egypt, first 
used under the fourth, dynasty, and common 
at a considerably later time. Its actual mean¬ 
ing is ‘great house.’ See Egypt. 

Pharisees, a religious party in Judaism, 
whose general aim was to separate the Jews 
from all neighboring nations. ^Historically 
they represent the reaction against the world¬ 
ly aspirations of the Hasmonaean dynasty, 
and first became prominent under John Hyr- 
canus (135-105 e.c.). The special means by 
which they strove to effect their object was 
insistence on the eternal validity of the law 
and of its traditional interpretation. They 
became a separate party within the nation, 
insolent with the sense of superior piety as be¬ 
ing the only men who kept the law. Yet they 
preserved the Jewish religion at a critical 
time. 

Pharmacopoeia, an official catalogue of 
drugs and medical remedies, giving their 
doses, their characteristics, and the tests for 
determining their purity. The first pharma¬ 
copoeia was probably that of Nuremberg, 
published by Valerius Cordus in 1542. The 
first volume of this sort published in the U. 
S. appeared in Philadelphia in 1778, and was 
compiled for the army. The New York Coun¬ 
ty and the New York Medical Societies in¬ 
itiated the method of holding a convention of 
delegates from medical societies and colleges, 
the first being convened at Washington, in 
1820. A similar convention is held once in ten 
years. 

Pharmacy, the art of preparing drugs for 
use. The pharmaceutical chemist must study 
the preparation and compounding of drugs. 
Within his province also comes the dispensing 
of medicines according to physicians’ pre¬ 
scriptions. 

Pharnaces, a son of Mithridates, king of 
Pontus. In 47 he attempted to regain his 
father’s kingdom of Pontus, but in the same 
year was. defeated by Julius Csesar in the 
battle of Zela, which occasioned the famous 
dispatch, Vent, vidi, vicL 
" Pharos, a small island off the n. coast of 
Egypt, which Alexander, when he founded 
Alexandria, caused to he joined to the coast 
by a mole nearly a mile long. On this island 
Ptolemy n. built a lofty tower, through the 
upper windows of which the light of torches 
or fires was shown to guide vessels into har¬ 


bor; this was the first lighthouse erected. 

Pharsalus, tn., Thessaly, ancient Greece, 
w. of riv. Enipeus. In its neighborhood Caesar 
defeated Pompey in 48 e.c., and thus became 
master of the Roman empire. The battle is 
commonly called the battle of Pharsalia, the 
name of the territory of Pharsalus. 

Pharynx, the funnel-shaped pouch lying 
above the gullet or oesophagus, is of similar 
anatomical structure to the gullet, but has 
seven openings into it. These are the two 
posterior nostrils, the two Eustachian tubes, 
the large opening into the mouth, the laryn¬ 
geal slit, and inferiorly the opening into the 
(esophagus, which is continuous with it be¬ 
low. 



The Pharynx opened Posteriorly, 
a, (Esophagus; n, posterior 
portion of nostrils; c, Eusta¬ 
chian tube; n, opening to mouth 
(base of tongue); k, superior 
opening of larynx; f, uvula; g, 
tonsil; h,. epiglottis; 1, thyroid 
cartilage; j, posterior surface of 
larynx. 

Phascologale, a genus of Australian and 
New Guinean marsupials, whose members are 
arboreal and insectivorous, and never exceed 
the..size of a rat. 

Phases, the varying effects of illumination 
shown by the moon and some of the planets 
consequent upon their changes of position 
relative to the sun and earth. Galileo’s dis¬ 
covery of the phases of Venus in 1610 virtu¬ 
ally demonstrated the heliocentric theory. 

Ph.D., Doctor of Philosophy. 

, Pheasant. The original pheasant of west¬ 
ern Europe, familiar in accounts of shooting 
on English and Irish estates, was Phasianus 



Phelan 


3699 


colchicus. At the close of the iSth century, a 
Chinese species, the ring-necked pheasant (P. 
torquatus) , was introduced, and has inter¬ 
bred very freely with the original species, so 
that purebred pheasants are now rare. Apart 
from the beautiful plumage, especially of the 
male, pheasants are characterized by the long 
and wedge-shaped tail, the spurred legs, and 
the absence of feathers on the sides of the 
head. Of other genera special mention may 


be made of Chrysolophus, to which belongs 
the beautiful golden pheasant (C. pictus) , a 
native of wooded mountain regions in China 
and Tibet; and Amherst’s pheasant (C. ant¬ 
her stice) , of almost similar distribution. 

Phelan, James Duval (1861-1930), Amer¬ 
ican public official, was born in San Francis¬ 
co. He was graduated from St. Ignatius Col¬ 
lege; studied law in the University of Calif¬ 
ornia ; was commissioner and vice president 
of the World’s Columbian Exposition at Chi¬ 
cago in 1893; and was mayor of his native 
town during 1896-1902. At the time of the 
great San Francisco earthquake, in 1906, he 
was chairman of the citizens’ committee in 
charge of the relief work. He was United 
States Senator, 19x5-21. 

Phelan, Richard (1825-1904), American 
Roman Catholic prelate, was born near Bal- 
Iyraggatt, County Kilkenny, Ireland. From 
1858 to 1868 he was priest at Freeport, Pa., 
and then became priest of St. Peter’s at Al¬ 
legheny, where he built a church costing 
$150,000. In 1881 he was appointed adminis¬ 
trator of the dioceses of Pittsburgh and Alle¬ 
gheny, and afterward vicar-general. In 1885 
he was consecrated coadjutor-bishop of Pitts¬ 
burgh, becoming bishop in 1889. 

Phelps, John Wolcott (18x3-85), Amer¬ 
ican soldier, was born in Guildford, Vt. He 
served in the second Seminole War, .and ,in 
the Mexican War. He resigned from the army 


Phi 

in 1859 and devoted much of his time to ad¬ 
vancing the cause of Abolition, but when the 
War of the Rebellion came he re-entered the 
army as a brigadier general of volunteers, 
He was declared an outlaw by the Rebel gov¬ 
ernment for having ‘organized and armed 
negro slaves for military service against their 
masters.’ In 1880 he was the candidate of the 
American Party for President. 

Phelps, William Lyon (1865-1943), Am¬ 
erican educator, author and critic, was born 
in New Haven, Conn. After 1901 he was pro¬ 
fessor of English literature at Yale, and was 
notably successful as a teacher and lecturer. 
His published works include The Beginnings 
of the English Romantic Movement (1893); 
As I Like It (1923) ; Adventures and Confes¬ 
sions (1926); Happiness (1926); Essays on 
Things (1930). 

Phenacetin, trade name for acetphenetidi- 
nutn (U.S.P.) CeHAOCsHslNHCHsCQ, the 
acetamino-derivative of phenetole. It is em¬ 
ployed in medicine as an antipyretic and for 
the relief of pain, being the least likely of 
this type of drug to have a poisonous effect. 

Phenol. See Carbolic Acid. 

Phenolphthalein belongs to the class of 
triphenylmethane dyes, formed when'phthalic 
acid is heated with phenol in the presence of 
a dehydrating agent. It is largely used as an 
indicator in acidimetry, in the form of an 
alcoholic solution. For a number of years it 
has been used extensively as a laxative, which 
is sold under the trade name phenolax. The 
latter is also sold incorporated in chewing 
gum. 

Phenomenalism, the philosophical doc¬ 
trine derived from Kant, that we can know 
only phenomena. But in more popular usage 
it means simply an assertion of the limitation 
of human knowledge to the objects of natural 
science, and is thus interchanged with such 
terms as naturalism, agnosticism, and posi¬ 
tivism. 

Phenomenon signifies strictly that which 
appears, as distinguished from, or opposed to, 
that which really exists, and was a term long 
used in philosophy to denote the world of 
sense as contrasted with the higher or more 
real world known by reason. Phenomenon is 
now freely used to mean simply any fact of 
observation. 

Phi Beta Kappa, the oldest of the Amer¬ 
ican Greek letter societies, founded at Wil¬ 
liam and Mary College in 1776 as a social 
and literary society. Chapters were estab¬ 
lished at Yale in 1780, at Harvard in 1781, at 
Dartmouth in 1787, and there are now 114 



, <1 




\ ' 

\Viw 




ptom 


■J 

■ V 

JOL ■' 


ejj) 

■ 



Phases of the Moon. 






Phidias __ 3700 ^ _ __PliiladeipMa 

chapters. Membership in the fraternity is hill. Alone; the ri\ers, in and just below the 
given to honor men of the class and is some- cily, are situated a number of the largest oil 
times conferred in after years upon scholars refineries, and large shipments of oil for the 
of distinction. Women were not admitted un- foreign trade, as well as of grain, are made by- 
til 1875, and Vassar College was the first way of the Schuylkill and Delaware. Phila- 
woman’s college to institute a chapter (iSqS). dclphia has a somewhat warmer climate than 
The symbol of the fraternity is a gold panel the rest of the Slate. During the summer 
with the initials $BK representing #uWor/Aa months the heat is sometimes excessive, but 
Bi'ou Kv^epprjr^s, Philosophy the Guide of I he winters arc general!)’' mild. 


Life. 

Phidias (c. 490-432 b.c.) , the most famous 
sculptor of ancient Greece was born in At¬ 
tica. From 444 to 438 he was engaged in the 
superintendence of the building of the Par¬ 
thenon at Athens., and the production of the 
statue of Athena for that temple. By the gen¬ 
eral consent of antiquity Phidias was the 
greatest of Greek sculptors. His chief char¬ 
acteristics were largeness, dignity, magnifi¬ 
cence, and a fine spirit of repose. His princi¬ 
pal works were what are called chryselephan¬ 
tine statues—that is, there was an inner core 
of wood or stone, which was covered with 
plates of polished ivory for the parts repre¬ 
senting flesh, while gold was used for the 
drapery. Only the remains of the external 
sculpures of the Parthenon, especially the 
frieze (of which the Elgin marbles are a 
oart), survive to give us an idea of Phidias’ 
skill; and it is not certain that these are actu¬ 
ally his own work. 

Phigalia, town, in Southwestern Arcadia, 
ancient Greece, celebrated for its temple of 
Apollo (at Bassae), probably built about 430 
b.c., after the design of Ictinus, the architect 
of the Parthenon. The temple is of fine gray 
limestone and white marble, and next to the 
Theseion at Athens, is the most perfect archi¬ 
tectural ruin in all Greece. The sculptures of 
the frieze—the famous Phigalian marbles— 
were discovered in 1S11, were bought by the 
British government for £15,000, and. placed, 
in the British Museum in 1814. 

Philadelphia, the metropolis of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, third city of the United States in pop¬ 
ulation, is situated in the southeastern corner 
of the State, .at the confluence of the Dela¬ 
ware and Schuylkill Rivers, about 120 miles 
from the sea; p. 1,931,334. It occupies a cen¬ 
tral position on the North Atlantic seaboard, 
90 miles by rail from New York, 96 from 
Baltimore, and 132 from Washington, and 
this, with its proximity to the coal and iron 
deposits of the State and its unexcelled rail 
and water communications, has given it great 
commercial and industrial importance. Phila¬ 
delphia has a water frontage of 34 miles, 20 
aiiles on the Delaware and 14 on the Schuyl- 


The city does not occupy a level plain, al¬ 
though the levelling processes of municipal 
engineering have done much to eliminate the 
original topography. The streets in the old 
city proper rise with a steep grade from the 
river to Front Street, and recall the bluff 
which the founders of the city noted when 
selecting the site. The center of the city prop¬ 
er, that is, several blocks n. and s. of Market 
Street and w. of the Delaware, is largely given 
over to the wholesale and shipping trade of 
the community. West of this is (he fashion¬ 
able retail shopping section, centering on 
Walnut, Chestnut, Market, and Arch Streets 
and the connecting numbered thoroughfares. 

The ideal of William Penn to make of his 
newly founded settlement k a greene countrie 
town,’ has never been wholly departed from 
Trees are in the streets, and the small parks 
movement has in Philadelphia a strenuous 
advocate. Penn’s five* open ‘squares,’ Inde¬ 
pendence, Franklin, Logan, Washington, and 
Rittenhouse, at the corners and the center 
have been multiplied in all directions, until 
today there are upwards of r.40 parks and 
playgrounds, besides the city’s chief pride, 
Fairmount Park. Fairmount Park has long 
been the approved site for various public 
memorials and monuments, chief among 
which is the Washington Monument. Other 
memorials in the park perpetuate the memory 
ol: Grant, Meade, Lincoln, and other prom¬ 
inent men. There are also preserved on the 
site of the Centennial Exhibition of '1876 two 
buildings used in that national celebration. 
Memorial Hall shelters the collection of the 
Pennsylvania Museum and School of Indus¬ 
trial Art, and the Wilstach collection, which 
contains notable examples of modern and 
Renaissance paintings. Horticultural Hall 
contains a fine display of exotic plants. Other 
places of interest in the park are the aquar¬ 
ium, zoological gardens, William Penn cot¬ 
tage and Grant cottage. 

The $25,000,000 City Hall, a white marble 
structure in the modern French Renaissance 
style, with a 548 ft. tower, is the landmark 
for the center of the city. On the n. is the 
Masonic Temple, a notable example of pure 




Philadelphia 


3701 


Philadelphia' 


Norman architecture. The original building 
of Girard College is one of the finest speci¬ 
mens of pure Greek architecture in the coun¬ 
try. Independence Hall, at Sixth and Chest¬ 
nut Streets, is a stately and dignified relic of 
Revolutionary days. In it the Declaration of 
Independence and the Constitution were 
signed, and it houses the Liberty Bell. This 
and Carpenters’ Hall, where the first Con¬ 
tinental Congress held its sessions; Christ 
Church, built in 1727; the Betsy Ross house, 
in which the first American flag was made; 
Franklin’s tomb at Fifth and Arch Streets, 
and the many beautiful Colonial residences 
which are still preserved in Germantown, are 
among the city’s most cherished historic 
treasures. Modern structures are the new 
Custom House; the Post Office and Pennsyl¬ 
vania Railroad Depot, both in West Phila¬ 
delphia ; and the U. S. Mint, at Seventeenth 
and Spring Garden Streets, a handsome 
building of granite erected in 1901 at a cost 
of $2,500,000. Notable buildings are the Pack¬ 
ard, Fidelity, Girard Trust, Widener, Wana- 
maker Store, Bellevue-Stratford Hotel, Cur- ! 
tis—the home of the Saturday Evening Post, 
Ladies’ Home Journal and Country Gentle¬ 
man Philadelphia Saving Fund Society and 
the Inquirer buildings. In West Philadelphia 
is the imposing group of buildings of the 
University of Pennsylvania, including a li¬ 
brary, dormitories, and lecture halls. 

The oldest church in the city is the Old 
Swedes, a Protestant Episcopal church at the 
corner of Front and Christian Streets. The 
edifice now standing was begun May 28, 
1698, and dedicated July 2, 1700. Other his¬ 
toric churches are Christ Church, the present 
building occupying the site of one erected in 
1695, in which Presidents Washington and 
Adams worshipped, and Benjamin Franklin 
had a pew. Many characteristics of the 
Quaker founders of Philadelphia still survive 
in the city. One of them is the simplicity and 
uniformity of the street plans. Another is the 
uniformity in the style of dwellings. For 
many years block after block was built in 
one design—red brick with white marble 
trimmings. The more elaborate dwellings are 
found in the suburbs and along the main line 
of the Pennsylvania Railroad and in German¬ 
town, Chestnut Hill, York Road and in the 
Whitemarsh district. 

The principal clubs are the Racquet, Union 
League, Philadelphia, Rittenhouse, Univer¬ 
sity, Manufacturers’, Mercantile, Columbia, 
Penn (literary), the Lawyers’, Poor Richard, 
Acorn, and the Art Club. Philadelphia is well 


supplied with places of amusement, and the 
Walnut, the oldest theatre in the country, is 
still in service. Music lovers have for their 
especial needs the Academy of Music, a large 
auditorium which is the home of grand opera, 
and is employed for the weekly symphony 
concerts of the Philadelphia Orchestra and 
for occasions which call for accommodations 
for some 3,000 auditors. 

Philadelphia is the seat of the University 
of Pennsylvania, Temple University, and of 
Girard College, founded by the will of Ste¬ 
phen Girard, for the support and education 
of poor white male orphans between the ages 
of six and ten years. The fine and applied 
arts are represented by the schools of the 
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, the 
oldest art institution in the country, found¬ 
ed in 1805; the School of Design for Women ; 
the Pennsylvania Museum School of Indus- 
trial Art (1876) ; the Drexel Institute of Art 
and Industry, endowed by the late Anthony 
J. Drexel in 1892; and the Williamson School 
of the Mechanical Trades. The city also 
boasts an excellent art museum; the Rodin 
museum; and the Curtis Institute of Music. 
Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate 
Learning was founded and generously en¬ 
dowed by Moses A. Dropsie in 1907. Bryn 
Mawr for women, Swarthmore, Haverford 
and Villanova Colleges are also within a few 
miles of Philadelphia. 

Closely allied with the city’s educational 
institutions are the Franklin Institute 
(1824); the Academy of Natural Sciences 
(1812), the oldest of its kind in the country ; 
the American Philosophical Society (1743), 
the oldest learned society in the United States, 
founded by Franklin; the Zoological Society 
(1859); and the Pennsylvania Historical So¬ 
ciety (1824). The library company of Phila¬ 
delphia was founded by Franklin in 1731. 
The Free Library was founded in 1891 and 
has more than 1,000,000 volumes, housed in 
a building of Greek architecture on the Park¬ 
way. Philadelphia is celebrated for the ex¬ 
cellence of its medical schools. These include 
the medical department of the University of 
Pennsylvania, the Jefferson Medical College 
(1826), Woman’s Medical College (1850), 
Hahnemann College, Medico-Chirurgical Col¬ 
lege, and allied hospitals. The Henry Phipps 
Institute for the Study of Tuberculosis was 
founded in 1903. 

Philadelphia has two morning and two 
afternoon daily newspapers. These are the 
Inquirer and Record, in the morning 
field and the Evening Bulletin and Eve- 



Philadelphia . 

Upper, Board of Education, Administration Building; Middle, Art Museum; Lower, 

New' Post Office,' .■ '■ 



















3703 


Philadelphia 


Philadelphia 


ning Public Ledger , in the afternoon. 

Philadelphia has long been and continues 
to be famous as a manufacturing city. It 
ranks high for the amount of capital in¬ 
vested in its industries, for its number of 
skilled factory workers and for the value of 
its manufactured output. Sugar refining, the 
manufactures of textiles, steel works, and lo¬ 
comotive and car building are the leading in¬ 
dustries. The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 
Disston Saw Works, J. B. Stetson Hat Plant, 
and Brill’s Car Works rank first in their re¬ 
spective lines in the world. 

Three great railroads have direct entrance 
to Philadelphia: the Pennsylvania, the Phila- 


Safety; Public Works; Public Health; Pub¬ 
lic Welfare; Wharves, Docks, and Ferries; 
City Transit; Supplies; City Architect; City 
Solicitor; City Treasurer; City Controller; 
Law Department; Civil Service Commission; 
Register of Wills; Recorder of Deeds; Cor¬ 
oner; Sheriff; and Receiver of Taxes. The 
mayor appoints the heads of these depart¬ 
ments with the exception of the Civil Serv¬ 
ice Commissioner, who is chosen by the 
Council, and the Receiver of Taxes, City 
Treasurer, and City Controller, who are elect¬ 
ed by popular vote. The charter pro¬ 
vides also for a budget to be prepared by 
the mayor and submitted to the Council, 



The Great Temple of Isis, Phi-Ice. 


delphia and Reading, and the Baltimore and 
Ohio. The Delaware River is deep enough for 
the largest ocean vessels, and the Schuylkill 
River admits vessels of 22 ft. draught. Ac¬ 
cording to data assembled by the U. S. Bu¬ 
reau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 
Philadelphia ranks third among American 
seaports, being preceded by only New York 
and Baltimore; and eleventh as a world port. 
The municipal airport is in Southwest Phila¬ 
delphia. In 1939 a new municipal airport at 
Hog Island was completed. 

In 1919 the city charter of Philadelphia 
was revised and many important changes 
were made. The government is vested in a 
mayor who is elected for four years and may 
not succeed himself, and a City Council, con¬ 
sisting of a single chamber of 22 members 
who are elected for four years and may hold 
no other public office. 

The executive departments are: Public 


which must then pass an ordinance setting 
forth the financial program for the year, and 
fixing a tax rate which, with other receipts, 
will meet the required expenditures. A pro¬ 
vision empowering the city to repair and 
clean its own streets, and to dispose of ashes 
and of garbage, replaces the costly practice 
of having that work done by contract re¬ 
stricted to a single year. 

Although the first colonists on the site of 
the present city of Philadelphia were a party 
of Swedes who came over in 1636, the perm¬ 
anent settlement dates from 1681, when Wil¬ 
liam Penn was made, by royal charter, full 
proprietor of the province named after him 
—Pennsylvania. Penn immediately dispatched 
William Markham, as governor, with a small 
number of Quaker colonists, to take posses¬ 
sion. Naming the new settlement Philadel¬ 
phia, ‘the city of brotherly love,’ Penn lost 
no time in making friends with the Indians 





Philadelphia 


3704 


m a manner consistent with his doctrines and 
his peaceful spirit. The treaty which he con¬ 
cluded with the Indians in 1683, under the 
great elm-tree at Kensington, spared Phila¬ 
delphia the horrors of aboriginal warfare and 
allowed peaceful opportunities for progress, 
while the established legal principle of toler¬ 
ation for all religious sects stimulated immi¬ 
gration to the new settlement. A number of 
Germans, at Penn’s invitation, landed in 1683 
and settled on the site of what is now Ger¬ 
mantown, long since an integral part of Phil¬ 
adelphia. Philadelphia took rank as a city in 
1701, when Penn chartered it, and until 1799 
remained the capital of Pennsylvania. 

Venn’s spirit of justice and toleration was 
emulated by Benjamin Franklin, who, after 
its founder, wielded the greatest influence 
over the city’s life and activity. Franklin’s 
Pennsylvania Gazette , issued in 1729, his 
Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser, 
started in 1742, and his Poor Richard’s Al¬ 
manack and Plain Truth were powerful 
moulders of public opinion. Philadelphia was 
a strong factor against British impositions, 
and when the Revolution began it was the 
seat of many important events. The first 
Continental Congress met in Carpenters’ Hall, 
September 5, 1774. The second Congress as¬ 
sembled in the State House on May 10, 1775. 
There, on June 15, Washington was appoint¬ 
ed commander-in-chief of the army. On July 
4, 1776, Congress adopted the Declaration of 
Independence in the State House to the peal- 
ing of the old Liberty Bell. From September 
2 7 ? 1 777 ? to June iS, 1778, the British held 
Philadelphia while the Continental army was 
encamped in the recesses of Valley Forge, to 
which it had retired after the battle of Ger¬ 
mantown on October 4, 1777. Philadelphia at 
this time was reputed to be the finest city in 
America. The Constitution of the United 
States was adopted there on September 17, 
1787, and from 1790 to 1800 the city was the 
seat of the Federal Government. The first 
Abolition Convention met here, Jan, 1, 1794. 

In the last few decades of the nineteenth 
century some of Philadelphia’s notable his¬ 
toric events. were celebrated: by the Centen¬ 
nial Exposition in 1876 in commemoration of 
the declaration of American independence; 
the bi - centennial in 1882 to commemorate 
the landing of William Penn; and the centen¬ 
nial of the signing of the Constitution in 1S87. 

In 1908 the 250th anniversary of the found¬ 
ing of the city was celebrated. The Sesqui- 
centennial Exposition was held in Philadel¬ 
phia from May 31 to November 30, 1926. 


Philemon 

Philadelphia, a genus of hardy shrubs 
belonging to the order Saxifragacese. P. co- 
ronarius , the common mock orange or ‘Sy- 
ringa,’ bears racemes of strongly - scented 
white flowers in May. 

Pliilae, a small island in the River Nile, 5 
miles by rail s. of Assuan. It is about 500 
yards in length and ,160 yards in breadth and 
is noted for its many temples, built mostly 
by the Ptolemies and the Roman emperors. 
The oldest building on the island is the vesti¬ 
bule of the temple of Nektanebos, built by 
him about 350 b.c. and dedicated to his 
‘mother Isis.’ The most important building is 
the temple of Isis which probably occupies 
the site of an earlier shrine. West of the 
Temple of Isis are a gate built by the Em¬ 
peror Hadrian and the Temple of Haren- 
dotes, while to the e. is the Temple of Ha- 
thor. Nearby is the beautiful many-columned 
pavilion known as ‘Pharaoh’s bed.’ Except 
from August to December, when the water 
is allowed to flow freely through the gates 
of the dam, Philse is partially submerged. 

Philanthropy, a love of mankind as 
evinced in deeds of practical benefit for the 
good of one’s fellows. While similar in mean¬ 
ing to charity, philanthropy differs from it in 
this respect, that where charity may and 
often does help men individually, philan¬ 
thropy helps them as members of society, in 
numbers. 

Philately, a name suggested by Herpin of 
Paris (1865) to express the stamp-collecting 
craze which sprang up some years (1885) 
after the appearance (1840) of the ‘Id. black’ 
and ‘Mulready envelope’ of Sir Rowland Hill 
in Great Britain. The London Philatelic 
(founded 1869), La Societe Frangaise de 
Timbrologie. (1874), and the American Phi¬ 
latelic Association are the chief societies. See 
Postage Stamps. 

Philemon, Greek poet, earliest exponent .of 
the Attic new comedy, began to write about 
330 b.c., and continued to do so until '262. 
He wrote nearly one hundred plays, frag¬ 
ments of which show much wit, liveliness; 
and knowledge; of'the world. He was a great-: 
er favorite at Athens in his day than Menan¬ 
der. 

Philemon,' Epistle to, the shortest of 

Paul s letters, written during his Roman im¬ 
prisonment. The letter deals with a purely 
private matter, the restoration of Onesimus, 
a slave in Philemon’s house. 

Philemon and Baucis, in Greek mythol¬ 
ogy, a devoted couple from whom Zeus and 
Hermes received hospitality. On being told 



Philharmonic 


3705 


by Zeus that any particular wish they de¬ 
sired would be granted, they begged to be 
allowed to serve in the temple and end their 
days together. This was granted and at death 
they were transformed into trees standing 
side by side. 

Philharmonic Societies, now established 
in many cities of Europe and America, are 
institutions which have for their chief aim 
the encouragement and cultivation of instru¬ 
mental music. Among the more important of 
these societies in the United States, may be 
mentioned the New York Philharmonic Sym¬ 
phony Orchestra, the Boston Symphony Or¬ 
chestra, and the Philadelphia Orchestra. 

Philidor, Francois Andre Danican 
(1726-95), French musical composer and 
chess-player, was born in Dreux. His fame 
rests on his skill at chess, at which game he 
was without a rival. 

Philip, the apostle, one of the twelve, be¬ 
longed to Bethsaida in Galilee. 

Philip, the evangelist, was one of the seven 
so-called ‘deacons’ chosen to be stewards of 
the poor fund in the church at Jerusalem; 
but the few known facts of his life are con¬ 
nected with apostolic or missionary work. 

Philip I. (1052-1108), king of France, be¬ 
gan to reign in 1060. Before his death Philip 
had annexed Vexin and Valois, and had pur¬ 
chased Bourges; he had also given Verman- 
dois to his brother Hugh. 

Philip II. (1165-1223), better known as 
Philip Augustus, king of France, came to the 
throne in 1180. He steadily pursued a policy 
of consolidation, checking the great nobles, 
and adding fresh territory to his kingdom. 
Taking advantage of John’s weakness and 
unpopularity, he conquered Normandy in 
1204, and Anjou, Touraine, and Poitou short¬ 
ly afterward. The victory of Simon de Mont- 
fort over the Albigensians and their allies at 
Muret in 1213 ensured the final victory of 
the French monarchy in Languedoc. Philip 
strengthened and thoroughly reorganized the 
central and local administrative arrange¬ 
ments, and established a council of able of¬ 
ficials to aid him in the government. His sup¬ 
port and improvement of the towns was a 
marked feature of his reign. Paris made im¬ 
mense progress, and many charters were 
granted to other cities. On his death France 
was one of the great states of Europe, and 
the royal power was firmly established. 

Philip IV., called *Le Ret* (1268^1314), 
king of France, began to reign in 1285. Like 
Philip Augustus he was resourceful and un¬ 
scrupulous. For some years he was engaged in 


Philip 


a quarrel with Boniface vxn. After an 
truce, the quarrel burst out again in 1306,; 
Boniface issuing the bull Unam Sanctam, in 
which he reasserted his authority. Philip, sup¬ 
ported by the States-general, in 1302 resisted 
the Pope, who was imprisoned for a few days 
at Anagni in S. Italy. On the election of 
Benedict xi. the cardinals divided into two 
factions, French and Italian; and in 1305 the 
former triumphed in the accession of Cle¬ 
ment v., who in 1309 fixed his residence at 
Avignon, where the popes remained for some 
seventy years. Clement supported Philip in 
his suppression of the Knights Templars 
(1307-12). Philip strengthened the royal au¬ 
thority, checked feudalism, supported the 
middle classes, and first summoned the States- 
general. He also increased the power and 
duties of the Parlement of Paris, and effected 
important changes with regard to the king’s 
council. 

Philip VI. (1293-1350), king of France, 
became king in 1328, and was founder of the 
Valois dynasty. Shortly after his accession he 
avenged the defeat of Courtrai by a victory 
over the Flemings at Cassel. Being resolved 
to expel the English from the s. of France, he 
in 1336 invaded Gascony, supported David 
Bruce against Edward hi., and persuaded the 
Count of Flanders to arrest all English mer¬ 
chants in Flanders. The struggle over the 
Breton succession gave Edward a fresh occa¬ 
sion for interference, and in 1346 the French 
we v e defeated at Crecy (August 26). 

Philip II. (1527-98), king of Spain. Hav¬ 
ing successfully stamped out Protestantism in 
Spain, he endeavored to carry out the same 
policy in the Netherlands. A revolt ensued, 
which resulted in the independence, under 
William of Orange, of the seven United 
Provinces. Though Philip defeated the Turks 
at Lepanto in 1571, and annexed Portugal in 
1580, he failed to conquer England; and the 
defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 marked 
the beginning of the decline of Spain. 

Philip III. (1578-1621), king of Spain, the 
the son of Philip 11., was a pious and unam¬ 
bitious man. Under him Spain continued her 
downward course, partly in consequence of 
the expulsion of the Moors from Spain in 
1609, partly through the close alliance with 
the Austrian Hapsburgs, owing to which 
Spain became involved in the Thirty Years* 
War. ' 

Philip, King (?-i676), Indian chief whose 
real name was Metacomet, the younger son 
of Massasoit, sachem of the Pokanokets, a 
tribe living in what is now southeastern 



Philip 


3706 


Rhode Island. He is famous in history as the 
chief figure in the most destructive Indian 
war in which the English colonists were en 
gaged in the seventeenth century. It nearly 
destroyed the colonies in New England, but 
when it was over the Indian power was ut 
terly broken. Philip himself, who succeeded 
his brother as sachem in 1662, had been long 
known and friendly to the English, like his 
father. But he seems to have seen clearly that 
the settlement of the country must result in 
the destruction of his own people, and as 
time went on he fell under the suspicion of 
the English. The actual outbreak of what is 
known as King Philip’s War was probably 
accidental (1674), arising from the murder 
of Sausamon, a converted Indian, and the 
consequent English executions and Indian re¬ 
prisals. Philip and his people were at once 
driven from their ancestral properties, and 
he himself fled to the Indians of the interior. 
The Nipmucks, a powerful tribe of central 
Massachusetts, now began a series of devas¬ 
tating attacks upon the frontier settlements, 
in which twelve of the English towns were 
entirely destroyed and more than half were 
made the scene of burning and massacre The 
greatest disaster was on Sept. 18, 1675, when 
Ca.pt. Lathrop’s company, the ‘flower of Es¬ 
sex,’ was almost entirely destroyed at Bloody 
Brook, near Deerfield, which had been 
burned a fortnight before. ‘New England had 
never seen so black a day,’ writes Cotton 
Mather in the Magnalia. The superior power 
of the English, however, gradually overcame 
resistance. The Narragansetts, who were 
planning to join the war, were put down by a 
strong expedition under Col. Winslow in the 
winter of 1675. The Indians were attacked in 
their stronghold in the frozen swamps of 
Kingston, R. I., and their power entirely 
broken. The Nipmucks also were several times 
beaten, and Philip fled to his old abode at 
Mount Hope, R. 1, where he was hunted 
down and killed (Aug. 12, 1676) by a party 
under Capt. Benj. Church. See Fiske’s The 
Beginnings of New England (1889). 

Philip, The Bold (1342-1404), Duke of 
Burgundy, married the only daughter and 
.heiress of Louis, Count of Flanders, and on 
. the. latter’s' death, in 1383,. secured Flanders, 
Artois, Rethel, Nevers, and the county of 
Burgundy, or Franche-Cdmte. He thus laid 
the foundations of the greatness of his house 
in the following century. In 1392, when 
Charles vi. became insane, Philip assumed 
control of affairs in France, The rivalry be¬ 
tween Burgundy and the Duke of Orleans 


Philippine 


brother of the king, now became of Impor¬ 
tance, and the factions of the Burgundians 
and Orleanists were .formed. Orleans favored 
an attack on England on behalf of the de¬ 
posed Richard it.; Burgundy leaned to an 
alliance with Henry iv. 

Philip, The Good (1396-1467), .'Duke of 
Burgundy from 1419 to 1467, was born at 
Dijon, a son of John the Fearless and a 
grandson of Philip the Bold. Under Philip, 
Burgundy was the most wealthy, prosperous, 
and tranquil state in Europe; its ruler was 
the most feared and admired sovereign of his 
time, and his court far surpassed in bril¬ 
liancy those of his contemporaries. 

Philippi, city, n.e. Macedonia, taken by 
Philip of Macedon from Thrace, and en¬ 
larged and renamed in his honor. It was the 
first place in Europe at which St. Paul 
preached (53 a.d.), and one of his epistles is 
addressed to the church there. 

Phihppians, Epistle to, one of the shorter 
epistles of the apostle Paul, written during 
his imprisonment at Rome (or, as some think, 
at Caesarea) , and addressed to the church at 
Philippi, which he had founded on his second 
missionary journey. 

Philippics, originally the three orations of 
Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon. The 
name was afterwards applied to Cicero’s 
fourteen orations against the ambitious and 
dangerous designs of Mark Anthony. It is 
now commonly employed to designate any 
severe and violent invective, whether oral or 
written.. 

Philippine Islands. The Philippine Is- 
lands are a part of the great East Indian 
Archipelago, lying in the Pacific Ocean s. of 
Japan and n. of Borneo and Celebes, between 
the parallels of 4 0 40" and 2 j n ig' n. lat. and 
between the meridians of 116 0 40' and 126° 
34' E. long. Counting everything above high 
water, the total number of islands and islets 
is 7,083, of which, however, only 2,441' arc 
named, and 466 have areas exceeding one sq. 
mile each. There are 3r islands of one hun¬ 
dred sq. miles or more. The total land area 
of the archipelago is about 114,400 sq. miles. 

The general character of the islands is 
mountainous, although in the larger islands, 
especially in Luzon and Mindanao, there are 
bxoad plains and valleys of considerable ex¬ 
tent The highest mountain in the archipela¬ 
go is Mount Apo (or Davao), in the south¬ 
eastern Mindanao, 9,610 ft. There are few 
rivers navigable for large craft. Cagayan river 
will^ float launches as far as Tuguegarao, the 
capital of Cagayan prov., while bancas can 



Philippine 


3707 


Philippine 


go up the river one hundred and sixty miles, 
and rafts.forty miles farther. This is by far 
th : most important stream in the archipelago 
in. this regard, as all the tobacco raised In 
this, the chief tobacco region, is taken out 
down the river. In Mindanao, the Rio Grande 
cle Mindanao and the Agusan, the largest 
rivers of the island, each more than 200 miles 
long, are navigated by small steamers for 
considerable distances. The coasts are very 
intricate and dangerous by reason of the 
coral reefs which border them and, except 
hr such parts as have been charted by the 
Coast Survey since American occupation, 
they are very badly charted. Good harbors 
that are safe in all winds and easy of access 
are few. The bay of Manila, thirty miles 
wide, is too open to afford safe anchorage. 
An artificial harbor with piers has been con¬ 
structed, however, making Manila one of the 


the southwest monsoon these conditions are 
changed, this being the wet season for most 
of the archipelago. The amount of annual 
rainfall ranges in different places from 25 to 
100 inches, the heaviest being upon the east¬ 
ern coast of Luzon and Mindanao. The aver¬ 
age rainfall at Manila, determined by many 
years of observation, is 50 inches (approxi¬ 
mately that of the Gulf coast in the U. S.) 
seven-tenths of which falls in the monsoon 
season. Although the heat is tempered by 
proximity to the sea, the temperature is high 
at all times of the year. At Manila, which in 
this matter well represents the archipelago, 
the mean annual temperature is So 0 f. The 
mean of the coolest month, January, is 77% 
and of the warmest month, May, it is 84°. 
The average daily range in temperature is 
but 12°. 

The archipelago is of volcanic origin, lying 



Philippine Islands: Natives preparing the rice fields. 


few ports in the Orient where vessels can tie 
up to piers to load and unload. 

The climate of the islands is the result of 
several conditions — their insular position; 
their location within the tropics, and within 
the area subject to the monsoon influences of 
Asia; and their topography. For eight months 
of the year, from October to June, the pre¬ 
vailing wind is the northeast trade, and for 
the remaining four months the southwest 
monsoon. During this monsoon period the is¬ 
lands, especially those toward the n., are sub¬ 
ject to frequent typhoons, or baguios, as they 
are locally called. They often cause great 
.damage to shipping and to the native towns. 

The .eastern coast of the islands is moun¬ 
tainous, and therefore receives most of the 
rain brought by the northeast trades. For 
two-thirds of the year this is a stormy re¬ 
gion, while the remainder of the archipelago 
enjoys fine weather. During the prevalence of 


within the Pacific volcanic belt. In the archi¬ 
pelago there are some dozen active volcanoes 
and numerous extinct cones. In many locali¬ 
ties there are evidences, in the form of lakes 
and interrupted drainage, of recent changes 
of level. Earthquakes are fairly frequent in 
all parts of the archipelago. The flora is 
tropical and luxuriant, and in general re¬ 
sembles that of other East Indian Islands. 
Certain features of the Australian flora are 
traceable in the s., and in the n. are plants 
related to the flora of southern China. One 
noticeable peculiarity is the vast number and 
variety of fiber plants, in which this archi¬ 
pelago excels all other parts of the earth. 

It is plain that both fauna and flora have 
been isolated for a long period, in which time 
the species have developed away from the 
parent form. Largely on account of these 
peculiarities, these islands form an interesting 
locality for study for both botanist and 






Philippin e 33 

naturalist. The only large mammalia are the 

carabao and timarao. Strange to say, certain 
species of birds are peculiar to certain islands. 
Saurians and monkeys are abundant, as are 
also insects, in variety, though not in num¬ 
ber. The waters teem with fish of a great 
variety of species. 

The forests are of great extent, and include 
a variety of woods, many of which are valu¬ 
able. Woods suitable for the finest cabinet 
work, for veneering, and for artistic work 
are abundant. There are also gutta percha, 
rubber, and other gum- and resin-producing 
trees, tan and dye woods, and medicinal 
woods and plants, besides much rattan and 
bamboo. The most common varieties of edi¬ 
ble fish are mackerel, herrings, sardines, snap¬ 
pers, anchovies, mulletts, barracudas, tunas, 
and porgies. Other sea products are pearls, 
pearl shells, window shells, shark fins, 
sponges, and trepang. As an industry, how¬ 
ever, fishing is undeveloped. In practically 
all of the larger islands there is gold, which 
in some places has long been worked by the 
natives, and which now forms one of the 
most important mineral products. Coal, iron, 
manganese, lead, copper, and other minerals 
are found. The most important branch of in¬ 
dustry is agriculture. While it is not in a 
highly developed stage as yet, assistance 
from various branches of the government is 
doing much for it. The soil is rich, being 
composed in the main of disintegrated vol¬ 
canic rock, and the climate is most favorable. 
Rice is the staff of life to the Filipinos. The 
rice farmers are coming to realize the advan¬ 
tages of scientific methods. It is still neces¬ 
sary, however, to import great quantities of 
rice, especially from French Indo-China. To¬ 
bacco, of a quality excellent for cigars and 
cigarettes, is grown in all parts of the archi¬ 
pelago, but most abundantly in northern Lu¬ 
zon. Hemp, or abaca, is the most important 
export and is peculiar to these islands. It is 
the inner bark of a species of palm closely 
related to the banana. A government inspec¬ 
tion system has greatly helped this industry. 
Cocoanut groves are found near the seacoast 
almost everywhere, but half of the copra, 
the dried meat of the cocoanut, comes from 
southern Luzon. Corn, or maize, is grown in 
limited quantities in various localities from 
northern Luzon to the Visayan Islands. 
Sugar-cane is grown in nearly every prov¬ 
ince, but more than half of the product of 
the archipelago comes from the island of 
Negros, and more than a third from Luzon. 
Sweet potatoes are grown in all parts of the 


____ __Philippine 

islands, and form an important article of 
food. Cacao is produced in small quantities 
in nearly all provinces. 

The carabao, or water buffalo, is the chief 
farm animal, and as much of the work is in 
the wet rice paddies he is admirably adapted 
to it. For riding and driving, the small na¬ 
tive ponies are chiefly employed. Chickens 
are raised mostly for food, but also in large 
numbers for the cock-pit. In 1898, when the 
United States took possession of the Philip¬ 
pines, there existed only one line of railroad 
(narrow gauge), stretching 120 m. between 
Manila and Dagupan. This was extended 
from time to time until, by 1938, 875 m. had 
been constructed. In 1938 the islands had a 
total road mileage of 11,000. There were, be ¬ 
sides, 3,000 in. of trails good only for horses. 
I n 1933 ) radio-telephone service was estab¬ 
lished between Manila and Washington, D. C. 

The Filipinos, although possessed of much 
aptitude, power of imitation, and natural 
ability in mechanical work, are not largely 
engaged in manufactures. They prepare their 
agricultural products for market and weave 
doth, hats, baskets, and mats for their own 
use, all this work being done on a small scale 
by hand or by simple and primitive appli¬ 
ances. Nearly all the factories are small. 
These include sugar mills, cocoanut oil mills, 
and cigar and cigarette factories. In recent 
years, rice milling has become one of the 
principal local industries. Hundreds of small ■ 
lice mills are scattered over the archi¬ 
pelago, with, a maximum daily capacity of 
50,000 cavanes. At present sugar and rice 
mills are the leading industries, with oil fac¬ 
tories, abaca pressing, and cigar and cigar¬ 
ette factories next, in the order named. 

Free trade obtains between the.Philippines 
and the United States, but the American 
Congress placed a 20% tariff on foreign im¬ 
ports into the Philippines. Commerce is 
conducted, apart from the United States, 
chiefly with the United.. Kingdom, Japan, 
China,. ...the French ■ East Indies, Germany, 
and Spain. The total population is estimated, 
at 16,000,000. Nearly, all the people are 
closely crowded, in towns or villages and 
nearly two-thirds of the people live on or 
near the seacoast. The chief city, and the 
center of population, government, commerce, 
manufactures, and society, is Manila, esti¬ 
mated population, 623,000, situated on the 
eastern shore of Manila Bay. Chinese immi¬ 
gration is prohibited (Chinese Exclusion Act, 
1902), and Chinese laborers must register. 
The .Roman Catholic Church predominates 



3709 


Philippine 

but there are millions of Independent Cath¬ 
olics. A number of Protestant denominations 
have established flourishing organizations, 
which comprise many communicants. There is 
an Independent Filipino Church in Luzon. All 
the Moros are Mohammedans, and there are, 
in some of the most isolated districts, some 
800,000 pagan tribesmen. In education, the 
American system established by the Philip¬ 
pine Commission in 1901 provided a course 
of instruction covering eleven years—4 pri¬ 
mary, 3- intermediate, and 4 secondary. Pub¬ 
lic educational work is under the supervision 
of the Secretary of Public Instruction, per¬ 
formed through the Bureau of Education. 
Education is free but not compulsory be¬ 
tween the ages of 7 and 14. Pupils are taught 
the English language. Several special schools, 
some of which are particularly for the non- 
Christian people, are supported by many 
private schools (all grades). About sixty 
per cent of the children of school age do not 
attend any school. Higher education is pro¬ 
vided for by the University of the Philip¬ 
pines. In Manila there is a university, with 
a medical school connected with it. There 
are several normal schools, and a number of 
schools and colleges under religious orders. 

Until the passing of the McDuffie-Tydings 
Act for the recognition of Philippine Inde¬ 
pendence (1934), the United States main¬ 
tained in the Islands an organization of troops 
of the United States Army, which included 
several regiments of Filipino soldiers. Public 
order being maintained by the municipal po¬ 
lice and the Philippine Constabulary. There 
are two United States naval stations in the 
Philippines, one at Cavite and the other at 
Olongapo. One Filipino cadet was appointed 
to each class at West Point. On Aug. 29, 
1916, the Organic Act of the Philippine Is¬ 
lands (the Jones Law) abolished the Philip¬ 
pine Commission and provided an autono¬ 
mous form of government for the Philippines. 
The following officers were appointed by the 
President of the United States: Governor 
General, who was the chief executive; vice 
governor, who served also as secretary of the 
Department of Public Instruction; the audi¬ 
tor; the deputy auditor; and the members 
of the Philippine Supreme Court. There was 
a legislative body of two branches, Philippine 
Senate (24 members) and House of Repre¬ 
sentatives (93 members). The six executive 
departments were: Interior, Public Instruc¬ 
tion, Finance, Justice, Agriculture and Nat¬ 
ural Resources, and Commerce and Com¬ 
munications. The Governor General, by and 


Philippine 

with the consent of the Philippine Senate, ap¬ 
pointed the secretaries of departments, who 
.were all Filipinos. There was a supreme 
court, composed of a chief justice and eight 
associate justices; and for every organized 
municipality and any other places deter¬ 
mined upon by the Philippine Senate there 
was one justice of the peace and one auxiliary 
justice. Also, there were twenty-seven judi¬ 
cial districts each having a judge of first 
instance—except the ninth district, covering 
the city of Manila and having six judges, 
and the third, fifth, sixth, seventh, fifteenth, 
twentieth, and twenty-third having two 
each. 

The non-Christian or native races may be 
divided into three main groups: the Pygmies; 
the Indonesians; and the Malays. The Pyg¬ 
mies, or dwarf races, probably constitute 
the aborigines of the Islands and are gradu¬ 
ally disappearing before the inroads of civili¬ 
zation. There are three distinct types of 
Pygmies, the Negritos, the Proto-Malays, a 
straight-haired dwarf type of Mongoloid af¬ 
finity, and the Austral oid-Ainus, a dwarf 
hairy type intermediate between the abor¬ 
igines of Australia and the Ainus of Japan. 
The Pygmies are found in Apayao, the Ilo- 
kos mountains, Zambales, East and South 
Luzon, the Visayan Islands and Mindanao. 
They are mostly nomads or semi-nomads 
and live by hunting and trapping. They 
number about 55,700. The Indonesians are 
a taller race, having marked affinity to the 
tall races of southern Asia. They are usually 
characterized by a rather light skin, slender 
body and aquiline features. They are found 
in Northern Luzon, Eastern and Central 
Mindanao, Zamboanga, and Sulu. They prac¬ 
tice a crude sort of agriculture, have two 
types of houses, one in the tops of tall trees 
and the other directly on the ground, and 
tattoo their bodies extensively. They num¬ 
ber about 175,000. 

The Proto-Malays, who number about 
550,000, may be divided into two main 
groups: pagans and Mohammedans. Some of 
the pagans probably have the greatest sys¬ 
tem of stone-walled terraced rice fields to be 
found in the world. The Mohammedan 
Malays, who number about 375,000, have 
highly developed the industrial arts, being 
expert in metal work, wood-carving, and 
weaving. They are excellent navigators, and 
pearl fishing is an important industry which 
has given them world-renown. They carry 
on an extensive dry agriculture and raise 
many fruits and vegetables. Many read and 



Philippine 


3710 


Philippine 


write their own language; they are proud 
and independent. Physically, the Filipinos 
are short and slight, with thin arms and legs, 
and poor muscular development. The hands 
and feet are small and delicate. The color is 
a rich brown, varying in shade with the 
social status, persons of the higher class often 
being as light as Spaniards. The eyes are 
large and brown, frequently with a decided 
slant; the nose is small and the lips some¬ 
what full. The hair is abundant, coarse, long, 
and blue-black in color. They are extremely 
cleanly in their persons. In disposition they 
are dignified, courteous, generous to their 
friends, and hospitable to a fault; they are 
bright and quick, often even brilliant, but 
superficial, and not deep or profound think¬ 
ers. They are lovers of music; every village 
has its band of music, and probably the finest 
band in the Islands is that of the Constabu¬ 
lary, composed entirely of natives. The Fili¬ 
pinos are not a long-lived people. They ma¬ 
ture and die early. The average age at 
death of the people of the archipelago is but 
23.2 years, while in the registration area of 
the United States it is twelve years greater. 
In other words, the average Filipino lives 
only two-thirds as long as the American. The 
normal death rate, about 32 per thousand 
per year, closely approximates that of the 
negroes of the United States. 

The authentic history of the Philippines 
begins with their discovery by Magellan. 
Their inferred history begins at a much 
earlier though unknown date, when the is¬ 
lands were sparsely peopled by little blacks, 
the ancestors of the present Negritos. Sev¬ 
eral abortive attempts were made by Spain 
to conquer and colonize the islands. In 1570 
Manila was captured and made the seat of 
government, and shortly afterward the en¬ 
tire archipelago, excepting the southern is¬ 
lands occupied by Mores, fell under the 
power of Spain. Shortly after the pacifica¬ 
tion of the islands, friars in large numbers 
were sent out as missionaries. In time these 
friars assumed control .not only of the spir¬ 
itual welfare of their... charges, but of their 
government and physical welfare also, and 
the degree of civilization which the people 
of the islands has reached is mainly the 
work of the friars. Of all the church orders 
represented in the islands,, the Jesuits had 
become the richest and most powerful. 
Largely on account of this they incurred the 
enmity 01 the others, who persuaded the 
king of Spain to expel them. This took place 
in 1767. The Jesuits departed quietly, leav¬ 


ing their vast possessions to be divided among 
the other orders and the Catholic Church. 
In 1S50, however, the order was allowed to 
return. In April 1898, war was declared be¬ 
tween the United States and Spain. By the 
treaty of Paris, Dec. 10, 1898, Spain ceded 
the Philippines to the United States, which 
agreed to pay $20,000,000 for them. (See 
Spanish-American War.) Early in the fol¬ 
lowing February the Filipinos, dissatisfied at 
not being given their freedom, broke out 
into insurrection against the American gov¬ 
ernment. Conflicts followed, and it was not 
until July 4, 1901, that the islands were suffi¬ 
ciently pacified for a civil government. The 
American government purchased land from 
the friars paying nearly $7,000,000. In 1916, 
for the first time, the Philippine legislature 
had an all-Filipino membership. The Philip¬ 
pine Islands were prompt to declare their 
loyalty to the United States when the latter 
entered the Great War in April, 1917, but 
upon the signing of the Armistice the Philip¬ 
pine legislature constituted an Independence 
Mission which proceeded to the United 
States without obtaining any definite result. 
The following year President Harding sent a 
commission to make a survey. It recom¬ 
mended ‘that the present general status of 
the Philippine Islands continue until the peo¬ 
ple have had time to absorb and thoroughly 
master the powers already in their hands.’ 

Appointed by President Harding, Governor 
General Wood balanced the budget and 
checked the currency depreciation. General 
Wood, however, incurred the enmity of some 
of the Filipino leaders who claimed that he 
had exceeded his powers. They redoubled 
their efforts to secure immediate and com¬ 
plete independence, without avail. After 
another survey by President Coolidge and 
governorship under Stimson and Davis, sen - 
timent in the Islands for complete and im¬ 
mediate independence had not abated, al¬ 
though it was by no means-unanimous. Many 
people in the United States too, especially 
those whose business interests were jeopar¬ 
dized by the absence of a tariff on imports 
from the Philippines, favored separation. 

. In September, 1931, Secretary of War Pat¬ 
rick J. Hurley visited the islands. He was 
given a resolution by the insular legislature 
memorializing the United States Congress for 
complete independence. After Secretary Hur¬ 
ley’s report, President Hoover stated: ‘Eco¬ 
nomic independence of the Philippines must 
be attained before political independence can 
be successful.’ Senator Manuel Quezon, a 



3711 


Philistines 


Phil ippimes 

Filipino leader, offered a compromise plan 
under which the Islands would be given 
wider autonomy and complete independence 
at the end of ten years. The McDuffie-Tyd- 
ings Law, was signed by President Roosevelt 
in March, 1934. This Law, provides among 
other things that, after ten years as a com¬ 
monwealth, under the jurisdiction of the U. 

S., which includes trade restrictions, the 
Philippines will have complete independence, 
the Filipinos to present a satisfactory consti- ! 
tution and vote approval of the Law. These 
conditions were met by the constitution ap¬ 
proved by President Roosevelt on March 23, 
1935, and almost unanimously adopted by 
the Filipinos the following May 14. Subject 
to it, in 193S, Manuel Quezon and Sergio 
Osmena were elected President and Vice- 
President of the Commonwealth of the Phil¬ 
ippines, which in the year 1946 would become 
the Republic of the Philippines. Japan at¬ 
tacked the Philippines Dec. 1941 and overran 
the islands, capturing Manila. May 6 Correg- 
idor fell. When Pres. Manuel Luis Quezon 
arrived in Washington, D. C., in May, 1942, a 
Government-in-Exile was established. In 
Sept. 1943 the Japanese set up a puppet gov¬ 
ernment in Manila, with Jose P. Laurel as 
President. Pres. Roosevelt promised inde¬ 
pendence after the war. In June 1944 Con¬ 
gress passed a bill extending the terms of Pres. 
Quezon and V. Pres. Sergio Osmena until the 
Japanese had been driven out. In Aug. Pres. 
Quezon died and Osmena became President. 
For later developments see World War II 
Chronology. 

Philippines, University of the, a state- 
supported institution of higher learning, in 
Manila, P. I. It has colleges of Medicine and 
Surgery, Engineering, Liberal Arts, Law, • 
Veterinary Medicine, and Agriculture. 

Philippopolis, or Felihi (Bulg, Plovdiv), 
city, Bulgaria. It has several mosques, a 
museum, and national library, and is the seat 
of Bulgarian, Greek and Catholic bishops; 

p. 84,655* 

Philippus, Philippus II., generally called 
Philip of Macedon (382-336 b.c.), was born 
in Pella. On the death of his brother, Per- 
diccas in., in 359, he became regent for his 
brother’s infant son Amyntas. After a few 
months, however, he deposed Amyntas and 
usurped the throne. In a year Philip had se¬ 
cured the safety of his kingdom and entered 
upon the policy of aggression which char¬ 
acterized Ms reign. 

Philip is one of the greatest personages of 
history; but the superior greatness of his 


son, and his depreciation by Demosthenes, 
have obscured his fame. His purpose was to 
unite the small Greek states into a national 
confederacy. His desire was to do so by 
their consent; but their mutual jealousy, 
their passion for autonomy, and their con¬ 
tempt for him and his countrymen, forced 
him to attain his end by arms. His success 
over the Greek states was due first to his 
diplomacy and his judgment of the right 
time for action, and secondly to his army. 
This was the first national and professional 
army known to history; its regiments were 
organized on a territorial basis; and his de¬ 
velopment of the phalanx and his heavy 
cavalry showed an advance on the tactics of 
the time. 

2. Philippus v. (237 to 179 b.c.) , was the 
son of Demetrius 11., and one of the ablest 
of Macedonian kings. 

3. Marcus Julius Philippus, emperor of 
Rome from 244 to 249 a.d.; his son, of the 
same name, shared his power during the last 
two years of his reign. 

Philistine, a contemptuous epithet for the 
unilluminated, popularized by Matthew Ar¬ 
nold (Culture mid Anarchy, 1869), is bor¬ 
rowed from the German students, who were 
accustomed to apply the term Philister to 
the non-academic working classes. 



Wendell Phillips, the Abolitionist. 


Philistines, a people of Canaan who occu¬ 
pied a long strip of land, from 15 to 20 m. 
broad, along the Mediterranean from Ekron 
to Egypt. They were relatively well civilized, 
proficient in agriculture, metal-working, and 
the plastic arts, and of high military capacity. 
Though their territory fell within the in¬ 
heritance of Judah, they were not subju¬ 
gated in the Israelite conquest under Joshua, 
and they harassed Israel in the time of the 








Phillip 


3712 


judges. But after David's time they were 
never very strong, and they ultimately dis¬ 
appeared as a nationality in the invasions of 
Assyria and Egypt, though not before stamp¬ 
ing their name upon the whole country— 
Palestine, from Pelesfaetfi, Philistia. 

Phillip, John (1817-67), Scottish painter, 
born in Aberdeen. It was not till 1851, when 
he went to Spain, that his full powers de¬ 
veloped, and he painted his celebrated Span¬ 
ish pictures. He only of the British artists 
of his day gained something of the verve of 
Velasquez, a broad and virile technique. His 

I best-known pictures are Collecting the Offer¬ 
ing at a Scottish Kirk, La Gloria (National 
Gallery, Edinburgh), and The Promenade 
(National Gallery, London). His Gossips at 
the Well is in the Metropolitan Musuem 
New York. 

Phillips, Adelaide (1833-82), American 
contralto singer, bom af Stratford-on- 
Avon, England, and brought to Boston, 
Mass., when she was seven years old. In 
1854, after singing in concert with marked 
success, she appeared at the New York 
Academy of Music in 1856 as ‘Azucena 

II Trovatore. For the next twenty years she 
ranked as the leading operatic contralto of 
the country. 

Phillips, David Graham (1867-1911), 
American author, born in Madison Ind. He 
was a frequent contributor to the leading 
magazines, and the author of: The Great 
God Success (1901) j Golden Fleece (1903) ; 
The Plum Tree (1905) ; The Reign of Guilt 
( I 90 S) ; Susan Lenox (1917). 

Phillips, Stephen (1867-1915), English 
poet, was born in Somerton, near Oxford. 
His works in their dignity of conception and 
beauty of language represent an attempt to 
return to the Greek model, though still in 
thought essentially moderfi. Later works 
include Poems (1S97); The Sin of David 
(1904); 'The-Last Heir (1908); Pietro of 
Sienna (1910); The King (1912 ); dole 
f i ^ yrics an d Dramas (19x3) ; Panama 
md Other Poems (1915); Armageddon 

Phillips, Wendell (i8xx- 8 4 ), American 
reformer, was born in Boston, Nov. 29, 1811 
? f “ and wel1 known Massachusetts 
lamily. He joined the Massachusetts Anti- 
Slavery Society and on June x 4 , 1835, de¬ 
livered a noteworthy speech at the quarterly 
meeting of the society at Lynn. The act was 
regarded as professional and social suicide, 
but it was characteristic of Phillips, who was 
throughout his life to be a champion of de~ 


Phillips 


spised causes. His first famous utterance on 
the subject was at a meeting held in Faneuil 
Hall, Dec. 8, 1837, to protest against the 
murder of Lovejoy. By this speech he be¬ 
came the pre-eminent orator of the anti¬ 
slavery movement. Phillips’ position on this 
burning question having injured his law 
practice, he was led to enter upon a differ¬ 
ent career, that of a Ivceum lecturer. One of 
his earliest, as it remained his most famous- 
lecture, was that on The Lost Arts. 

In October, 1842, in a meeting called to 
protest in the Latimer case, Phillips first de - 
nounced the Constitution of the United States 
under which, according to Judge Shaw, a 
| fugitive slave had no right to a trial by' 
jury. He closed his law office, being unwilling 
to take an oath to support the Constitution 
and gave up the franchise, refusing to take 
any personal responsibility in a government 
which involved the principles of slavery. He 
now became a public man in the simplest 
and most individual way. Excluded from all 
the institutions of society, he appeared per¬ 
sonally before anybody and everybody that 
would listen to him, and argued his opinions 
He was strongly opposed to the Mexican 
War, and severely criticised the action of 
Governor Briggs of Massachusetts (May 26, 
1846) in calling for volunteers. Throughout 
the period leading to the Civil War, Wendell 
Phillips was the representative figure of the 
ultra anti-slavery position of that body that 
demanded the dissolution of the Union, that 
the North might not be forced into respon¬ 
sibility and complicity with the unrighteous¬ 
ness of the slave system. When, however, 
disunion became a fact, in the firing on Fort 
Sumter, Phillips became an emancipationist, 
and favored a war for the Union and eman¬ 
cipation of the slaves. As he himself; said, 
he had meant to make a free nation of nine¬ 
teen States, and now saw the possibility of. 

.a free nation of thirty-four States. To this"''''.' 

object he added the enfranchisement of the 

negro, and activity and agitation to. this, end 
absorbed his powers until the passage of the 
Fifteenth Amendment. He died, on Feb. 2, 
1884. See. his. Speeches, Lectures and Letters . 
Consult also Austen’s Life and Times of 
Wendell Phillips ; Russell’s The Story of 
Wendell Phillips. 

Phillips .Academy,, a .boys’ preparatory 
schoo 1 at Andover, Mass., often known as 
Philhps-Andover to distinguish it from Phil- 
hps-Exeter. It was founded in 1778, its es- 
tablishment being due to Samuel and John 
Phillips. 



Phillips 


3713 


Philology 


Phillips Exeter Academy, a boys’ pre¬ 
paratory school in Exeter, N. H., incor¬ 
porated in 1781 and named for Dr. John 
Phillips. It is well equipped with academy 
buildings, laboratories, library, gymnasium, 
fine dormitories, and athletic fields, and num¬ 
bers among its graduates Daniel Webster and 
George Bancroft. 

Philipotts, Eden (1862- ), English 

novelist, was born in Mount Aboo, India, 
his father, Capt. Henry Philipotts, being an 
officer in the British army. His portrayals 
of life in Devonshire are especially notable. 
Among his long list of works, chiefly novels, 
are Children of the Mist (1898); Sons of the 
Morning (1900); The River (1902); The 
Secret Woman (1905); The Whirlwind 
(1907) ; Widecomhe Fair (1913) ; The 
Bronze Venus (1921) ; Bred in the Bone 
(1932) ; A Cup of Happiness (play 1933) ; 
Awake Deborah (1941). 

Philoctetes, a famous archer, the friend 
and armor bearer of Hercules, who be¬ 
queathed him his bow and poisoned ar¬ 
rows. As one of the suitors of Helen, he led 
seven ships against Troy; but being bitten 
in the foot by a snake, he fell ill. The Greeks 
left him on the island of Lemnos, where for 
ten years he spent a miserable life. But an 
oracle declared that Troy could not be taken 
without the arrows of Hercules, so Ulysses 
and Neoptolemus were dispatched to bring 
Philoctetes to the Greek camp; where, healed 
by Aesculapius or his sons, the restored hero 
slew Paris, and helped powerfully in taking 
Troy. After the war he settled in Italy. A 
play of Sophocles is named for him. 

Philodendron, a genus of tropical Ameri¬ 
can shrubs and trees and occasionally herba¬ 
ceous plants, belonging to the order Araceae. 
Some of them climb. 

Philo Judaeus — i.e. the Jew—(b. c. 20 
b.c.) , Hellenistic philosopher and theologian, 
of Alexandria, The distinguishing feature in 
Philo is what he finds in his allegories— viz. 
the doctrines of the syncretxstic philosophy 
of the age. He identified the God of Israel 
with the divine Being of Plato—transcend¬ 
ent, unconditioned by time, space, 0* qua 1 - 
ity,' nameless' even, except' under the Tetra- 
grammaton jhvh, Jehovah, the Existent; 
but also with the deity of the Stoics, imma- 
neiit in the reason and goodness of the world. 
This God did not create the world directly, 
for that would have been to degrade his pure 
essence, but acted through the intermediary 
of ‘powers’ (dunameis) , the chief of which 
is the Logos which, though Philo personi¬ 


fies, he may not have regarded as personal. 

Philological Association, American, a 

society established in 1869 as the outgrowth 
of the American Oriental Society for the 
diffusion of philological knowledge. 

Philology, or the science of language, in¬ 
cludes the description and explanation of the 
phenomena of language. The divisions of 
philology are necessarily determined by the 
nature of its subject matter, language. Lan¬ 
guage, whether understood as human speech 
or not, has both a physical and a psychologi¬ 
cal aspect. Viewed psychologically, lan¬ 
guage is an intelligible expression of feelings, 
thoughts, wishes, etc. It is more than a means 
of communicating thought. Physically, on 
the other hand, it is a part of the phenomena 
of sound; it consists of sound combinations 
produced by the vocal organs (of man). 
Within the wide range of human speech there 
are hundreds of systems, each complete in it¬ 
self, and each called a language. A commu¬ 
nity which speaks one language may divide 
into several communities owing to political 
or geographical or economic causes. When 
such a division takes place, each of the newly- 
formed communities acquires a distinctive lan¬ 
guage of its own. The new languages are 
modified forms of the old, and therefore 
related to one another and to. the ‘parent’ 
language. 

In philology, as in political history or In 
the history of any art, the historical develop¬ 
ment of special periods and nations must 
be studied separately. At the same time, 
there is room and need for a general treat¬ 
ment of the nature of language and the 
principles of its development. The starting- 
point of linguistic study would be the mod¬ 
ern languages with which we are most fa¬ 
miliar. Here our knowledge is direct, and the 
record is fullest. This is particularly the case 
in the department of phonetics. We are never 
independent of the imperfect and misleading 
representations of writing except when we 
hear the speech of a people with our own 
ears. Man’s capacity for producing sounds 
by the use of his vocal organs is the primary 
physical condition which has made the acqui¬ 
sition and development of language possible. 
The primitive nature of this capacity is evi¬ 
dent from the extent to which it is possessed 
by the animal world in general. The expres¬ 
sion of feeling by the involuntary utterance 
of sounds may be regarded as the initial stage 
in the development of language. The num- 
; ber of sounds used in any one language 
■ is comparatively limited, and although there 



Philology 


3714 


Philology 


are considerable differences between lan¬ 
guages in this respect, the total number of 
speech sounds in use is not very great. 

This may be explained as the result of a 
process of unconscious selection. The best 
sounds, those most easily produced and dis¬ 
tinguished, are those which have survived. 
It is not to be supposed that primitive man 
used fewer sounds than his descendants now 
employ. The opinion that the earliest his¬ 
torical languages, such as the parent Indo- 
European speech, possessed a very simple 
vowel system, is no longer maintained. The 
simplicity of primitive forms of speech does 
not manifest itself in the sound-combina¬ 
tions which they employ. 

One of the best established results of 
modem investigation into the history of 
language is the conclusion that a never- 
ending and never-resting process of sound- 
change is at work in every language. The 
fundamental conditions of this process are 
chiefly these:—(i.) What is commonly 
called the same pronunciation of a word or 
sound really fluctuates within certain limits. 
Even the pronunciation of one individual is 
only approximately the same at different 
times and in different sentences. This opens 
the door at once to the shifting or displace¬ 
ment of the pronunciation of any word or 
sound.. (2). Language is constantly being 
transmitted from generation to generation, 
and in this process is particularly liable to 
alteration. Children acquire the language 
of their parents by imitation, and seldom 
if ever acquire it perfectly. (3.) Every 
speaker is constantly liable to sporadic ‘mis¬ 
takes. For the most part these mistakes 
are common to many individuals, and they 
may finally supplant what was originally 
the ‘correct* form. Alterations in the rate 
of speech, or a general movement in the 
position of the accent, may produce wide¬ 
spread effects. Modern research into the 
origin of words and their history has. been 
greatly influenced by the doctrine of ‘roots.* 
The roots of a language were got by strip¬ 
ping of all the formative and inflectional 
elements .in,:a group of words related in 
meaning. The common element in these 
words, when there was one, was regarded 
as. the ‘root*, from' which they were all 
derived. A better understanding of the his¬ 
tory of language has greatly shaken this 
hypothesis of a primitive root stage at the 
beginning of the development. 

There are at least two types of word- 


creation which may be regarded as primi¬ 
tive. 1. Simple sounds or syllables are re¬ 
peated in the production of such words as 
‘papa* and ‘mama’ (both of these are widely 
diffused words and necessarily very old). 2. 
Man imitates the cries of animals and the 
sounds which he hears in nature. The words 
so produced are a subdivision of onomato¬ 
poeic words. 

The history of the relation of word forms 
to their meanings and of the changes which 
take place in the meaning of words is itself 
a vast field in philology. The causes of 
change are primarily psychological. His¬ 
torical circumstances may have an important 
influence on the course of the development, 
but the law according to which change 
takes place is invariably psychological. That 
being so, the best classification of the phe¬ 
nomena is no doubt one based on the oper¬ 
ative causes of chance— viz. the various laws 
of association. A favorite classification is 
according to results, distinguishing cases of 
the extension or limitation of word mean¬ 
ings froin others in which old and new 
meanings join side by side. This is not so 
instructive as the psychological classifica¬ 
tion, which makes prominent the causes 
of change. Every one is familiar with the 
manner in which a word acquires a new 
meaning because of the analogy perceived 
between the object it denotes and some other 
object: for example, the ‘foot’ of a table 
or of a hill is .compared with the foot of 
an animal, and the word ‘foot* thus acquires 
a new meaning. The constant use of the 
word ‘town’ for a particular town (say 
London) gives the expression ‘town* a new 
meaning, and so forth. The very same 
psychological, processes account for the 
changes in the meaning of terminations and 
grammatical forms in general. Prepositions 
and adverbs are frequently nouns in a ..spe¬ 
cialized sense, which has been acquired from 
repeated use in circumstances which sug¬ 
gested more to the mind than the word 
originally implied. 

It is now generally, recognized that it is 
inaccurate to suppose that sentences are 
possible only after, words have been created 
to become the materials used in their con¬ 
struction. Sentences expressing certain feel-' 
mgs and wishes and thoughts are at least 
as fundamental in speech as words that 
name objects. Words as independent ele¬ 
ments, as linguistic facts with a recognized 
individuality, are certainly to a large extent 



Philomela 


3715 


Philosophy 


the result of abstraction from sentences. 
There has been and is still much controversy 
regarding the correct definition of a sentence. 
There is some diversity also in the current 
classifications of sentences. The variety of 
languages is so great, and the transition from 
from one to another often so imperceptible, 
that it is difficult to discover any principle of 
classification. The historical investigation of 
the earliest known languages leaves us far 
away from the beginnings of speech. What¬ 
ever account is given of the origin of lan¬ 
guage, it is simply what to us is compre¬ 
hensible or conceivable, an account which 
is in accordance with the physical and psy¬ 
chological constitution of man as we know 
it, and in agreement with the history of 
the development of language in its later 
stages. See Whitney’s Language and the 
Study of Language (4th ed. 1884) ; Paul’s 
Principles of the History of Language (re¬ 
vised ed. 1891) ; Skeat’s Philology (1905); 
Jespersen’s Progress in Language with special 
Reference to English (1894) ; Oertel’s Lec¬ 
tures on the Study of Language (1901); 
Mencken’s The American Language (rev. ed. 
1921) ; Treasury of English Aphorisms with 
A m eric an Variants (1928). 

Philomela, in ancient Greek legend, a 
daughter of Pandion, king of Athens; her 
sister Procne was married to Tereus, king of 
Thrace. Later, however, he was seized with 
a passion for Philomela, and dishonored her. 
She and Procne then took .vengeance on 
Tereus by slaying his son Itys and setting 
his flesh before him to eat. Discovering 
this, he pursued them with an axe; and 
they were transformed—Procne into a night¬ 
ingale, Philomela into a swallow, and Ter¬ 
eus into a hoopoe. Such is the usual form 
of the tale, but some versions make Procne 
the swallow and Philomela the nightingale. 
Thus in English poetry Philomela or Philo¬ 
mel is used as a synonym of the nightingale. 

Philosophical Society, American. A, 
learned body with headquarters in Phila¬ 
delphia, founded in 1743 in pursuance of 
the suggestion of Benjamin Franklin, who 
became its first secretary and second presi¬ 
dent. In 1769 it joined with Junto, a society 
formed about 1758 under the present official 
title, the American Philosophical Society 
held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful 
Knowledge, Among its presidents have been 
the astronomer David Rittenhouse and 
Thomas Jefferson. It . owns valuable collec¬ 
tions of books,'! portraits, busts and relics. 


Membership in the society is a much prized 
distinction, given only to men of great at¬ 
tainments. It confers annually a gold medal, 
founded in 1785 by a gift from John Hya- 
cinthe de Magellan, for contributions to 
navigation, natural history, or astronomy. 
It publishes annual Transactions and Pro¬ 
ceedings. 

Philosophy (literally, a love of wis¬ 
dom) , is a system of principles, reasons, 
and laws which attempt to explain the 
knowledge we have of phenomena. This 
term is used in a wider and narrower sense. 
In the narrower sense it is identical with 
metaphysics. In the wider sense it includes, 
besides metaphysics, logic, ethics, and psy¬ 
chology ; and this group is sometimes swelled 
by the addition of philosophy of religion, 
philosophy of law-, etc. But the more we 
subdivide philosophy into philosophies in 
this way, the more we tend to confuse 
and obliterate the distinction. Moreover 
the philosophies in question seem to dupli¬ 
cate unnecessarily sciences which already ex¬ 
ist under other names— viz., theology, juris¬ 
prudence, etc. The old term ‘natural phil¬ 
osophy’ is still used as a variant for physics 
We may turn, then, to the traditional group 
of philosophical sciences—logic, ethics, and 
psychology. Morality, or ethics, is a quite 
definite and limited sphere or subject-matter, 
and is therefore, presumably, the object of 
a special science. And if it be argued that 
the study of ethics raises difficult meta¬ 
physical problems (such as free will), the 
same may be said of any other science if 
pushed far enough back. Psychology, some 
would say, is now definitely recognized as 
a natural science; it has become a science 
of experimental research carried on in lab¬ 
oratories. It is true, of course, that when 
we regard psychology as simply the comple¬ 
ment of that part of physiology which treats 
of that nervous system and the functions of 
the brain, it does then belong to the domain 
of natural science. But the whole signi¬ 
ficance of mind is not exhausted by point¬ 
ing to its correlation with a bodily organ. 
Some of the most eminent psychologists 
have expressly recognized that the differentia 
of psychology as a science consists, not in 
dealing with a special department of knowl¬ 
edge from the point of view of its growth in 
the mind of the individual knower. Accord¬ 
ingly psychology, in so far as it is con¬ 
cerned with knowledge itself in one of its 
more general aspects, is a philosophical and 



Philosophy 


3716 


Philosophy 


not a special science. A similar claim on the 
part of logic to tM rank of a philosophical 
science will be more readily admitted. We 
must now consider what is meant by phil¬ 
osophy in the narrower sense of metaphysics. 
With Aristotle metaphysics is the highest 
of the theoretical sciences, and is defined as 
dealing not with any special aspect of what 
exists taken in abstraction from, other as¬ 
pects, but with ‘being as such’ or with the 
ultimate nature and principles of the real. 
Philosophers may be said in one sense to 
have' always .had before them one single 
aim, the same for all— viz., the attainment 
of the most fundamental kind of knowledge 
within the reach of human reason. 

The primary and outstanding condition 
which affects philosophic thought at the 
present time is the enormous development 
of the special sciences, each with its own 
definite sphere and task, and philosophy, 
which seems to be left with no definite task 
or sphere at all. In Greek thought, although 
the distinction between philosophy or meta¬ 
physics and the special sciences had attained 
a definite expression, science, and philosophy 
were constantly united in the same person. 
The philosopher Plato was an expert mathe¬ 
matician. His great successor, Aristotle, may 
be said not only to have summed up in 
himself the whole scientific knowledge of 
his time, but also to have done far more 
than any other single thinker to extend the 
bounds and organize the work of scientific 
inquiry. Even in modem philosophy the 
conjunction of scientist and philosopher had 
long its eminent examples. Descartes was 
perhaps even greater as a mathematician 
and natural philosopher than as a specula¬ 
tive thinker. Leibniz, who shares with New¬ 
ton, the origination of the differential cal¬ 
culus, combined with his speculative power 
wide knowledge and learning. Kant, before 
he produced his great philosophical works, 
wrote.on physical science, anticipating in Ms 
speculations on the Theory of the Heavens 
the later theory of Laplace. Hegel was 
hardly a specialist in science, like Ms pre¬ 
decessors, yet the materials of Ms. system 
were derived, .from a very wide range of 
positive knowledge.. With Hegel there be¬ 
gins to make itself felt more and more 
strongly a profound change in the rela¬ 
tions between philosophy and science. By 
the very character and comprehensiveness 
of his system he was driven to treat of the 
subject-matter of physical science as well, 


and for this task he was by no means so 
well equipped. Consequently his philosophy 
of nature laid itself open to scientific criti¬ 
cism—criticism all the more damaging on 
account of the lofty pretensions of his abso¬ 
lute philosophy. Hegel’s is the last great 
system by which such pretensions have been 
made on behalf of philosophy. When we 
turn to the writings of Lotze we find a 
very different tone. ‘Though I venture,' 
says Lotze,-in the preface to his Logic, ‘to 
describe the present work as the first part 
of a system of philosophy, I hope that this 
designation will not be supposed to indicate 
the same pretensions which it was wont to 
herald in times gone by. It is obvious that 
I can propose to myself nothing more than 
to set forth the entirety of my personal 
convictions in a systematic form.’ The 
change of tone, quite apart from mere re¬ 
action, was inevitable. The enormous ex¬ 
tension and continually-increasing specializa¬ 
tion of science have made it quite impossible 
for any one man to think of comprehending, 
in Hegelian fashion, within the framework 
of a formally complete and rounded sys¬ 
tem, the masses of material that are now 
available. Philosophers like Lotze, or 
Wundt, who do possess an extensive working 
knowledge of this sort, are few. But the 
ordinary philosophical writer and teacher 
cannot expect, on the ground of Ms own ac~ 
quaintance with scientific methods and re¬ 
sults, any great amount of deference from 
men of science. 

In these circumstances many are disposed 
to deny that a metaphysics in the older 
sense of a theory of the ultimate nature 
and principles of the real can be attempted 
at all, and to hold that all that philosophy 
can aim at is a theory of knowledge. So 
great, no doubt, does the difficulty of meta¬ 
physical construction appear when we '.think 
of the vast material supplied by the special 
sciences, that we cannot wonder that many 
would fain see metaphysics driven out . once 
for all,, and the special, sciences put in. sole 
possession of the field. But the philosophi¬ 
cal impulse ' is. too deeply : rooted ■ in the 
human, mind not to reveal itself sooner ■ or, 
later in other directions. The specialist him¬ 
self is only too apt to turn philosopher; and 
ignorance of previous work in the subject 
is no more likely to be an advantage in phil¬ 
osophy than in science-. There is another 
group who would supplant metaphysics, not 
by the special sciences, but by the doctrines 



3717 


Philostratus 


of religion. This view is in its developed 
form the doctrine of a theological school, 
and would by no means be accepted by 
theologians generally. Theology itself is in 
a very transitional stage, and in their strug¬ 
gle with the problems opened up by his¬ 
torical criticism theologians are apt to pay 
but little heed to the more philosophical 
questions raised by their dogmatic creed. 
And, on the other hand, philosophers are 
apt either to ignore the doctrines of religion 
altogether, or, what is worse, to assume with 
easy confidence that as philosophers, they 
know all about religion already, and need 
not trouble to ascertain the views of those 
whose faith and bent of mind have made 
religious thought the business of their lives. 
So long as the present transitional stage of 
theology continues, it is difficult, if not 
impossible, for the philosopher and the theo¬ 
logian to come to terms. Consult Ladd’s 
Introduction to Philosophy (1890) and Rog¬ 
ers’s Brief Introduction to Philosophy 
(1899); Paulsen’s Introduction to Philoso¬ 
phy (9th ed. 1903; trans. 1898); Bergson’s 
Creative Evolution;- and the popular treat¬ 
ment in Durant’s The Story of Philosophy. 

Philostratus (c„ 170 to 250 a.d.), a Greek 
rhetorician, and a native of Lemnos, who 
spent most of his life at Rome. The most 
important of his works is his Life of Apol¬ 
lonius of Tyana. 

Philtre, a love-compelling magic potion or 
charm, common in decadent Greece and 
Rome in mediaeval Europe, and still in use 
in the East. 

Phipps, Henry (1839-1930), American 
manufacturer and philanthropist, the son 
of a shoemaker, was born in Philadelphia, 
Pa., removing to Pittsburg in boyhood. He 
became connected with Andrew Carnegie in 
the manufacture of iron. He presented con¬ 
servatories to Pittsburg, gave largely to mis¬ 
sions and charities, and in 1905 established 
a trust in New York city for the buying 
of land and the building of tenements there¬ 
on for working people. 

Phips (or Phipps), Sir William (1651- 
95), Colonial governor of Mass., said to 
have been one of 26 children, all of the 
same mother, and born in a settlement in 
Me. Until 18 years of age he was employed 
in tending sheep. Later he became possessed 
with the idea of fishing up the treasure in 
a Spanish galleon wrecked about 50 years 
before in the West Indies, He finally suc¬ 
ceeded, and took from the wreck treasure 


Phoenicia 

to the value of about £300,000, for which 
service he was knighted. While governor 
he displayed a rough and arbitrary spirit, 
and personally chastised the collector of 
the port and Capt. Short of the royal navy. 

Phlebitis, or inflammation of a vein, has a 
double connection with thrombosis, since a 
thrombus leads to inflammation of the adja¬ 
cent vein wall, and, on the other hand, an 
inflammatory condition of the lining mem¬ 
brane of the vein induces thrombosis. One 
form of phlebitis is known as ‘white leg.’ 

Phlogiston, a ‘subtle fluid’ that was sup¬ 
posed by Stahl (1660-1734) to be combined 
with a ‘calx’ or ash in combustible bodies, 
and to be given off from them when burning 
took place. 

Phlox, a genus of hardy plants belonging 
to the order Polemoniacese. They have 
salver-shaped corollas with five equal petals. 
Some of the species of phlox are large- 
growing border plants, others are of dwarf 
creeping habit, and suited for the rockery 

Phocaea, an Ionian colony on w. coast of 
Asia Minor. It was a place of some pros- 
: perity, and founded other colonies, of which 
the most important was Massilia, the modern 
Marseilles. 

Phocion (402-317 b.c.) , Athenian states¬ 
man and general, was elected strategus— 
one of the ten chief officers of state—as 
many as 45 times. Yet 'he was neither a 
great statesman nor a brilliant general; but 
he was a man of incorruptible honesty and 
downright common sense and bluntness of 
speech. 

Phocis, a country of ancient Greece, lay n. 
of Gulf of Corinth. Its territory was moun¬ 
tainous, containing Parnassus. Its history 
turns largely on the presence within its bor¬ 
ders of the Delphic shrine. 

Phoebe-bird. See Pewee. 

Phoebus and Phoebe, titles given respec¬ 
tively to Apollo, in his character of the sun- 
god, and to Artemis, as the goddess of the 
moon. 

Phoenicia, the strip of Syrian coast be¬ 
tween the mouth of the Orontes in the n. 
and Jaffa in the s., where Philistia or Pales¬ 
tine, the land of the Philistines, commenced. 
Phoenicia was essentially a land of seaports. 
The rocky slopes were terraced and planted 
with vines, olives, and other trees, and every 
available inch of soil was cultivated; but in 
spite of this Phoenicia was never an agri¬ 
cultural country. It depended for its sup¬ 
port upon the sea, and its prosperity was 



Phoenicia 


3718 


Phoenixville 


due to maritime enterprise and trade. The 
carrying trade of the ancient world passed 
into the hands of the Phoenicians; they had 
a monopoly of the precious purple dye, and 
their ships not only traversed the Mediter¬ 
ranean and Red Sea, but eventually made 
their way into the Atlantic. The Phoenici¬ 
ans called themselves Canaanites. Their 
language, The language of Canaan,’ is prac¬ 
tically the same as Hebrew, and the Tell-el- 
Amarna tablets show that it was spoken 
throughout Canaan before the Exodus. Sidon 
was the oldest of the Phoenician cities. If 
Justin is to be trusted, Tyre was founded 
by refugees from Sidon after the sack of 
the latter city by The king of the Ascalon- 
ians.’ Tyre, however, was itself of consid¬ 
erable antiquity. The temple of Melkarth, 
its patron god, was built 2,300 years before 
Herodotus, and in the Tell-el-Amarna tab¬ 
lets its riches are already celebrated. The 
city was at that time still confined to an 
island; and a century later, an Egyptian 
papyrus, which describes the adventures of 
a tourist in Canaan in the reign of Rameses 
11., states that drinking water was brought 
to it by boats. The letters from Phoenicia in 
the Tell-el-Amarna collection are, like the 
letters from other parts of W. Asia, in the 
Babylonian language and script. But for 
many centuries the Babylonian kings claim¬ 
ed supremacy over Canaan and Syria, The 
land of the Amorites,’ as it was termed; and 
the culture of Babylonia, including its lan¬ 
guage and literature, laws and theology, 
made its way to the shores of the Mediter¬ 
ranean. 

Phoenician religion was characteristically 
Semitic. Each locality had its Baal or divine 
TordJ who was supreme over the other 
deities of the place. He was absolute master 
of the locality and its inhabitants. All good 
things were given by the Baalim; pain and 
misfortune were the consequences of their 
anger. Hence their worshippers sought to 
propitiate them by every means in their 
power. : Parents sacrificed, their first-born, 
and unmarried ladies prostituted themselves 
in the temples. The Baal was represented 
in human form, and though he acquired 
in^ time a solar character, his visible symbol 
being .the. sun, he .ever remained a. sort of 
divine king whose subjects were palled upon 
to offer him all they had. Phoenician art 
was a combination of that of Babylonia and 
Egypt modified in a special way. It is to 
the Phoenicians that we owe the alphabet, 


which they received possibly from Arabia 
in the nth or 12th century b.c., and after 
adapting it to the expression of their lan¬ 
guage, handed it on to the Greeks, along 
with the names they had given to the 
letters. The manufacture of variegated glass, 
which was derived from Egypt, became 
one of the principal industries of Tyre; 
while Sidon was famous for its fine linen, 
the art of making which was probably a 
Babylonian invention. But the industry to 
which Phoenicia originally owed its wealth 
and fortune was that of dyeing with purple, 
obtained from the mu rex, or purple shell¬ 
fish. Factories and their colonies were es¬ 
tablished for the sake of trade wherever 
there was a good harbor and the chance of 
a market, and Phoenician settlements grew 
up not only in the islands and on the coasts 
of the E. Mediterranean, but also in Sicily, 
Sardinia, and the northern coast of Africa. 

Phoenix, a southern constellation, located 
between Grus and Eridanus by Bayer in 
1603. The principal stars form a curved 
line. 

Phoenix, in ancient Greek legend, a son of 
Amyntor, and king of the Dolopes, who 
took part in the Calydonian boar hunt; 
afterwards he fell out with his father, went 
to Peleus, and became Achilles’s tutor. 

Phoenix, a mythical bird, of which Hero¬ 
dotus tells us that it appeared at Heliopolis 
* n Egypt once every 500 years, when it 
buried its father in the sanctuary there, en¬ 
closing its body in an egg, made of myrrh. 
The bird was like ail eagle, with feathers 
partly red and partly golden. According 
to legends the dying phoenix cast itself into 
flames, out of which the new one arose. 
Consult Wiedemann’s Religion of the An¬ 
cient Egyptians. 

Phoenix, city, capital of Arizona, is central¬ 
ly located in the Salt River Valley, ■ where 
325,000 acres of fine farming land are under 
irrigation, mostly from the Roosevelt Dam. 
A large trade is carried on in fruits, olives, 
hay and feed crops, vegetables, and dairy 
and poultry products.. The city, was settled 
about 1875 and incorporated in 1881 ; p. 
65414. 

Phoenixville,. borough, Pennsylvania, 23 
miles. ■ northwest of Philadelphia. . Valley 
Forge. is 4 .miles distant. Industrial estab¬ 
lishments include Targe, iron mills, blast fur¬ 
naces, important bridge and boiler works, 
and manufactures of boxes, matches, silk, 
underwear, and hosiery ; p. 12,282. 



Pholas 


3719 


Pliolas, a genus of burrowing bivalve mol¬ 
luscs, whose members are known as pid- 
docks or date shells. Like all burrowing 
bivalves, they have gaping shells, which are 
open at both ends, and have accessory plates 
of lime attached. In Southern Europe and 
in some other countries these molluscs are 
eaten, or esteemed valuable as bait. 

Phonetics is the science of speech sounds, 
and deals with their character, relations, 
combinations, and changes. Speech sounds 
are best defined in terms of the manner 
in which they are produced by vocal or¬ 
gans. Acoustical descriptions in which words 
such as ‘soft’ and ‘fiat’ are employed convey 
no clear conception of the character of 
sound, and are altogether valueless as aids 
to pronunciation. A description of the posi¬ 
tion occupied by the vocal organs w r hen a 
particular sound is formed provides a defi¬ 
nite means of comparison with other sounds, 
and is also an indication of how an unknown 
sound may be produced. The physiology of 
the vocal organs is an important auxiliary 
in the study of phonetics. Speech sounds 
may be broadly classified according as the 
breath by which they are produced streams 
through the mouth channel or the nose 
channel, or through both together. Several 
additional factors also contribute to the 
production of distinctive sounds. The part 
played by the glottis, the opening between 
the vocal cords, is important. The manner 
in which the lips are set is another modify¬ 
ing influence in the production of speech. 

What follows is a summary statement re¬ 
garding the principal groups of speech 
sounds. The stop consonants are formed 
by cutting off the stream of breath and sud¬ 
denly releasing it again. They include p, t, 
k, b, d, and others. 

Spirant consonants are also known as 
fricatives or continuants. Corresponding to 
the stop series is a spirant series, f (wh), 
th, kh, v ( w), dh, gh, in which the stream 
of breath is only checked, not stopped, by 
the lips, point of the tongue, and hack of 
the tongue respectively. Another set of 
spirants are the sibilants, s, z, sh, and zh. z 
is voiced s, and zh voiced sh. The blade of 
of the tongue (Sweet’s expression for the 
part immediately behind the point) seems 
to be prominent in the formation of s, but 
other factors also help to determine its 
character. There is a whole series of s% al¬ 
most parallel to the th series, with which 
it is frequently confused by speakers whose 


Phonograph 

native language contains no th. sh is defined 
by Sweet as ‘point-blade.’ L and r are closely 
related in the manner of their formation, 
and therefore also in the history of lan- 
gauge. The sounds denoted by r are a some¬ 
what miscellaneous group. Those who are 
familiar with trilled r’s regard the trill as 
their most important feature. Nasals. —In the 
formation of nasal sounds the mouth passage 
is closed by the lips (m ), the point of the 
tongue (n) , or the back of the tongue ( ng) f 
and the breath escapes through the nostrils. 
There are varieties of nasals similar to the va¬ 
rieties observed in the case of the stop conso¬ 
nants. In particular the front and back varie¬ 
ties of ng are to be distinguished. Voiceless m, 
n, and ng occur regularly in Welsh. Vowel 
Sounds. —The factors which determine the 
character of vowel sounds are chiefly the 
point of articulation by the tongue and the 
height to which it is raised; further, the 
part played by the lips and the nasal pas¬ 
sages. Some have made tables including 72 
vowel sounds, divided into back vowels; 
front vowels; mixed vowels; and nasal 
vowels. Consult L. Soames’ Introduction to 
English, French and German Phonetics (rev. 
by W. Vietor), for a beginner; E. Scrip¬ 
ture’s Elements of Experimental Phonetics; 
Tilly’s The Problem of Pronunciation 
(1925) ; Prendergast’s Good American 
Speech (1930). 

Phonograph, a term generally applied to 
any machine which records and reproduces 
sound, though it is sometimes restricted to 
the particular type of machine developed by 
Edison and his associates. There are two 
classes of sound recording machines: the 
cylinder machine, in which the sound is 
recorded upon a wax cylinder, and the disc 
machine, in which a flat circular disc is 
j substituted for the cylinder. The phono¬ 
graph and graphophone make a verticle 
record of the sound waves, while the gramo¬ 
phone records the sound in horizontal curves. 
The word phonograph is generally used to 
include both types. The first real attempt 
at recording sound was made by Leon Scott, 
a Frenchman who, in 1857, invented his 
phonautograph, a machine which bore a 
striking resemblance to the early phono¬ 
graphs; but the sound he recorded could 
not be reproduced. Cros, another French¬ 
man, wrote an article telling how Scott’s 
machine could be made to reproduce sound 
in 1877. In the same year Thomas Edison, 
produced a machine that was successful both 



Phonolate 


3720 


Phosphoric 


in recording and reproducing sound, and his 
phonograph was the first to be patented and 
given to the world. In the same year, also, a 
German scientist, Emil Berliner, invented 
the first disc machine, which he called a 
gramophone. The use and application of 
the phonograph is rapidly increasing. Men 
of affairs in increasing number dictate their 
correspondence to a talking-machine, and 
the record thus made is given to the typist, 
who transfers it in turn to the typewriter. 
Machines for this purpose, requiring inex¬ 
pensive and temporary records, are of the 
cylinder type. For most other purposes the 
disc machine is used. Institutions such as 
the British Museum, the Academic des Sci¬ 
ences in Vienna, and the Smithsonian In¬ 
stitution in Washington are making valu¬ 
able collections of famous original records. 

Phonolite, or Clinkstone, a volcanic rock, 
consisting essentially of nepheline and sani- 
dine feldspar. It usually contains also some 
form of augite, hornblende, or biotite. 

Phorcus, Pliorcys or Phorcyn, a sea 
deity to whom a harbor in Ithaca was 
dedicated. By Hecate he was the father 
of Scylla. 

Phororhacos, an enormous running bird of 
prey now extinct. Skeletons are found in 
Patagonia which show that it was about 
eight feet in height and had a skull larger 
than that of a horse. 

Phosgene Gas, carbony edichloride or car¬ 
bon oxychloride (CO Cla), a colorless gas 
with a penetrating odor, soluble in acetic 
acid and benzene, and rapidly decomposed 
by water. Phosgene gas was one of the 
most widely used of the poisonous gases 
employed during the Great War (1914-18). 
It causes a burning choking sensation and 
if inhaled in sufficient quantities causes 
death. It is also used in the dyestuff in¬ 
dustry. 

Phosphates, the salts obtained from phos¬ 
phoric acids. They are found in both animal 
and vegetable life but are most important 
as a mineral product. In all animal life 
phosphates occur in various forms, such as 
sodium phosphate in the fluids and soft tis¬ 
sues, particularly in the bile and urine, and 
■as calcium phosphate . in' the bones. . Phos¬ 
phate of magnesia is fouhd abundantly . in. 
vegetables and cereals. Phosphates occur as 
an original constituent in metamorphic 
rocks, in veins of igneous rock, in sedi¬ 
mentary rocks as organic fragments, and in 
bone beds mixed with phosphatic materials. 


There are two types of phosphate, known 
as hard-rock phosphate and soft-rock phos¬ 
phate. Most of the phosphate rock in the 
United States is manufactured into acid 
phosphate for fertilizing purposes, but there 
is a constantly growing demand for raw 
rock phosphate, freely ground, to be ap¬ 
plied directly to the fields. Phosphate rock 
is also used for the manufacture of phos¬ 
phorus. A large amount of phosphate rock 
is employed in the baking-powder industry. 
Consult Wyatt’s Phosphates of America; 
The Mineral Industry during iqiS, edited 
by Rouse; Phosphate Rock (publication IT. 
S. Geological Survey). 

Phosphatic Diathesis, a condition in 
which, owing to some defect in the digestive 
and assimilative process tlie urine turns 
more or less milky, not being sufficiently 
acid to keep the phosphates in solution. 

Phosphor Copper, a substance composed 
of copper containing about 10 per cent of 
phosphorous. 

Phosphorescence. Among plants the phe¬ 
nomenon of phosphorescence or luminosity 
is rare. It is probably confined to certain 
bacteria, to which may be attributed the 
phosphorescence of many decaying substan¬ 
ces, notably fish; and to some fungi which 
attack trees and produce the luminosity of 
rotten wood. Phosphorescence is very com¬ 
mon among marine animals. In terrestrial 
animals it is best marked in insects, where 
it is apparently always associated with sex, 
and is absent in land vertebrates. 

Physically, phosphoresence is that form of 
luminescence in which a body which has 
been exposed to light and then placed in the 
dark emits light for a greater or less period. 
With some substances the emission of light 
continues for some time after removal from 
the source; but .with others, by far the 
greater in number, the' phosphorescence is 
momentary. Phosphorescence is affected,by 
temperature; thus, warming up a surface 
covered with luminous paint increases' its 
luminosity. 

Phosphoric Acid.includes several distinct 
compounds in which phosphoric anhydride, 
PaOs, is combined with different propor¬ 
tions of water; though when used without 
prefix, it generally implies ordinary or ortho- 
phosphoric acid, HaPOi. It is a viscous 
liquid that crystallizes with difficulty, and 
mixes in any proportion with water to form 
a clean-tasting sour liquid. Orthophosphoric 
acid is used to a small extent in medicine, 



Phosphorite 


3721 


Photography 


and as a stage in the preparation of other 
compounds of phosphorus. 

Phosphorite, an impure massive form of 
apatite, mined for the calcium phosphate it 
contains, and forming one of the chief 
sources of phosphorus and its compounds, 
and of artificial manures. 

Phosphorous Acid, H-fPOs, is formed by 
acting on phosphorous trichloride with wa¬ 
ter or hydrochloric acid, and can be obtained 
crystalline by evaporating the solution. It 
acts as a powerful reducing agent. 

Phosphorus, P, 31, an element, which, 
though never found free in nature, is widely 
distributed in combination. Thus, it is an 
essential ingredient of the protoplasm of all 
living cells, and is present in well-marked 
amounts in nervous tissue and bones. Phos¬ 
phorus is also widely distributed in min¬ 
erals. Ordinary phosphorus is a waxy solid 
that is colorless when pure, and forms bril¬ 
liant, highly refractive crystals when sub¬ 
limed in a vacuum, though usually it is 
more or less colored pale yellow or buff from 
the action of light or the presence of im¬ 
purities. Phosphorus is most marked chem¬ 
ically by the readiness with which it is oxi¬ 
dized: thus, it glows and gives off fumes 
of a garlic odor when exposed to the air, 
and the action which thus takes place often 
warms it up sufficiently to cause inflamma¬ 
tion, which takes place a few degrees above 
its melting point, and with exceptional readi¬ 
ness if the phosphorus is in the finely-divided 
state obtained by evaporating its solution in 
carbon disulphide. When set on fire in the 
open air, or oxygen, it burns with a dazzling 
white light. Ordinary phosohorus is very 
poisonous, even small doses causing gastro¬ 
intestinal irritation; and though this may 
pass off, it is followed by fatty degeneration 
and internal hemorrhage, which is usually 
fatal. Bums caused by phosphorus are very 
troublesome to heal. Ordinary phosphorus 
is mainly employed in match manufacture. 
Other uses of common phosphorus are for 
the manufacture of vermin-killer, the pre¬ 
paration of phosphor-bronze, to a small ex¬ 
tent in medicine, and in the preparation of 
organic compounds. 

Photnig (c. 820—891), patriarch of Con¬ 
stantinople. Photius, through a council held 
at Constantinople, effected the temporary 
withdrawal of the Eastern from the Western 
Church. 

-- Photochemistry, deals with those chemical 
changes/... that are . brought about., or acceler¬ 


ated by the action of light— e. g. those that 
determine the growth of green plants, are 
instrumental in the act of vision, in the 
bleaching of colors, and are the basis of the 
various photographic processes. Most photo¬ 
chemical actions are primarily decomposi¬ 
tions: thus, with chlorine and hydrogen 
mixtures, from experiments on which most 
of the exact photochemical data are derived 
the first step in the action is probably the 
disintegration of the chlorine and hydrogen 
molecules into atoms, which are then free 
to combine to form hydrogen chloride. With 
elements such as yellow phosphorus, which 
is converted to the red variety, and in the 
formation of the latent photographic image, 
the nature of the action is not so clear, but 
probably indicates a molecular rearrange¬ 
ment. The presence of water and oxygen, 
and the formation of hydrogen peroxide (the 
production of which in sunlight has been 
shown to hinder putrefaction, and has prob¬ 
ably much to do with bleaching), have very 
important bearings on the chemical action 
of light. 

Photoengraving. See Process Work. 

Photography is the art of preparing per¬ 
manent representations of objects by means 
of the light they emit or transmit. The first 
photographs produced in the camera were 
made by Daguerre and Niepce (c. 1839), 
who sensitized a polished silver plate with 
the fumes of iodine, exposed it in the cam¬ 
era, developed it by means of mercury vapor, 
and fixed the resulting image by dissolving 
the unacted-on iodide with potassium cyan¬ 
ide. The next advance was made in 1841, by 
Fox Talbot, who invented the ‘calotype 5 
process. In 1864 Bolton and Sayce introduced 
collodion emulsion. A still further advance 
was made by Bolton in 1874, when he intro¬ 
duced a washed collodion emulsion. This ad¬ 
vance not only gave much higher speed, but 
the raw emulsion and plates coated there¬ 
with had much greater keeping power and it 
did much to popularize photography. The 
gelatine-bromide dry plate was invented in 
1871 by Maddox, and greatly improved in 
1878 by Bennett. The camera in which the 
image is impressed on the sensitive surface is 
a light-tight box in which the plate is fixed 
in such a position that an image of the ob¬ 
ject to be photographed is projected on to 
it by a lens or pinhole. Development is gen¬ 
erally carried out in a ‘dark room* lighted 
by rays that do not appreciably affect the 
plate—such as red light for ordinary plates— 





Photography 


3722 


Phrenology 


and is carried on until an image of sufficient 
density is obtained. The image is then fixed 
by immersing it in a solution of sodium hy¬ 
posulphite. Prints are then obtained from 
the negative by placing it in front of a piece 
of sensitized paper and exposing to light. The 
light passes through the negative most read¬ 
ily in the clearer portions, thus darkening the 
paper most at the places where little light 
fell on the plate when in the camera, and 
hence reproducing the shadows of the object. 
Similarly the high lights of the object pro¬ 
duce opacity in the negative, and this gives 
light places on the print. 

Within the last few years by the discovery 
of a new class of dyes, the so-called ‘isocyan¬ 
ines,’ the sensitiveness of the silver salts for 
the red end of the spectrum has been so much 
increased that the ‘ panchromatic* plate, sen¬ 
sitive to all colors, has placed an absolutely 
new power in the hands of the photographer 
both for artistic and scientific work. If suit- I 
able filters, that is, scientifically adjusted 
films of gelatin stained with aniline dyes, are 
inserted between the lens and the sensitive 
surface, it is possible to obtain a perfectly 
true representation of the relative brightness 
of different colors. This discovery may be 
practically said to have been one of the big¬ 
gest advances since the discovery of photo¬ 
graphy. Photography has become the hand¬ 
maid of science and commerce. In legal cases 
photographs of objects and places are fre¬ 
quently introduced into court for the pur¬ 
pose of aiding the jurors to a more intelligent 
understanding of the facts of a case. In as¬ 
tronomy, photographs of the heavens are 
furnishing extremely valuable data for re¬ 
search and investigation; while in biology 
and zoology the art is invaluable in the study 
of the life, haunts, and habits of wild ani¬ 
mals, reptiles, and insects. Photographs of 
micro-organisms have been exceedingly use¬ 
ful in medicine, and photographic exhibits 
play an important part in campaigns for the 
promotion of health and the prevention of 
disease. Photography as an adjunct to adver¬ 
tising is of constantly growing importance; 
while the large number of illustrated cata¬ 
logues issued periodically bear witness to its 
role in'the. business of selling. With the in¬ 
creasing demand for photographs for pub¬ 
licity purposes, a considerable number of 
companies have been incorporated, for the 
sole purpose of securing and supplying pho¬ 
tographs of prominent persons, places, and 
objects, for publishing and advertising 


houses. The possibilities of the field of tele¬ 
vision have by no means been explored, but 
it is along these lines that many photographic 
experiments are now being made. The ap¬ 
plication of photography in military prac¬ 
tice is of special interest. In all wars previ¬ 
ous to World War I photography had been 
largely in the hands of civilians, doing their 
work for profit and in haphazard manner. 
While there were a few authorized photogra¬ 
phers in the Signal Corps, there was no sepa¬ 
rate corps of photographers in the U. S. Army 
until its entrance into the European War in 
1917. Present-day military photography falls 
into two grand divisions: photography "in the 
air, and photography on the ground. Of these 
the most important is aerial photography . An 
important function of the Aviation Services 
of all armies is carrying military photogra¬ 
phers over the lines so that they may make 
record photographs revealing enemy works. 
By 1918 an automatic camera had been 
evolved that, once its mechanism was set 
going, did not need further attention from 
the operator. In World War II photography 
in its many phases played a very important 
role. Consult Journal of the Photographic 
Society of America; C. E. K. Mces, The 
Theory of the Photographic Process. See 
Moving Pictures. 

Photometry is the measurement of the 

relative amounts of light emitted by different 
sources, by comparing them with a suitable 
standard. The ordinary unit of measurement 
used in the United States and Great Britain 
is the candle-power, which is the light pro¬ 
duced by a standard candle of weight six to 
the pound, burning 120 grains of spermaceti 
wax per hour. There are many different kinds 
of photometers. Among the simplest are the 
Kumford and the Bunsen, Consult Fleming’s 
Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory; 
Palaz’s Industrial Photometry (Eng. trans.); 
Stine’s Photometrical Measurements; Record 
of the International Congress of Physicists, 
1900. 

Photophone, an instrument invented by 
Graham Bell and Sumner Tain ter, by which 
sounds, including speech, can be transmitted 
to a distance by the agency of light. 

Photosphere, the sun’s radiating surface, 
probably .composed of incandescent clouds 
floating in a less luminous medium. 

"Phrenology, a' pseudo-science, whose de¬ 
votees claim that the external features of 
the skull furnish an index to the mind and 
character. Franz Joseph Gall, a German, 



Phrygia 


3723 


Phyllite 


enumerated in 1796 some 30 faculties of the 
human mind. He believed the configuration 
of the skull to correspond closely with that 
of the brain, and declared that mental char¬ 
acteristics are recorded in relief upon the 
outer surface of the cranial bones. Dr. Ber¬ 
nard Hollander in 1901 published a work, 
The Mental Functions of the Brain ; or, the 
Revival of Phrenology, The author shows the 
association of certain types and symptoms of 
insanity with definite lesions of particular 
parts of the brain. But Dr. Hollander, in¬ 
stead of reviving Gall’s doctrines, gave the 
word phrenology a new significance. 

Phrygia, two ancient divisions of Asia 
minor. (1). Phrygia the Lesser occupied the 
n.w. corner of that country, being bounded 
e. by Bithynia and w. by the ^Egean Sea. 
(2.) Greater Phrygia was inland. The dis¬ 
tinction between Greater and Lesser Phrygia 
only holds good after about 550 b.c. The 
Phrygians were an Aryan race, akin either 
to the Greeks or to the Teutons, and mi¬ 
grated into Asia from Thrace. Troy was one 
of their chief cities; the Trojans of Homer 
were very possibly of Phrygian race; the 
fact that he assigns to them Greek names 
and Greek customs is an evidence of their 
similarity to the Greeks. They were inde¬ 
pendent under national monarchs, among 
whom Gordius and Midas are two names 
known to fable rather than history, until 
conquered by the Lydians; then they were 



subject successively to the Persians, Greeks, 
and Romans. They exercised a great influ¬ 
ence on Greek music and Greek religion, es¬ 
pecially in regard to orgiastic and mysterious 
worships, such as those of Dionysus and 
Cybele. 


Pfiryne, famous courtesan of ancient 
Athens, was a native of Thespis in Boeotia. 

Phthisis. See Tuberculosis. 

Phylactery, a cubical leather box from half 
an inch to one and a half inches in the side, 
containing, inscribed on parchment or vel¬ 
lum, Exod. 13:1-10, 11-16, and Deut. 6:4-9, 
11:13-21, and worn on the head, or on the 
left arm (inside, next the heart), during 
week-day prayers by the Jews, in literal ful¬ 
filment of the law. Sometimes they are fast¬ 
ened to the door-post. 



Physical Training, New York City Schools, 


Phyllanthus, a genus of mostly tropical 
plants belonging to the order Euphorbiaceae. 

Phyllite, an extremely fine-grained meta- 
morphic rock, resembling a slate, but con¬ 
taining a large percentage of fine, silky, pale- 
colored mica, and therefore lying between the 
slates and the mica schists in classification. 
It splits readily, and has a shimmering luster 
on the surface. 



Phyllotaxy 


3724 


Physical 


Phyllotaxy, that branch of vegetable mor¬ 
phology which discusses the modes in which 
foliage leaves are arranged on the branches 
of plants. 




leaves. 2. Alternate in five rows. 

3. Alternate in two rows. 4. Dia¬ 
gram of ‘two-fifths’ phyllotaxis. 

Phylloxera (Greek phyllon, ‘a leaf/ and 
zeros, ‘dry’), a genus of insects belonging to 
a family (Phylloxerinas) nearly related to 
aphids and coccus insects, and included with¬ 
in the suborder Homoptera in the order He- 
miptera. The most, important species is P. 
vastatrix, which has wrought havoc among the 
vineyards of Europe. It seems to have been 
discovered in North America about 1854, and 
in all likelihood was carried thence to Europe, 
where it appeared about 1863. 

Phytogeny, a biological term applied to the 
ancestral history of a group of animals or 
plants, in contradistinction to ontogeny, or the 
development of the individual. See Embry¬ 
ology; Heredity; Evolution. 

Phylum, or Phylon, in biology, the name 


for one of the larger subdivisions of the plant 
and animal kingdoms. The former is usually 
divided into six phyla—Myxophyta, Schizo- 
phyta, Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, 
and Spermatophyta. The animal kingdom is 
usually divided into eight phyla—Protozoa, 
Porifera, Ccelenterata, Vermes, Echinoderma- 
ta, Anthropoda, Mollusca, and Vertebrata. 

Physalis, a genus of herbaceous plants be¬ 
longing to the order Solanaceae. They bear 
violet, white, yellow, or purple flowers, the 
calyxes of which become inflated during the 
period of ripening of the fruit. This fruit, as 
is the case of P. peruviana, the Cape Goose¬ 
berry, and P. pubescens , is edible. 

Physical Education. See Physical 

Training. 

Physical Geography. See Physiog¬ 

raphy ; Geography. 

Physical Society, American, an associa¬ 
tion founded in 1899 for the advancement and 
diffusion of the knowledge of physics: affiliat¬ 
ed with the American Association for the Ad¬ 
vancement of Science. 

Physical Training, a branch of education 
concerned chiefly with developing and train¬ 
ing the body. The general aims of physical 
training are, first, the promotion of health, 
and, second, the formation of proper habits of 
action. There are six distinct groups of exer¬ 
cises used in physical training: they are free 
movements of the arms, legs, neck, and trunk 
(also known under the name of Calisthenics); 
movements of the. apparatus, such as the hori¬ 
zontal bar, parallel bars, vaulting horse, buck, 
rings, ladder, ropes, etc.; athletic exercises, 
•such as running, jumping, throwing weights, 
etc.; combative exercises, such as boxing, fenc¬ 
ing, and wrestling; games, such as baseball, 
football, dawn tennis, golf, basketball, cricket, 
lacrosse, etc.; and dancing, including various 
forms, ..such as classical and folk dancing. 
Every, complete system of physical training in¬ 
cludes. exercises from all these groups. The 
various forms of exercise are also classified on 
the basis of their physiological effect on the 
body. According to this classification there 
are light . exercises, such as .free movements 
with and without hand.apparatus; exercises of 
strength, such, as .lifting, heavy .dumb bells, 
wrestling, etc.; exercises,:of speed, such as 
short-distance running and swimming ; exer¬ 
cises of endurance, such as long-distance run¬ 
ning and swimming; exercises of skill, such 
as dancing and Indian dub swinging, charac¬ 
terized by complexity of movements and diffi¬ 
culty of execution. The selection and the at- 




Physical 


3725 


Physical 


rangement of the exercises chosen are deter¬ 
mined by the sex, age, and physical condition 
of the individuals to be trained. The result 
which should be secured by a rational system 
of physical training is to secure a complete 
education of the body which can be attained 
only by 7 careful and continuous training from 
early childhood to maturity. 

During the first six years of life, the child’s 
need for exercise is fully satisfied by free play. 
During the first four years of the elementary 
school, the physical training of the child con¬ 
sists mainly of free play supplemented by in¬ 
struction in simple gymnastic games and some 
of the fundamental exercises. The period of 
adolescence, from about 10 to 18 years, is by 
far the most important for the physical train¬ 
ing of the individual. The physical training of 
the individual should be completed when he 
reaches 18 to 20 years. This does not mean 
that physical exercise is no longer necessary, 
for physical activity is essential to health in 
every period of life. After 40 or 45, the heart 
and blood vessels become more susceptible to 
strain, and the muscles and joints lose in sup¬ 
pleness ; in consequence it becomes necessary 
to abandon exercises of strength, speed, and 
endurance, and to substitute some of the light¬ 
er forms of muscular activity. Three systems 
of physical training, developed in Europe dur¬ 
ing the 19th century, constitute the basis of 
modern physical training; they are the British; 
the Swedish; and the German. 

The British system is essentially a system 
of plays and games which has developed grad¬ 
ually as an expression of the play instinct in 
the English people. This system is valuable 
because it gives expression to the normal hu¬ 
man instincts for physical activity and com¬ 
petition, but it lacks a scientific basis and is 
incomplete as a system of physical training. 
The Swedish system was developed at the 
Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics, found¬ 
ed in Stockholm in 1813 by Peter Henry Ling. 
The characteristics of the Swedish system are 
as follows: Positions are distinguished from 
movements; every movement is selected for a 
definite purpose; movements which tend to 
constrict the chest or require the breath to be 
held are rejected; definite progression in the 
character of the movements is made from day 
to day; all movements are executed to the 
word of command, as in military drill. The 
weakness of the Swedish system is due to the 
too great emphasis given to the neural factor 
in exercise, the monotony for the rigid ‘day’s 


order 5 or lesson, and particularly to the omis¬ 
sion of all competitive and recreative exercises. 

The German system of physical training is 
one of the oldest and most extensively practic¬ 
ed today. Friedrich Ludwig Jahn is given cred¬ 
it of founding this system. With the coopera¬ 
tion of his friends and pupils, Jahn developed 
a scheme of physical training which included 
such exercises as running, jumping, vaulting, 
and various exercises on newly invented gym¬ 
nastic apparatus. He made use of every form 
of exercise which proved interesting. New 
forms of exercise were added from time to 
time until the system included games, free 
movements with and without hand apparatus, 
heavy gymnastics, running, jumping, climbing, 
throwing weights, wrestling, and fencing. 

Physical training has been developed far 
more extensively in the United States than in 
Europe. In the sixties, the colleges of Harvard. 
Yale and Amherst built gymnasia; rowing, 
baseball, and athletics were introduced in a 
number of colleges; Dr. Dio Lewis inaugurated 
a movement in favor of light gymnastics; and 
the Germans organized gymnastic societies 
and founded a school for training teachers. 
The new movement developed slowly during 
the first few years, but since that time the de¬ 
velopment has been very rapid. Abundant re¬ 
sources and freedom of thought and action 
have made possible the development of a 
national system of physical training which is 
rapidly taking its place as an integral part of 
American education. That the leadership of 
the United States in physical training and ath¬ 
letics is recognized by foreign nations is shown 
by the large number of commissions sent by 
foreign governments to study American insti¬ 
tutions and methods of physical training. 

One of the direct results of the popular in¬ 
terest in national preparedness aroused in 
the United States by the great European War 
of 1914 was the passage by the legislature of 
the State of New York of ‘An Act to amend 
the education law, in relation to courses of 
instruction in physical training and discipline 
in the schools of the State.’ The chief pro¬ 
visions of this act are as follows: After Sept. 
1, 1916, all pupils above the age of 8 years in 
all elementary and secondary schools shall re¬ 
ceive as part of the prescribed courses of in¬ 
struction therein such physical training as the 
Regents, after conference with the Military 
Training Commission, may determine, during 
periods which shall average at least 20 minutes 
In each school day. Pupils above such age at- 



Physician 


3726 


tending the public schools shall be required 
to attend upon such prescribed courses of in- 
st ruction. 

Similar courses of instruction shall be pre¬ 
scribed and maintained in private schools in 
the State, and all pupils in such schools over 
8 years of age shall attend upon such courses. 
Whenever the Regents shall adopt recom¬ 
mendations of the Military Training Commis¬ 
sion in relation to the establishment in elemen¬ 
tary and secondary schools, of habits, cus¬ 
toms, and methods adapted to the develop¬ 
ment of correct physical posture and bearing, 
mental and physical alertness, self-control, dis¬ 
ciplined initiative, sense of duty and spirit of 
cooperation under leadership, as provided in 
the military law, the Regents shall prescribe 
and enforce such rules as may be necessary to 
carry into effect the recommendations so 
adopted. The plan devised by the Military 
Commission was adopted by the Regents on 
Oct. 19, 1916. Its main provisions include: 

Individual health examination and personal 
health instruction; setting-up drills of at least 
two minutes’ duration at the beginning of 
each class period, or at least four times every 
school day; talks on hygiene; supervised rec¬ 
reation, organized play, and athletics; gym¬ 
nastic drills, 60 minutes a week under direc¬ 
tion of special teacher of physical training. 
See Gymnastics ; Track and Field Athle¬ 
tics ; Military Training in the Schools. 

Physician. See Medical Practitioner. 

Physicians, Royal College of, the prin¬ 
cipal chartered medical body in England, was 
founded through the instrumentality of Thom¬ 
as Linacre, who obtained, by his interest with 
Cardinal Wolsey, letters patent from Henry 
vhi., dated 1518. 

Physick, Philip Syng (1768-1837), Am¬ 
erican physician, called ‘the father of Ameri¬ 
can surgery,’ was born in Philadelphia, Pa. In 
1805 he was appointed to the newly establish¬ 
ed chair of surgery at the University of Penn¬ 
sylvania, and in 1819 became professor of 
anatomy, retaining this position until 1831. In 
1825 he was elected first American member of 
the French Academy of Medicine. Many nov¬ 
el instruments and improved methods were 
introduced by him into surgical work. 

Physic Nut (Curcas), a genus of plants 
of the order Euphorbiacese, having alternate, 
stalked, angled or lobed leaves, and corymbs 
of flowers on long stalks. The seeds abound in 
an acrid fixed oil which makes them power¬ 
fully emetic and purgative, or in large doses 
poisonous. 


Physiology 

Physics, that department of science which 
is concerned with the fundamental laws of the 
material universe. These laws are best studied 
by means of the simpler configurations which 
constitute inanimate nature; but the same 
laws are found to hold for organic nature, al¬ 
though the complexities of function and struc¬ 
ture associated with life, add enormously to 
the difficulty of following in detail the action 
of these physical laws. The broad distinction 
between chemistry and physics is that the 
former science considers more particularly the 
molecular changes of matter; but the two 
branches of science overlap, so that it is not 
possible to draw a clear line of division be¬ 
tween them. The various branches of physics 
are treated under separate headings, such as 
Heat; Light; Sound; Electricity. 

Physiocrat, the name now usually applied 
to the French economists of the 18th century. 
The founder and leader of the school was 
Francois Quesnay (1694-1774), a French phy¬ 
sician and economist. This school held that 
land is the source of all wealth, and agricul¬ 
ture the only industry that increases wealth. 
Since agriculture provides the sole revenue of 
a country, it was held that the state should 
claim from the landowner and the farmer all 
the contributions it required. See Economics. 

Physiognomy, the art or science of judg¬ 
ing of the character from the external appear¬ 
ance, especially from the countenance. The 
art is founded upon the belief, which has long 
and generally prevailed, that there is an ulti¬ 
mate connection between the features and ex¬ 
pression of the face and the qualities and hab¬ 
its of the mind. See Criminology ; Anthrop¬ 
ology. 

Physiography, a term understood to in¬ 
volve a compendious discussion of gravitation, 
heat, the composition of the crust of the 
earth, the movements of the sea, the phenom¬ 
ena of the atmosphere, and many cognate sub¬ 
jects, treated in this work under separate 
heads. See Earth; Geography; Geology; 
Geomorphology ; Geodynamics ; Atmo¬ 
sphere. 

Physiology, as. contrasted with Anatomy, 
which deals with organic structure, is con¬ 
cerned with the functions of living organisms, 
and with those laws or principles upon which 
vital processes and life itself'depend. While 
all living organisms, be they plants or animals, 
are ultimately composed of inorganic matter, 
they are sharply differentiated from the non¬ 
living by the possession of certain faculties or 
processes, : During life the organism is a center' 



Physiology 


3727 


Physiology 


for the transformation of energy, and it re¬ 
sponds to certain outside influences or stimuli. 
The small mass of protoplasm known as amoe¬ 
ba in virtue of life exhibits growth, mainte¬ 
nance, and reproduction, and these three ac¬ 
tivities are common to every plant and to 
every animal. Animals, as a rule, have in ad¬ 
dition the faculty of locomotion, and both the 
higher plants and animals pass through a stage 
of decay terminating in death. 

Every living being commences life as a min¬ 
ute mass of protoplasm, which is fundamental¬ 
ly the same whether the organism belongs to 
the animal or to the vegetable kingdom. In 
the course of development the cells are differ¬ 
entiated in diverse directions, and to varying 
degrees. Some animal cells built up such a 
product as bone; certain cells of the higher 
plants elaborate chlorophyll, a product of pro¬ 
toplasm, by means of which these plants are 
enabled to fabricate their food out of inor¬ 
ganic materials. .Animal cells, again, for their 
food require substances already organized by 
pre-existing cells. In both cases the cells elab¬ 
orate the raw food matter into more complex 
substances before they assimilate it. 

By the division of labor which results from 
aggregation of cells a great economy of energy 
is effected. Cell anabolism probably builds up 
a series of bodies which have a katabolic ten¬ 
dency—that is to say, they are liable to under¬ 
go a splitting-up process by means of which 
the molecular groups are rearranged and ener¬ 
gy is evolved and manifested in heat and mo¬ 
tion. A certain group of substances, some of 
which are constantly present in every living 
cell, is known as proteid. These proteids are 
not themselves liable to spontaneous explo¬ 
sion, but it is not unlikely that the addition 
of oxygen may temporarily unite some of them 
into a new compound which is readily decom¬ 
posable. Such a view explains the necessity for 
oxygen as well as the constant production of 
carbon dioxide by the living cell. The sources 
of the proteids of the human body are previ¬ 
ously-formed proteids, fats, and carbohydrates 
from vegetable and from animal food; and 
should the materials supplied be more than 
sufficient for the needs of the moment, the liv¬ 
ing cell can store them up for future use. In 
the absence of sufficient food supply the tissues 
live upon themselves, the more essential per¬ 
forming work and producing heat at the cost 
of the less essential. 

Alongside the muscular system as a liberator 
or spender of energy must be placed the nerv¬ 
ous tissues. Before leaving the body the nerv¬ 


ous form of energy is wholly or almost wholly 
transformed into heat. Heat and muscular 
work may be regarded as practically the sole 
forms in which energy leaves the mammalian 
body, and nerve and muscle may be regarded 
as the chief tissues by which energy is expend¬ 
ed. All the other tissues are subservient to 
these two supreme developments of proto¬ 
plasm. The integumentary tissues clothe and 
protect the muscles and nerves, and also act 
as excretory organs. The respiratory system 
provides the oxygen necessary for muscular 
and nervous activity, while the alimentary sys¬ 
tem, with all its accessory glands, supplies 
fresh energy by the ingestion and assimilation 
of food stuffs containing new stores of poten¬ 
tial energy. The circulatory systems of blood 
and lymph convey oxygen and pabulum to 
these all-important tissues as well as to those 
of secondary importance in the economy, and 
they remove such products of katabolism as 
are deleterious or of no further use to the ac¬ 
tive cells. They also carry the waste products 
to the excretory organs, whose function is the 
discharge of useless or effete material formed 
by the splitting up of the complex proteids. 

In considering the phenomena of growth, 
certain cells, the leucocytes of the blood and 
the wandering connective tissue corpuscles, 
may be looked upon as embryonic residues of 
undifferentiated amoeboid organisms. Compar¬ 
atively simple cells such as these grow and re¬ 
produce their kind in the same fashion as an 
amoeba. In cells more highly differentiated than 
white blood and connective tissue corpuscles 
reproduction is less simple and easy; but even 
muscle fibres multiply by fission. Among the 
higher vertebrates, nerve cells, which are the 
most highly specialized of all, lose in early 
embryonic life the faculty of multiplication. 
Their number is irrevocably fixed early in the 
existence of an individual. But they preserve 
the power of individual growth to a remark¬ 
able extent. For the continuation of life a 
process of reproduction is necessary. Through¬ 
out the entire organic world this process con¬ 
sists essentially in the detachment of a part of 
the parent. In the higher plants and animals 
reproduction is sexual, the female element un¬ 
dergoing development only after fusion with 
the male element. From the food and energy 
supplied by the parent the embryo builds up 
its tissues until it is fit for separate existence. 
The special form which the individual ulti¬ 
mately assumes depends upon qualities in¬ 
herited by the embryo in the parental ele¬ 
ments. For the physiological details of human 



Phytelephas 


3728 


Pianoforte 


tissues, organs, and functions, see such articles 
as Circulation op the Blood, Digestion, 
Lungs, Reproduction; for vegetable physi¬ 
ology, see Plants. 

Fhytelephas, a genus of palms, of which 
the most important species is P, macro car pa, 
the vegetable ivory tree. 

Phytopbthora, a group of parasitic fungi, 
of which much the most important species is 
P. infestans, the cause of the potato disease. 

Piacenza. Town, capital of the province 
of Piacenza, on the r. bk. of Po. Among the 
churches is the cathedral, elating from the 
1 2th century. The church of San Sisto (1499) 
formerly contained the famous Sistine Ma¬ 
donna by Raphael. Founded as a Roman col¬ 
ony at the same time as Cremona, Placentia, 
as it was then called, was destroyed by the 
Gauls in 200 b.c. Ecclesiastical councils were 
held here in 1095 and 1132. It formed part of 
the duchy of Parma, until incorporated in 
1S60 with the kingdom of Italy; p. 43,277. 

Pianoforte. This instrument was invented 
about 1710 by Bartolommeo Cristofori (1651- j 
1731), a harpsichord maker in Florence. It 
differs essentially from its now practically ob¬ 
solete precursors—the harpsichord and the 
clavichord, in having its strings set in vibra¬ 
tion by hammers. For many years after its 
invention the piano was only made in the 
large horizontal wing or tail form, which was 
that used for harpsichords. With modifica¬ 
tions to suit various requirements, this is still 
the most important form of the instrument, 
and bears the name of ‘grand.’ Upright pianos 
are thought.to have been first made by C. E. 
Friederici of Gera in Germany. Hawkins was 
the first to adopt overspun strings for the 
bass, and to construct a complete iron frame. 
Thomas Loud (1802) introduced diagonal 
stringing in upright pianos. 

By varying the proportions and adjustment 
of parts, makers can produce differences in 
tone, power and touch; but certain essential 
parts are common to all pianos. Besides the 
case there are the ‘frame,’ which sustains the 
tension of the strings; the ‘sounding-board,’ 
which is the voice of the -instrument; and the 
‘action/ which is the mechanism by means of 
which the strings are set in vibration and 
the tone is controlled. The frame is now 
generally of iron, cast in one piece. At one 
end of the frame there is a wooden wrest- 
plank, containing the tuning-pins, into which 
the strings are fastened, the other ends of the 
strings being secured to hitch-pins placed 
round the opposite end and side of the frame. 
The strings rest upon hardwood bridges. 


which are glued to the sounding-board. The. 
latter is an important feature, as its propor¬ 
tions and properties determine to a large ex¬ 
tent the tone-producing qualities of the in¬ 
strument. The strings when vibrating, have 
their tremors conveyed by the bridges to the 
sounding-board, which is thus set in vibra¬ 
tion. The action is a wonderful piece of 
mechanism. In the modern piano there are 
usually only two pedals: that controlled by 
the right foot, and called the ‘loud’ pedal, 
when pressed down removes the dampers col¬ 
lectively from all the strings; the ‘soft’ pedal 
diminishes the tone, either by shifting the 
action so that the hammers strike fewer 
strings, or by interposing a strip of cloth or 
felt, or by shortening the length of stroke of 
the hammers. A third pedal is sometimes in¬ 
troduced; it is used to obtain a sostenuto 
effect. The strings for a piano are made of 
cast steel of the finest quality, the smallest 
string having a breaking strain of about 300 
lbs. The earlier pianos seldom had a compass 
of more than four or five octaves; but as the 
instrument developed the compass was ex¬ 
tended, and since about 1835 the term, full 
compass—though some pianos have a few 
additional higher notes—has been understood 
to mean one of seven octaves. Music for the 
piano is written on the bass and treble 
staves, and like the organ, the piano is tuned 
to the system of equally tempered intervals. 
On February 7, 1936, a piano keyboard was 
reported that provides a seventeen note oc- 
tive. It was invented by A. C. Ogolenet, a 
Moscow musician. His inspiration came from 
the fact that the present keyboard does not 
differentiate betweeif sharps and flats. The 
advantage claimed for this new keyboard is 
that it will make possible the rendition of 
Arabic and Iranian music. In musical circles 
it is felt that progress toward this change had 
already been made by Alex Saba, a Czecho¬ 
slovak composer, and also by Rimsky Kor¬ 
sakoff. 

Pianoforte-players, Mechanical. The 
first method of playing an ordinary piano by. 
mechanical means seems to have been that 
invented by Debain-of Paris about 1848. The 
apparatus formed a part of the instrument in 
which it was used, and it could be introduced 
into organs and harmoniums as well as into 
pianos. Debain’s invention has been largely 
superseded by a system of mechanism control- 
ed by pneumatic action. The musical nota¬ 
tion of the composition which the instrument 
performs is represented by perforations made 
in a scroll of tough, strong paper wound upon 



Plarlsts 


3729 


Picasso 


a spool. The instrument is furnished with sev¬ 
eral little bellows originally worked by pedals, 
as in playing the harmonium. The more mod¬ 
ern instruments are entirely self-contained and 
are run by electricity. 

Piarists, or ‘Fathers of Pious Schools/ 
a religious congregation for the education of 
the poor, founded at Rome by a Spanish 
priest, Joseph of Calassanza, in 1617, confirm¬ 
ed by Gregory xv., and chiefly active in Poland 
and Austria. 

Piassava, or Piassaba, a name applied to 
either of two Brazilian palms— Attalea funi- 
fera (see Coqxjilla Nut) and Leopoldinia 
piassaba —and to the fibre obtained from their 
leaves. It is exported in considerable quanti¬ 
ties, to be employed in the manufacture of 
brooms and brushes. 

Piastre, a silver coin used in Turkey and 
Egypt, worth between four and five cents in 
United States money. In history it was a silver 
coin of Spain worth about a dollar, and famil¬ 
iar in historical romance as the ‘piece of eight,’ 
a name which refers to the subdivision of its 
value into eight silver reals. 

Piauhy, state of Brazil, is bounded on the 
n. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the n.w. by 
the state of Maranhao, from which it is sepa¬ 
rated by the river Paranahyba. Its area is 
116,520 sq.m. The surface is mostly a plain, 
and consists chiefly of rich pastures on which 
large herds of cattle are reared. Cotton, to¬ 
bacco, rice, rubber, and sugar are cultivated. 
The capital is Therezina; p. 809,508. 

Piave, river, N. Italy, rises in the Carnic 
Alps, flows s.e. between the Dolomites and the 
Venetian Alps, then bends in an abrupt right 
angle to the s.e. across the plain to the Gulf 
of Venice. The Piave has from the beginning 
of time been the first important water barrier 
of Italy on the e. Its lower course was the 
scene of bitter fighting during the Great War. 

Piave, Battle of. During the Great War 
(1914-19) , the Italian Army took its stand at 
the Piave following the retreat from the Isonzo 
in November, 1917. At that moment the out¬ 
look for Italy was dark. The loss of Venice 
would compel the Italian Navy to fall back 
four or five hundred miles to a base at Brin¬ 
disi. The Adriatic would thus become an Aus¬ 
trian lake; the Italian coastal towns would be 
the prey of enemy warships, and the Mediter¬ 
ranean infested with submarines. At this crit¬ 
ical moment occurred the fruitful Conference 
of Rapalle. Messrs, Lloyd George, Clemenceau 
and Orlando in joint session with their mili¬ 
tary advisers settled the vexed question of what 


support, economic as well as military, Italy 
might expect from Great Britain and France, 
and made the Neapolitan General Diaz Com- 
mander-in-Cliief of the Italian armies with 
General Badaglio as Chief of the General Staff. 
By Nov. 9 the rearguard of the Italian Third 
Army was safely over the Lower Piave and 
the Duke of Aosta was prepared to stand fast 
against Boroevic and Otto von Below. At this 
juncture the river was called upon to play an 
active part in the discomfiture of the invader. 
On Nov. 16 the floodgates of its canalized por¬ 
tions were thrown open, and the marshlands 
inundated to the sea. Nevertheless, by Nov. 
18 the Austrians possessed two more bridge¬ 
heads on the Lower Piave. None of these, 
however, could be used to advantage, for near 
the coast the Italian infantry was receiving 
valuable assistance from the marines, and the 
big guns of the monitors were cooperating 
with the land batteries. Italy could, therefore, 
afford to heave a sigh of relief, and Germany, 
recognizing a protracted stalemate, withdrew 
her Fourteenth Army under Von Below. 

With the coming of summer it became vital 
for Austria to assume the initiative with or 
without German aid. By June 17 the Aus¬ 
trians had thrown 14 new bridges over the 
river from Cape Sile up to the Monteilo, the 
northeastern half of which was in their hands. 
Nearly 100,000 men were across the Piave, and 
victory seemed within their grasp, when, as if 
in answer to a prayer, the river rose in flood. 
The Duke of Aosta achieved marked success 
by piercing the Austrian center between Fagare 
and Gandelu and recovering the banks of the 
river at several other points. Before the dawn 
of June 24 all of the west bank had been re¬ 
covered by Italy. 

Pibroch (Gaelic, Piobaireachd, ‘a pipe 
tune’), a form of bagpipe music, generally of a 
warlike character, including marches, dirges, 

etc. 

Picardy, an ancient province of N. France, 
comprising the present department of Somme, 
and parts of Aisne and Pas-de-Calais, the in¬ 
habitants of which still call themselves Picards. 
Amiens was its capital. 

Picaresque. See Novel. 

Picasso, Pablo (1881), Spanish post- 
impressionist painter, the founder and leading 
exponent of the Cubist movement, born in 
Malaga. After various changes in style, he de¬ 
veloped a purely geometrical method, which 
he handles with great technical facility. Ac¬ 
cording to his own statement, his works are 
of a psychical rather than a physical nature. 



Picayune 


3730 


Pickett 


his aim being to produce a pictorial equivalent 
of the emotions inspired by nature, not to per¬ 
petuate its external aspects. See Impression¬ 
ism. 

Picayune, a name derived from the Carib 
language, and used in Louisiana for a small 
coin worth 6 % cents, current before 1857. 

Piccard, Auguste (1884- ), Belgian 

physicist. In 1932 reached an altitude of 
54,120 ft. in a balloon. 

Piccard, Jean (1884- ), Am. physicist, 

twin brother of Auguste, chemical engineer, 
with explosives as his specialty. 

Pickering, Edward Charles (1846- 
1919), American astronomer, born in Boston. 
He established the first physical laboratory in 
the United States in the Massachusetts Insti¬ 
tute of Technology and carried out valuable 
researches in light and in the spectra of stars. 
In 1876-87 he was Phillips professor of astron¬ 
omy in Harvard, and in 1887 became Pain 
professor of astronomy. In 1902 he was ap¬ 
pointed director of astronomy in the Carnegie 
Institution, Washington, D. C. 

Pickering, John (1777-1846), American 
lawyer and philologist, son of Timothy Picker¬ 
ing, was born in Salem, Mass. He was a found¬ 
er of the American Oriental Society and its 
president up to the time of his death, and was 
president of the American Academy of Sci¬ 
ences. He gave special attention to the lan¬ 
guages of the North American Indians and 
published two works in this connection, be¬ 
sides as Greek-English lexicon. 

Pickering, Timothy (1745-1829), Ameri¬ 
can statesman, born in Salem, Mass. He par¬ 
ticipated in the campaign of 1777 against 
Howe; became quartermaster-general in 1780; 
md took part in the campaign which resulted 
in the capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown. He 
was chosen a delegate to the convention which 
ratified the Federal Constitution; and in 1789 
he was a delegate to the convention which 
framed a new state constitution. In 1790 he 
was sent by the government on the important 
mission to the Iroquois Indians; during 1791- 
95 was postmaster-general; and in 1795 was 
appointed secretary of war. During his ad¬ 
ministration of this office a military school at 
West Point was established. In 1795 he be- 
ame secretary of state, an office he continued 
to hold until May, 1800, when, owing to a 
quarrel with President Adams, against whom 
he had secretly been working, he was dismiss¬ 
ed. In 1803-11 he was a U. S. senator; 
and in 1812 and 1814 he was elected to Con¬ 
gress, and in 1817 became a member of the ex-, 


ecutive council of Massachusetts. Among his 
published works may be noted Letters Ad¬ 
dressed to the Native American (1797). 

Pickering, William (1796-1854), Eng¬ 
lish publisher. The Diamond Classics (1S21- 
31) was his first venture. Other series were 
the Christian Classics and the Oxford Classics. 
He adopted the Aldine Press trade-mark, used 
boards covered with dyed cloths instead of pa¬ 
per for binding, and became famous for the 
choice delicacy of his work. 

. Pickering, William Henry (1858-1938), 
American astronomer, born in Boston, Mass. 
In Peru he climbed to an altitude of 19,- 
500 ft. on Mount El Misti with the object of 
examining atmospheric conditions at different 
altitudes. He is the author of: Visual Observa¬ 
tions of the Moon and Planets (1900) ; Atlas 
of the Moon (1903); The Moon (1903) ; etc. 

Picket. A small detachment of soldiers, 
usually a platoon or section under command 
of an officer or a selected non-commissioned 
officer, posted in a convenient position from 
which, by means of sentinels and patrols, it 
can preserve an uninterrupted view of the 
ground to the front and flanks and report 
promptly any movements of the enemy. 

Picketing, a term used to designate the 
practice among workmen on strike of posting 
men to prevent non-striking workmen from 
filling the places left vacant in consequence of 
the strike. Such pickets are usually stationed 
at the entrance to workplaces, or at point 
where non-strikers must pass, and endeavor 
through persuasion to deter the latter from 
continuing in employment. So long as pickets 
do not employ force or intimidation, and do 
not annoy non-strikers by their acts, they are 
within their rights as citizens. In any impor¬ 
tant strike, however, it usually happens that 
some pickets will resort to violence or threats 
to attain their ends. Hence it has become com¬ 
mon for employers to apply to the courts to 
enjoin strikers. against picketing and its at¬ 
tendant unlawful acts. 

Pickett, Elbert Deets (1885- ) tem¬ 

perance worker, bom at Daingerfield, Texas. 
He studied liquor control in Great Britain and 
France during 1919 and represented the gov¬ 
ernment at the 16th International Congress 
Against Alcohol in 1921. He is the managing 
editor of the Cyclopaedia of Temperance and 
the. author of Enemies of Youth. 

Pickett, George Edward (1825-75) , Am¬ 
erican soldier in the Confederate service, born 
at Richmond, Va. At fair Oaks, June 1, 1862, 
: Ms brigade repulsed the attack of four Fedor- 



Pickford 


3731 


Piedmont 


al regiments, and at Gaines’s Mill, June 27, 
1862, he was so severely wounded as to be in¬ 
capacitated for duty until late in the year. On 
July 3, 1863, he led his division in its magnifi¬ 
cent charge on Cemetery Ridge at Gettysburg, 
the failure of which decided the issue of the 
battle. He commanded the Confederate in¬ 
fantry defeated by Sheridan at Five Forks, 
April 1, 1865. 

Pickford, Mary (1893- ), American 

motion picture actress, bom in Toronto, Can¬ 
ada, and named Gladys Mary Smith. After 
playing in minor parts, she was starred by 
David Belasco in 1913 as Juliet in A Good Lit¬ 
tle Devil. Her first appearance on the silver 
screen was in The Violin Maker of Cremona. 
Among her best known pictures are Stella 
Maris> Polly anna and Kikz. She married Doug¬ 
las Fairbanks in 1920. She is now head of 
the Mary Pickford Company, Hollywood, and 
the author of Why Not Try God (1934). She 
was divorced in 1935. 

Pickling consists in preserving fruits or 
other vegetable products in spiced vinegar. 

Picquart, Georges (1854-1914), French 
soldier, born at Strassburg, was appointed to 
the War Office staff (1883). For his evidence 
in the Esterhazy trial (1898) he was imprison¬ 
ed. In 1906, after the reinstatement of Drey¬ 
fus in the army, Picquart was appointed brig¬ 
adier-general, and became Minister of War in 
the cabinet of Ctemenceau. See Joseph Rein- 
ach’s L’Affaire Dreyfus (1898). 

Picquet. See Piquet. 

Picric Acid, trinitro-phenol (CeHsOH) 
(NO2)3, a product of the action of nitric acid 
on many compounds containing the benzene 
nucleus. It yields explosive salts by the sub¬ 
stitution of metals for the hydrogen of the 
hydroxyl group, and is used both as a dye, 
and, when consolidated by fusion, as a high ex¬ 
plosive for charging shells, under such names 
as melinite and lyddite. 

Picrite, a crystalline igneous rock which 
consists essentially of olivine and augite, but 
usually also contains iron oxides, a little feld¬ 
spar, bio tite, hornblende, and apatite. Picrites 
form a subdivision of the peridotities. 

Pictet, Raoul Pierre (1842-1929), Swiss 
savant, born at Geneva, where he afterward 
became a professor. He is chiefly known for 
his work on the liquefaction of gases. 

Pictor, a constellation s. of Columbia, 
formed by Lacaille in 1752. The chief star is 
of 3.3 magnitude and Sirian quality. 

Piets, an early race inhabiting the British 
Isles,' ultimately merged in the succeeding Cel¬ 


tic populations. The word was applied by the 
Romans, in the sense of Latin pictus, ‘a painted 
man,’ to those tribes who stained themselves 
blue and green. The Wall of Hadrian, built to 
repel their inroads, is locally known as the 
Piets’ Wall. But although they were specially 
associated with the territory that is now called 
Scotland, they had also colonies in the original 
Scotia— i.e. Ireland— notably in Ulster. The 
Irish Piets suffered a great defeat in 557, at 
the hands of the Owen O’Neills and another 
Gaelic clan. Eventually the national life of 
the Piets received its death-blow in 844, when 
Kenneth MacAlpin established the Gaelic su¬ 
premacy by his crowning victory at Stirling. 
See Nicholson’s Keltic Researches (1904). 

Picture Post Cards. The fashion of col¬ 
lecting picture post cards originated apparent¬ 
ly in Germany, the originators being enterpris¬ 
ing hotel-keepers. Then the artists took up 
the subject in France, Germany, Belgium, 
Holland, and Italy. The earliest English pic¬ 
ture post card in existence bears the date 
March 18,1872. Post cards were first used ex¬ 
tensively in the United States in 1897. 

Picture-Restoring, as an art, originated in 
, Venice, the St. Lawrence of Titian being a 
noted specimen. Old pictures are best cleaned 
by fluid solvents (alcohol), and new by dry 
friction. 

Picture-writing, or representation by pic- 
tographs and etchings, is the earliest and most 
natural method of communicating ideas be¬ 
tween those who are debarred by distance or 
other causes from intercourse by means of 
speech or signals. Among civilized races the 
pictures of objects became gradually abbre¬ 
viated into conventional symbols in which the 
original likeness was almost lost. (For an ac¬ 
count of such ideographs and the evolution of 
letters, see Hieroglyphics.) 

Pidgin, Charles Felton (1844-1923), Am¬ 
erican author, statistician, and inventor, was 
born at Roxbury, Mass. Among his many in¬ 
ventions for saving clerical work in preparing 
statistics are an electric adding and tabulating 
machine, an electric typewriter tabulator, and 
a multiple adding or chip system. 

Pidgin English, a jargon used in commer¬ 
cial dealings with the Chinese, consisting chief¬ 
ly of English, with some Chinese and Portu¬ 
guese words, constructed according to Chinese 
idiom. 

Piedmont (Ital. Piemonte) > region, N. 
Italy; area, 11,336 sq.m. It is traversed by the 
Po and Its tributaries. Its fertile plains produce 
rice, hemp, chestnuts, fruits, olives, truffles.. 



Piedmont© 


3732 


Piezometer 


and wine. It is also noted for its silk; p. 508 
626. It was occupied by the French in 1796, 
passed to Sardinia in 1814, and in 1859 to 

Italy. 



Picture-writing. 


1. N. American Indian, Wy¬ 
oming (‘one Indian killed an¬ 
other’). 2. Ojibway chiefs’ me¬ 
morial post (the inversion of 
the figures symbolizes death). 

3, 4. Mexican inscriptions from 
Atliaca and from Masaya. 

Piedmont© Plateau Region, an area of 
considerable extent, lying between the Atlantic 
Coastal Plain and the Appalachian Mountains. 
The underlying rocks of this region are old 
metamorphic crystallines in complex relation¬ 
ship and structure which were, during the long 
Cretaceous period of erosion, reduced to al¬ 
most a plain (peneplain), Subsequent eleva¬ 
tion of the eastern continental border caused 
a retreat of the sea, bringing the Atlantic 
Coastal Plain into, existence ^nd at the same 
time raising the former peneplain to a height 
consistent with' the term plateau. 

Pierce, Franklin (1804-69), 14th Presi¬ 
dent of the. United States, born at Hillsboro, 
N. H., ; Nov. 23, 1804. In 1829. Pierce entered 
the N. H. legislature, where, he served four 
y ears, the last , two as speaker of the House. In 
1832. he was.elected.a representative in Con¬ 
gress,-where he also served four years.- In 1837 
hq succeeded John Page in the Senate, enjoy¬ 
ing the distinction of being the youngest mem- 
t>er of that body. He resigned his seat A*jg, 31 ■■■ 


1842, and resumed the practice of law at Con¬ 
cord. Here he shortly rose to acknowledged 
leadership of the bar. On the outbreak of the 
Mexican War in 1846, Pierce was commission¬ 
ed colonel of the Ninth New Hampshire In¬ 
fantry, and on March 3, 1847, was made a 
brigadier-general of volunteers. He went to 
Vera Cruz, served under Gen. Scott m the 
campaign against the City of Mexico. 

In Jan., 1S52, the Democratic state conven¬ 
tion of N. H. nominated Pierce for President, 
but he refused to permit his name to be used! 
Under the lead, however, of Senator James W. 
Bradbury of Maine, his classmate and friend, 
his candidacy was skilfully nursed. In the 
Dcmociatic national convention at Baltimore, 
in June, his name did not appear until the 
35th ballot; on the49th ballot he .received 282 
votes in a total of 288. His popular vote was 
1,601,494, against 1,386,580 for Scott and 156,- 
667 for the Free Soil candidate, John P. Hale. 
The leading events of his administration were 
the settlement of the Mexican boundary con¬ 
troversy by the Gadsden purchase; the adjust- 
ment of a controversy with Great Britain over 
the fisheries, and the conclusion of a treaty 
providing for reciprocity with Canada for ten 
years; a commercial treaty with Japan follow¬ 
ing upon the expedition of Commodore Perry ; 
the Ostend Manifesto; the reorganization of 
the consular and diplomatic service; the es¬ 
tablishment of the United States Court of 
Claims; and the completion of surveys for a 
Pacific railroad. In the Democratic National 
Convention of 1856 he showed at first con¬ 
siderable strength, but failed of renomination. 
Piers Plowman. See Langland, William* 
Pieta,^ a work of art representing the 
lamentation of the women over the body of 
Christ after its removal from the cross. 

Pietists, a party in the Lutheran Church, 
which appeared in Germany at the end of the 
17th-century. They laid great stress on the 
emotional in religion and decried dogmas and 
ecclesiastical institutions. The extravagance of 
the pietists brought the movement into con¬ 
tempt, and the name has now an opprobrious 
signification, implying lack of intelligent belief 
or mere affectation of piety. 

Ptetra Dura, Florentine inlaid work of the 
finest kind, formed of stones of extreme hard¬ 
ness, such as agate, jasper, chalcedony, carne- 
lian, amethyst, and lapislazuli, set in a slab of 
marble, generally of a dark color. 

Piezometer, an instrument for measuring 
the compressibility of liquids. It consists of 
a cylindrical bulb and tube to contain the lb 






3733 


Pigeon 


Pag 

quid, which is enclosed by immersing the open 
end of the tube in some mercury at the foot 
of a strong glass cylinder. 

Pig (zoological). The family Suidae in¬ 
cludes the cloven-hoofed ungulate mammals 
whose domestic races are called pigs, hogs, or 
swine. They are closely related to the Hippo- 
potomidae and the Dicotylidae or peccaries (the 
latter being sometimes popularly classed with 
the Suidae), and the three families together 
form the group Spinae. Among the more im¬ 
portant characters of the pig family are the 
presence of an elongated mobile snout, 
which terminates in a naked disc-like surface 
bearing the nostrils, and of four complete 
toes on each foot, of which two touch the 
ground and the other two, though elevated, 
are useful in preventing the foot from readily 
sinking in marshy ground. The animals are 
more or less gregarious. The flesh of wild pigs 
is palatable, boar’s head being a famous dish. 
The Suidae are confined to the Old World, the 
peccaries to the New. 

Domestic Pigs.— All known domestic 
breeds of swine may be divided into two 
groups: The European hog (Sus scrofa ) 
sprung from and resembling the wild boar, 
and the Asiatic pigs, presumably descended 
from the Indian wild boar (Sus cristatus ). 

The breeds with a white color, fine bones, 
thin skin, short legs, and a tendency to fatten 
at an early age, take these characteristics from 
the Chinese hogs. The black breeds, like the 
Essex, obtain their marked characteristics 
from the Neapolitans. The Yorkshire, the 
principal English white breed, is divided into 
three sub-varieties: The Large Whites or 
Large Yorks, Middle Whites, represented by 
the Cheshires, and the small Whites or Small 
Yorkshires, which are considered the smallest 
and finest of the white breeds. They mature 
early and fatten quickly. Pigs are raised in 
all parts of the United States, but the great 
pork-producing section is the Mississippi val¬ 
ley, where corn is abundant and cheap. 

Though prohibited by the Jews, and later 
by the Mohammedans, pork has been a popu¬ 
lar flesh food since earliest times, and con¬ 
stitutes a large part of the diet of many na¬ 
tions. The ham and shoulders are corned and 
smoked, and fat cuts are cured for salt pork 
or bacon. Lard, or rendered fat, is an im¬ 
portant culinary product. Pig skin is tanned, 
making a leather popular for saddles, for 
travelling bags, etc. The bristles are of much 
value for brush making. 

. Pigeon, or Dove, names applied in the 
extended sense to all the members of the fam¬ 


ily Columbidse, or restricted to the numerous 
species of the genus Columba, to which be¬ 
long the domesticated pigeon and the wild 
pigeons of Western Europe. The family is 
cosmopolitan, being most abundantly repre¬ 
sented in the Malay Archipelago, New Guinea, 
and the neighboring islands. In all pigeons the 
body is compact, while the power of flight 
is usually great, and the habits are generally 
similar to those of the domesticated form. 
(See Fruit Pigeons.) The three European 
species have interest for all the world because 
of their associations. They are the wood- 
pigeon or cushat (C. palumbus ), which can 
be recognized by the broad white patch on 
each side of the neck, the white band on the 
wing, and the variously-tinted breast; the 
rock-dove (C. livia), the origin of the domes¬ 
ticated races, distinguished by the white rump 
and the two black bands on the wing: and 
the stock-dove (C. cenas ), in which the rump 
is gray. Not very different from these is the 
common American mourning dove (Zenaidura 
macrura ), and other tree doves occur in Cen¬ 
tral America. 

Fancy Pigeons .—There are a large number 
of varieties of fancy pigeons, differing widely 
in outward appearance. The breeding and 
rearing of pigeons is a profitable hobby with 
many. Pigeon post was used by the Romans. 
It is now organized for war purposes by all 
the European military powers. There are many 
kinds of homing pigeons, but that generally 
preferred is a Belgian variety known as the 
‘Liegeois.’ English pigeons are stronger but 
heavier. All these breeds are believed to be in 
part derived from the carrier pigeon used as 
a messenger in remote ages in Persia. A pigeon 
has been known to carry a message 1,040 m.; 
but this is quite exceptional, and it is generally 
held that 100 m. is as much as should be at¬ 
tempted. The rate of flight for distances up 
to about 150 m. appears to average usually 
about 37 m. an hour, but decreases for longer 
distances. The message is written, or micro¬ 
scopically photographed, on very fine paper or 
film, rolled tightly and enclosed in a goose- 
quill case, which is then attached by a waxed 
silk thread to the root of a strong feather in 
the bird’s tail. Homing pigeons require careful 
selection and breeding, much attention, and 
regular training. In the German military lofts 
they are fed twice a day on vetches. 

Pigeon-shooting, a sport of English origin, 
can be traced onward from 1793. In America 
live pigeons were used in many clubs and for 
the National championship up to about 1900. 
These laws prohibited wild birds and the clay 



Pigments 


3734 


Pilchard 


targets (known as ‘Blue Rocks 5 ) were substi¬ 
tuted. They are made of pitch and clay, col¬ 
ored blue, are about 3 J2 inches in diameter. 
The Grand American Handicap, is the chief 
event of the kind during the year. 

Pigments are the dry powder colors which, 
when mixed with suitable vehicles, form oil 
or water paints. They are obtained chiefly 
from minerals, being compounds of metals, as 
the oxide, carbonate, silicate, chromate. Other 
pigments are obtained from the animal king¬ 
dom—such as sepia, and from the cuttle-fish. 
Others again are obtained from the vegetable 
kingdom—such, for example, as madder, in¬ 
digo, sap green, and gamboge; while a few 
are of a nondescript character—such as as- 
phaltum, a kind of pitch. 

Pigments, of animals. See Color of 
Animals. 

Pig-sticking, or wild-boar hunting, a sport 
practised in India, Germany, N. Africa, New 
Zealand, and other countries. The pig-stick¬ 
ers are mounted on horses, and carry a spear, 
about eight feet in length, which is used with 
an underhand action. 

Pika, or Tailless Hare ( Lagomys ) a 
genus of small rodents related to the hares 
and rabbits. In appearance pikas resemble 
guinea-pigs, being about the same size. Typ¬ 
ically mountain forms, they are abundant in 
the Rocky Mountains (the cony, or little 
chief hare, L. pnnceps) and in the Himalayas. 

Pike ( Esox Indus ), a voracious fresh-water 
fish of the family Esocidae, occurring 
throughout the northern hemisphere. The 
body is narrow and elongated, reaching a 
length of from 45 to 46 inches, and a weight 
of from 35 to 36 lbs., or even more. The gen¬ 
us is represented in America by six smaller 
species commonly called pickerel, while E. 
estor , the great pike of the Great Lakes, is 
called ‘muskelunge, 5 or ‘maskinonged All pos¬ 
sess game qualities and are excellent eating. 

Pike, a military weapon, consisting gener¬ 
ally of a long lancehead attached to a wood¬ 
en pole, or an iron spike. The pike has now 
been superseded by the more deadly bayonet. 

Pike, Albert (1809-91), American poet. 
He practised law in Arkansas, and in the 
Mexican. War. he commanded a squadron in 
the Arkansaw Calvary Regiment. At the 
opening or the Civil War. he was Confeder¬ 
ate. commissioner to negotiate, treaties' with 
the Indians. From 1S66 to 1868 he practised 
law in Memphis, Tenn., then removing to 
Washington, D. €., where he afterward re¬ 
sided, practising in the Supreme and district 


courts. He rose to prominence in Free¬ 
masonry in the U. S., and published Morals 
and Dogma of Freemasonry (1870) and 
other Masonic works. ‘To the Mocking- 
Bird/ ‘The Widowed Heart/ and ‘Dixie 5 are 
among his best known poems, some of which 
reach a high level. His writings were col¬ 
lected as Prose Sketches and Poems (1834), 
Nugx, verse (1854), and Poems (1873 and 
1881). 

Pike, Nicolas (1818-1905), American 
naturalist. He removed early in life to 
Brooklyn, N. Y., and was the first to identify 
mastodon remains discovered in the neigh¬ 
boring town of Jamaica. Through the influ¬ 
ence of Daniel Webster he was appointed U. 
S. consul in the island of Mauritius. He pre¬ 
sented to Harvard more than 800 specimens 
and drawings of the fish of the Indian Ocean, 
and received the special thanks of Prof. 
Agassiz. 

Pike, Zebulosi Montgomery (1779-18x3), 
American soldier, born at Lamberton, N. J. 
In 1805 he was ordered to ascertain the true 
source of the Mississippi, and in the course 
of the following winter worked his way with 
a small party as far north as Cass Lake. He 
also explored the Rocky Mountains, one of 
whose peaks bears his name. 

Pike’s Peak, a summit (14,107 ft. high) 
of the Rocky Mts., 12 m, w. of Colorado 
Springs, Col It was named after Gen Zeb- 
ulon M, Pike. 

Pilatus, mountain mass, w. of the s. arm of 
Lake of Lucerne, Switzerland, reaches an 
altitude of 7,000 ft. A legend placed here 
the suicide of Pontius Pilate; but the name 
is in reality derived from pileatus, as the 
range is often ‘capped 5 by clouds. 

Pilchard, or Sardine (Clupea pilchardus ), 
a European fish belonging to the same genus 
as the herring and the sprat. In commerce 
the pilchard and the sardine are regarded, 
as distinct; but the sardine of the French 
fisheries is the pilchard in its first year. The 
habits are almost exactly the reverse of those 
of the herring. The fishery is conducted 
during the winter near the shore, the boats 
rarely going more than ten miles out. The 
young forms appear on,the western coasts of 
France from May onwards, and have then 
a length .of from five to seven inches. It is 
these young forms which constitute the sar¬ 
dines of commerce. The fish are captured 
both in drift-nets and in seines. The sardines 
are salted as soon as they are taken into port, 
and subsequently cooked in oil, and then 



Pile 


3735 


Pillow 


soldered into tin boxes which are filled with 
pure olive oil. Concarneau in Brittany is 
the chief center of this industry. 

Pile Dwellings. The custom of living in 
houses built upon a platform supported by 
wooden piles is of great antiquity, and ob¬ 
viously had its origin in the desire for se¬ 
curity against wild beasts. 

Piles, or Haemorrhoids, are chiefly due to 
the presence of some obstruction to the portal 
circulation. 

Piles and Pile Driving. A load may be 
supported on soft or treacherous ground by 
driving down one or a number of long, 
heavy stakes or round timbers, called piles. 



Pile Foundation, before depositing con- 
crete. 


This makes a pile foundation, a device of 
great antiquity (see Pile Dwellings) . Piles 
are used in the same way to-day, in very 
great extent, affording the cheapest method 
of securing a foundation where the soil will 
not carry the load directly, or where it is not 
convenient to spread the foundation suffi¬ 
ciently. Timber piles are most used, but in 
recent times iron, concrete, and reinforced 
concrete have found application. In one 
method, the concrete is rammed into the hole 
by heavy drop hammers, tending to force the 
concrete out into the soil and thus form an 
enlarged bottom section. The Raymond pile 
is formed within a thin steel shell left in the 
hole after withdrawing the driving core. The 
Simplex method employs a strong tubular 
driving pile, through which the concrete is 
later rammed down, the steel pile being grad¬ 
ually pulled up. The steam-hammer pile- 
driver is much used. This has what is in 
effect a verticle steam-engine sliding in the 
leads and set on the pile head. Its heavy pis¬ 
ton strikes the pile a rapid succession of short 
blows, which are more effective and less 


destructive to the pile-head than the heavier 
impacts of an ordinary driver hammer. Jet¬ 
ting piles down is done by means of a water 
pipe fastened along the side of the pile or 
passing through the center (in concrete 
piles), a stream of water under heavy pres¬ 
sure being forced through the pipe so as to 
scour away the earth from in front of the 
pile point. 

Pilgrim, one who makes a special journey 
(thence called a ‘pilgrimage’) for the purpose 
of visiting a shrine or other hallowed spot. 
Pilgrimages are common to most religions, 
and many places are credited with special 
sanctity. Thus, the mosque of the sacred city 
of Mecca attracts devout Moslems from all 
parts of Islam. 

Pilgrim Fathers. In American history, the 
name applied primarily to the 41 male pas¬ 
sengers (exclusive of servants) on the May¬ 
flower who landed at Plymouth, Mass., in 
1620, on Dec. 11. The title is sometimes in¬ 
accurately applied to all the early settlers of 
Massachusetts who held similar religious 
views. 

Pilgrim Fathers, United Order of the. 

A fraternal organization established in 1879 
for the purpose of furnishing insurance. 

Pillar, the pier on which the arches rest in 
decorative architecture, although the Latin 
mediaeval writers employed the word colum¬ 
ns. Sir Christopher Wren constantly uses 
‘pillar’ in describing both Roman and Gothic 
buildings. 

Pillau, or Pillay, a Turkish dish of rice 
with fowl or mutton, raisins, almonds, chil¬ 
lies, and cardamons boiled or stewed to¬ 
gether, and served up with sweet gravy and 
fried onions. 

Pilling, James Constantine (1846-95), 
American ethnologist, born in Washington, 
D. C. In 1S91 he took charge of the ethno¬ 
logical work at the Smithsonian Institution. 
He published, among other works, Languages 
of the North American Indians (1885); Es- 
kimo Language (1887) ,* and Mexican Lan¬ 
guage (1895). 

Pillory. This was a frame erected in a pub¬ 
lic place, with holes for the head and arms, 
in which malefactors were exposed to the 
public. The pillory was abolished by act of 
Congress in 1839. 

Pillow, Fort. A fortification in Tennessee, 
40 m. n. of Memphis at the junction of Cool 
creek and the Mississippi river. It was con¬ 
structed by the Confederates under direction 
of Gen Gideon J. Pillow in 1861-62, bub 


Pills 


3736 


Pin 


after the defeat of the Confederate vessels 
on the river, was dismantled on May 2 <, 
1862. 

Pills, the most generally convenient and 
popular of all forms of medicine. They are 
formed from masses of a consistence suffi¬ 
cient to preserve the globular shape, and yet 
not so hard as to be of too difficult solution 
in the stomach and intestines. 

Pilot, a person specially deputed to take 
charge of a ship while passing through a 
particular sea, reach, or dangerous channel, 
or from or into a port. Pilot boats usually 
lie well out to sea (5 to 200 m.) in the re¬ 
gions most traversed by ships. When the 
pilot, is received on board a merchant ship 
he takes entire charge of her navigation, sub¬ 
ject only to the right of the captain to super¬ 
sede him if in his judgment this step be¬ 
comes necessary. 

Pilot Fish (Naucrates ductor) , or Romero, 
a fish belonging to the family Carangidae. It 
is usually found in the open sea, and is wide¬ 
ly distributed in tropical and temperate re¬ 
gions. It measures about a foot in length, 
is shaped like a mackerel and is variable in 
color. 

Pilot Snake, the popular name of a harm¬ 
less colubrine snake ( Coluber obsoletus) of 
the Eastern United States. It is lustrous 
black with white-edged scales, and is some¬ 
times six feet in length. 

Piloty, Karl von (1S26-86), German his¬ 
torical painter, was born in Munich. Among 
his best works are Announcement of the Sen¬ 
tence of Death to Mary Stuart, The Discov¬ 
ery of America and Thusnelda in the Tri¬ 
umph of Germanicus. A replica of the last 
is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New 
York City. 

Pilsext, city, Czechoslovakia, now Plzen* 
Brewing is the leading industry, Pilsener beer 
having a world-wide reputation. The town 
was stormed by Count Mansfield in the 
Thirty .Years’ War (1618); it was Wallen¬ 
stein’s headquarters ' in 1633-4; P* 121,200. 

Pilsudski, Joseph (1867-1935), Polish 
public official, spent five years in exile in 
Siberia for alleged conspiracy in an at¬ 
tempt on the life of Alexander in. After his 
return from exile (1892), he assisted in or¬ 
ganizing the Polish Socialist Party and be¬ 
came editor of its secret paper, Robotnik 
(The Workman), whose aim was to prepare 
the people to work for independence. In the 
Great War the Polish Military Organization 
under Pilsudski’s leadership helped to free 


Poland from Russia and eventually from the 
Central Powers. In Warsaw (191S), he be¬ 
came Chief of State. This office he retained 
until the adoption of the constitution, when 
he declined the office of president. He ac¬ 
cepted, however, the office of minister of war 
and chairman of the supreme army council. 

Pilsudski virtually became dictator of Po¬ 
land. For more than a decade he carefully 
balanced Poland’s foreign policy to avoid em¬ 
broilment with Soviet Russia, to the east, and 
Republican Germany, to the west, preserving 
the wartime friendship with France. But the 
rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany found Pil¬ 
sudski leaning to a puzzling Germanophile 
attitude. He signed a ten-year peace agree¬ 
ment which helped the Nazis develop a 
stronger policy against France. He died in 
May, 1935. 

Plitdowix Skull, a palaeolithic human skull 
found in Piltdown Common, Sussex, England, 
in 1912. It is said to belong to the Pliocene 
period, and to be much older than the skulls 
of cavemen discovered in Germany, Belgium, 
and France. 

Pimento, a genus of tropical American 
trees belonging to the order Myrtaceae. The 
chief species are P. officinalis , the pimento, or 
all-spice bush, furnishing in its dried unripe 
fruit the spice known by that name. 

Pimpernel, a name given to certain plants 
belonging to the genus Anagallis , a subdivi¬ 
sion of the order Primulaceae. The scarlet 
pimpernel (A. arvensis) is sometimes known 
as the poor man’s weather-glass, because its 
flowers open only in fine weather. 

Pin, an article of wood or metal, usually 
cylindrical in shape, used to fasten objects 
together. Safety-pins were an invention of 
the Bronze Age. By the 14th century pins 
had reached a place of importance in the 
commercial world. In 1483. the importation 
of pins into England was forbidden, and in 
1543 an Act of Parliament regulated their 
sale and manufacture. ‘Pinncs. must be' 
double-headed, the shank well smoothed, the 
point well sharpened,’ and they could be sold 
only on the first and second day of January. 
From this custom the expression ‘pin-money,’ 
is said to have originated for then husbands 
supplied their wives with money expressly for 
their purchase. In 1817 Seth Hunt, an Eng¬ 
lishman, patented an unsuccessful pin-mak¬ 
ing machine and seven years later, L. W. 
Wright, an American, patented the machine, 
which revolutionized the pin industry. Not 
until 1836, when the Howe Manufacturing 



Pina 


3737 


Pine 


Co. opened a factory in Birmingham, Conn¬ 
ecticut, was the industry practically estab¬ 
lished. 

Pina ClotJh, an expensive fabric made by 
the natives of the Philippine Islands from 
the fibres of the pine-apple leaf (Ananas 
sativa ). 

Pinar del Rio, city, Cuba, in the province 
of Pinar del Rio. 

Pinchot, Gifford (1865- ), American 

forester and public official, was born in Sims¬ 
bury, Conn. He was made president of the 
National Conservation Association in 1910, 
was commissioner of forestry for Pennsyl¬ 
vania, 1920-1923, and governor of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, 1923-1927. He was re-elected for 
I 93 I- 35 - He was one of the founders of the 
Yale School of Forestry, negotiated the 
settlement of anthracite coal strike (1923) 
and served on many commissions in connec¬ 
tion with conservation, agriculture, and effi¬ 
ciency in government. When Pinchot resigned 
as national forester in the Taft Administra¬ 
tion and led a fight against Secretary of the 
Interior Ballinger, the incident was a factor 
in the break between President Taft and 
Theodore Roosevelt which divided the Rep¬ 
ublican Party in 1912. (See Forestry.) 

Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth (1746- 
I ^ 2 5 ), was colonel (1776) on Washington’s 
staff, was a member of the convention which 
framed the Federal Constitution in 1787, of 
the S. C. Convention which ratified the Con¬ 
stitution and of the S. C. Constitutional Con¬ 
vention in 1790. In 1797 he was appointed 
with Marshall and Gerry to treat with 
France, but, as Talleyrand demanded $240,- 
000 as a condition of beginning negotiations, 
the American commissioners broke off rela¬ 
tions and Marshall and Pinckney returned to 
America. When warned by Talleyrand that 
a refusal to negotiate might precipitate war, 
he is said to have made his famous remark; 
‘War be it then; millions for defence but not 
a cent for tribute.’ When war seemed im¬ 
minent with France he was appointed major 
general in the regular army. He was selected 
as the Federalist candidate for vice-president 
in 1800, and was the candidate for president 
against Jefferson in 1804, and against Madi¬ 
son in 1808. 

Pindar (522 to 442 b.c.), Greek lyric poet, 
was a native of Thebes in Boeotia, and be¬ 
longed to one of its noblest and most an¬ 
cient families. He was influenced by the 
Theban poetess /.Comma, with whom he is 
said to have competed several. times and al¬ 


ways unsuccessfully. His earliest extant poem 
was written in 502 b . c ., and his latest in 452 
or 450. Some authorities date his death 
earlier than 442, but its time and manner are 
uncertain. His extant poems represent only 
one side of his poetic activity. They are all 
Epinician Odes —odes written in honor of 
victors in the Greek national games. Pindar 
also composed hymns of praise to the gods; 
paeans or songs of prayer and thanksgiving, 
chiefly to Apollo; dance songs of a secular 
nature for festivals; processional hymns; 
hymns for choruses of girls; laudatory poems 
on heroes; drinking songs; dithyrambs or 
hymns to Dionysus; and, lastly, dirges. Odes 
of Pindar touch but lightly on the individual 
performer or his feat; they soon pass to 
speak of the glories of the family or the na¬ 
tion from which he is sprung, and, in retell¬ 
ing some well-known myth, illumine the 
present with the past. 

Pindus, a mountain chain in central Greece, 
dividing Thessaly from Epirus; its greatest 
height is 7,665 ft. 



Pine (P. sylvestris). 

1, Stamen; 2, scale; 3, seed; 
4, cone. 


Pine (Pinus) , a genus of evergreen trees 
belonging to the family Conifers. Many 
species and varieties occur which are distrib¬ 
uted in vast forests all over the northern 
half of the globe, reaching even into the 
tropics, where they clothe the mountain 



Pineapple 


3738 


Ping-pong 


slopes. They are distinguished by their 
needle-like leaves in clusters of one to five. 
The fruit of the pine is a woody cone matur¬ 
ing in two or three years. Most of the 
species fall into two fairly well-marked groups 
— ‘hard 5 pines and ‘soft’ pines. The hard 
pines are heavier and darker-colored, ranging 
from yellow to deep orange or brown. The 
soft pines are lighter, and range in color 
from light red to white. When once well 
seasoned, pine wood is not subject to the 
attacks of boring insects. The straight¬ 
growing, tapering stem fits in for masts and 
spars. Perhaps the most valuable American 
species is the white pine (P. strobus), a tall 
stately tree from 100 to 120 ft. in height, 
found from Newfoundland to Manitoba and 
as far south as Northern Georgia. Another 
species of great economic importance is the 
long leaved P. palustris , also known as 
Georgia pine. Among the western pines is 
the valuable yellow or bull pine (P. ponder - 
osa), a gigantic tree (300 ft.) with a narrow 
spire-like head, which forms in the Western 
United States the most extensive pine for¬ 
ests in the world. There are several pines 
which have edible seeds. In the West are 
the small, irrgular pinon (P. edulis) , the dig¬ 
ger or bullpine ( P . sabiniana) , and others. 
These furnish a staple food supply for the 
Californian Indians. 

Pineapple (Ananas saliva ), a plant be¬ 
longing to the natural order Bromeliaceae. 
widely cultivated for its fruit. The plant 
grows to a height of from three to four 



feet, bearing long, rough edged, ridged and 
sharp-pointed leaves from the center of 
which springs up the flower stem—-later 
turning to fruit. The pineapple grows in 


warm climates, the West Indies, the Bahama 
Islands, Florida, the Azores, parts of North 
Africa and more especially the Hawaiian 
Islands, which have that porous, well drained 
soil, and alternate wet and dry climate in 
which it thrives best. 

Pine Bluff, city, Arkansas, co. seat of Jef¬ 
ferson co., on the Arkansas River. Here are 
situated the State Branch Normal School, 
the Merrill Institute, St. Joseph’s Academy, 
and a girls’ industrial school. There is a 
large wholesale trade; the city was settled 
in 1832; p. 21,290. 

Pinero, Sir Arthur Wing (1855-1934), 
English dramatist, was bom in London. 
Commencing a legal career, he afterwards 
became connected with the stage, and acted 
at the Lyceum and Haymarket theaters, 
London. He became a master of the tech¬ 
nique of playwrighting. Beginning with The 
Money Spinner (1880) he produced a series 
of remarkable farces and problem plays, as 
well as sentimental pieces. His plays, es¬ 
pecially Trelawney of the Wells and The 
Second Mrs. Tangueray, attracted many fa¬ 
mous actors and actresses. The latter was 
translated in several languages and acted in 
by Mrs. Patrick Campbell and Eleonora 
Duse. His later plays included The En¬ 
chanted Cottage, The Gay Lord Quex, Mid- 
Channel, and A Cold June. 

Pineroio, tn., prov. Turin, Italy. The 
prison is famous for having held the Man 
in the Iron Mask from 1679 to 1681, and 
also Fouquet; p. 18,039. 

Pines, Isle of, an isl. 35 m. s. of Cuba, to 
which it belongs. Area, 1,214 sq. m. The 
.scenery is picturesque, the climate mild and 
healthful, the soil light. The island was dis¬ 
covered by Columbus in 1494, and was long 
a resort for pirates; p. 3,199, chiefly concen¬ 
trated in the town of Santa Fe and the cap¬ 
ital, Nueva Gerona. 

Pine Snake, or Bull Snake. A large, 
variegated, harmless serpent ( Pity0phis mel - 
anoleucus) common in the pine-covered 
country of the southern coast-region of the 
United States, noted for the loud blowing, 
noise it makes when angered. 

| Pine-tree Shilling, money coined in Mas¬ 
sachusetts from .1652 to .1682, deriving, the 
! name from the figure' of a pinetree stamped 
| on' one. side.. There were' also ‘pine-tree 5 ' 
| threepence and sixpence pieces. 

Ping-pong, or Table Temxi#, a game that 
suddenly became popular in 1901, and has 
recently been revived. It is for two or four 



Pinguxcula 


3739 


Pmsuti 


players, and is practically lawn tennis on a 
table with specially prepared balls and rack-' 
ets of a much smaller size. 

Pinguicula, a genus of small marsh-plants 
belonging to the order Lentibulariaceae. They 
usually bear a rosette of greasy-feeling radial 
leaves and violet, spurred flowers borne singly 
on erect flower-stalk. The leaves act like 
rennet, in curdling fresh milk. 



Pine-tree Shilling. 


Ping-yang, town in Chosen, 30 m. n.e. of 
its port, Chin-nam-po. Scene of battles 
between Japan and China in 1592 and 1894, 
China winning the former, Japan the latter ; 
p. 71,702. 

Pink, a name applied to the plant genus 
Dianthus, but more especially to the descend¬ 
ants of D. plumarius of Eastern Europe, and 
to the Oriental D. chinensis. Modern garden 
pinks are divided into two main classes— 
border pinks and show or laced pinks. 



Pinkerton, Allan (1819-84), American 
detective, was born in Glasgow, Scotland, and 
emigrated to Chicago in 1842. He became 
the first detective of Chicago, and in 1850 
organized Pinkerton’s National Detective 
Agency. The recovery of $40,000 for the 
Adams Express Company in. 1859-60' gave 


Mr. Pinkerton his first reputation in the East, 
and, discovering a plot to murder Abraham 
Lincoln on his inaugural journey to Washing¬ 
ton, he was authorized to make arrange¬ 
ments to insure the safe arrival of the Presi¬ 
dent-elect in that city. Soon afterwards he 
was commissioned to organize the U. S. Bu¬ 
reau of Secret Service, which he conducted 
until the close of the Civil War. After the 
war he expanded his business, opening offices 
in New York and Philadelphia, the recovery 
of $700,000 for the Adams Express Company 
and the arrest of some noted Bank of Eng¬ 
land forgers, adding greatly to the prestige 
of his agency. 

Pinkerton, William Allan (1846-1923), 
American detective, born at Dundee, Ill. 
With his brother, Robert A. Pinkerton, he be. 
came chief assistant in the Pinkerton Agency, 
the business coming into their control on tht 
death of their father in 1884, William taking 
charge of the western division, and Robert oi 
the eastern. 

Pink Root, a name given to the worm- 
grass or Indian pink of America (Spigelia 
marilandica ). The root is sometimes used 
as an anthelmintic. 

Pinna, a genus of bivalve molluscs, whose 
members are allied to the mussels. The shell 
is wedge-shaped, and consists of two equal 
valves. 

Pinnace. A boat used in the British navy, 
which very nearly corresponds to the U. S. 
navy sailing launch. In build it resembles a 
cutter, but is larger and relatively broader of 
beam and shallower of draught. 

Pinochle is played with two packs of cards, 
all below the nines being discarded, making a 
pack of 48 cards. It may be played by two, 
three, or four players, and the limit of 
points is 1,000. Ace is high and counts 11; 
ten is next, and counts 10; then come king, 
4; queen, 3, and jack, 2. The nine counts 10 
when it is turned up for trumps, and the 
last trick taken counts ten for the winner of 
it. The only technical term in the game is 
‘melding,’ which means to declare. See 
Spalding’s Home Library on Pinochle. 

Pinsk, tn., Poland, to which it was restored 
in 1918 after being Russian 123 years; has 
potteries, tanneries, oil, soap and leather 
works; p. 23,291; seized by Russia, 1939. 

Pimuii, Ciro (1829-88), Italian musical 
composer. He wrote two successful operas, 
II Meremite di Venezia (1873) and Mattia 
Corvino (1877) ; a Te Deum (1859) ; nearly 
three hundred songs, English and Italian, and 



Pint 

composed innumerable pianoforte pieces. 

Pint* See eights and Measures, 

Pintail or Sprig-tail Duck, or Sea-pheas¬ 
ant ( Dafila acuta) , a duck readily recognized 
by the elongation of the central tail feathers 
in the male. It is a frequent winter visitor to 
all parts of the United States, and breeds on 
inland waters from Maine and the Great 
Lakes northward. 

Pintle, a vertical projecting pin like that 
often placed at the tope of crane posts, and 
over which the holding rings at the tops of 
the wooden guys fit; also a pin such as is 
used for the hinges of rudders or of window 
shutters to turn round on. 

Pinto, Ferntao Mendez (c. 1510-83), Por¬ 
tuguese traveler, bom at Montemor, near 
Coimbra; sailed for India (1537), and as 
captain-general of Malacca did marvellous 
deeds in the East Indies, China, Japan, 
and Siam. He returned to Portugal in 1558, 
and wrote his Voyages and Adventures. 

Pinturicchio, Bernardino (1454-1513), 
the name commonly applied to Bernado di 
Betto, Italian artist, born at Perugia. His 
chief work is a series of frescoes representing 
the History oj Pope Pius 11 , for the library 
at Siena. He was also engaged to paint a 
Nativity for the monastery of St. Francis 
at Siena. 

Pinzon, Martin. Alonso (c. 1441-93), 
Spanish navigator and explorer, born at 
Palos, Spain. Pinzon and Ms brother took an 
active part in equipping Columbus’s three 
caravels—the Pinta, the Nina, and the Santa 
Maria . On Columbus’s first voyage Martin 
Pinzon commanded the Pinta . 

Pinzon, Vicente Yanez (c. 1460-c. 1524), 
Spanish navigator and explorer, brother of 
Martin Pinzon, bom at Palos. During Colum¬ 
bus’s first voyage of discovery (1492-3) he 
commanded the Nina . About 1500 Pinzon, 
in association with Juan Diaz de Solis and 
accompanied by Amerigo Vespucius, made 
an important voyage, during which he visited 
the coast of Honduras and parts of the coasts 
of Mexico and Florida and circumnavigated 
Cuba. In another voyage he discovered the 
mouth of the Amazon river. 

Piombmo, fo rmerly an independent. princi- 
ipality, with an area of 138 sq. m.; now part 
of the Italian province of Pisa.,Napoleon: x. 
bestowed it on his sister Elisa, wife of Prince 
Bacciocchi, in 1805. She retained it for ten 
years, when it was joined to Tuscany. 

Pioneers, the first explorers of a country. 
In a military movement, pioneers are those 


Pipes, 

who clear a passage through woods or other 
obstructions. 

Piotrkow, or Petrokov. It is one of Po¬ 
land’s oldest towns, and numerous thriving 
industries are carried on; p. 41,113. 

Piozzi, Hester Lynch (1741-1821), Welsh 
author, better known as Mrs. Thrale, the 
friend of Dr. Johnson, who for eighteen 
years from 1764 visited at the Thrale’s house 
at Streatham. On Thrale’s death (1781) his 
widow married Piozzi (1784), who died in 
1809. Her Anecdotes give a lively descrip¬ 
tion of Dr. Johnson. 

Pipe, an artificial channel for the convey¬ 
ance of watery fluids, aeriform fluids, or 
sound. For the purpose of removing rain 
water from, buildings, galvanized iron, tin, 
zinc, copper and lead pipes are used. 

Pipeclay, a variety of fine white plastic 
clay, used in the manufacture of tobacco 
pipes and certain classes of pottery. It re¬ 
sembles kaolin, but contains a large per¬ 
centage of silica. Pipeclay is found in the 
west of England. 

Pipefish, a small marine fish belonging to 
the same family (Syngnathidae) as the sea¬ 
horse (See Hippocampus), from which it 
differs in having a non-prehensile tail fur¬ 
nished with a caudal fin. The body is 6 to 
10 inches long and slender. Like the sea¬ 
horses, it is a littoral form. 

Pipelines are used to convey crude oil or 
natural gas from sources of supply to centers 
of distribution. The main fountain heads of 
the great oil-pipe network of the U. S. are in 
or near the oil-producing States of Tex., La., 
Okla. and. Pa. In World War II a comprehen¬ 
sive pipeline program was undertaken. A new 
24-in, pipeline from E, Texas to Norris City, 
Ill. was completed in 1.943. 

Piperacese, a natural order of herbs and 
shrubs of wide geographical distribution. 
They bear small flowers, usually without per-, 
ianth, followed by small capsular or baccate 
fruit.. Pepper and betel are among the pro¬ 
ducts of members of this order. 

Piperidine, CbHuN, a secondary amine 
occurring in. combination with piperic acid in 
pepper, ■ 

Pipes, Tobacco. The earliest , pipes, made' 
of clay and known as ‘elfins/ were: very . 
similar, to those of the present' time . only ■ 
much smaller. Modern clay pipes are formed 
of pipeclay. The ‘briar-root’ is a popular 
form. The earliest forms of pipes were those 
of the North American Indians. The best 
known was the calumet, or pipe of peace, 


3740 



Pipestone 


3741 


Pisa 


which was passed round among the warriors 
in order of rank and age. 

Pipestone, city, Minn. Extensive deposits 
of building stone and Indian pipestone are 
quarried, and the city has a considerable 
trade in grain; p. 4,682. 

Pipettes, tubes open at both ends, used 
for accurately measuring off small quantities 
of liquids. 



Pipette. 


Piping Crow, a genus of passerine birds, 
related to the shrikes. They are large birds 
with glossy black and white plumage and 
have a clear, ringing cry. There are four 
species, confined to Australia and Tasmania. 

Pipi Pods, the fruits of the tropical le¬ 
guminous tree Ccesalpina pipai. The pods 
possess astringent properties. 

Pipit, a large genus of passerine birds, 
most nearly related to the wagtails, but pre¬ 
senting some superficial resemblance to the 
larks, with which they are sometimes con¬ 
fused. The best known American species is 
the Titlark. 



Meadow Pipit. 


Piquet, one of the oldest of card games, 
said to have been invented in the reign of 
Charles vn. 

Piracy. Among the acts defined as piracy 
are ‘the crime of piracy as defined by the law 
of nations, robbery committed in any ves¬ 
sel upon the high seas; robbery on shore by 
the crew of a piratical vessel; murder or 
robbery committed upon the high seas or in 


any river, harbor, basin or bay out of the 
jurisdiction of any particular state; mur¬ 
der, robbery, or any act of hostility against 
the United States committed on the high seas 
by a citizen under a commission of a foreign 
state or by the citizen of a foreign state 
which is at peace with the United States; 
and the taking of a negro from, any foreign 
shore for the purpose of slavery, or the for¬ 
cible detention of a negro on board a vessel 
for a similar purpose/ The penalty origin¬ 
ally prescribed for piracy by act of Congress 
was death, but this was in 1897 changed to 
imprisonment for life. The English law of 
piracy is substantially like that of the United 
States. 

Piraeus, (Gr. Peiraieus) , town, Greece, in 
ancient Attica, 4*4 m. s. of Athens, whose 
seaport it was after about 485 b.c. Since 
1835 it has again become a flourishing port. 
It has an arsenal, exports olives and olive oil., 
and has cotton mills, machinery factories,, 
and other manufactures. It is the chief 
port of entry in Greece for imports. The 
most important item exported from Piraeus is 
marble from the quarries of Pentelicus; p 
251,328. 

Pirandello, Luigi (1867-1936), Italian 
author and dramatist was born in Girgenti. 
He wrote his first play after his fiftieth 
year. In 1934 he received the Nobel prize in 
literature. His work is marked by a con¬ 
stant seeking for reality, and the problem 
of personality seems to be almost an obses¬ 
sion with him. Among his plays are Six 
Characters in Search of an Author, Florian’s 
Wife, As You Desire Me. In 1932, As You 
Desire Me was filmed with Greta Garbo in 
the leading role. 

Pirano, town, Italy. The churches of San 
Francisco and San Michele contain valuable 
works of art. It has important salt works 
and wine and olives are exported. Until 
after the Great War it belonged to Austria; 
p. 16,000. 

Pirot, town, Yugoslavia. It is a fortified 
place of strategic importance, and is noted 
for the manufacture of carpets. During the 
Great War it was taken by the Bulgarians; 
p. 10,462. 

Pisa, city, Italy, capital of the province 
of Pisa. Its chief glory is the Piazza del 
Duomo with the cathedral, baptistery lean¬ 
ing tower and Campo Santo. The cathedral, 
a magnificent Gothic structure, commenced 
in 1063, was completed in 1118; the Campo 
I Santo, or cemetery begun in the 13th cen- 



Pisano 3742 


tury is said to have been formed of earth 
brought from Calvary. The famous leaning 
tower, a campanile built entirely of marble, 
*7 8 /<2 ft. high, was commenced in 1174 and 
completed in 1350. It leans 13 ft. out of per¬ 
pendicular. From its top is a magnificent 
view of the surrounding country; p. 77,000. 

Pisano, Andrea (c . 1270-1349), Italian 



sculptor and architect. He went to Florence 
and the first bronze door of the Florentine 
Baptistery has been ascribed to him, 
Pisano, Giovanni (1240-1328), Italian 
achitect and sculptor. He built the cloister 
which surrounds the Campo Santo of Pisa, 
Pisano, Niccolo (1206-78), Italian sculp¬ 
tor and architect. His most important works 
are the pulpits for the Baptistery in Pisa and 
the Cathedral in Siena. 

Pisces, the 12th zodiacal constellation. 
Pisciculture, a term usually restricted to 
the artificial breeding, rearing and transpor¬ 
ting of fish and other marine creatures. A 
primitive fom of pisciculture, which con¬ 
sisted in keeping fishes in ponds or enclosures, 
and.feeding and protecting them until they 
reached.:a size suitable,for the table, was 
practised among the ancient Egyptians, 
Greeks, and Romans. Modem pisciculture 
deals with the artificial impregnation of the 
eggs and the rearing of the fry from the 
earliest stages. 


Piston 

Piscina, (Lat. ‘a cistern, 9 or ‘pond’), a 
small font or basin, usually supplied with 
running water, in a niche at the south side 
of a church altar, into which the priest pours 
the water used in his priestly duties. 

Pishin, formerly a district of South Af¬ 
ghanistan, north of Quetta. Since 1878 it 
has been occupied by the British, for strateg¬ 
ic purposes; p. 65,000. 

Plsistratus, (c. 600-527 b.c.), Athenian 
statesman, of noble family. He came for¬ 
ward as a political leader, and having seized 
the Acropolis, he made himself tyrant in 560 
b.c. Fie was a patron of art; he built a 
' temple to Athena on the Acropolis; and he 
began the vast temple to Olympian Zeus 
near the Ilissus, only finished by the Roman 
emperor Hadrian, nearly seven hundred 
years after its foundation. 

Piso, a family of the Calpumian clan at 
ancient Rome. — Lucius Caupurnius Piso 
was consul in 58 b.c. His daughter Calpur- 
nia married Julius Caesar. In 50 b.c. Piso was 
censor. 

Pisolite (Greek ‘pea stone’), a concretion¬ 
ary limestone, differing from oolite in having 
the particles as large as peas. 

Pistacia, a genus of trees of the natural 
order Anacardiaccae, having dioecious flowers 
without petals, and a dry drupe with a bony 
stone. In the south of Europe and in the 
east Pistachio nuts are much esteemed; and 
oil is expressed from them for culinary and 
other uses. They are easily procurable in the 
United States. The Turpentine Tree ( P . 
tcrebinthus )* yields the turpentine known in 
commerce as Cyprus Turpentine, China Tur¬ 
pentine, or Scio Turpentine. 

Pistil, that part of the flower which, after 
flowering is over, is developed into the 
fruit. 

Pistoja (ancient Pistorm), town, province 
Florence, Italy. The Cathedral of San Ja¬ 
copo (twelfth century) is rich in works of 
art. Among other famous churches and 
secular buildings are the .Madonna delP Um~ 
ilta, San Giovanni, San Domenico, the Palaz¬ 
zo Pretorio (1367), the Palazzo del Com- 
une (1294), and the -.Ospedale del Ceppo 
(1277). The principal manufactures are iron 
and steel wares,, agricultural implements, 
paper, oil, and silk. The town has the credit 
of having invented and first made pistols; 
p. 76,000c 

. Pistol. See Revolver*.' 

Pistole, a gold coin formerly current xn 
Spain and Italy. 

Piston, a circular body, driven by, or act- 



Pita 


3743 


Pitcu 


ing against, a fluid pressure. It is usually 
guided in its stroke by the walls of the cyl¬ 
inder—of the chamber in which it works— 
and also by the gland in the cylinder cover 
through which the piston rod slides. Pistons 
are generally made of cast iron, but in en¬ 
gines for air craft, aluminum pistols are much 
used. 

Pita Hemp, one of the names of the 
Agave fibre. 

Pitaka, a division of the Buddhists’ sacred 
literature; the tripit aka meaning the three 
great divisions of their canonical works, the 
Vinaya (discipline), Abhidharma (metaphys¬ 
ics), and Sutra (aphorisms in prose), and 
collectively, the whole Buddhistic code. 

Pit and Gallows, a rendering of the grant 
of capital jurisdiction ( cum fossa et furca) 
made by vassals to the British crown in 
feudal times. 

Pitcairn, Harold F. (1897- ), aviation 

expert. He began building airplanes in 1925. 
He is pres, of Pitcairn Aircraft, Inc., and of 
the Autogiro Co., of America. In 1930 he 
was awarded the Collier trophy for the 
“greatest achievement in aeronautics,’ — 
the development of the autogiro. 

Autogiro, a type of aircraft employing 
horizonal rotatory airfoils, invented by Juan 
de la Cieroa, Spanish aviator, and developed 
by Harold F. Pitcairn. The propeller, an 
ordinary form driven by a normal type of 
engine, is mounted vertically above the fuse¬ 
lage which is of standard airplane type, as 
are also the landing gear and tail unit. Con¬ 
trols are practically the same as *on an air¬ 
plane, except the ailerons which are carried 
on the sides of the fuselage. The great ad¬ 
vantage of the autogiro is that it can make 
practically vertical landings. It is expected 
to become a safe and popular means of flying 
with commercial production as planned. 

In 1936 Pitcairn developed an autogiro 
which is easily made serviceable as an auto¬ 
mobile. The propeller wings fold back and 
the motive power is geared to the landing 
wheels, thus producing a roadable vehicle. 
As an automobile the autogiro reaches a 
speed of thirty-five miles per hour. 

Pitcairn, John (c. 1740-75), British sol¬ 
dier. He was in command of the advance 
guard of British which entered Lexington on 
April 19, 1775, and found the minute men 
drawn up on the common. After ordering 
them to disperse he gave the order to fire, and 
is said to have fired the first shot himself. He 
was mortally wounded at the Battle of 
Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775). 


Pitcairn, Robert (1836-1909), American 
railway manager, was born near Paisley, 
Scotland. In 1867 he helped organize the 
! Westinghouse Air Brake Company, and was 
for many years its vice-president. 

Pitcairn Island, a solitary island in the 
Pacific Ocean, between Australia and South 
America. Area, 1 by 2/2 m. It was dis¬ 
covered by Carteret in 1767. In 1790 it was 
taken possession of by nine of the mutineers 
of H.M.S. Bounty with six Tahitian men 
and a dozen women. Of nine British sailors, 
only one, Adams, was left in 1800, and from 
him the present inhabitants (150) are de¬ 
scended. The island was annexed to Britain 
in 1839. Nearly 200 of the islanders were 
transferred to Norfolk Island in 1856, but a 
number of them afterward returned. 

In 1932 Norman Hall and Charles Nord- 
hoff collaborated on a book Mutiny on the 
Bounty , which was based on the story of the 
mutineers. The book had a tremendous sale, 
remaining on the list of best sellers for many 
months, and was later screened. 

Pitch, the angle of slope of a roof; the dis¬ 
tance from center to center of the teeth of 



Sir Isaac Pitman. 


a toothed wheel, or between like poles of a 
dynamo, or between threads of a screw; the 
distance apart of rivets. 

Pitch, in music, the degree of acuteness of 
musical sounds, determined by the series 01 
periodic vibrations which produce the sound; 
the more rapid the vibrations the higher the 
sound, and vice versa. The pitch of musical 



Pitch 


3744 


Pitman 


'instruments is adjusted by means of a tuning 
fork, consisting of two prongs springing out 
of a handle, so adjusted as to length that 
when struck a particular note is produced. 

Pitch, the complex mixture of hydrocar¬ 
bons and their derivatives that is either left 
when tar, oils, or fatty acids are distilled, or 
is found naturally in Trinidad and other 
places. Coal-tar pitch, which is typical of 
the others, forms about two-thirds of the 
tar. Wood-tar pitch is much used in Ameri¬ 
ca for protecting timber from the weather 
and the attacks of insects. 

Pitchblende, or Uraninite, an impure 
uranous uranate, U(UO.j)2, found in' the 
Erzgebirge, Cornwall, Hungary, and Colo¬ 
rado. It is the only practically available 
raw material from which uranium can be 
extracted, and. this constitutes its chief value. 
The radio-activity of pitchblende led to the 
discovery that it contained radium, polonium, 
and actinium. 

Pitcher, Molly (c. 1756-1823) , nee Mary 
Ludwig, was born in Carlisle, Pa. While be¬ 
sieged in Fort Clinton along with her hus¬ 
band, she is said to have discharged the last 
gun against the British. She also distinguished 
herself at the Battle of Monmouth (June, 
1778). After the battle, covered with blood, 
she was presented by General Green to Wash¬ 
ington, who made her a sergeant for her 
bravery, and placed her on the list of half¬ 
pay officers for life. 

Pitchstone, a glassy igneous rock, dark 
green, brown, gray, or almost black in 
color. It contains about 5 per cent, of wa¬ 
ter, and is characterized by a somewhat 
greasy or resinous lustre. 

Pith, or Medulla, the central cellular part 
of the stem of a flowering plant. In the 
growing condition it is juicy and greenish, 
but afterward the protoplasm inside the cells 
dies, and the cell sap becomes replaced by 
air. The pith then appears pale, dry, and 
spongy, as is emphatically shown by the 
elder. 

Pithecanthropus Erectus. In 1892 Dr. 
Dubois, discovered, in some fluviatile beds in 
The. island of Java, the roof of a skull and 
a. thigh bone. It is probable that the two 
bones belong to. the same skeleton, and in¬ 
dicate an animal which must have belonged 
to a very primitive.group of,the. human race. 
They resemble the Neanderthal, Engis, and 
Spy skulls. Some doubt remains as to the 
age of the beds in which they were entombed, 


for many authorities would assign them to 
the Pleistocene period. 



Profile outline of skull of 
Pithecanthropus, a, compared 

with outline of skull of Euro¬ 
pean man, b; c, upper surface 
(norma verticalis) of skull of 
Pithecanthropus compared with 
skull of (d) gibbon (Hylobates 
syndacMlus ): a, ophryon; b, 
occipital point. 

Pithom, one of the store cities which the 
Israelites built for Pharaoh in Egypt. 

Pitkin, Timothy (1766-1847), American 
lawyer and historian, was born in Farming- 
ton, Conn. Among his publications are A 
Statistical Views of the Commerce of the Uni¬ 
ted States (1816); History of the United 
States from 1763 to the Close of Washing¬ 
ton’s Administration (2. vols., 1828), long a 
standard work. 

Pitman, Benn (1822-1910), Anglo-Ameri¬ 
can stenographer and art teacher, brother of 
Sir Isaac Pitman, was bom in Trowbridge, 
Wiltshire, England. He studied in the acad¬ 
emy of his brother, whom he subsequently 
assisted in completing his system of phonog¬ 
raphy. He settled in Cincinnati, and there 
established the Phonographic Institute, of 
which he was president until his death. In 
1856 he invented the process for reproducing 
relief copper plates of engraved work by gal¬ 
vanic, action. He wrote A Plea for American 
Decorative : Art (1895); Life of Sir Isaac Pit¬ 
man (1902). " 

Pitman, Sir Isaac (1813-97), inventor of 
a system of shorthand, was bom in Trow¬ 
bridge, Wiltshire. His method of shorthand 




Pitre 


3745 


Pittsburgh 


became very popular, and is extensively used. 
He began the Phonetic Journal in 1842. 

Pitre, Giuseppe (1843-1916) , Italian folk¬ 
lorist, was born in Palermo. His huge Bibli- 
oteca delle Tradizioni popolari Siciliane (18 
vols., 1870-88) is his great work. He has also 
compiled a valuable bibliography of Italian 
folklore (1894), and was the principal editor 
of the Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizioni 
popolari (1882 et seq ). 

Pit River Indians, sometimes spoken of 
as the Palaihnihan linguistic stock, residing 
along Pit River, one of the branches forming 
the Sacramento in California. They are said 
to have taken their name from the practice 
of digging pits in the paths along the river 
for catching deer. 

Pitt, William (the Elder). See Chatham, 

Earl of. 

Pitt, William (1759-1806), British states¬ 
man, was the second son of Lord Chatham, 
and was born in Hayes, Kent. He opposed 
Lord North’s government, especially denoun¬ 
cing the war with the American Colonies. In 
December, 1783, the coalition government of 
North and Fox ceased to exist, and Pitt was 
asked to form a government. He accepted 
the First Lordship of the Treasury and the 
Chancellorship of the Exchequer. Pitt had 
to govern the country in the face of a great 
Parliamentary majority; but his debating 
power and his desire to secure financial 
purity gradually won the country over to 
him. On March 25, 1784, an appeal was 
made to the country, and Pitt came back to 
power, and, with a brief interval, ruled the 
nation for twenty years. When he got fairly 
established, Pitt set himself to purify the gov¬ 
ernment, and especially to introduced eco¬ 
nomic reform. He was not long in power 
before he reformed the East India Company 
on a new basis, which existed till the Act of 
1858. Pitt’s war policy, in the opposition of 
England to the French Revolution and Na¬ 
poleon, naturally divided itself into two parts 
-—to break the power of France on land, and 
to maintain England’s supremacy at sea. In j 
the latter he was successful. Two days 
after the news of the surrender at Ulm 
reached England came the intelligence of 
Nelson’s splendid victory at Trafalgar on 
Oct. 21. Following upon the surrender of the 
Austrian army came the terrible news that 
the Emperor of the French had destroyed the 
combined armies of Russia and Austria at 
Austerlitz. In less than a month afterward 
Pitt died* 4 national funeral was accorded 


him, and his body was buried in Westminster 
Abbey, beside that of his father. His work 
did much to bring about the ultimate defeat 
of Napoleon, and in many respects Pitt may 
be considered England’s greatest Prime Min¬ 
ister. His title to enduring fame rests upon 
the work he did in the sphere of economics. 
In matters purely political he was essentially 
Liberal. When regard is had to the diffi¬ 
culties with which he was surrounded, not the 
least of these being the obstinacy of George 
in., Pitt deserves high praise, not only for his 
enlightened views, but for the skill which he 
displayed in situations of the most forbidding 
nature. 

Pitta, an Old World passerine bird, found 
chiefly in Southeastern Asia, the type genus 
of the family Pittidae. It has a thickset form, 
long legs, short wings and tail, and varies 
considerably in size. It is noted for its bril¬ 
liant and varied coloring. 

Pittacus, a native of the ancient Greek city 
of Mitylene. He was reckoned among the 
Seven Wise Men of ancient Greece. 

Pittsburgh, city and port of entry, Penn¬ 
sylvania, county seat of Allegheny co., is sit¬ 
uated at the junction of the Monogahela and 
Allegheny Rivers, which here form the Ohio 
River. The city contains 41 sq. m., and has 
over 40 m. of water front. The Mononga- 
hela is navigable 100 m. s. to the coal fields of 
West Virginia, and the Allegheny an equal 
distance n. into the Pennsylvania coal and 
oil fields; while the Ohio affords connection 
with the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico. 
Pittsburgh is a growing center of intellectual 
life. Among its educational institutions are the 
University of Pittsburgh, Carnegie Institute, 
Pennsylvania College for Women, Duquesne 
University. The city was originally settled 
by the Scotch-Irish, and the chief religious 
denomination is the Presbyterian. It is the 
seat of a Roman Catholic and a Protestant 
Episcopal bishop. There are about 515 
churches, notable edifices being the Roman 
Catholic Cathedral; Cathedral of St. Paul 
and Trinity and Calvary Churches (Episco¬ 
pal). The geographical advantages possessed 
by Pittsburgh as a distributing center, and 
its location in the heart of the greatest coal 
fields of the continent, with vast deposits of 
iron ore close at hand, made it long ago the 
second city of Pennsylvania in maufactures, 
commerce, wealth, and population. Later, 
the rich stores of petroleum and natural gas 
in the region were added to its other ad¬ 
vantages. It early became, as Bancroft called 



Pittsburgh 


3746 


Pittsburgh 


it, ‘The Gateway of the West,’ Other titles, 
such as ‘The Smoky City,’ ‘The Workshop of 
the World,’ ‘The Hearth of the World,’ were 
given to it on account of its extraordinary 
development of the iron, steel, coal and coke 
industries. In the production of these, Pitts¬ 
burgh ranks first in the world. It is the 
greatest distributing point for coal in the 
United States. The manufacture of steel is 
the chief industry of the Pittsburgh district, 
among its leading concerns being the Carnegie 
Steel Company and the Westinghouse works. 



William Pitt. 


Pittsburgh, besides being the headquarters 
of the United States Steel corporation, is the 
largest producer of steel rails and armor 
plate in the United States. The Heinz works, 
the largest pickling and preserving establish¬ 
ment in the world, are located here, with 12 
factories, using the products of 20,000 acres 
of vegetable farms. The Westinghouse air¬ 
brake works employ 3,000 operatives. The 
natural-gas. interests are enormous. Since 
191.1 the city is governed by.a mayor, con¬ 
troller, and a board of nine councilmen elect¬ 
ed. at Targe,' to' replace the. old; bi-cameral 
council of 67 members. In 1911 the 66 in¬ 
dependent district school boards were also 
abolished, giving place on Jan. 1, 1912, to a 
central board of 15 members. The population 
of Pittsburgh is 671,639. In 1753 Governor 
Dinwiddle of Virginia sent George Washing¬ 


ton to warn the French—who had advanced 
into the region about the source of the Ohio, 
which they claimed—that the Colony would 
resist their encroachments. The next year he 
despatched militia to build a fort on the pres¬ 
ent site of Pittsburgh; but a large force of 
French and Indians compelled them to with¬ 
draw. In the same year the French built 
Fort Duquesne, and Washington captured a 
body of French troops in the first actual fight 
of the French and Indian War. In 1758 Gen¬ 
eral Forbes led a powerful expedition against 
the fort, which was burned by the French. 
At Washington’s suggestion the place was 
named Pittsburgh, in honor of the British 
Prime Minister. A new fort was built, called 
Fort Pitt, which in Pontiac’s War (1763) 
was besieged by the Indians, holding out until 
relieved by a British force. A town was laid 
out in 1784; in 1791 it became a county 
town ; a borough in 1804; and a city in 1816. 
In 1906 the citizens of Pittsburg and Al¬ 
legheny voted on the question of uniting the 
two cities. A majority of the citizens of 
Pittsburgh favored consolidation, but a ma¬ 
jority of the citizens of Allegheny voted 
against it, and subsequently appealed to the 
courts. In 1907 the U. S. Supreme Court 
held that the Consolidation Act was valid, 
and annexation became effective on Dec. 9 of 
that year. Allegheny is now the North Side 
of the present Pittsburgh. For years the prob¬ 
lem of smoke prevention has engaged the at¬ 
tention of municipal officials, and their efforts 
have resulted in a great improvement in the 
situation. In 1:911 a thorough Investigation of 
the smoke problem, authorized by the city, 
was undertaken by the Department of Indus¬ 
trial Research of the University of Pittsburgh. 
As a result, the smoke nuisance was abated 
fully 75 per. cent. In 1940 further steps in 
smoke prevention were taken. In World War 
II Pittsburgh’s industry was almost wholly 
absorbed in production of goods for national 
defense. 

Pittsburgh, University of, a non-sectari¬ 
an institution of higher learning for both 
sexes, chartered Feb. 28, 1787, as the Pitts¬ 
burgh Academy, reorganized as the Western 
University of Pennsylvania in 1819, and re¬ 
named the University of Pittsburgh in 1908. 
It comprises a College of Liberal Arts,. Grad¬ 
uate' School, and Schools . of Engineering, 
Mines, Education, Economics, Medicine, Den¬ 
tistry, Law, and Pharmacy, and the Mellon 
. Institute of Industrial Research, as well as 
an evening and a summer school. 


Pittsfield 


3747 


Pius 


Pittsfield, city, Massachusetts, county seat 
of Berkshire co. It is situated near the west¬ 
ern boundary of the State, surrounded by the 
picturesque Berkshire Hills, and is a favor¬ 
ite summer resort and automobile center. The 
more important institutions include the House 
of Mercy, the Berkshire Athenaeum, with a 
library of 70,000 volumes, a museum of nat¬ 
ural history and art, the Roman Catholic 
Cathedral, the Henry W. Bishop Training 
School for Nurses, and the Berkshire County 
Home for Aged Women. The Court House 
is a fine white marble structure. The city 
possesses a soldiers’ monument, The Color 


of the gland is associated with gigantism and 
acromegaly; underfunction of the anterior 
lobe with skeletal underdevelopment and 
diminution or cessation of sexual activity; 
underfunction of the posterior lobe with adi¬ 
posity, drowsiness, and evidences of lowered 
metabolic activity. 

Pit Villages, or aggregations of pit dwell¬ 
ings, are sometimes understood to be subter¬ 
ranean colonies. Vestiges of such dwellings 
are found in the island of Yezo, Japan, where 
their occupants are said to have been an ex¬ 
tinct race called Koro-pokguru. Similar de¬ 
pressions in many parts of the British Isles 



Bearer. Pittsfield has important industries, 
including the manufacture of electrical goods, 
automobile sundries, textiles, paper-mill ma¬ 
chinery, and paper. The first settlement here 
was made in 1743, and was known as Boston 
Plantation. It was incorporated as the town 
of Pittsfield in 1761, the name being given in 
honor of the elder Pitt; p. 49,684. 

Pituitary Body, or hypophysis cerebri, is 
a small roughly spherical mass, weighing 
about 0.5 gm., lying at the base of the brain 
in a depression of the skull called the sella 
turcica. Recent studies show that the gland 
has a profound effect on the animal economy: 
the removal either of the entire gland or of 
the anterior lobe in experimental animals is 
followed by sudden death; while partial re¬ 
moval of the anterior lobe causes in young 
animals retardation of skeletal growth and 
arrest of sexual development, and in fully 
grown animals abeyance of sexual function 
and genital atrophy. In man hypertrophy 


are assigned to primitive British tribes. 

Pityriasis, a term applied to a group of 
skin diseases in which the epidermis is cast off 
in bran-like scales. Pityriasis versicolor is 
characterized by the formation of brownish, 
scaly patches of irregular shape and size. 
Pityriasis rubra, or Hebra’s pityriasis is an 
inflammatory condition of the entire skin 
which becomes deep red in color and cov¬ 
ered with white scales. It may become chron¬ 
ic, and is frequently fatal. 

Pius, the name of 10 popes of the Roman 
Catholic Church. 

Pius i. (140-155). Practically nothing cer¬ 
tain is known of this pope. 

Pros n. (1458-64), iEneas Sylvius Pic- 
colomini, who was born in Siena in 1405, was 
a man of literary and oratorical powers, and 
at the Councils of Basel reconciled the inter¬ 
ests of the Emperor Frederick roc. and the 
papacy.'.; 

Pros m. (Sept. 22, 1503-Oct. 18, 1503)? 













Pius 


Pius 


3748 


Francesco Tedeschini Piccolomini, nephew of 
Pius n. 

Pius iv. (1559-65), Giovanni Angelo cle’ 
Medici, was born in Milan in 1499. He was 
pope during the final sittings of the Council 
of Trent (1562-4), and during the last ses¬ 
sions of the council won over the Emperor 
Ferdinand 1. and the Cardinal of Lorraine 
to his views. Pius iv. has given his name to 
the famous ‘Profession of Faith, 5 which is im¬ 
posed on all taking ecclesiastical office, and is 
used in the reception of converts into the 
Roman Catholic Church. He founded the 
pontifical printing office. 

Pius v. (1566-72), Michele Ghisleri, was 
born in Bosco, Lombardy, in 1504. On his 
accession he severely enforced the Tridentine 
degrees, and during his papacy the counter¬ 
reformation made prodigious efforts. He is¬ 
sued the famous bull of excommunication 
against Elizabeth of England (1570), and 
warmly espoused the cause of Mary, Queen 
of Scots, thereby deepening the chasm be¬ 
tween England and Roman Catholicism. But 
it is chiefly in connection with his inflexible 
opposition to the Turkish power that his 
name is remembered. In 1712 he was can¬ 
onized, being the last pope to receive that dis¬ 
tinction. 

Pius vi. (1775-99), Giovanni Angelo Bras- 
chi, was bom in Cesena in 1717, and was 
promoted by Benedict xiv. He was elected 
pope in successtion to Clement xiv, He op¬ 
posed the ecclesiastical policy of Emperor 
Joseph ii., excommunicated Talleyrand, and 
was involved in France through his refusal 
to accept the civil constitution of the clergy. 
He created the see of Baltimore, the first 
Roman Catholic diocese in the United States. 

Pius vn. (1820-23), Barnabas Luigi, Count 
Chiaramonti, was born in Cesena in 1742. 
He was allowed to enter Rome in 1801, the 
French troops being withdrawn. In that year 
he made the Concordat with Napoleon, who 
was anxious to restore religion in France ; and : 
in 1804 he consecrated Napoleon as emperor. 
In 1809, however, Rome itself and all the 
4territory, which had not already been taken 
were annexed to the French empire. The Is¬ 
sue of a bull of excommunication was fol¬ 
lowed by the.removal of.the pope to, Gren¬ 
oble, and thence to Savona and Fontaine¬ 
bleau. The Congress of Vienna formally re¬ 
stored to him his territory. 

Pius viil (1829-30), Francesco Xaverio, 
Count Castiglione. 

Pius ix. (1846-78), Giovanni Maria, Count 


Mastai Ferretti, was born in Sinigaglia in 
1792. In 1854 Pius promulgated the doc¬ 
trine of the Immaculate Conception,, and in 
1870 that of Papal Infallibility. He also re¬ 
established the Roman Catholic hierarchy in 
England (1850). In 1S64 he issued a Sylla¬ 
bus 'Err of urn. 

Pius x. (1903-14) (Giuseppe Sarto), was 
bom of humble parents at Riese, near Ven¬ 
ice, in 1835. In August, 1903, he was elected 
pope, after six fruitless ballots. The prin¬ 
cipal events of his reign were the separation 
of church and state in France and Portugal. 
The Syllabus issued by him. in 1907 contained 
a list of 65 condemned propositions, dealing 
chiefly with extreme and radical positions 
taken by certain modern writers on matters 
pertaining to Christian belief, Biblical criti¬ 
cism, theology, church discipline, etc. By his 
Ne Temere decree of 1907, aimed at clan¬ 
destine and irregular marriages, the Catholic 
Church recognizes as valid only those mar¬ 
riages contracted before the parish priest or 
ordinary, and at least two witnesses. Among 
important measures inaugurated by him were 
the codification of the canon law and the 
simplification of church music. 

Pius xl (1922-1939) (Achille Ratti), was 
bom in Descio, in 1858. After studying in 
the diocesan seminaries, he went to Lombard 
College in Rome, obtaining doctor’s degrees. 
He was ordained a priest in 1878, and from 
1882 to 18S8 was professor of dogmatic the¬ 
ology and sacred eloquence in the seminary 
of his diocese. He was called to the Vatican 
to be assistant prefect of the library in 1911, 
and two years later became prefect. In 1918 
.he was appointed Papal Nuncio to Warsaw, 
in 1919 was made Archbishop of Lepanto, 
and in 1921 Archbishop of Milan. He was 
created cardinal, 1921, and succeeded Pope 
Benedict xv, as Pius xi., Feb. 6, 1922. His 
greatest accomplishment as pope was the 
.Lateran Treaty with Italy, 1929, which re¬ 
stored the sovereign temporal power of the 
papacy. 

Pros xn. (1939- ) (Eugenio PacelH), 

was born in Rome in 1876. He is a distin¬ 
guished scholar, speaking nine languages. 
Rising rapidly as a priest, he was Nuncio at 
Munich during the World War. Continuing 
in the diplomatic service of the Church, he 
was made cardinal in 1929, became Vatican 
Secretary of State two months later and 
capably served as such until his election to 
the papacy on his 63rd birthday, March 6, 
1939. He has travelled more widely than 



Pizarro 


3749 


Plague 


any other pope, having visited the U. S. and 
South America. His association was long and 
intimate with his predecessor, Pius xi. 

Pizarro, Francisco (1478-1541), Spanish 
conqueror of Peru, was bom in Trujillo, Es- 
tremadura. He first saw military service in 
Italy under Gonsalvo de Cordova. He then 
sailed to America, and was with Bal¬ 
boa when he discovered the Pacific. Pizarro 
and Almagro set off for the conquest of Peru 
in 1532. Atahualpa, the Inca king, instead of 
attacking the Spaniards, sent an embassy with 
gold and other gifts to appease them; and 
Pizarrd in return sent his brother and Her¬ 
nando de Soto to the Inca with a message 
from the Pope and information about the 
Emperor Charles v. The two Spaniards per¬ 
suaded Atahualpa to visit Pizarro. At the 
meeting Pizarro attacked the Indians, took 
the Inca prisoner, and sacked his camp. After 
killing the Inca, Pizarro and Almagro took 
and sacked Cuzco in 1533. The young Inca, 
Manco, was given the nominal authority, 
which Pizarro in reality kept in his own 
hands. Civil war then broke out between the 
Pizarrists and Almagrists, during which Al¬ 
magro was defeated and executed in 1538. 
Three years later Pizarro was assassinated at 
Lima by the Almagrists. Consult Prescott’s 
History of the Conquest of Peru. 

Placenta, or Afterbirth, the organ by 
which the foetal mammal is intimately con¬ 
nected with the mother until the moment of 
birth. Physiologically the placenta may be 
described as a highly vascular sponge, in 
which the foetal blood takes up oxygen and 
food material from the maternal blood, so 
that by the placenta the foetus both feeds 
and breathes. When only the foetal portion 
of the placenta is shed at birth, the pla- 
centation is described as indeciduate. When 
the maternal part of the placenta is shed in 
addition to the foetal, leaving an open wound 
on the wall of the uterus, the placentation 
is deciduate. 

Placid, Lake, a resort and lake, 1,800 ft. 
above sea level, in the n.w. corner of Essex 
co., New York, in the Adirondack Moun¬ 
tains. Nearby are the farm and burial place 
of John Brown. 

Plagiarism is the wilful appropriation of 
something originated by another in, literature 
or art, especially literature, and passing it off 
as one’s own. Plagiarius was the Latin word 
for kidnaper, but it came into popular use 
among the Romans , to .signify a literary 
thief,. 


Plagioclase, a triclinic feldspar constitut¬ 
ing an important ingredient of igneous, meta- 
morphic, and sometimes sedimentary rocks. 

Plague, Bubonic, a specific communicable 
disease, affecting various rodents and man, 
appearing usually in epidemic form, of extra¬ 
ordinary virulence and very rapid course, 
with a tendency to linger and recur when 
once it has attacked a community. It is 
characterized by fever, severe headache, ex¬ 
treme depression, and incoordination of the 
muscles. The disease, in a large proportion of 
cases, ends fatally in three to five days. The 
first great pandemic took its origin at Pelu- 
sium in 542, and spread over Europe. After 
this wave of infection had spent its force, 
Europe was comparatively free from the dis¬ 
ease until the nth century, when the return¬ 
ing Crusaders brought it back with them 
from Asia. Severe epidemics occurred in 
rapid succession, and finally culminated in 
the greatest pandemic of any disease in his¬ 
tory—the Black Death of the 14th century. 
It is generally believed that from one-third 
to one-half of a population of 5,000,000 died 
during its year of visitation. One-fourth of 
the whole population of Europe is thought 
to have perished of the disease. After the 
17th century, however, Western Europe w r as 
practically free from this plague. During the 
19th century the plague in Europe was con¬ 
fined almost exclusively to Turkey and 
Southern Russia. 

An outbreak of the pneumonic form of 
plague which broke out among marmot hunt¬ 
ers in Manchuria in October, 1910, spread 
rapidly along the railway lines, and caused 
46,000 deaths. 

The cause of the plague is the Bacillus 
pestis, discovered by Kitasato at Hongkong 
in 1894, and independently by Yersin in the 
same year. This bacillus is short, thick, 
rounded at the ends; it is a cocco-bacillus, 
which has been found in nearly every organ 
and secretion of the body. 

The first important point in the etiology of 
bubonic plague is the connection between 
human epidemics and epizootics among ro¬ 
dents. When the pandemic began in 1894, 
the relationship between dead rats and cases 
of plague was shown to be very close—the 
maximum point for the rodent disease pre¬ 
ceding that for human plague by a few 
weeks. The definite proof that the rats did 
suffer from infection with the plague bacillus 
was furnished in 1902 by extensive bacterio¬ 
logical investigations in Hong-kong. As Dr. 



Plaice 


3750 


Planet 


Rucker, of the U. S. Public Health Service, 
puts it, ‘Plague is primarily a disease of ro¬ 
dents, and secondarily and accidentally a 
disease of man. 5. It was P. L. Simond who 
first suggested, in 1899, that the flea fur¬ 
nished the medium by which bubonic plague 
is transmitted from rat to rat and -from rat 
to man. Several different vaccines are in use 
which exert an important effect in the reduc¬ 
tion of the mortality from plague, and which 
furnish a valuable adjunct to sanitary pre¬ 
ventive measures. 

Plaice, (Pleuronectes platessa ), a valuable 
European flat-fish, distinguished by the eyes 
being on the right side, red spots on the upper 
surface, and bony tubercles behind the eyes. 
It may exceed thirty inches in length, though 
usually it measures less than 2 ft., and weighs 
from 8 to 10 pounds. The plaice is found 
from the Bay of Biscay to the n. coast of 
Europe, and is abundant in moderately deep 
and shallow water at Iceland and around the 
British Isles. 

Plain, a land surface which approximates 
to a plane. As a rule, the term is confined to 
such flat surfaces as are found in the low¬ 
lands. The higher plains are generally table 
lands or plateaus, but the great plains of North 
America rise almost imperceptibly from sea I 
level to 6,000 ft. The interruption of moun¬ 
tain ranges or steep escarpments rather than 
mere elevation delimits the plain. Plains may 
be due to denudation or accumulation. Marine 
plains are old sea floors now above sea level, 
such as the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains of 
North America. 

Plainfield, city, New Jersey, 24 m. s.w.^of 
New York City. It is a residential city with 
considerable industrial interests. The pictur¬ 
esque First Mountain, a continuation of Or¬ 
ange Mountain, lies on the n.w. Manufactures 
include auto trucks, newspaper presses, silk, 
silk hosiery, women’s dresses, pneumatic 
tubes, concrete machinery and machine .tools. 
Hundreds of New York business men live in 
Plainfield, which has express service on the 
Central Railroad of New Jersey; p.37469. 

Plains of Abraham, hills S.W\ of Quebec* 
See Abraham, Heights of. 

Plain-song, Plain-chant, Gregorian 
Chant, or Gregorian Music, terms for an 
ancient unmeasured form of sacred music. set 
to passages contained, in Holy Writ, and .used 
in the' service of the Church since the begin¬ 
ning of the Christian era. Its distinguishing 
points are its recitative-like character, the 
modes, or scales, in which it is written, which 
are more numerous and varied than the mod¬ 


em major and minor; and its being (orig¬ 
inally) sung in unison. The cultivation of 
plain-song has received great impetus from 
the instructions on church music given to the 
Roman Catholic Church by Pius x. in 1903, 
in which he strongly advocated the use of 
Gregorian music. 

Plaintiff, a person in whose name a civil 
action is commenced. He may be acting in 
his individual or a representative capacity, 
as where one sues as trustee. In some States 
of the United States, one who maintains an 
action in equity is known as the complainant. 

Planarian, a term which may be applied to 
practically all the members of the class Tur- 
bellaria, a division of Platyhelminthes, or 
flat-worms. Planarians are small, oval, or 
elliptical, leaf-life creatures which are al¬ 
most all free-living, and which are found in 
the sea, in fresh water, and occasionally in 
damp earth. 

Planchette, a piece of board shaped like 
a heart, mounted on supports, two of which 
are casters fixed at the broader end, with a 
pencil at the other, so that it moves easily 
over a sheet of paper when hands are placed 
lightly on it. This instrument was at one 
time believed to write independently of the 
volition of the person touching it; but its 
action is now explained by the ‘dominant 
idea/ which influences the hands of the oper¬ 
ator. See Ouija Board. 

Pian$on, Pol-Heisrl (1854-19x4)) French 
operatic singer, was bom in Fumay, France. 

Plane Geometry deals with the properties 
of co-planar lines' and points 5 but the theory 
of planes themselves belongs to the geometry 
of space, also called solid geometry. Geometry 
tells us that we completely determine a plane 
when we know on it (1) two intersecting 
straight, lines, or (2) one line and a point 
without it, or (3) three non-collinear points, 
or (4) two parallel lines (not necessarily 
straight lines). It will be observed that a 
plane has only two dimensions—-length and 
breadth, whereas a solid has three—length, 
breadth, and depth; a line, one only—length; 
and a point, none. 

Planet, so called in contradistinction to a 
‘fixed’ star, is an-opaque body, permanently 
revolving round the . sun at a distance of 
from 186 million to some four billion m. The 
. ancients knew' five planets:—Mercury, Ve~ 
I nus, Mars,.. Jupiter and Saturn. Modern as¬ 
tronomers have added the Earth, Uranus, 
Neptune and Pluto, making nine in all Sec¬ 
ondary planets arc the satellites, or bodies 
that revolve around the primary'; planets, 



Planetarium 


3751 


Plantain 


Primary planets are further classified as ‘in- j 
ferio’ when they revolve inside the earth’s 
orbit. Such are visible only in morning or 
evening twilight; they are bound to the vi¬ 
cinity of the sun; the angle of maximum elon¬ 
gation can in no case reach go°. Their appar¬ 
ent motions are direct from w. to e.—at su¬ 
perior, retrograde at inferior conjunction; 
while at elongations, their velocities being 
radially directed to or from the earth, they 
seem stationary. The superior planets show 
retrogradations only when nearly opposite 
to the sun, while stationary periods mark 
the limits of each ‘arc of regression.’ Owing 
to the inclinations, of their orbits to the 


—an artificial inverted hemispherical dome 
in which are prajected the sun, moon, planets, 
and stars. It can be so operated that any and 
all apparent motions connected with ordinary 
or extraordinary astronomical phenomena of 
the heavens can be shown. In 1937? due to 
the tremendous cost of these planetaria, the 
projector alone selling at about $150,000, only 
four cities in the United States support one 
Chicago, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and New 
York." 

Plankton. A term applied collectively to 
all those animals which swim about near the 
surface of any body of water, as the sea or a 
lake. 



Planetarium, New York City . General view of building. Inset—Giant Projector 


ecliptic, the planets do not simply return 
upon their own tracks in executing their os¬ 
cillations in longitude, but pursue looped 
paths, representing their simultaneous devia¬ 
tions in latitude. Mercury, Venus, and Mars 
rank with the Earth as ‘terrestrial planets.’ 
They are bodies of the same order of magni¬ 
tude of not very dissimilar density, and ad¬ 
vanced geological age. The exterior planets, 
on the contrary, are giants in size, and bear 
the stamp of inchoate globes. They are of 
slight consistence, possess profound and tur¬ 
bulent atmospheres, and rotate swiftly, hut 
unequally, in drifts and zones. 

7 Planetarium, a machine for representing 
the motions and orbits of the planets. The 
name is given specifically to an arrangement, 
for creating mechanically the illusion ■ of a sky 


Plantagenet, Family of. The name first 
appears in the rolls of Parliament in 1460, 
having been adopted by Richard* Duke of 
York, to express the superiority of his house 
over that of Lancaster. The name, however, 
is sometimes applied to the whole Angevin 
dynasty, which occupied the throne from 
1154 till 1485, and included Henry u., Rich¬ 
ard 1., John, Henry m., Edward 1., Edward 
11., Edward in., Richard 11., Henry iv., Henry. 
v., Henry vi., Edward iv., ' Edward v., and 
Richard in. 

/Plantain (Plantago), a genus of herba- 
1 ceous plants belonging to the order Plantag- 
inacese. The only species grown in gardens is 
p. brasyliensis, which bears whitish flowers 
in a dense cylindrical spike. Several species, 
however, are common weeds. 












Plantain 


3752 


Plants 


Plantain-eaters, or Twracos, a family of 
"birds (Musophagidae) peculiar to Africa, The 
coloring is usually metallic blue or green, 
tften varied with crimson; the red feathers 
contain a peculiar soluble pigment called tu- 
racin. 



Plantih, Christoph© (c. 1514-89), French 
printer, born at St. Avertin, near Tours; es¬ 
tablished at Antwerp one of the largest print¬ 
ing-houses in Europe. His greatest work is 
the Antwerp Polyglot Bible (8 vols. 1569- 
73). He was also the owner of printing-houses 
at Paris and Leyden. In 1876 his Antwerp 
printing-house, together with its collections, 
was opened as the Musee Plantin. 

Plant-lice. Bee Aphids. 

Plants, the term broadly applied to living 
organisms endowed with, vegetable life in 
contrast to animal life, in general non-sen- ; 
tient. The chief purpose served by plants is 
the provision of food for the whole animal 
world. Moreover, the part they play in the 
interchange of gases renders the air fit to be 
breathed by animals, which in return give off 
carbon dioxide utilized for plant food. Prac¬ 
tically the whole surface of the earth is cov¬ 
ered with vegetation of one kind or another, 
irom the giants of the forests to the herbage 


of the meadows, the lowly desert plant and 
the lichen of the rock. 

Plant physiology is concerned with the 
functions necessary for the well-being of the 
individual and the propagation of the species. 
These may be looked on as forming a cycle, 
of .which movement, growth, respiration, nu¬ 
trition, and, reproduction are the important 
stages in the higher plants, and constitute the 
lifediistorv of those that consist of a single 
cell. In the lowest plants there is a certain 
amount of locomotion. In diatoms and des- 
mids progress through the water is effected 
by means of protrusile threads of proto¬ 
plasm thrust through the cell wall. Helio- 
tropism, or the action of light on vegetable 
life, may be observed in window plants, the 
stems of which bend toward the window, 
while the leaves assume a position at right 
angles to the light. On the other hand, the 
tendrils of the vine and Virginia creeper turn 
away from the light. To gravitation is due 
the downward growth of primary roots and 
the horizontal growth of lateral branches. 

The simplest plants consist of single cells, 
and the higher plants originate as single cells, 
and growth is carried on by cell division and 
specialization. The former takes place at the 
growing points above and below, except in 
the case of the lateral roots, which arise at 
some distance from the tip, where the tissues 
have already begun to differentiate. The next 
phase is that of elongation, due to surface 
growth in the cell walk and the distension of 
the cell by the absorption of water. Internal 
j organs are developed by the fusion of cell 



Knight’s Experiment , shelving 
that the normal direction oj 
root and stem is due to gravity. 

cavities and the thickening of cell wails; and 
periodicity of growth may be observed cor¬ 
responding to the alternations of day and 
night and of the seasons with their periodical 
changes of light and temperature. Growth is 
most rapid in spring, after the retardation of 




■Plasma 


3753 


Platinum 


the vital processes in winter, which allows 
of the accumulation of reserve material. 

Respiration, or the absorption of oxygen, 
and the evolution of carbon dioxide, is as 
necessary for plants as for animals. When a 
plant is deprived of oxygen, all vital proc¬ 
esses are suspended; and if it is kept in the 
same atmosphere, the destruction and disor¬ 
ganization of the living substance inevitably 
follow. 

Nutrition is a general term, covering all 
the processes by which the plant body is 
built up, from the absorption of nutritive 
material in solution from the soil to the ac¬ 
cumulation of reserve. Carbon is derived by 
a plant from the atmosphere, chiefly by the 
leaves; oxygen and hydrogen are obtained 
from the water absorbed by the roots, which 
also brings in the necessary mineral sub¬ 
stances from the soil. I 

Reproduction, which implies separation, 
rejuvenation, and multiplication of the indi¬ 
vidual, is effected asexually and sexually. Asex¬ 
ual reproduction may take place by the divi¬ 
sion of a single cell, when growth limits are 
reached, as in the single-celled algae; by the 
formation of spores; or by vegetative increase 
by stolons, rhizomes, or tubers; and to this 
third method the general name of budding is 
applied. Sexual reproduction is more com¬ 
plicated ; but, reduced to its simplest terms, 
it consists in the development of two sexual 
cells or garnets, neither of which can of itself 
give rise to a new organism. But from the 
fusion of these two cells a third cell (the 
zygote) is produced, which is the starting- 
point of a new plant. The process is some¬ 
what masked by the alternation of genera¬ 
tions. See Botany, Fungi, Flowers, Fruits. 

Plasma. See Blood. 

Plasma, a variety of chalcedony, which has 
a dark-green or leek-green color, due to the 
admixture of minerals belonging usually to 
the chlorite group. It takes a good polish. At 
present it is principally obtained from India, 
where it occurs in the cavities of weathered 
igneous rocks. 

. Plaster and Plastering. The application 
of a coat of plastic material to the surfaces of ! 
masonry or of woodwork, for the purpose of 
bringing the latter to a sufficiently smooth 
surface to receive surface decoration, is 
known as plastering. Upon ceilings, or wood¬ 
en partitions, the several coats are applied 
upon laths of wood or on wire netting or 
lathing. In ceilings, however, it is customary 
to add a finishing coat, containing calcium 


sulphate, or of what is commonly called plas¬ 
ter of Paris. 

Plaster of Paris, obtained by cautiously 
heating gypsum in kilns or continuous fur¬ 
naces out of contact with fuel to about 120° 
c It is a tine white powder that sets rapidly 
with expansion to a hard solid after being 
mixed into a paste with water. It is utilized 
for cementing objects together, and for copy¬ 
ing objects of every description. 

Plastics, a large group of organic, often 
synthetic, materials. Some are proteins, as 
nylon; some are cellulose derivatives, as Plas- 
tacele; and some are resins formed by poly¬ 
merization, as Lucite and Plexiglas. They are 
cast or molded and used for making many 
articles. Celluloid and Bakelite are early plas¬ 
tics. World War II spurred research on old 
and search for new plastics. 

Plata, Rio 4 e la, or River Plate, inlet of 
e. of S. America, between Argentina and 
Uruguay, forming the estuary of the Parana 
and Uruguay rivers. Length, 130 miles. 

Platsea, a city in Bceotia, ancient Greece, at 
the northern base of Mount Cithasron. Its 
history turns on its refusal to join the league 
of Boeotian cities dominated by Thebes. In 
510 or 509 b.c. it formed an alliance with 
Athens. The Athenians had at once to fight 
the Boeotians. The Peloponnesian War began 
with an unsuccessful attempt (431 b.c.) by 
the Thebans to seize Platsea. The Pelopon¬ 
nesians besieged Plataea (429-27 b.c.) and 
captured it by starvation, the town being 
razed to the ground. 

Platanus, a genus of trees belonging to the 
order Plantanaceae. The sycamore or button- 
wood (P. occidentals ) has coriaceous, pu¬ 
bescent leaves. The bark of this sycamore has 
the habit of splitting off in thin, broad scales, 
leaving the upper part of trunk and branches 
blotched with white. Its round balls of fruit 
hang on the trees over the winter. It is found 
in rich soil, particularly in moist lands along 
streams, and reaches to a great height (130 
ft.) and girth (50 ft.); its reddish-brown 
wood is used chiefly in making cigar-boxes, 
although compact, hard, and difficult to work. 

Plateau means either a high level plain, or 
an elevated part of a mountain system shut 
in by bordering chains, and in some cases 
traversed by mountain ranges or by a table¬ 
land. A submarine plateau is a steeply bor¬ 
dered elevation in the sea floor. 

; Plating. See Electro-deposition. 

Platinum (Pt., 195- 2 )> a metallic element 
occurring in alluvial deposits or in rock-form- 



Platinum 


3754 


PSat© 


ing minerals, is found principally in the Ural 
mountains, in Colombia, and in the United 

States, where the principal deposits are lo¬ 
cated in Alaska, in Butte, Humboldt, Plumas, 
Sacramento and Yuba counties, California, 
in Southwestern Oregon, and along the Gila 
River in Arizona. Native or crude platinum 
occurs usually in small glistening granules of 
a steel-gray color, which always contain, 
along with some gold, copper, iron, and sand, 
an admixture, in varying proportions, of sev¬ 
eral metals—iridium, rhodium, palladium, os¬ 
mium, ruthenium—most of which are rarely 
found except in association with platinum. 
Sometimes, however, it is found in masses of 
the size of a pigeon’s egg, and pieces weighing 
xo or even 20 pounds have occasionally been 
known. Crude platinum is obtained by two 
methods—hand sluicing and dredging. 

Platinum is a tin-white metal of metallic 
lustre, tenacious, malleable, and ductile. It 
melts at the high temperature of 177° c., has 
a specific gravity of 21.5, and is about as 
hard as copper. It is a poor conductor of elec¬ 
tricity, is easily welded at red heat, and is 
particularly valuable in haying a coefficient 
of linear expansion (.0000907 at 50° f.) ap¬ 
proximately equal to that of glass, thus al¬ 
lowing wires to be sealed into glass vessels 
without the latter cracking on cooling—a 
feature of especial importance in the manu¬ 
facture of electrical apparatus. Platinum, par¬ 
ticularly when in a spongy form prepared 
by heating some of its compounds, has the 
remarkable property of bringing about the 
union of oxygen and hydrogen. In a similar 
way it brings about the union of sulphur 
dioxide and oxygen to form sulphur trioxide, 
a process employed commercially in the man¬ 
ufacture of sulphuric add by the contact 
process. 

Platinum is used chiefly for making and 
covering various apparatus and utensils for 
use in the chemical laboratory, as crucibles, 
spoons, blowpipe points, boilers, and tongs. 
Ct is employed also in the manufacture of 
concentrated sulphuric acid, essential in the 
production of explosives, and for incande¬ 
scent lamps. The metal is used extensively in 
photography, and in the manufacture of 
. jewelry, especially as a setting for precious 
stones. The . known supply of platinum is 
small, and ' is rapidly diminishing with the 
exhaustion of the. mines' in the Ural Moun¬ 
tains. Formerly a minor producer of plati¬ 
num, the U. S. since 193S has been filling a 
large proportion of its platinum needs from 
deposits within its own borders. 


Plato, the central figure in Greek philoso¬ 
phy, was born in 427 b.c., of an aristocratic 
Athenian family. He was a pupil of Socrates 
from whom he acquired that moral convic¬ 
tion of the value of knowledge for life, and 
of the vital connection between knowledge 
and life, which continued to mark his think¬ 
ing. The condemnation and death of Socrates 
in 399 b.c. broke up the circle of his disciples, 
and Plato among others seems to have fled to 
Megara. During the next ten or twelve years 
lie is said to have traveled widely, visiting, 
among othe r places, Egypt, Cyrene, the 
Greek colonies in Italy, and finally Syra¬ 
cuse, then governed by the tyrant Dionysius. 
On Ms .return to Athens about 388 b.c. he 
founded the school afterwards famous as the 
Academy, and settled down to the study and 
teaching of philosophy. 

The writings of Plato have come down to 
us in a much more complete and finished 
state than those of most of the other great 
thinkers of antiquity. Yet Plato apparently 
attached much less importance to his writings 
than to his oral teaching. In the Pfuvdrus, a 
dialogue which has been regarded by some as 
a sort of inaugural discourse, written at the 
time of the foundation of the Academy, writ¬ 
ing is contrasted to its disadvantage with the 
patient husbandry of the Socratic method of 
discussion. And his writings themselves take 
the form, of dialogue, which is evidently a 
literary reproduction of the Socratic conver¬ 
sation. In most of them Socrates himself is 
represented as the chief interlocutor, though, 
of course, as Plato’s philosophy develops, the 
thought goes far beyond the scope of actual 
Socratic teaching. 

The early group includes (1.) a sub-group 
of three ‘Socratic’ dialogues, so called because 
they appear to go but little beyond the mas¬ 
ter’s teaching, the Laches, Charmides, and 
Lysis, the last of which is concerned with 
friendship, while the two former work out 
for the virtues of courage and temperance 
the Socratic thesis that ‘virtue is knowledge.’ 
(2.) There may also be placed in the early 
group the Apology, which is not a dialogue, 
but appears to give the defence of Socrates 
at his trial; and the two dialogues, the Eutky- 
phro, wherein Socrates, who was charged 
with impiety, is made to show how little the 
popular mind has grasped the nature of the 
piety it extols; and the Crilo, in which So¬ 
crates is shown, after his condemnation, as 
nobly accepting the decision of the law, and 
refusing to avail himself of his friends’ offers 
to aid him to escape. The remaining dialogue 




Plato 


3755 


connected with the trial and death of So¬ 
crates, the Phcedo, which represents the last 
scenes in the prison, and includes a discussion 
of the immortality of the soul. 

The late group includes, besides the Laws , 
which is the latest of all, and the Timmis , 
which contains Plato's cosmological theories, 
a _ g r °up of five very abstract and difficult 
dialogues in which fundamental, speculative, 
ethical, and political questions are discussed. 
These five are the Thecetetus, the Philebus, 
perhaps the most important of all the later 
dialogues; and a group of three (the Par¬ 
menides, Sophist, and Politicus ). 

4 The ‘ remaining dialogues that call for men¬ 
tion come probably somewhere between the 
early and the late group. In the Protagoras, 
we find Plato pushing the hedonistic aspect 


Plato 

is usually regarded as being, from a purely 
literary point of view, the most perfect of all 
the dialogues. The theme of these two dia¬ 
logues is love in its highest form, in which it 
appears as an exalted and spiritual yearning 
for a supersensible beauty that can be found 
only in an ideal world. It is in this central 
group of dialogues that the famous theory of 
Ideas begins to take more and more definite 
shape. But the theory comes to more decisive 
expression in the Phcedo (already mentioned). 
and again in the greatest of all the dialogues’ 
the Republic. 

This great work has been thought by some 
to reflect in its several parts different' stages 
of Plato’s philosophical development; but 
however this may be, all the parts of the 
finished work belong now to a single struc 



of the Socratic ethics to its logical conclusion 
by identifying the good with pleasure — a 
position, however, which, if he ever really 
accepted it, he soon abandoned. In the Got - 
gias the good life and the life of pleasure are 
sharply opposed. These two dialogues also 
portray the two famous Sophists whose 
names they bear. Plato treats them with 
respect even while he criticises them freely, 
but in the amusing or at times farcical dia¬ 
logue, the Euthydemus, where he is dealing 
with Sophists of a very different type, mere 
verbal quibblers, he shows us the degrada¬ 
tion which the Socratic method of discussion 
underwent in the hands of men utterly de¬ 
void of serious purpose, and eager only to 
show off before their bewildered audience. 
On the other hand, when he sets himself, in 
the Phcedrus and Symposium , to show us in 
allegorical fashion the true spirit of philoso¬ 
phy, all his literary skill is brought to bear 
on the task, and the Symposium in particular 


ture, and in its large and complex plan al¬ 
most all the chief topics of the Platonic phil¬ 
osophy are represented. The discussion is by 
turns ethical, political, theological, education¬ 
al, psychological, metaphysical, and sesthe- 
tical, as the many windings of the argument 
require. We are brought to the highly im¬ 
portant discussion of the nature and objects 
of philosophical study, and the method of a 
philosophical education, and are shown, in a 
fully elaborated contrast, the stages in the 
deterioration of the state and the individual 
soul which have once lapsed from their true 
justice or goodness. Plato is not averse to 
the use of fiction for didactic purposes, and 
the Republic concludes with one of those 
stories or myths which are a frequent de¬ 
vice in the dialogues. In it he pictures for us 
the destiny of the soul in a morally governed 
world in which justice is rewarded and in¬ 
justice punished. ■" 

The absolute good, or idea of the good, be- 


Platt 


3756 


comes for Plato the ultimate ground and in¬ 
terpretation of all reality, and the aim of all 
science would be attained in so far as we 
could rise to the knowledge of this supreme 
good, and see everything in the light of it. 
And it is in virtue of this twofold conviction 
that the truest realities are not those re¬ 
vealed by the senses, and that through all 
reality a single purpose or meaning rims, that 
Platonism has ever been the type of an ideal¬ 
istic philosophy. 

Platt, Charles Adams (1861-1933), Am¬ 
erican painter, etcher, architect, and land¬ 
scape architect, was born in New York City, 
and studied art at the National Academy 
school and at the Art Students’ League in 
that city, continuing in Paris. His landscapes 
include Early Spring (1884), Clouds (1S94), 
and Snow (1900). He was an early member 
of the N. Y. Etching Club, and devoted much 
attention to the art, notable specimens of his 
work being The Market Slip, Low Tide, Si. 
John, iV. B.j On the Connecticut River, and 
many Dutch scenes. In later years he gave 
much attention to landscape architecture and 
to architecture. 

Platt, Orville Hitchcock' (1827-1905), 
American politician, born at Washington, Ct. 
He was in the Connecticut Senate or House 
from 1855 to 1869 and was U. S. senator 
from 1879 until his death. He is best known 
as the author of the so-called ‘Platt Amend¬ 
ment’ which governed the relations between 
Cuba and the United States, until it was 
superseded in 1934 by independence for 
Cuba. 

Platt, Thomas Collier .(1833-1910), Am¬ 
erican politician, was born in Owego, N. Y. 
In 1S72 he went to New York City to start 
a Republican newspaper. In 187S lie became 
manager of the United States Express Com¬ 
pany,, and in 1S79 its president. Pie served 
two terms in Congress (1872-6), and in 188.1 
was chosen United States Senator but, with 
Roscoe Conkling, resigned in May of that 
year in protest against appointments in New 
York by President Garfield, He gained com¬ 
plete control of the Republican organization 
in the State. He was United States Senator 
(1897-1909). 

, Platte. National■■ Park. ■ See National 
Parks. 

Platte River, or Nebraska River, right 
branch of the Missouri, rises in Northern 
Colorado in two forks, known as the North 
and South Platte Rivers, which unite near 
North Platte City, Neb. The main river flows 
through Nebraska easterly through a broad 


Platyhelminthes 

bottomland, to its junction with the Missouri 
below Omaha. During nm; t of the year the 
main river is dry for m-w ra! hundred miles 
through Nebraska. The drainage area is 90,- 
011 sq. miles; the length of the main stream 
is 315 miles; including the North Platte, 825 
miles. 

Platteville, city, Grant co., Wisconsin. Fea¬ 
tures of interest include the State normal 
school, city park, and the picturesque natural 
scenery of the region and of the Platte River 
valley. The chief commercial interests are in 
the mining of lead and zinc. The city is also 
a shipping point for cattle, hogs, and dairy 
products; p. 4,762. 

Plattsburg, city, New York, county seat 
of Clinton co., on the w. shore of Lake 
Champlain at the mouth of the Saranac Riv¬ 
er. The town is beautifully situated on Cum¬ 
berland Ray, where the Battle of Plattsburg 
was fought in 1814, and commands a fine 
view of the Green Mountains and of the lake. 
It has a State normal school, a public library, 
and several philanthropic institutions. Not¬ 
able buildings and features of interest are the 
court house, custom house, City Hall, and 
the historic Delord House, headquarters of 
the British army commanders during the 
Rattle of Plattsburg. Plattsburg Barracks, a 
United States military post, established in 
1838, is situated on the outskirts of the town. 
It was the seat of a large military training 
camp during World Wars I and II; p. 
16,351. 

Plattsburg, Rattles of. During the Revo¬ 
lutionary War 'a small American fleet under 
Gen. Benedict Arnold was defeated Oct. 11, 
1776, off. Valcour .Island, near the present site 
of Plattsburg, by a superior fleet under Sir 
Guv Carleton. Though greatly shattered, the 
American ships withdrew in good order, and 
not a prisoner was .taken. During the War of 
1S12 the town was the headquarters of. the 
American forces on the northeast frontier. In 
September, 1814, a joint land and naval at¬ 
tack was made by the British. After their de¬ 
feat, the fleet retreated to Canada, and no 
further attacks were made during the war. 

Platyhelminthes, or Flat-worms, a divi¬ 
sion of the animal kingdom which contains 
such important parasites as flukes or tre- 
matodes, and tapeworms or ccstoda, as well 
as planarians or turbellarians. The platyhel¬ 
minthes are bilaterally symmetrical animals, 
with flattened bodies, which in the more 
primitive forms are leaf-like. Platyhelminthes 
are divided into three classes— (1) the Tur- 
bellaria, which are free-living; (2) the Tre- 



Platypus 


3757 


matoda, which are mostly external parasites; 
and (3) the Cestoda, which are internal para¬ 
sites. Structurally they illustrate the pro¬ 
gressive degeneration associated with para¬ 
sitism. 

Platypus. See Ormthorhynchus. 

Plautus, Titus Maccius (c. 254 to 184 
b.c.) , comic poet of ancient Rome, was a 
native of Sarsina in Umbria. In early life he 
was a servant to actors. His plays appear not 
to have been published during his life-time, 
but to have been left in the hands of the 
actors, who probably both interpolated and 
omitted passages to suit them for the stage. 
Of the twenty-one plays legitimately assigned 
to him all but one are extant. They are 
mostly imitations from the Greek Plautus. 
He is witty and humorous, his characters are 
life-like, and his plots on the whole satis¬ 
factory. His Latin is particularly pure and 
vigorous. Several modern writers have copied 
him closely. Shakespeare’s Comedy of Er¬ 
rors is based on the Menoechmi, and Moliere’s 
UAvare on the Aulularia; Dryden, Addison, 
and Lessing are among his imitators. 

Play, originally free or brisk movement or 
action; hence amusement, recreation, a game 
or, more broadly, any activity carried on 
with no definite object in view other than 
personal satisfaction. Children have engaged 
in play from the earliest times of which any 
record exists, and many of the games of to¬ 
day have their counterpart among the peo¬ 
ples of ancient times. From the point of view 
of play, childhood is generally divided into 
three periods. The first period, which lasts 
until about the sixth year of age, is the im¬ 
itative stage. In it the child does everything 
that he sees his elders do. He loves to run 
and jump and climb, but his play is seldom 
organized into a real game. The second period 
is from the age of six to twelve or thirteen, 
the period of the elementary school, and is 
the stage of individual competition, as wit¬ 
ness the game of tag and of hide and seek. 
The third and last period begins at about 
thirteen or fourteen and it is in this period 
that the team spirit is developed and a spirit 
of co-operation arises in games like baseball, 
cricket, and football. Play is the most serious 
activity in which the child engages, and it 
must not be confused with the recreation of 
adults, which is relief from toil. Recreation 
may vary in form, but it is never serious and 
is valuable only in recreating the mind and 
body for the more serious work of life. The 
play of a child should constitute physical, 


Playgrounds 

intellectual,, and moral training for future de¬ 
velopment. 

Everything indicates that nature intends 
the child to be active, his first interests and 
achievements are physical, and repeated tests 
show that children under six years old cannot 
sit still for more than thirty seconds. The 
early years of life offer the chief opportunity 
for physical training, and almost the only 
method during this period is play. The more 
vigorous the exercise, as in tag, roller skat¬ 
ing, and baseball, provided, of course, it does 
not overtax the child’s strength, the larger 
the spaces to play in, the more interesting the 
game, and the more varied the use of dif¬ 
ferent muscles, the better will be the results. 
Play tends to develop physical efficiency, a 
good chest, a bright eye, a good digestion, 
and robust health. 

Among primitive peoples the child’s edu¬ 
cation comes almost entirely from his play. 
In the age of Pericles at least half of each 
school day was devoted to organized games 
and athletics. The amount of energy that a 
person has at his command is one of the 
great determining factors in life, and there is 
little question that play is a great source for 
the development of energy. Play, which rep¬ 
resents the life of the past, which is social in 
its very nature and requires friendship and 
comradeship, which develops accurate judg¬ 
ment, a sense of justice, and a sense of honor, 
is a good preparation for living. See Play¬ 
grounds. Consult Publications of the Play¬ 
ground and Recreation Association of Am¬ 
erica. 

Playgrounds. Organized play is in reality 
older than* organized education, having had 
its beginnings in the far distant past, when 
in Persia, Greece, and Rome a course of 
games and athletics was the center of all ed¬ 
ucational systems. The modern playground 
movement dates from about the beginning of 
the twentieth century, having arisen largely 
out of the new psychology which makes the 
child the center of educational activity. In 
every country in Europe this movement has 
been fairly well developed; while Japan has 
made a good beginning, and there have been 
a few attempts in Korea, China, and India. 
The greatest interest, however, has been 
shown in America, where the movement is 
primarily a social one, designed to keep the 
child off the streets. Boston seems to have 
been the pioneer in this matter, as an or¬ 
ganized playground was opened in one of 
its school yards in 1868. Twelve years later 



Playing 


758 


Plebiscite 


New York City opened some thirty play¬ 
grounds under the Board of Education. 

Playing Cards. See Cards, Playing. 

Plays. See Drama. 

Plea, in the general sense, denotes any pro¬ 
ceeding at law, but more technically is re¬ 
stricted to certain answers open to a de¬ 
fendant in an action or suit. In action at law, 
pleas (in the more technical sense) are of 
several kinds, and are classified as dilatory 
and preemptory. Dilatory pleas are grounded 
on some alleged defect in the plaintiff’s case 
arising either out of want of jurisdiction in 
the court before which the action has been 


jection to the jurisdiction of the court; (2) 
a plea in abatement; (3) a special plea in 
bar, such as formerly acquitted or convicted 
on the same charge, or a pardon; or (4) he 
may plead the general issue of not guilty. 

Pleadings. At the common law, after 
the issue of a writ or summons and an ap¬ 
pearance has been entered in an action, the 
parties deliver the pleadings, which contain 
a summary of the material facts of the case 
for the guidance of the other parties and the 
judge. Only facts must be stated, and not 
arguments or evidence. Pleadings have been 
greatly simplified under the reformed pro- 



brought, or in respect that it has been brought 
against the wrong defendant, or that it" is 
premature, or that the form of the action is 
bad. Preemptory pleas go directly to the root 
of. the plaintiff’s case, either by denying the 
facts on which he founds, or by alleging 
others. which entirely alter the complexion 
of. the case. Demurrers which take exception 
to the law, .as opposed to the facts, on which 
the plaintiff relies are sometimes included 
under peremptory pleas though properly dis¬ 
tinct. In criminal prosecutions the accused is 
called upon to plead to the indictment. He 
may plead guilty, but if he advances an an¬ 
swer or plea, it must be either (1) an ob- 


ceclure of England and the United States, and 
may now be amended in case of error. 

Pleasantville, borough, Atlantic co., New 
Jersey, on Lake Bay. It. is a residential place. 
Lake Bay is the center of a large oyster in¬ 
dustry, for which Pleasantville is the shipping 
point; p. 11,050. . 

Pleasantville, village, Westchester, co., 
New York, is situated 32 miles northeast of 
New York City; p. 4,454. 

. Plebiscite, originally a term used in an¬ 
cient Rome to denote a resolution of the plebs 
or commons formally passed at their regular 
assembly, the Concilium Pie bis. At first such 
resolutions were only binding on the plebians 



Piets 


3759 


Plethora 


themselves; but after 287 b.c., by a law of 
Hortensius, such resolutions, though not laws, 
were equally binding on all Roman citizens, 
and, in fact, most important measures were 
thus carried. In modern times it is practically 
synonymous with a referendum to the body 
politic. 

This method 'was used at the close of the 
French Revolution to determine the status of 
various annexations, and after the Great War 
there were several plebiscites taken, notably in 
Schleswig-Holstein and Upper Silesia. Another 
notable plebiscite was in the Tacna-Arica 
question. The Saar plebiscite took place in 
January, 1935, under League of Nations sup¬ 
ervision. See Saar. 

Piebs, or Plebeians, in ancient Rome, the 
common people. Intermarriage between ple¬ 
beians and patricians was forbidden until 445 
b.c. Under Servius Tullius the whole body of 
citizens, patrician and plebeian was formed 
into the Comitia Curiata, or national assem¬ 
bly. This history of Rome from 509 to 300 b.c. 
is that of the equalization of the two orders. 
One after another the piebs broke down all 
patrician privileges, until patrician birth be¬ 
came a mere pride of lineage. After the equal¬ 
ization of the orders a plebeian nobility arose, 
based on the tenure of high public office. From 
300 b.c. onwards this nobility counted for 
more at Rome than patrician birth. 

Pledge, in English and American law, per¬ 
sonal property delivered over as security for 
a debt. Almost any personal property may be 
pledged, subject, however, to a few exceptions, 
such as the pay of an officer, and further sub¬ 
ject to the requirement of delivery, for with¬ 
out delivery of the article to the pledge there 
is no pledge at law. It differs in this from a 
chattel mortgage. In a pledge title remains 
with the pledgor and never passes to the 
pledgee, who only acquires a right to sell the 
article under statutes and subject to statutory 
regulations. The holder of a pledge is bound 
to take reasonable care of it, and is liable for 
negligence, but a pledgee may make reasonable 
use of the article while it is in his possession. 
A pledgor may redeem the pledge until a sale 
with notice has been had, and he may sell it, 
giving the vendee all Ms rights. 

Pleiades, a conspicuous star cluster in Tau¬ 
rus, which figures popularly as the Seven Stars, 
though only six are commonly visible, the dis¬ 
crepancy being accounted for by the world 
wide tradition of a dost Pleiad/ Keen eyes, 
however, can discern many more than six Plei¬ 
ades ; Maestlin reckoned 14, Littrow 16. The 
brighter components are of helium type. Phot¬ 


ographs of the pleiades exhibit it as densely 
nebulous. 

Pleiades, in ancient Greek legend, the seven 
sisters of the Hyades. The story runs that in 
Boeotia the hunter Orion pursued them, and 
the gods to whom they prayed for deliverance 
turned them into doves and placed them 
among the stars. 

Pleiocene. See Pliocene. 

Pleistocene System (Gr., ‘most recent’), 
a system which comprises the older accumula¬ 
tions belonging to the Quaternary or Post- 
Tertiary division. In North Europe, and cen¬ 
tral and southern mountain regions of that 
continent deposits consist for the most part ol 
glacial and fluvio-glacial detritus which be¬ 
token the former presence of a great ice-sheet 
The remains of northern and Arctic plants and 
animals are met with both in glaciated coun¬ 
tries, and in the caves and fluviatile deposits 
that occur in regions that never were covered 
with glacier ice. The relics of man himself also 
accompany the same flora and fauna. The 
Pleistocene period was distinguished by great 
climatic oscillations. During the Pleistocene 
period a depression occurred along the Atlan¬ 
tic coast, and the subsequent elevation gave 
rise to many lines of raised beaches, as in the 
terraces of the Hudson Valley and along Lake 
Champlain. The Pleistocene fauna of North 
America embraced Mastodon, a true elephant, 
species of horse, bison, beaver, peccary, bear, 
etc., and gigantic extinct forms of sloth, such 
as Megatherium, Mylodon, and Megalonyx. 

Plenipotentiary, a diplomatic representa¬ 
tive invested with full power to settle all the 
affairs connected with the special commission 
for which he is appointed, subject to the rati¬ 
fication of his government. Meetings of such 
plenipotentiaries are generally held in some 
neutral country, so that they may settle trea¬ 
ties and terms of peace without the interfer¬ 
ence of any particular power. 

Plesiosaurus, a large extinct marine rep¬ 
tile of predaceous habits, which inhabited the 
Mesozoic seas. Different species range from 
10 to 40 ft. in length. They had a compara¬ 
tively small and lizard-like head, borne on a 
long and flexible neck. The body was relative¬ 
ly not of great size, apparently unprovided 
with bony armor, and carried two pairs of 
long, powerful paddles or flippers. The tail 
was stout, and about as long as the body. 

Plethora, a term used in medicine to ex¬ 
press a state of general full-bloodedness, non- 
pathological, and not to be confused with the 
pathological conditions of congestion and in¬ 
flammation.. 



Pleurisy 


3760 


Plum 


Pleurisy;, inflammation, of the pleura, is 
one of the commonest of the serious inflam¬ 
mations. Apart from pandemics of influenza, 
the most common causes of pleurisy are tuber¬ 
culosis and pneumonia. Occasionally a tuber¬ 
culous pleurisy is due to the extension of a tu¬ 
berculosis of the bones of the chest, or of the 
peritoneum, but in the majority of cases it is 
associated, with tuberculosis of the lungs. The 
characteristic symptoms of pleurisy are pain 
and cough. There are, as a rule, some rise of 
temperature, shallow, rapid breathing, and 
small, hard pulse. Applications of hot fomen¬ 
tations are of service in mitigating the pain 
and in checking the extension of the inflamma¬ 
tion. 

Pleurodynia, a form of muscular rheuma¬ 
tism characterized by paroxysmal pain in the 
intercostal muscles, sometimes of such intens¬ 
ity as to simulate pleurisy. 

Pleuropneumonia, a term sometimes used 
to denote the occurrence of pneumonia com¬ 
plicating pleurisy. In veterinary medicine 
pleuro-penumonia is synonymous with pleuro¬ 
pneumonia contagiosa, as lung plague. For 
which see Cattle. 

Plevna, city, Bulgaria, on a tributary of 
the Danube; particularly known as the scene, 
in 1877, of a series of battles between the Turks 
and Russians, and of the memorable siege, Sep¬ 
tember to December, when Osman Pasha, after 
a heroic defence, surrendered with 40,000 men ; 
p. 25,000. 

Plimsoll, Samuel (1824-98), British re¬ 
former, known as £ the sailors’ friend/ was born 
in Bristol. His trenchant attack on shipown¬ 
ers led to the passing of the Merchant Ship¬ 
ping Act, 1876, which empowered the Board 
of Trade to detain any vessel deemed unsafe, 
restricted the amount of cargo, and rendered 
compulsory on every ship a mark (known as 
the Plimsoll mark) indicating the maximum 
load-line. Plimsoll resigned his seat in 1880. 

Pliny the Elder (23-79 a.d.) , whose full 
name was Gaius Plinixjs Secundus, spent the 
years of Nero’s reign (55 to 68) in studious 
retirement.. Vespasian made him one. of his 
intimate, friends, and .appointed him admiral 
, of.;the fleet at Misenum. When the great erup¬ 
tion of Vesuvius took place in 79, Pliny, who 
landed at Sfabke in order to observe the phe¬ 
nomenon more closely, was overcome .by the 
noxious fumes. His one.surviving, work is his 
Natural History , which contains 20,000 im¬ 
portant facts, collected from over 2,000 books. 

Pliny the Younger (61-c. 114), whose 
full name was Gaius Plinjus Caecilius Se¬ 
cundus, was a nephew and the adopted son 


of the elder Pliny. His works are a panegyric 
on Trajan, and ten books of letters, the” last 
of which, containing his correspondence with 
Trajan while he governed Bithynia, is of par¬ 
ticular interest. 

Pliocene, a geological period immediately 
preceding the glacial. Part of the auriferous 
gravels of California belong to this period. 
Volcanic activity continued through, the Plio¬ 
cene. The plateau region was greatly elevated, 
.rejuvenating the streams and making possible 
such canyons as the Colorado. The Pliocene 
beds of Attica (Greece) have yielded many 
interesting mammalian fossils. Pliocene life 
was very modern in character. The mastodon, 
elephant, rhinoceros, horse, were prominent. 
Much discussion also has centered around the 
discovery of a man-like skeleton in Java, 
Pit heca n t hr opus e re c l us. 

Plotinus (c. 205-270 a.d.) , the founder of 
the Neo-Plantonic system of philosophy, was 
a native of Egypt. He was probably of Ro¬ 
man descent. His theories are based on those 
of Plato. The stress he laid on the purely men¬ 
tal source of knowledge, insisting that think¬ 
ing alone led to truth, gave a tone of mysti¬ 
cism to his teaching; his followers practiced a 
kind of meditative trance rather than an ob¬ 
servation of nature. Our knowledge of his 
works is due to his pupil Porphyry, who ar¬ 
ranged them in their present form. 

Plover, a general name applied to many of 
the limicoline birds of the sub-family Chara- 
driinse. What may be regarded as the typical 
plovers belong to the genus Charadrius, and 
are well exemplified by the golden plovers, 
several closely similar species of which inhabit 
the northern parts of both the Old and New 
Worlds, breeding on the northern moorlands. 
Their general color Is black, spotted with yel¬ 
low above, with white markings on the head 
and sides. In winter the black under parts be¬ 
come white. The eggs, generally four in num¬ 
ber, are prized as food. 

Plum, an orchard stone fruit belonging to 
genus Primus widely grown in all temperate 
climates. It is closely related to the peach but 
is generally smaller and has a smooth, skin and 
stone. A. number of species are native to Am¬ 
erica. The European plums which are grown 
chiefly in the Eastern States include such well 
known varieties as Lombard, Green Gage, and 
Damsons. The Japanese plums are successfully 
grown in all of the Southern States, north as 
far as Vermont, and west of California. The 
tree is a hardy, vigorous grower and best 
adapted of all sorts to grow in the South. 
Plums may be grown on nearly all well-drain- 



Plumbago 


3761 


Plymouth 


ed soils. The plum orchard requires clean cul¬ 
tivation during the early part of the season, 
followed by a cover crop the latter half. All 
native and most Japanese varieties are self 
sterile, and in order to insure fruitfulness va¬ 
rieties must be mixed in the orchard. Firm, 
sweet-fleshed varieties of pkmis that can be 
successfully cured are called prunes. These 
are extensively grown in the Pacific States, 
where favorable conditions exist for drying 
them. 



i, Section of fruit. 


Plumbago, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order Plumbaginaceae. Most of the spe¬ 
cies require greenhouse cultivation. P. capensis 
is a beautiful dwarf greenhouse climber, with 
pale-blue flowers in summer and autumn. 

Plumbing, a general term covering the 
tanks, pipes, traps, fittings and fixtures in a 
building for conveying water and for the dis¬ 
posal of sewage. It is applied, also, to the trade 
concerned with the installation of such equip¬ 
ment. Any plumbing system includes a water 
supply system and a drainage system. 

Plumule, the end of the axis of the infant 
plant (destined to develop into the stem) as 
distinguished from the other end. 

Plunket, William Conyngham, First 
Baron Plunket (1764-1854), British states¬ 
man, became a peer and Chief Justice (1827); 
and was Lord Chancellor of Ireland (1S30- 
41). Consult Memoir by How. 

Plunkett, Sir Horace Curzon (1854- 
1932), Irish public official, was educated at 
Eton and at Oxford. From 1879 to 1889 he 
was engaged in cattle ranching in the western 
United States and on his return to Ireland was 
active in promoting agricultural cooperation. 


His publications include Noblesse Oblige: aw 
Irish Rendering (1908) ; The Rural Life Prob¬ 
lem of the United States (1910) ; A Better 
Way: an Appeal to Ulster not to Desert Ire¬ 
land (1914), 

Plush. See Fabrics, Textile. 

Plutarch, ancient Greek biographer, was 
bom about 40 a.d. He visited Italy, and lec¬ 
tured at Rome on philosophy during Domi- 
tian’s reign. His Parallel Lives are the lives of 
46 famous Greeks and Romans, arranged in 
pairs for comparison; each pair consisting of 
a Greek and a Roman. He wrote other Lives 
also, which have not come down to us. 

Pluto, the 9t.l1 major planet of the solar 
system, of the 14th to 15th magnitude. The 
existence of this body had been predicted in 
1915 by the late Professor Percival Lowell, in 
his Memoir on a Trans-Neptimian Planet, The 
actual discovery was made in March, 1930, 
by Clyde W. Tombaugh, a 24-year-old assist¬ 
ant at the Lowell Observatory at Flagstaff, 
Arizona. The event created a great sensation, 
and it was reported that years of study would 
be needed to determine the facts. Consult H. 
N. Russell, More About Pluto ( Scientific Am¬ 
erican, Dec. 1930). 

I Pluto, in ancient Greek mythology, the god 
of the lower regions, called by Homer Hades. 
He married Persephone, the daughter of Dem¬ 
eter (Ceres), after forcibly carrying her off, 
for which act her mother refused to allow the 
fruits of the earth to grow until her daughter 
was permitted to return to the upper world 
for a part of each year. 

Pluvius, The rainy, 5 a title given by the 
ancient Romans to Jupiter, as the giver of 
rain. 

Plymouth, municipal, parliamentary, and 
county borough and important seaport, Eng¬ 
land. Northeast of the Hoe is Sutton Pool, an 
inlet of the Sound, from which the ‘Mayflow¬ 
er 5 sailed in 1620. Plymouth has a large for¬ 
eign and coasting trade and is the point of de¬ 
parture for many passenger vessels to all parts 
of the world. 

Plymouth, town, Massachusetts, county 
seat of Plymouth co., on Plymouth Bay. It is 
a summer resort and the oldest town in Massa¬ 
chusetts, the landing place of the Pilgrims 
from the Mayflower in 1620. One of the chief 
objects of interest in the town is Plymouth 
Rock, taken from the place of landing. Burial 
Hill and Cole’s Hill contain the graves of early 
settlers, and there are many historic houses 
Plymouth is also an important center; p. 13,- 
100. The town celebrated its tercentenary with 
a pageant, widely attended, in 1920. Consult 




Plymouth 

Davis 5 History of the Town of Plymouth and 
Bradford’s History. 

Plymouth, town, Connecticut, Litchfield 
co., on the New York, New Haven, and Hart¬ 
ford Railroad; 22 m. s.w. of Hartford. Impor¬ 
tant industries are the quarrying of granite, 
wood turning, and the manufacture of malle¬ 
able iron, oven thermometers, and automatic 
screw machines. A cabinet lock factory locat¬ 
ed here is said to be one of the largest of its 
kind in the world. Plymouth includes the vil¬ 
lage of Terryville; p. 6,043. 

Plymouth, City, Indiana, county seat of 
Marshall co. It has lumber, planing and flour 
mills, foundries, and manufactures of wagons, 
barrels, gas engines, and grinding machines. It 
is in a lumbering and agricultural district, and 
much grain is shipped; p. 3,713. 

Plymouth, town, New Hampshire, coun¬ 
ty seat of Grafton co., on the Pemigewasset 
River, and the Boston and Maine Railroad; 
40 m, n.w. of Concord. It is a popular tourist 
and summer resort, and the seat of a State 
normal school. Products include buckskin 
gloves and sporting goods. Here Nathaniel 
Hawthorne died; p. 2,533. 

Plymouth, city, Wisconsin, Sheboygan co. 
It is in a rich farming district, with extensive 
cheese and dairy interests. Manufactures in¬ 
clude furniture, foundry and machineshop 
products, and flour; p. 4,170. 

Plymouth Brethren, a Christian sect 
which since 1830 has extended throughout the 
British dominions, and other parts of Europe, 
particularly France, Switzerland, and Italy, 
and in the United States. Its origin may be 
ascribed to John Nelson Darby (1800-82), 
from whom the Brethren on the Continent are 
generally known as Darbyites. He withdrew 
from the Church of Ireland because of a revolt 
against ministerial ordination and in 1S30 
founded at Plymouth the congregation now 
known by its place of origin. 

The tenets of the Brethren in general are 
founded on the most literal interpretation of 
the words of Scripture, each one of which is 
regarded , as directly inspired. The Lord’s 
Supper is .celebrated every Lord’s Day, or 
‘first day of the week.’ The .distinctive pe¬ 
culiarity of the. sect, in comparison with other 
Calvinistic churches, is'its complete .rejection 
of, ecclesiastical organization. Practically. any 
brother may preach or pray, but those ‘not 
gifted with utterance’ are quietly discouraged 
from officiating. The Brethren own compara¬ 
tively few church edifices, usually meeting in 
halls or private houses. 

Plymouth Colony. The founding of the 


Plymouth 

Plymouth Colony was one of the great events 
in the early history of the American colonies. 
During the reign of Queen Elizabeth of Eng¬ 
land, a party of Brownists, one of the sects of 
Puritans, took refuge from persecution in Hol¬ 
land. They could not reconcile themselves to 
a country alien in manners and speech, how¬ 
ever, and they determined to emigrate to Am¬ 
erica. Crossing from Delft Haven, in Holland, 
they sailed to Southampton, England, were 
joined by others, and embarked in the May¬ 
flower for America (Spet. 6, 1620.) 

When they reached the American coast, 
strong winds drove them into the neighbor¬ 
hood of Cape Cod. Here they decided to re¬ 
main, and after some exploration settled on the 
site of Plymouth, Mass. They numbered in 
all about 100, and during their first year had 
many troubles to face. Fully half of the orig¬ 
inal colonists were dead when the second ship¬ 
load of pilgrims, numbering about 30, arrived 
in the fall of 1621. In 1623, 60 other colonists 
came over. After many difficulties concerning 
food, the French of the Maine coast, religious 
observances and intolerance, and new char¬ 
ters, Plymouth Colony was united in 1691 
with other New England colonies to form the 
Massachusetts Bay Colony. 

Plymouth Company. As a result of the 
voyage of Bartholomew Gosnold, James 1. of 
England in 1606 granted a charter to the Vir¬ 
ginia Company to settle Virginia, which was 
the name then given to all the Atlantic coast 
of the United States. The new company was 
divided into the London Company and the 
Plymouth Company, the latter being empow¬ 
ered to settle between lat. 38° and 45 0 n. The 
Dutch had already established trading posts 
at New York and Albany; but New England 
was still a wilderness when Sir George Popham 
and Sir Ferdinando Gorges sent out the first 
band of colonists under the Plymouth Com¬ 
pany (1607). These numbered 120, and settled 
on the west bank of the Kennebec River, in 
what is the present State of Maine. They were, 
half starved and frozen, and had all returned 
to England by the end of 1608. After Captain 
John Smith had explored the New England 
coast for the company, further attempts. were 
made to form colonies, but these failed. 

Plymouth Rocky the portion of rocky, 
ledge in the harbor of Plymouth, Mass., on 
which the Pilgrim Fathers first set foot when 
they landed from the Mayflower in December, 
1620. Through the efforts of the Society of 
Mayflower Descendants, Plymouth Rock, 
which in 1834 bad been moved to a position in 
front of Pilgrim Hall and later covered with 


3762 



Plymouth 


3763 


Pneumatic 


a canopy, has been restored as nearly as pos¬ 
sible to its original position at the edge of the 
water, where a simple but beautiful new can¬ 
opy covers it. 



Copyright, A. S. Burbank, Plymouth Rock. 


Canopy Covering Plymouth Rock. 

Plymouth Rock, a breed of domestic 
fowls. See Poultry and Poultry Farming. 

Plymouth, Sound, an arm of the English 
Channel, between Devonshire and Cornwall, 
one of the famous roadsteads of the world. 

P.M., post meridiem, ‘after noon’; post 
mortem, ‘after death. 5 

Pneumatic Appliances, or mechanical 
devices involving the use of air, range from 
simple air-filled cushions to pumps, tools, and 
engines worked by a steady supply of air. The 
earliest record of the use of compressed air 
as a motive power dates from about the year 
1700, when Denis Papin, in England, com¬ 
pressed air by means of power derived from 
a water wheel, and transmitted it through 
tubes to a distance. In 1S53 pneumatic power 
was first utilized for commercial purposes in 
London, England, when a tube 220 yards long 
was constructed to carry telegraphic despatch¬ 
es. The first successful application of com¬ 
pressed air on a large scale was made in 1861 
in connection with the construction of the 
Mont Cenis Tunnel. 

The U. S. Post Office Department in 1893 
installed a system of pneumatic despatch at 
Philadelphia. Pneumatic appliances may be 
considered under seven heads. (1) Compressed 
air has a wide application in a large variety of 
apparatus wherein a simple mechanical push 
or pull is required—ranging from a tiny cam¬ 
era shutter, worked by a rubber bulb and hose, 
to a large foundry hoist. (2) The foundations 
for quay walls, dock entrances, and the piers 
of bridges are often sunk to the required depth 
by means of cylinders or caissons, from which 
water is excluded by forcing in air at a pres¬ 


sure of from id to 30 lbs. above that of the 
outer atmosphere. This high pressure is con¬ 
fined by a strong partition or diaphragm to 
the working chamber, admission to which is 
gained by means of an air lock. A similar sys¬ 
tem is used in tunnelling with the hydraulic 
shield through water-bearing strata. In these 
cases the working length of tunnel is cut off by 
a temporary wall, pierced for the air lock and 
for the pipe supptying compressed air. The 
air lock for tunnel shields is horizontal, for 
foundation caissons vertical. This is a method 
of construction used in the tunnelling under 
the Hudson River for the Pennsylvania Rail¬ 
road’s tracks to New York City. (3) Attempts 
to use compressed air as a propelling force in 
military and naval practice have been con¬ 
fined to guns of large calibre, and to the dis¬ 
charge of projectiles containing high explo¬ 
sives. The air was stored in tubes close to the 
gun at a pressure of 1,000 lbs. per square inch, 
and was admitted to the breech of the gun 
through a valve, so controlled that the range 
of the projectile was governed by the amount 
of air allowed to pass. No great success was 
attained, however, and the guns were eventu¬ 
ally discarded. (4) The conveyance of parcels 
through the tubes. 

(5) Transmission of power is effected by 
compressing air at a central station, and sup¬ 
plying it to consumers through a radiating se¬ 
ries of main pipes, branching into others of 
a less diameter. The chief system is in Paris, 
and comprises 140 miles of mains, .air being 
supplied at a pressure of 75 lbs. per square 
inch, with a loss of iS per cent, on the outside 
of its zone. (6) For use as a motive power in 
locomotives and automobiles, air is stored at 
a high pressure (1,000 to 4,000 lbs. per square 
inch) in a steel reservoir carried on the car, 
and is admitted thence at a working pressure 
of 100 to 150 pounds into the driving cylinder. 
While compressed-air locomotives and trucks 
are still employed to some extent, their use is 
now confined to special applications. Elec¬ 
tricity has supplanted them in most cases. (7) 
The force of suction obtained by exhausting 
the air in a confined space is used in such ap¬ 
pliances as grain elevators. In these the grain 
is drawn up through a flexible pipe into the 
receiver of the elevator, from which it either., 
descends through an air lock into barges be¬ 
low, or is forced by air pressure through a pipe 
leading to the top of the warehouse. Shavings 
from wood-working mills are handled by a 
similar system.. . 

Domestic suction or vacuum cleaners have 
come into such general use during recent years 










Pneumatic 

that they must be classed among the most im¬ 
portant pneumatic appliances. A great variety 
of forms are seen, but all of them consist es¬ 
sential])' of a suction pump (generally motor 
driven), a dust catcher, and a pud henna; nozzle 
and pipe. A large variety of common air ap¬ 
pliances may broadly be termed "aspirators’ 
and ‘atomizers, 5 these having fundamental 
similarities; When a fluid (air, vapor, or li¬ 
quid) is forced through a tube or across the 
end of another tube, it draws along with it 
particles of any fluid in the second tube, creat- 


Pnewnatic Paint Sprayer.. 

Slide feed for paint; flattened 
conical nose piece to project 
spray in thin sheet. 

ing a suction therein, or aspirating the fluid 
contained. If air thus entrains a liquid, a spray 
emerges—that is, the device atomizes. The 
common laboratory aspirator air pump does 
not entrain air, but is a simple displacement 
device. Atomizers range from small perfume 
hand sprays to large painting machines, re¬ 
quiring a considerable supply of compressed 
air. Somewhat similar devices are used in sand 
blasting and in spraying cement on walls. 
Compressed air blows the mixture much as it 
does paint. In sand blasting the dry sand is 
blown directly against the surface to be clean¬ 
ed. Glass surfaces are frosted in this manner. 

Pneumatic Despatch, the name given to 
a method of sending parcels through a com¬ 
paratively narrow tube by means of compress¬ 
ed air at a speed.of from 500 to 1,000 yards a 
minute. In the United States, where a closed- 
circuit system is employed, great progress has 
been made in the use of pneumatic power for 
post office work. Cylinders of steel 7 by 24 
inches, weighing about 13 lbs., and having a 
capacity of about Soo tnbic inches, are loaded 
with letters (up to 600), or whatever is to be 
sent, and by an ingenious arrangement are in¬ 
troduced into the tube without interrupting 
the current. They are propelled at the rate of 
the current, and on arrival at the terminus 
are delivered into an air chamber which stops 
them, also without interrupting the current. 
In New YorK City, the three most important 
post offices—Grand Central, Pennsylvania 


Pneumatic 

Station, and the General Post Office—have~a 
set of tubes from each of the other two; and 
from these, branch tubes run to other central 
points throughout Greater New York. The 
tubes from the General Office to the Grand 
Central Station (3*4 miles), with three inter¬ 
mediate stations, carry 6,000 lbs. of letters 
daily at the rate of 7 minutes each way. 

Pneumatics is the study of the properties 
of gases; but the term has fallen, somewhat 
out of use, and it is now more customary to 
discuss the different aspects of the question un¬ 
der the particular branches of physics con¬ 
cerned. See Gases. 

Pneumatic Tires, flexible tubes, inflated 
with air, mounted on the rim of a wheel, were 
first developed in connection with the bicycle, 
and later modified and improved for motor car 
application. The first, bicycle tires were of 
solid rubber. These were followed by ‘cushion 
tires,’ of nearly twice the diameter, and hav¬ 
ing a small central air space. The next step 
(J. B. Dunlop, 1888) was to make the diam¬ 
eter larger and the walls thinner, and to pro- 
; vide a valve for inflating. Some of the tires 
were ‘single tube,’ with the inner rubber skin, 
strengthening fabric, and outer coat all vul¬ 
canized together. Others were ‘double tube,’ 
with a thin inner envelope separate from a 
heavier outer casing. The double-tube type 
alone has survived in automobile service, on 
account of its greater ease and permanence of 
repair. In some bicycle tires the outer casing 
had a small laced slit along its inner circum¬ 
ference, through which the inner tube was in¬ 
serted and removed. There were also several 
‘clincher’ designs employing an endless inner 
tube and an easily detachable casing. These 
were the prototypes of the modern automobile 
tires, for which, see Motor Cars: Wheels and 
Tires. 

Pneumatic Tools, Prominent among 
pneumatic appliances in general is. a most use¬ 
ful group of tools for working stone and metal 
particularly. This group includes percussion, 
coal punchers and cutters, riveting hammers, 
chisels, etc. Percussion Drills consist essentially 
of a cylinder and piston with the drill steel 
held firmly in a chuck on the end of the piston 
rod, together with a value gear for admitting 
and exhausting compressed air (or steam) al¬ 
ternately from either side of the piston, 
the whole being supported on a tripod or 
bar with a hand-feed carriage. Com¬ 
pressed air enters through the valve chest 
on top, and is let out above or below the pis¬ 
ton by a double-spool air-thrown valve, whose 


3764 





Pneumatic 


3765 


Pocahontas 


position is governed by the auxiliary arc valve 
which is thrown by the piston. The upper 
end of the piston is rifled, and engages a coarse 
screw or rifle bar on a ratchet to give the 
piston and bit the small constant rotation nec¬ 
essary to prevent the drill from sticking. The 
long screw and handle underneath advances 
the drill on its support as the rock is pene¬ 
trated. 

Air-driven Channeling Machines, now ex¬ 
tensively used in quarrying, are engine-driven 
carriages traveling back and forth on short 
tracks, and carrying a cutter which makes a 
deep groove or channel in the quarry floor— 
a first step in separating the stone blocks from 
the vein or ledge. Coal Punchers and Cutters 
are also important. The former are essentially 
percussion air drills mounted on low trucks or 
wedged columns, and used to cut into the 
coal vein preparatory to throwing down part 
of the face. The cutters are usually low trucks 
with a motor driving a bar, disc, or endless 
chain, equipped with bits and mounted on an 
outstanding arm. Electric motors are steadily 
supplanting air engines for coal cutters. There 
are a variety of rotary air drills, etc., embody¬ 
ing some sort of a small rotary engine and tool 
chuck. In most of these devices, however, the 
motor has reciprocating pistons that impart 
a rotary motion to the drilling spindle by the 
usual crank. 

Pneumatic Trough, a round, rectangular 
or other suitable vessel used for the collection 
of gases over a liquid—usually water. It was 
invented by Priestly, and for use is filled with 
the liquid; the jars or cylinders destined to ' 
hold the gas are filled and inverted in the li¬ 
quid, and supported on a shelf or perforated 
tray called a ‘beehive,’ through which the gas 
is bubbled up into the jar, displacing the liquid. 

Pneumogastrsc Nerve, the 10th cranial 
nerve which, from its wide distribution, is 
often called the Vagus (or wanderer). 

Pneumonia, an acute, febrile disease char¬ 
acterized by inflammatory reactions in the 
lungs or bronchi. It is generally described 
as of three varieties: lobar or croupous pneu¬ 
monia ; lobular, catarrhal, or broncho-pneu¬ 
monia; chronic interstitial pneumonia. It oc¬ 
curs at all ages, but is rare in the first year of 
life. It frequently follows other acute infec¬ 
tions and is often seen post-operatively. In 
1941 the extensive use of sulphonomide drugs 
helped to reduce the death rate from pneu¬ 
monia from 33% to 10%. Since then the 
death rate has dropped even lower. 

Pneumono.comosis or Pneumonofconio- 

sis, a disease of the lungs due to the inhala¬ 


tion of dusts, especially those encountered 
in the metallic industries, characterized by 
fibrosis of the lung tissue. 

Pnom-Penh, capital of Cambodia, French 
Indo-China, at the confluence of the Mekong 
with an ami of the Tale (or Tonle) Sap; 
130 m. n.w. of Saigon. It exports rice, pep¬ 
per, fish, cotton, tobacco, cardamoms, gam¬ 
boge, sugar cane, indigo, maize, silk, betel 
tortoise shells, and skins. Since 1894 Pnom¬ 
penh has been transformed into a place oi 
European appearance; p.83,000. 

Po (ancient Eridanus and Padus ), the larg- 
gest river of Italy, rises in the Cottian Alps, 
at the northern foot of Monte Viso, at an 
altitude of 6,400 ft., close to the French fron¬ 
tier. The Po discharges principally by the 
branch known as the Po della Maestra. The 
total length is 335 m., while its basin covers 
some 29,000 sq. m. The Po is navigable from 
above Turin. From Piacenza to the sea it is 
protected by embankments on both sides. 
It has always been difficult to cross, owing 
to its width and the great volume of its 
waters. 

Poa, or Meadow Grass, a large genus of 
grasses widely distributed in temperate and 
cold countries, having six colored spikelets 
arranged in open panicles. The June Grass 
or Kentucky Blue Grass (P. pratensis) found 
in fields and meadows throughout the United 
States and in British Columbia is one of the 
best-known species. 

Poaching, though originally a popular ra¬ 
ther than a legal term, has come to be gen¬ 
erally used to denote the offense of entering 
on the lands of another in pursuit of game 
without permission from the proprietor, deer 
stealing, and also of fishing under like cir¬ 
cumstances in waters belonging to another. 
See Game Laws. 

Pobiedonostzeff, Constantine (1827- 
1907), procurator of the Holy Synod of 
Russia, was born in Moscow. He was strong¬ 
ly opposed to liberal reforms, and especially 
to religious tolerance, and thereby stirred up 
bitter hostility, which culminated in an at¬ 
tempt on his life in July, 1905. His chief 
work is Reflections of a Russian Statesman 
(1898). 

Pocahontas, (c. 1395-1617), daughter of 
an Indian chief, Powhattan, famous espe¬ 
cially for her reported rescue of Captain 
John Smith from death at the bands of the 
Indians. Pocahontas was brought a prisoner 
to Jamestown by Captain Argali in 1613, 
was converted to Christianity, and in 1614 
married an Englishman. Tobn Rolfe, with 



Pochard 


3760 


Poe 


whom she went to England In 1616. She 
left one son, and a branch of the Randolphs 
and several other Virginia families claim de¬ 
scent from her. 

Pochard (Nyroca jerhia ), a European duck 
belonging to the same genus as the American 
Canvasback and Redhead Ducks, and like 
those species, much prized for the table. 

Pocket Mice, Pocket Gophers, are 
names given to various burrowing rodents of 
the interior plains and prairies of North 
America. They are provided with pocket¬ 
like cavities in the cheeks external to the 
mouth, where they stow quantities of food, 
which is then carried to some place of con¬ 
cealment, emptied out, and eaten at leisure. 

Pocono Mountain, a ridge in Monroe and 
Carbon counties, Pennsylvania; 2,000 feet. 

Pod, the capsule or seed vessel of any dry 
and several-seeded dehiscent fruit, especially 
the legumes. 

Podagra signifies gout in the foot. 

Podargidae, a family of birds nearly allied 
to the true Goatsuckers or Nightjars. They 
are at home in New Guinea and Australia, 
are arboreal and nocturnal in their habits, 
and feed on large insects, which are mostly 
caught about trees. 

Podiebrad, George Boczko of (1420- 

71), Bohemian king, was born of a noble 
family at Podiebrad, and became an adher¬ 
ent of the moderate party of the Hussites. 
He was made regent (1451) during the 
minority of Ladislas and on the death of 
Ladislas was chosen his successor, and was 
crowned early in 1458. Paul n., promulgated 
against him the ban of excommunication and 
deposition in 1466, and Matthias Corvinus of 
Hungary took the field to enforce it. The 
hostilities which ensued were brought to an 
end by Podiebrad’s death. 

Podocarpus, a large genus of evergreen 
trees of the pine family (Coniferce), chiefly 
natives of tropical countries, with succulent 
leaves, and. fruit. 

Podophthalmata, a term sometimes used 
for a division of Crustacea in place of 
Thoracostraca. See Crustacea. 

Podophyllum, a genus of. hardy herba¬ 
ceous perennial plants belonging to the order 
Berberidacese. P. pellatum. is a perennial 
plant, common'in North America, growing 
in moist woods and on the ; shady banks of 
streams, and..is known as May Apple, also 
Hog Apple } Wild Lemon , and Mandrake. 
The root is used in medicine. The leaves 
Are drastic and poisonous. 

Poe, Edgar Allan (1809-49), American | 


poet, romancer, and critic, one of the most 
picturesque characters in American literature 
was born in Boston, Mass., on Jan. iq, igog. 
Orphaned at Richmond in his third year 
Edgar was adopted by John Allan, a wealthy 
and childless merchant of Richmond, Va., 
who educated him as his own son. Early in 
1827 Poe parted from Mr. Allan and went 
to Boston. Here he published his first vol¬ 
ume, Tamerlane and Other Poems , by a Bos¬ 
tonian, a pamphlet of 40 pages. His second 
volume, Al Aaraaj, Tamerlane , and Minor 
Poems, appeared under his name at Balti¬ 
more, 1829, 71 pages. 



Edgar Allan Poe . 


During his stay in Baltimore Poe had 
lived with his aunt, M.rs. Ckiram, whose 
young daughter, Virginia, he married on May 
16, .1836. Her sweet and gentle nature was 
the one controlling power over Poe’s restless 
spirit, and lie loved her devotedly. He es¬ 
tablished himself in Philadelphia in the sum¬ 
mer of 1838. For a year (1841-2) he edited 
Graham's Magazine, then in the forefront of 
American literature. His wife’s dangerous 
illness, caused by the rupture of a blood ves¬ 
sel while singing, disheartened him, and 
weakened his always slight power of self- 
direction. A second prize' of $300, won in 
1843 by Ids wonderful story The Gold Bug, 
saved the little household from starvation 
or near it. In April, 1844, Poe removed to 
New York, and from October to March fol¬ 
lowing assisted Willis on The Evening Mir¬ 
ror. Here 'The Raven appeared (Jan. 29, 
1845), and won immediate fame. In 1845 
he published a volume of Tales, and The 
Raven and Other Poems . In the spring of 
1846 he occupied the cottage at Fordham 
(now a part of New York City) which is 








Poerio 


3767 


Poggio 


associated with the poet's name. Here, on 
Jan. 30, 1847, in deepest poverty, Virginia 
Poe died, an attractive and pathetic figure, 
retaining her fragile and childish beauty to 
the last; she was but twenty-four. Her 
mother was more than a mother to the poet, 
and his home life drew out what was best 
in his nature, and afforded such measure as 
he attained of happiness. In the summer of 
1849 Poe visited the South in connection 
with one of his magazine projects, and in 
Richmond became engaged to Mrs. Shelton, 
a well-to-do widow. Starting North to ar¬ 
range preliminaries for the marriage, he was 
found in a comatose condition at Baltimore 
on Oct. 3, and died at the Marine Hospital 
on Oct. 7. 

Poe’s poetry, limited in theme and quan¬ 
tity, is among the most musical and imag¬ 
inative in the language. His stories have for 
sixty years served as models for French 
writers; and perhaps of all our creative au¬ 
thors Poe has greatest claim to be considered 
a cosmopolitan. His best work in verse and 
fiction rises into the loftiest realm of art, 
and is independent of any associations of 
time or place. His criticism, personally vin¬ 
dictive at times, at its best was good medi¬ 
cine for the gushing ‘literati’ of his period. 
In his own walk he stands unsurpassed, if 
not alone, with a halo of mystery, gloom, 
and terror about him. Consult Ingram’s Life, 
Letters , etc.; H. Allen, Israfel (1926) ; M. E. 
Phillips, Edgar Allan Poe (1926) ; J. W. 
Krutch, Edgar Allan Poe (1926). 

Poerio, Carlo (1803-67), Italian patriot, 
was born in Naples. Denounced as a revolu¬ 
tionist in 1850, he was condemned to twenty- 
four years’ imprisonment. Gladstone and 
others took up his cause, and Poerio and his 
companions were ordered to America, but 
escaped and returned to Turin (1859). After 
the victories of Garibaldi, Poerio went back 
to Naples, where he became vice-president 
of the parliament (1861). 

Poet Laureate. The precise origin of this 
office, which is a royal appointment in Great 
Britain, is not known; but it is certain that 
Chaucer, on his return from abroad, as¬ 
sumed the title. The first poet laureate in the 
modern sense was Edmund Spenser, while 
Ben Jonson was the first to receive the office 
by formal letters patent. The following 
were poets laureate: Edmund Spenser (1591- 
9), Samuel Daniel (1599-1619), Ben Jonson 
(1619-37), William Davenant (1660-8), 
John Dryden (1670-88), Thomas Shadwell 
(1689-92), Nahum Tate (1692-1715), Nich¬ 


olas Rowe (1715-18), Lawrence Eusden 
(1718-30), Colley Cibber (1730-57), William 
Whitehead (1757-85) ? Thomas Warton 
(1785-90), Henry James Pve (1790-1813), 
Robert Southey (1813-43), William Words¬ 
worth (1843-50), Alfred Tennyson (1850- 
92), Alfred Austin (1896-1913), Robert 
Bridges (1913-30), John Masefield (1930- ). 

Poetry is the first form in which mankind 
expresses its emotions or records its doings; 
and yet in no department of intellectual ac¬ 
tivity has it been so difficult to arrive at an 
adequate definition. The idea lying at the 
root of the word is restraint, a moulding of 
language into a definite form such that the 
human ear can recognize the scheme of har¬ 
mony and be led to anticipate its recurrence. 
In all languages, poetry precedes prose in its 
order of appearance. The earliest forms of 
verse are narrative poems and religious 
hymns. The lyric is a later form, which makes 
its appearance only when civilization has so 
far progressed that the individuality of each 
member of the tribe is clearly recognized as 
something distinct from that of the tribe as 
a whole. An early species of composition in 
most languages is the didactic poem, in which 
the rules of husbandry, or it may be the 
tribal code of morals, are thrown into metri¬ 
cal form with a view to their easier memor¬ 
izing. See the articles in this work on Criti¬ 
cism, Literary ; English Literature : Uni¬ 
ted States, Literature ; the sections on lit¬ 
erature in the articles on the several coun¬ 
tries ; and the biographies of the poets. 



Poge, Cape, the n.e. point of the Martha’s 
Vineyard group of islands, on Chappaquid- 
dick Island. It has a lighthouse over 50 ft 
above sea level. 

Poggio ■ Braccioliiti, Gian Francesco 
(1380-1459), Italian humanist, was born ik 


3768 


Poisonous 


Pogrom 

Terranuova, near Florence. His most famous 
book is the Liber Facetiannn , a collection of 
humorous and not over-decent stories and 
jests, written in fair Latin, at the expense of 
the monks and secular clergy. 

Pogrom, a word which came into use in 
connection with revolutionary outbreaks in 
Russia (1905-06) as a general term for an 
unprovoked attack by the authorities upon 
Jew's or other classes. 

Poincare, Jules Henri (1854-1912), 
French mathematician and physicist, was 
born in Nancy. He made original contribu¬ 
tions in pure mathematics, in celestial me¬ 
chanics, and in the mathematics of physics, 
and was the recipient of many prizes" and 
medals, including the Sylvester medal of the 
Royal Society of London (1901). 

Poincare, Raymond (1:860-1934), French 
public official, was born in Bar-ic-Duc, and 
was educated at the College of Nancy. In 
1912^ he became Premier and Minister of 
Foreign Affairs, his premiership being sig¬ 
nalized by a succession of important French 
initiatives in connection with the Near East¬ 
ern crisis, while in home affairs he identified 
himself with electoral reform and propor¬ 
tional representation. He was President of 
France (1913-20, and 1922-4), and once 
more in 1926 was Premier and Minister of 
Foreign Affairs. He stabilized the franc, and 
set^ the country on the road to recovery. He 
resigned because of illness in 1929, and de¬ 
clined an offer of the premiership in 1930. Fie 
was elected leader of the French bar in 1931. 

Poinciana, a species of tropical legumin¬ 
ous trees of the genus Caesalpinia, with showy 
scarlet or orange flowers. The Royal Poinci- 
ana is familiar in Southern Florida. 

. p °™^exter, George (1779-1853), Amer- 
ican public official. In 18x9.be was elected 
governor of Mississippi, ’notwithstanding at¬ 
tempts to unseat him. From 1830 to 1835 he 
was a member of the U. S. Senate, Poin¬ 
dexter’s pronounced views on Federalism led 
to his fighting a duel with Abijah Hunt: 
(1811), whom he killed. The accusation was 
made that he had fired before the signal was 
given, but it was never substantiated. 

Poindexter, Miles (1868- ), American 

legislator, was born in Memphis, Tenn. He 
was U. S. Senator from 1911 to 1923, when 
he was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary 
and Plenipotentiary to Peru. He held this 
office until 1928. 

Poinding, in the law of Scotland, is the 
general process by which the goods of a debt¬ 


or are seized and made available to his cred¬ 
itors. 

Poinsett, Joel Roberts (1779-1851), Am¬ 
erican diplomat, was born in Charleston, S. 

^. was a member of Congress from 1821 

to 1S25, and advocated the cause of the 
South American republics and of Greek in¬ 
dependence. From 1822 to 1829 he was U. S. 
Minister to Mexico, and from 1837 to 1841 
Secretary of War in President Van Buren’s 
Cabinet. 

Poinsettia, a South American shrub of the 
order Euphorbiaceae, a noted greenhouse 
plant of many countries. It grows to a height 
of six ft. or more, and bears small yellow or 
green flower heads surrounded by large ver¬ 
milion bracts. 

_ Point-a-Pitre, town and port, Guadeloupe, 
French^West Indies; 20 m. n.e. of Basse Terre* 
It is of considerable commercial importance, 
having exports of sugar, cacao, and vanilla. 
The harbor is commodious and sheltered; p 
26,455- 

.Barrow, the most northern point in 
Alaska. It is a whaling center, has a trading 
post and a government relief and life-saving 
station. In 1881-3 the U. S. Signal Corps es¬ 
tablished an international polar station and 
system of meteorological stations here. 

Pointer, a smooth-coated bird finding and 
retrieving dog, whose name indicates its meth¬ 
od of standing rigid when it scents the proxim¬ 
ity of game, and pointing with its nose 
Point Pleasant, or Great Kanawha, 
Battle of. In American history a battle 
fought in the present" state of West Virginia, 
Oct. io, 1774, between colonial troops and In¬ 
dians. As a result of the battle the Indians 
made a treaty by which they surrendered their 
prisoners and all claim to land south of the 
Ohio. See Roosevelt’s Winning of the West 
(1889). " ■ ' 

Poire, Emmanuel. ( 1858-1909), known as 
.‘Caran cl’Ache,’ French caricaturist, born in 
Moscow, his grandfather being one of Napo¬ 
leon’s soldiers. The grandson returned to 
France, and under his pseudonym (Russia, for 
‘lead pencil’) became celebrated. He contrib¬ 
uted political cartoons to the Figaro, and won 
great fame by UEpopee, a series of 2,000 por¬ 
traits of celebrated men who helped to win 
Napoleon’s victories. His Cheque Book , issued 
during the Panama scandal, made quite a stir. 

Poisonous Plants, are those, that contain 
some principle capable of destroying animal 
life. Among the most virulent poisons known 
are those obtained from the vegetable king. 



Poisons 


3769 


Poke? 


dom. J. D. Mann, in his Forensic Medicine 
(1900), gives the following list of the most 
important plants from which alkaloids are ob¬ 
tained: Strychnia , mix vomica, Cocculus In¬ 
dians, deadly nightshade, henbane, thorne-ap- 
ple, woody nightshade, Indian hemp, Gelsem- 
ium sempervirens, Indian tobacco ( Lobelia in- 
flala) , tobacco, hemlock, foxglove, meadow- 
saffron, hellebore, aconite, and laburnum. It 
must not be forgotten that some of the above 
are valuable remedies in skilled hands. Plants 
poisonous to the touch are few, fortunately, 
but the two sumachs, Rhus vernix and Rhus 
radicans (the latter best known as poison ivy), 
and occasionally; Cypripedium, cause tor¬ 
menting, itching inflammations. Other plants, 
such as lupines ( Lupinus ) , death camas (Zyga- 
denus) , larkspurs (Delphinium), and the no¬ 
torious loco weeds (Astragallus) are destruc- 
tive to live-stock. Children are in danger of 
eating the roots of pokeweed (Phytolacca ), 
poison-hemlock (Conium) , water-hemlock 
(Cicuta), and elderberry (Sambucus) ; and 
are, too, frequently poisoned by the seeds of 
Datura, buckeye (JEsculus) , etc., while pois¬ 
onous mushrooms destroy* their elders. See 
Chestnut’s Principal Poisonous Plants of the 
United States, 1898 (U. S. Dept. Agric. Div. 
Bot.Bull. 20). 

^ Poisons. Substances that act upon living 
rissue in such a way as to impair its processes 
or destroy its life. Most drugs are poisonous 
in excess of certain quantities. Poisons are 
variously classified, according to their effect, 
as corrosives, irritants, narcotics, convulsants; 
or by their chemical nature, as alkaloids, acids, 
organic or inorganic. Violent symptoms, such 
as pain, retching, vomiting, diarrhoea, giddi- 
ness, or convulsions, coming immediately or 
soon after the taking of food, hint at poison. 
The middle-aged and young adult are, gener¬ 
ally speaking, less susceptible than children 
and the aged. Arsenic, one of the irritant pois¬ 
ons, can be taken in large quantities by those 
who have gradually become accustomed to its 
use. Some poisons do not, allow of gradually 
increasing doses, but, on the contrary, are 
cumulative in their action, being stored in the 
tissues and perhaps working with deadly re¬ 
sults after their use has been discontinued. 
Trional, digitalis, and strychnia are examples. 
Corrosive poisons—such as sulphuric, nitric, 
and carbolic acids—produce a sensation of 
burning as they pass down the throat. The 
lips and mouth may immediately show stain¬ 
ing and blistering; the throat swells, and swal¬ 
lowing and breathing becomes difficult. There 
*s'intense pain in the stomach, with vomiting, 


possibly of mucous membrane, and purging. 
Corrosives may act as irritants if taken in 
comparatively small quantities; but arsenic, 
phosphorus, croton oil, tartar emetic, copper, 
and zinc compounds may be considered typicai 
examples. In acute irritant poisoning the sym- 
toms are much like those of corrosives, but not 
quite so rapid or violent. In chronic poison¬ 
ing through repeated small doses, discomfort 
after food, loss of appetite, occasional pain 
and vomiting, with a general appearance of 
illness and wasting. Common sources of unin¬ 
tentional poisoning are matches (phosphorus), 
carbolic acid, salts of sorrel (oxalic acid), 
vermin killer (strychnine), laudanum, chloro- 
dyne, paregoric, and Dover’s powder (opium), 
also hypodermic injection of morphia. Arsenic 
has been mistaken for sugar; and poisoning 
is frequently the result of abortifacients, such 
as strong purgatives, irritants such as can- 
tharides, lead (as diachylon), ergot of rye, 
savin, and others. Badly-tinned meat and fish, 
sausages, contaminated mussels and oysters, 
frequently give rise to ptomaine poisoning. 

Poisson, Simeon Denis (1781-1840), 
French mathematician, was born at Pithiviers. 
He was especially noted for his application of 
mathematics to physics, investigating such 
subjects as the invariability of the axes of the 
planets, capillary phenomena, and the mathe¬ 
matical theory of heat. 

Poitiers, chief tn., dep. of Vienne, France, 
60 m. by rail s. by w. of Tours, on a height be¬ 
tween the junction of the Gain and Boivre, 
It has some Roman remains; the church of St. 
Hilaire le Grand, in which rest the remains of 
the famous bishop of Poitiers ( ?32o-36S) ; the 
church of St. Radegonde, long a place of pil¬ 
grimage; and a cathedral, founded in 1161 by 
Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of Henry n. of 
England. The victory of Charles Martel over 
the Saracens in 732 is named in France after 
this town, though it occurred at some distance 
in the direction of Tours. Poitiers is an episco¬ 
pal see; p.33,439. 

Poker, an American game of cards which 
depends for its interest on the wagering of 
money. The full pack of 52 cards is used, and 
any number from 2 to 7 may play. Before the 
game is commenced an equal number of 
counters are given to each player. These count¬ 
ers, called chips, are usually small celluloid 
disks ; red, white, and blue in color, each color 
having a definite money value. At the con¬ 
clusion of the game the chips are cashed in. 

Before the cards are dealt, the player on the 
left of the dealer (the age) must put up on 
the table one-half the amount agreed upon as 



Pokeweed 


3770 


the ante (called the blind), which amount re¬ 
mains constant through the game, except that 
before the deal the player on the left of the 
age may ‘straddle the blind 5 by putting up 
double the amount, and the players to his left 
may restraddle in turn until the last straddle 
equals one-half the amount agreed upon be¬ 
fore the game as the limit of a single bet. The 
cards are then dealt, one at a time, until each 
player has five. The player on the left of the 
age then looks at his hand and decides whether 
or not to play. If his hand warrants it he will 
put into the pot twice the amount of the blind 
or straddle less anything he may have already 
put into the pot, or he may increase the 
amount to be played for up to the limit, which 
is called raising before the draw. The other 
players then follow in order until no more 
raises are made, the age having the last say. 
The age then discards from his hand the cards 
lie does not want and calls for an equal rmm 
her to take their place from the dealer. He 
may draw any number of cards up to five or 
may take none. The other players follow, the 
dealer being the last to take cards. After’this 
has been done the betting begins, with the 
player on the left of the age first to bet. 'if 
he bets on his hand each player in, turn around 
the table may £ see 5 the bet by putting in an 
equal amount, or raise it by putting up more 
money, or withdraw. The last bet is always 
with the age unless he withdraws. After the 
betting has ceased the cards are laid on the 
table, provided more than one plaver has not: 
withdrawn, and the highest hand wins. If any 
player has bet, and no one has met his bet, he 
may take the stakes without showing his 
hand. 

The order of value of hands is as follows: 
Royal flush, cards of the same suit in sequence, 
the highest in the pack. Straight flush, a se¬ 
quence all of one suit. Fours, four cards of a 
land, such as four aces. Full hand, three cards 
of a kind, and a pair, such as. three aces and 
two _ kings. Flush, five cards all of one suit. 
Straight, a sequence not all of one suit. Three 
of a kind. Two pairs, two cards of each of two 
kinds and an odd card, such as two aces, two 
kings, and a two spot. Pairs, two cards of one 
kind, such as two . aces, and three odd cards, 
such as a king, queen, and jack. Ace high, such 
.as ace, ten, eight, seven, .six of odd suits; The 
latter is the lowest count. Ace may be counted 
at either end of a straight, being low' or high 
depending upon which end. 

Pokeweed, a large succulent plant, branch¬ 
ing widely and bearing long, glossy, lanceolate 
leaves and stiff ' racemes of saucer-like white 


Poland 


flowers, succeeded by dark purple bTfe oc 
casionally used for ink. The thick root is vio- 

lently poisonous. 

Pola, seaport town, Italy, formerly the 
most important naval station of Austria-Hun¬ 
gary, is situated near the southern extremity 
°f the Istrian peninsula; 105 m. bv railroad s 

of Trieste. The harbor is thoroughly sheltered 

deep, and spacious. The cathedral dates from 
the 15th century. Wood, fish, and building 
stones are exported. Pola is of ancient origin 
; in(Mias fme Roman remains. It belonged" 5 to’ 
Wmice 114S-1370; was destroyed bv Genoa* 
reverted to Venice; was seized and held bv 
Austria 18.15-1918; p. 36,047. 

Polacca, a three-masted square-rigged ves¬ 
sel peculiar to the Mediterranean. 

Poland, country of Europe, divided by 
successive ‘partitions 5 (1:772, 1793, 1795, I939 ) 
between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, con¬ 
stituted as a nation during the Great War of 
Europe. The area of Poland is about 149,000 
sq.m.; this area is divided into 16 voyvodships 
or provinces; the capital of the country is 
Warsaw. Poland lies in a vast productive plain 
stretching northward from the Carpathian 
Mountains, with the River Vistula in the cen¬ 
ter, the Oder on the w., and the Dnieper on 
the e. The mineral wealth of the country is 
considerable, particularly in the south, where 
coal and iron are extensively mined. Petro¬ 
leum, salt, and zinc also exist in large quanti¬ 
ties, as well as copper, chalk, marble, brick 
clay, and kaolin. 

The soil is generally fertile and nearly 60 
per cent, of the land Is arable. The chief crops 
are rye, wheat, potatoes, sugar beets, oats and 
barley. Horse and cattle breeding are popular, 
and pigs and goats are raised. There are vast 
forests in the n. and in Galicia. Textiles 
paper, chemicals, sugar, and metal goods are 
manufactured, and commerce is aided by 
many miles of navigable rivers. The popula¬ 
tion was on January 1st, 1939, approaching 
^ 35 ^ million figure. There are six universi¬ 
ties, of which the JagielIonian University in 
Cracow is the most famous. The others are 
in Warsaw, Lwow, Poznan, Wilno, and Dub¬ 
lin. I here are also two Polytechnic institutes 
in Warsaw and Lwow, a Mining Academy in 
Cracow, an Academy of Commerce in War¬ 
saw, an Academy of Fine Arts in Cracow, and 
several others. 

There is no real Polish history earlier than 
the reign of Mieszko, who was forced to pay 
tribute to the Emperor Otho in 963, and two 
years afterwards became a Christian and with 
the help of St. Adalbert induced his subjects to 



Poland 


3771 


Poland 


accept the.same faith. In 1225 Conrad, Duke 
of Masovia and brother of King Le^zek v 
(1194-1227), called the Teutonic Knights to 
Poland to assist in the conquest of the Prus¬ 
sians, but the knights soon became as formid¬ 
able enemies of Poland as the Prussians had 
been. In 1240 the Mongols invaded the coun¬ 
try, and defeated the Poles (1241) at Lieg- 
nitz, Silesia. In 1466, after 12 years of war, a 
treaty was signed at Thorn between Casimir 
and the Teutonic Knights, whereby West 
Prussia, including Pomerania and the cities of 
Danzig and Thorn belonged to Casimir; while 
East Prussia was left to the Teutonic Knights, 
who held it as a fief of the crown. 

In 1772 the first partition was effected. Rus¬ 
sia took White Russia and all the part beyond 
the Dnieper. Prussia took the palatinates of 
Marienburg, Pomorska, Warmia, Kulm (ex¬ 
cept Danzig and Thorn) and a part of Great 
Poland. Austria had Red Russia or Galicia, 
with parts of Podolia and Little Poland. In 
1788 a remarkable Diet was opened, which 
lasted for four years, and at which the con¬ 
dition of the burghers and peasants was im¬ 
proved, the liberum veto finally suppressed, 
and the throne declared hereditary. But the 
external enemies of Poland—the Prussians, the 
Russians, and the Austrians—had resolved up¬ 
on her destruction, and foreign troops were 
poured into the country. The second division 
of the country now took place. Prussia ac¬ 
quired the remainder of Great Poland, and 
the Russian boundary was advanced to the 
center of Lithuania and Volhynia. Kosciuszko, 
the Polish general, marched upon Warsaw, and 
compelled the Russians to raise (1794) the 
siege; the Poles executed many of the chief 
traitors of Grodno, but Warsaw was finally 
taken by Suvorov (1794). Stanislaus, on April 
25, 1795, resigned the crown at Grodno, and 
the final partition of the country took place. 
Austria received Cracow, with the country be¬ 
tween the Pilica, the Vistula, and the Bug; 
Prussia had the capital, with the territory as 
far as the Niemen; and the rest went to Rus¬ 
sia. Stanislaus died at St. Petersburg in 1798. 
A fresh settlement was made by the Congress 
of Vienna (1815). Austria was to have Galicia 
and the salt-mines of Wieliczka; Posen was to 
belong to Prussia. Cracow was to form an in¬ 
dependent state under the protection of the 
three powers, but was eventually incorporated 
with Austria in 1848. The remainder of the 
former kingdom of Poland was to constitute 
a constitutional monarchy under the Tsar. 
This constitution was, however, withdrawn 
after the great revolt of 1830, and in 1846 an¬ 


other effort to reunite the dismembered Polish 
nation was easily suppressed by the three 

powers. 

Outbreaks occurred in Russian Poland in 
1861 and 1S62; in 1S63 a general insurrection 
was suppressed, and in the ensuing years vari¬ 
ous measures were taken for the Russification 
of the country. Immediately after the out¬ 
break of the Great War of Europe the Grand 
Duke Nicholas, commander-in-chief of the 
Russian Army, issued an appeal for loyalty to 
the Polish people (Aug. 15,1914). German and 
Austrian troops entered Russian Poland, and 
on Nov. 5, 1916, Germany and Austria issued 
a manifesto erecting the conquered territory 
of Warsaw and Lublin into a new kingdom of 
Poland, and declaring its right to an independ¬ 
ent national existence and to government by 
its own chosen representatives. The real con¬ 
trol of affairs, however, was retained by the 
Germans. A Council of State was created 
(January, 1917), and this was succeeded (Sep¬ 
tember, 1917) by a Regency Council repre¬ 
senting the more conservative Polish element. 
A Coalition Cabinet headed by Ignace Pader¬ 
ewski was formed in January, 1919; a con¬ 
stituent assembly was convened in Warsaw on 
February 10, 1919, and 10 days later General 
Pilsudski w r as confirmed by the Assembly in 
his powers as chief of the state pending the 
adoption of a constitution. The provisional 
government received Allied recognition Feb. 
21, 1919. 

By the terms of the Peace Treaty signed by 
Polish delegates and ratified by the Polish diet 
(July 31, 1919), Germany ceded to Poland 
nearly all of the Province of Posen and nearly 
all of West Prussia west of the Vistula, plebis¬ 
cites to determine the disposition of the part 
of West Prussia east of the Vistula and south 
of its junction with the Nogat, of the southern 
two-fifths of East Prussia, and of most of Up¬ 
per Silesia. Danzig was the adjacent territory 
west of the Nogat, was made a free city. 
Upon the basis of .the plebiscite results in Oc¬ 
tober, 1921, the League of Nations assigned 
to Poland the southern part of Upper Silesia, 
including the districts of Katowice, Krolewska 
Huta, Rybnik and Pszczyna and also parts of 
the districts of Tarnowskie Gory and Lub- 
liniec. The fixing of the eastern frontiers of 
Poland was by far more romantic. These fron¬ 
tiers were not the result of judicial awards 
and of round table conferences but of a long 
and heroic war. 

By the end of 1919 the'Bolsheviks finally 
crushed their internal enemies, and concentrat¬ 
ed all their forces on the Polish front, with the 



Poland 


3772 


r . , . . , -—-——-—_ Poland 

aim ox destroying Poland. In August icv?o ciYKc u i i ———- _____—,— ; — 

when but 10 miles from Warsaw the Bol- Urne’ r” A f ° Urth 

shevik armies were crushed, losing almost all mm' - Pil'd- ' P d ‘i^ 1 “ ctlon from Ger- 

of their ammunition and’severd hunJr ' VCs ^ f Cti ° n 

thousand prisoners. According to He n-iro r, A U * S * Wah 0CCU P ied by the 

treaty Russia recognized the independence' of RTsh'Vd mh , Gcrmany aUack ^ 

Poland and an almost straight line goteg ?A, ’ “ d ^ retaken by the in 

from L atvia, in the North, to Roumania, in Poland: Language and Literature — 
the South was recognized as the boundary The Polish language is one of the most widely 
between the two countries. Wilno, Grodno, spread branches of the Slavonic fam“iv form 
Pinsk, and Luck lemamed on the Polish side, ing, with Bohemian and Sorbish or f usatian 

Mmsk on the Russian. Then followed the Wendish, the western bmneh of the Sla^c 

.ongues. Among the very oldest literary 
monuments is a hymn to the Virgin Mary 
ascribed to St. Adalbert. The period be¬ 
tween 1541 and 1606 is called by the Poles 
the golden age of their literature. The list 
cf poets begins with Nicholas Rej of Nag- 
lowice (*5°5~69) * Jan Kochanowski (1530- 
04) is called the prince of Polish poets; he 
wrote a play entitled The Setting Out of the 
Greek Ambassadors, and some cither lengthy 
works. Especially famous are his Lamenta¬ 
tions (Treny) on the death of his daughter 
Ursula. Polish pastorals were written by 
Szmonowicz (1557-1629), called in Latin 
Simonides, and the brothers Zimorowicz, 
who were of Armenian descent. Somewhat 
later Jan Gawinski successfully cultivated 
this field of poetry. 

The period from 1606 to 1764 has been 
styled by some writer macaroniic, owing to 
the great number of Latin words introduced. 
The poetry certainly lacks originality; but we 
must except Wojna Chocimska, or the Wars 
of the Ghocim, by Waclaw Potocki (3:622- 
96). The romantic movement reached Po¬ 
land at the'period of its political agonies. 
Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855), is the great¬ 
est of all Polish poets. He is one of the 
dorious trio, of which Slowacki (1809-49) 
and Krasinski (1812-59) constitute the. other, 
two. The so-called. Ukraine school produced 
the poets Zaleski, Malczewski (1793-1826),' 
and others. The Mary a of Malczewski is one 
of the most popular poems in the Polish lan¬ 
guage. An extraordinary fertile writer was 
Ivarszcwski (1812-87)..''No Polish writer of 
his period, can compare with him in vol- . 
tirae^of 'output' or breadth of .range. ' The 
dominating... figure of the last quarter ' of. f 
the past century, is Henry Sienkiewkz (1846-. . 
1916) whose.; historical' romances'' have ' a-' '■ 
world wide : following and whose short' stories. 
attracted 'general 'attention.: "His Trilogy, 
OjioMaiis, The Knights of-the. Cross, G 


controversy.between Poland and Lithuania 
over possession of Wilno. Its seizure by the 
Poles in 1920 was assented to by the Council 
of Ambassadors in 1923 but Lithuania re¬ 
mained dissatisfied. In 1926 Poland obtained 
a semi-permanent seat in the Council of the 
League of Nations; she was a partner in the 
Locarno Agreement and an original signer 
of the Kellogg Pact. She signed arbitration 
treaties with 23 nations and became a mem 
ber of the World Court. In 1926 Marshal 
Pilsudski with army aid overturned the gov¬ 
ernment and thenceforth until his death in 
I 935 ? exercised dictatorial powers over the 
government. Non-aggression pacts were 
made, in 1932 with Russia and in 1934 with 
Germany. In 1935 a new Constitution was 
adopted, and thereafter the government func¬ 
tioned in parliamentary form. Growing out 
of the Munich Pact, Poland received about 
400 square miles from Czechoslovakia in 
1938. After Hitler’s successes in acquiring 
for Germany, all of Austria 1938, most of 
Czechoslovakia 1938-39 and Mcmcl 1939, he 
directed his attention to Poland and’ the 
free . city of Danzig, which was included 
within the Polish customs jurisdiction. Hit¬ 
ler’s agents fomented strife in Danzig and 
among German minorities elsewhere under 
Polish rule, following which there were ex¬ 
changes leading up to German demands upon 
Poland which included relinquishment to 
Germany of all Polish rights in Danzig and 
certain rights in the Polish Corridor. Aroused 
by the continuing spread of German aggres¬ 
sions, Great Britain and France supported 
Poland in her refusal of the demands. On 
September 1, 1939, the German armies ad¬ 
vanced against Poland and met with bul 
little effective resistance because of Poland’s 
lack of . modern military mechanization. 
Great Britain and France promptly declared 
war on Germany but could not reach Poland 
with military aid. Taking advantage of P<> 


land’s helplessness, Russia moved her armies Field of Glory I lawns 

.... o.„„ *** Thus b«.«, ho tb 




Poland 


3773 


Police 


and Nationalism in Polish life find their ad¬ 
vocates in L. L. Reymont (1868-1925), whose 
novel The Peasants presents a panorama of 
Polish life, and for which he was awarded the 
Nobel Prize for Literature in 1924. Alexander 
Fredro has had no equal as a writer of Polish 
comedy. Consult Chmielowski’s History of 
Polish Literature (6 vols.) ; Tarnowski’s 'His¬ 
tory of Polish Literature; Dyboski’s Periods 
of Polish Literary History (1923) and Modern 
Polish Literature (1924). 

Poland Springs, a well known resort in 
Androscoggin co. ? Maine, 23 m. n.w. of Port¬ 
land. The waters of the springs, which are said 
to be highly beneficial, are widely used. 

Polaris. The star nearest the North Pole. 

Polarity, the property of having poles— 
that is, ends having certain opposite qualities. 

Polarisation of Light, in its simpler as- 
spects, is closely associated with the phenom¬ 
enon of double refraction. A ray of ordinary 
white light, either from the sun or from an 
artificial source, when passed through a crystal 
of Iceland spar is separated into two rays of 
practically equal intensities. These are called 
the ordinary and extraordinary rays. Let the 
two rays be received on the surface of a plate 
of glass (not a mirror) held at a fairly high 
obliquity to the ray so as to reflect it through 
an angle greater than a right angle. It will be 
found that for most positions of the reflecting 
plate the two rays will be after reflection 
markedly different as regards brightness. An¬ 
other variation of the same experiment is to 
reflect the single ray first, and then pass it 
through the doubly refracting crystal, when 
in general the two rays will be of different in¬ 
tensity. Thus we learn that the two doubly 
refracted rays have what Newton called 
‘sides’; and it is this sidedness, or laterality, 
which is known as polarization. 

The true significance of the phenomenon is 
best understood by expressing it in terms of 
the generally accepted theory, that light is a 
wave motion consisting of vibrations at right 
angles to the direction of the ray. In common 
unpolarized light the vibrations take place in 
all possible planes containing the ray, the sole 
condition being that they are perpendicular to 
it. When the light is passed through the doub¬ 
ly refracting crystal, every vibration is de¬ 
composed into two components at right angles 
to one another, the exact directions of which 
depend upon the position of the Iceland spar. 
This possibility of the separation of the ordi¬ 
nary ray from the extraordinary permits the 
use of the polarized beam in minerology stud¬ 
ies, where the quality and property of sub¬ 


stances may be thus analyzed, and also in the 
study of the structure of the atom where the 
spectral lines, when split in a magnetic field, 
will prove to be polarized in different ways. 
It is not possible to enter upon a description 
of the beautiful phenomena of polarization 
produced by means of uniaxial and biaxial 
crystals when placed in a beam of diverging 
or converging light. It remains to point out 
that polarization effects are not confined to 
luminous ra} r s, but can be observed with the 
infra-red and ultra-violet rays. 

Pole, Reginald (1500-58), English cardi¬ 
nal and Archibishop of Canterbury 7 , was born 
in Stourton Castle, Staffordshire. In 1521-7 
he was in Padua and later in Paris at the order 
of Henry vrii. to collect information regarding 
the king’s divorce. On his marriage with Anne 
Boleyn (1533) Henry wrote to Pole (1534), 
asking for a definite avowal of his opinions on 
the divorce and on papal supremacy, and Pole 
replied with his treatise Pro Ecclesiastics Uni- 
tatis Defensione. The king promptly cancelled 
his preferments; but Paul m. appointed him 
cardinal (1536) and papel legate to England 
(iS37)- Pole’s mother and relatives were ar¬ 
rested and executed, and an act of attainder 
was passed against Pole himself. On Henry’s ' 
death (1547) Pole unsuccessfully tried to re¬ 
claim England from schism. It was not till 
after Mary’s marriage with Philip of Spain 
(1554) that Parliament reversed his attainder, 
and Pole landed in England. He was then 
created Archibishop of Canterbury (1556). 

Polecat, a European carnivore belonging 
to the weasel family. The ferret is a domesti¬ 
cated variety. A closely related animal is the 
North American skunk. 

Polenta, an Italian dish, the chief ingredi¬ 
ents of which are maize meal and salt. 

Poles, the two terminal points of the earth’s 
axis. 

Police. Originally the word police meant 
all goverment, but it has finally come to be 
applied to that function of government which 
attempts to prevent the happening of evil and 
to promote the welfare of the people by means 
of restraint and compulsion, with the object of 
obtaining the greatest good to the greatest 
number. In England, prior to 1829, the pro¬ 
tection of the people was entrusted to watch¬ 
men. At length through the efforts of Sir Rob¬ 
ert Peel (from whose name are derived the 
familiar British terms,‘bobby’ and ‘peeler’) an 
act was passed (1829) which provided a train¬ 
ed corps of policemen for the aiea of the 
Metropolis of London, with a systematic day 
and night patrol. 




Police 


3774 


Police 


Early police conditions in the United States 
were similar to those existing in England. 
Watchmen and constables were the sole reli¬ 
ances for peace and protection. This system 
proved unsatisfactory, and in 1S40 an attempt 
was made in New York City to reform the po¬ 
lice system, which resulted eventually in es¬ 
tablishing a force' modelled on the Metropoli¬ 
tan Police of London. Philadelphia reorgan¬ 
ized her police force on the English model in 
1850, and the example of these two cities has 
been followed so generally that almost every | 


ers. There are also numerous bureaus, which 
include squads on automobiles, pawnshops, 
vice, homicide, health, narcotics; also an air 
squad, and four entirely new squads added 
to the force in 1931: alien, radical, bond and 
midtown jewel,—all operating in civilian 
clothes. There are over nineteen thousand 
policemen on the force and, police expendi¬ 
tures exceed. $60,000,000 per annum. 

Rural police protection in the United States 
is exceedingly inadequate. The first attempt 
to establish a distinctly State police seems to 



Mounted Police, New York City. 


city in the United States has an organized po¬ 
lice force uniformed and professional in char¬ 
acter. In American cities the police force is 
organized either under a single head known 
as a commissioner or superintendent, or under 
a board or committee, usually bi-partisan. Un¬ 
der the superintendent or board are the chief 
of police, captains, lieutenants, sergeants, 
roundsmen, and patrolmen. In the larger cities 
a separate detective bureau and a criminal 
identification bureau, called the rogues’ gal¬ 
lery, are maintained; there are also sanitary 
squads, traffic squads, mounted police, bicycle 
squads, and policewomen. 

./■ N" ew Work City the police force is organ¬ 
ized under .a'Police Commissioner, ■ appointed 
by^the Mayor for .5 years; under him, and ap¬ 
pointed by him, are six deputy commission- 


have been made in Massachusetts in 1S65, 
when a small force of State constables was ap¬ 
pointed mainly to enforce the law. in regard 
to the liquor traffic. The Pennsylvania State 
Police, consisting of four troops with a numer¬ 
ical strength of 330 men and officers, was or¬ 
ganized in December, 1905; these men have 
all the powers of a municipal police as well as 
being fire, fish, game, and.forestry.wardens. In 
1917 a New York State police was established 
with an organization founded on that of the 
Royal Northwest Mounted Police of Canada 
and the State Constabulary of Pennsylvania. 
The Texas rangers, organized in 1901, the 
Arizona rangers, in 1903, and the New Mexico 
mounted police, in 1905, are appointed by the 
governors of the respective States and do vali¬ 
ant duty in protecting the Mexican border. 


Police 


3775 


Political 


The Royal Northwest Mounted Police of 
Canada occupy a unique position among the 
police forces of the world. This picturesque 
and efficient body of men came into existence 
as the result of lawless conditions in the Ca¬ 
nadian Northwest. In 1873 an act was passed 
respecting the administration of justice and 
the establishment of a police force in the 
Northwest Territories. By October, 1873, the 
first 150 mounted policemen had been enrolled 
and despatched to temporary headquarters at 
Lower Fort Garry, Manitoba. This number 
was quickly augmented. The expedition west¬ 
ward was begun June 10, 1874. The number 
of men has been increased from time to time, 
the work has been extended, and additional 
posts have been established. The Mounted Po- 


al law to designate the general inherent power 
vested in the several States of the United 
States to prescribe such rules for the conduct 
of their citizens, and such regulations regard¬ 
ing the use of private property as are necessary 
and desirable for the general welfare of the 
public. A certain amount of police power is 
usually delegated by the State to cities, and is 
exercised by them through municipal ordi¬ 
nances. Thus, a city may prescribe the kind of 
building materials which must be used within 
its limits as a protection against fire; whereas, 
no restrictions may exist in other cities or 
country districts in the same State. Perhaps 
the most frequent examples of the exercise of 
the police power are in regulations for public 
health, protection of streams from pollution, 



Target Practice, New York City Police. 


lice rendered valuable service during the con¬ 
struction of the Canadian Pacific Railroad, 
preventing liquor selling, gambling, thieving, 
and strikes among the men; and maintained 
order during the rush of immigation following 
the discovery of gold in the Yukon Territory 
(1894). During the Great War a force com¬ 
posed largely of ex-members, over 200 in num¬ 
ber, carried out an effective control of the in¬ 
ternational boundary. At the present time the 
Royal Northwest Mounted Police are engag¬ 
ed chiefly in the Northwest Territories and the 
Yukon Territory. Enlistment is for 5 years; 
men must be between 22 and 40 years of age, 
sound in body and mind, and of exemplary 
character. 

Police Courts, courts of limited jurisdic¬ 
tion for the disposition of petty criminal cases, 
usually only misdemeanors. A person charged 
with felony may be arraigned in such a court, 
and if there is any evidence tending to sustain 
the charge, the court may order him commit¬ 
ted to await the action of the grand jury, or 
the county prosecuting attorney. 

Police. Power, a term used, in constitution- 


pure food laws, isolation of contagious dis¬ 
eases, etc. Fire regulations, provisions for safe¬ 
ty in buildings, regulations tending to preserve 
and protect public morals, licensing certain 
trades and occupations, the direction of high¬ 
way traffic, all fall within the police power. 

Polish Catholic Church (Independent 
Catholic Church in the United States), an or¬ 
ganization formed in Chicago, devoted to the 
churchly care of Polish immigrants es¬ 
tranged from the Roman Catholic Church 
and in danger of lapsing into infidelity. 
The founder is Father Anthony Kozlowski, 
who, the better to carry on the work, ob¬ 
tained consecration from the Old Catholics 
of Europe. 

Political and Social Science, American 
Academy of. A body founded in Philadel¬ 
phia in 1889, and incorporated in 1891. Its 
object is to keep its members in close touch 
with the practical social questions of the time 
and to be for them a sort of clearing house to 
collect and make available information on 
these, questions. 

! Political -Offence*. ' Extradition trea- 


Polk 


4 es, or the conventions by which nations reg¬ 
elate the handing over to each other of fugitive 
offenders found within their territory, prac¬ 
tically always contain an exception with re¬ 
spect to ‘offences of a political character/ It 
ls n °t difficult to describe such offences gen¬ 
erally, as offences of a public nature against 
the existing government or constitution of the 
country in which they are committed. 

Folk, Frank Lyon (1871-1943), Ameri¬ 
can public official, was bom in New York 
City. Following legal practice, he was coun¬ 
selor to the State Department at Washington, 
then Under-Secretary of State (1915-1918) ’ 
and Acting Secretary of State (1918-19x9). 
He was Commissioner of the United States 
for the peace negotiations following the Great 
War, and headed the American delegation to 
the Peace Conference, July-December, 1919. 

Polk, James Knox (1795-1849), nth 
President of the United States, born in Meck¬ 
lenburg co., N. C., on Nov. 2, 1795. He was 
admitted to the bar in 1820,* began prac¬ 
tice at Columbia, Tenn., and in 1823 was 
elected to the legislature as a Democrat. 
He was elected to the Federal House of Rep¬ 
resentatives, and served from 1825 until 
1839. He proved himself an able debater; 
was frequently the spokesman of the Jackson 
. administration; became chairman of the 
Committee of Ways and Means; and in 1835 
and again in 1837 was chosen speaker. In 
1839 he became governor of Tennessee. In 
1844, when President Tyler’s term was draw¬ 
ing to a close, he was favorably regarded as 
a candidate for the Vice-Presidential nom¬ 
ination. The annexation of Texas was now 
the great political question before the coun¬ 
try, and Polk expressed himself in favor of 
the step—‘reannexation,’ he called it—in no 
uncertain terms. The attitude of Van Buren, 
whose renomination to the Presidency had 
seemed at one time assured, was not satis¬ 
factory to the South. In consequence, when 
the convention met at Baltimore, he was un.- 
a ble to secure the necessary two-thirds maj¬ 
ority,^ and the outcome was that the conven¬ 
tion, finally selected Polk for the Presidency 
The . campaign that followed was a closely 
contested one; but Polk was elected by 170 

Sectoral votes against 105 for Clay. 

The chief measures of his administration 
were the settlement of the Oregon boundary 
question, and the Mexican War. One of the 
cries in the campaign of 1844 had been ‘Fifty- 
four-forty (54° 40') or fight!’ But when the 
Polk administration was in office a com- 
promise was agreed upon by which the paral- 


_________Pollock 

lei of 49 degrees n. latitude was taken as the 
boundary line between the possessions of the 
United States and Great Britain in the dis¬ 
puted region. The trouble with Mexico over 
the annexation of Texas led to the Mexican 
War which resulted in the cession to the 
United States of California and a great area 
of other territory. (See Mexican War.) The 
acquisition of this vast territory precipitated 
a violent controversy over the question of 
the extension of slavery, which was not set¬ 
tled when Polk retired from office. (See Wil 
mot Proviso; Compromise Measures op 
1850.) 

Polka, a round dance said to have origin¬ 
ated m 1830 or 1S34 in Bohemia. The music 
is written in two-four time, the tempo being 
that of a military march played rather slowl 
ly. For a number of years it enjoyed remark¬ 
able popularity. 

. Ilack > a genus of the cod family, found 
m the North Atlantic. The only species (Pol- 
lachzus virens ), known as pollack, coal fish 
or green cod, is about three ft. long, weighs 
about 25 pounds, and is distinguished by Its 
greenish-brown color and its projecting jaw 
PoIIanarua, buried city, the ancient capi¬ 
tal of Ceylon, 52 miles northeast of Kandy 
on an artificial lake called Topare or Topa- 

in 368 AJD * In 769 the city became 
the official capital. Among the buildings un¬ 
covered by excavations are the Wata-du-Ge 
a twelfth-century circular shrine, said to be 
the most beautiful building in Ceylon. 

Pollen, the male element of flowering plants 
(angiosperms) and certain kinds of trees and 
shrubs teymnosperms) which, in combina¬ 
tion with the ovule, produces seed. Where 
pollination is accomplished by means of in¬ 
sects, as in most flowers, the pollen is ad¬ 
hesive and often has projecting points, or is 
otherwise adapted in shape, to cling to the 
insect that carries it. In wind - fertilized 
Plants,, on the other hand, the pollen grains 
are smooth and round, so as to offer the least 
resistance to the atmosphere. See Flower, 
Pollmatioxi, in botany, is the supply of 
the fertilizing pollen to the stigma of a flow¬ 
er. The natural^ means of transportation are 
the wind and insects, innumerable adapta¬ 
tions and methods being concerned. Pollina¬ 
tion is also done artificially, to insure fruit, 
is in vanilla cultivation; or to cross various 
species, as in horticulture. 

Pollock, Sir Freder.ck (1845-193,), Ccr- 
ptis professor of jurisprudence at Oxford 
(1883-1903), and professor of common law 
m the Inns ot Court (1884-90). In 19 n he 



Pollock 


3777 


Polonium 


delivered a course of lectures at Columbia 
University, New York, under the title ‘The 
Genius of the Common Law/ 

Pollock, Charming (1880- ), Ameri¬ 

can author and dramatist, was born in Wash¬ 
ington, D. C. From 1898 to 1900 he wrote 
dramatic criticisms for Washington papers, 
from 1900 to 1906 acted as a general press 
representative for different producers, and 
from 1905 to 1919 was dramatic critic for 
the Smart Set and the Green Book. He dram¬ 
atized The Pit (1900) ; The Traitor (1908); 
The Inner Shrine (1909). His original plays 
include: A Game of Hearts (1903); The 
Great Adventurer (1905); The Beauty Shop 
(1913) ; A Perfect Lady (1914) ; The Crowd¬ 
ed Hour (1918); Roads of Destiny (1918) ; 
The Fool (1922) ; The Enemy (1925) ; and 
Mr. Money penny (1928) . He collaborated in 
the production of numerous musical comedies 
and has written Stage Stories (1899), Behold 
the Man (1901), The Footlights—Fore and 
Aft (1911) ; Synthetic Gentleman (1934). 

Poll Tax, a tax levied on persons, so much 
per head. It was levied on strangers resident 
in ancient Athens and on certain undesirable 
members of the community. In England a 
poll tax levied in the reign of Richard 11. 
gave rise (1381) to the insurrection of Wat 
Tyler. This form of taxation is employed in 
about half the States of the United States as 
an adjunct to the general property tax, or as 
a qualification for voting. 

Pollux— (3 Geminorum, a solar star of 1.2 
magnitude, marking the head of the more 
easterly of the Heavenly Twins. It is fifty- 
one light years distant, is sixty-three times 
more luminous than the sun, and travels with 
a tangential speed of 2SJ/2 miles a second. 

Polo, a game played with a small wooden 
ball and long flexible mallets, the players be¬ 
ing mounted on ponies. It is played on a 
level field 900 by 450 ft., with goal posts 
at each end. The players on each side, usu¬ 
ally four in number, mounted on specially 
trained ponies and provided with wooden 
mallets, line up opposite each other in the 
center of the field. The object of the game, 
as in football, hockey, and similar games, is 
to send the ball across the enemy’s goal line. 
The duties of the players are as follows: The 
‘back,’ or No. 4, is to hit the ball well up into 
the game, to make long shots at the goal, 
and, when opportunity occurs, to make runs. 
His chief occupation is freeing himself from 
the close attention he will receive from No. 1 
of the opposing team. The duties of No. 3 
are to prevent his back from being hustled, 


to hustle the enemy’s No. 2, and to hold 
himself in readiness to take the back’s place 
when he is making a run. No. 2 should be 
the most active and most aggressive player, 
the fastest and most accurate hitting man on 
the team, acting entirely on the defensive. 
No. 1 is placed so as to worry his opponents, 
and in this he is materially aided by his 
privilege of playing offside. 

The game of polo seems to date back as far 
as 600 b.c. and to be of Persian origin. It 
traveled from Persia to Turkey, and also to 
Tibet, Kashmir, and Bengal, where it became 
the chief sport of the English residents and 
planters. The game, at first called ‘hockey on 
horseback,’ was brought to England by the 
officers of the Tenth Hussars in 1S69. Seven 
years later it was introduced into America. 
In 1886 a cup was presented to English and 
American polo players by the Westchester 
Polo Club of Newport, R. I. Since that time 
international matches have been frequent. 

Polo, Marco (1254-1323), Italian travel¬ 
ler, was born in Venice. His father, Nicolo, 
and his uncle, Maffeo, were merchants who 
had traveled in the East and been received 
by Kublai, the great Mongol khan of Cathay 
(China). In 1271 they undertook another 
journey, taking young Marco with them. By 
the spring .of 1275 they were again at the 
court of Kublai, who appointed Marco to a 
governorship. The party remained in the 
East till 1292, and in 1295 once more reached 
Venice. In 1298 Marco commanded a vessel 
in the war against Genoa and was captured 
by the enemy in a sea fight. During his cap¬ 
tivity he dictated the account of his travels 
(in French) to a fellow prisoner, Rusticiano 
or Rustichello of Pisa. He was released in 
1299, became a member of the Grand Council 
of Venice, and died there. Polo tells graphi¬ 
cally of the geography, peoples, ethnography, 
manners, and customs of various parts of 
Asia as he himself observed them. Consult 
the admirable Book of Sir Marco Polo edited 
by Sir Henry Yule. 

Polonaise, a Polish national dance, of slow 
movement in three-quarter time, made up of 
a march or promenade. The name is applied 
also to the music for such a dance which is 
written in a peculiar rhythm used by many 
composers, but especially elaborated by 
Chopin. 

Polonium (Po), a metallic element occur¬ 
ring in pitchblende, and resembling bismuth 
in its properties, discovered by Mme. Curie 
in 1S98. The activity of the metal is 1-1000 
part of the initial in five years’ time. It ap* 



Polotsk 


3778 


pears that its decomposition product is not 
radioactive. Polonium gives off a particles, 
which are readily absorbed by certain metals. 
The a rays from polonium have greater value 
than the a rays of radium,, being very pene¬ 
trating. See Radium ; Radioactivity. 

Polotsk, manufacturing town, Russia, on a 
branch of the Dwina. Features of interest 
are the old palace buildings in the Kremlin, 
the Cathedral of St. Nicholas, and the Spas- 
kii convent (famous for conflicts of July- 
October, 1812) ; p. about 32,000. 

Poltava, a former government of Ukraine, 
bounded on the w. by Kiev and on the e. 
by Kharkov, with an area of 19,265 sq. miles. 
The general aspect is that of a wide plain, I 


Polyclitus 

erty of a people. Food is so scarce thaTnone 
but effective males can be reared, and woman 
is a luxury. In Polyandry kinship is reckoned 
on the female side alone. 

Polybius (c. 204-122 b.c.) , Greek historian, 
was a native of Megalopolis in Arcadia, and 
became one of the chief statesmen of the 
Achaean League. He was in 167 b.c. one of a 
thousand Achaean hostages who were taken 
to Italy. This brought him into the society of 
the younger Scipio Africanus and Laelius. In 
150 Polybius returned to the Peloponnesus, 
and did his best to prevent his countrymen 
from embarking in the war against Rome, 
which caused Greece to lose its independence 
in 146. He spent the rest of his life in literary 



Polo Match. 


sloping gradually from northeast to south¬ 
west, with the Dnieper flowing along the en¬ 
tire southwestern border. The climate is tem¬ 
perate, and most of the soil belongs to the 
fertile black earth zone. The chief occupa¬ 
tions are agriculture and stock-raising; p.3,- 
750,000. 

Poltava, city, Ukraine, Soviet Russia. A 
monument known as the Swedish tomb com¬ 
memorates the victory of Russia over Swed¬ 
en, July 9, 1709. Important fairs are held 
yearly in July. There is an extensive trade in 
cattle, grain, and meat. The town was oc¬ 
cupied by German forces in March, 1918, fol¬ 
lowing the treaty of Brest-Litovsk. It was 
the scene of fighting between the White Rus¬ 
sians and the Bolsheviki; p. 92,000. 

. Polyandry, .a social arrangement whereby 
one woman is married. to several husbands. 
It is a more primitive institution than poly¬ 
gamy, where one man is married to several 
wives. Polyandry is anindication of the pov- 


pursuits and in travel. His universal history 
covers the period irom 220 to 146 b.c. Only 
the first five books exist entire, though there 
are many fragments, some considerable, of 
the rest. Polybius’s great merit as a. historian 
is his thoroughness and his impartiality. 

Poly carp, one of the apostolic "fathers, 
bishop of Smyrna, was born r. 70 a.d. He 
labored in Asia Minor, received a visit and 
I an epistle from Ignatius, made a, journey to 
Rome, and shortly alter his return to Smyr¬ 
na was martyred. Polycarp is said (by his 
pupil Irenseus) to have known and spoken 
with John and the other disciples; and this 
fact, as well as his gift of preaching and his 
devout character, gave him a position of 
gieat authority among the A si an church es. 
The Epistle to the PhHip plans f his only ex¬ 
tant work, contains numerous references to 
the New Testament. . 

Polyclitus, Greek sculptor, was born prob¬ 
ably about 480 b.c., and lived until about 





Poly-gala 


3779 


Polynesia 


410. He was a fellow-pupil with Myron and 
Phidias. It was in the treatment of the human 
figure that Polyclitus was supreme. His im¬ 
agination and technical skill were his greatest 
qualities. His most famous statue was the 
Doryphorus or spear-bearer. Another famous 
work was the Diadumenos, an athlete bind¬ 
ing a fillet around his head. Polyclitus 
worked chiefly in bronze; and as an archi¬ 
tect designed the theatre at Epidaurus, which 
-till exists. 

Polygala, a natural order of plants, usual¬ 
ly with milky juice, especially in their roots. 
The gay little flowers are perfect but irregu¬ 
lar, having two lateral sepals, wing - like, 
larger than the other three, and colored. The 
largest and handsomest species is the ‘fringed 
milkwort’ ( P . paiicifolia) , found in wood¬ 
lands. One of the commonest polygalas in dry 
soil is the purple-tinged (P. verticillata) , a 
delicate plant with linear leaves in whorls. 

Polygamy, the social arrangement whereby 
a man is married to two or more wives. It 
is still the marriage form in Africa univer¬ 
sally, in Asia, and partly in Australia and 
Polynesia. Judaism in Old Testament times 
tolerated and recognized it. Mohammedanism 
has permitted a man to have as many as four 
wives. Neither in Greece, nor in Rome, nor 
among the Germans was polygamy practised. 
Polygamy in Christian countries is generally 
regarded as a criminal offence: in the United 
States and British countries it is called big¬ 
amy, and is punishable by imprisonment. 

Polyglot, a work containing the original 
and various translations of a book, usually 
the Bible, the several languages being placed 
in parallel columns oh a single or double 
page. 

Polygon, a closed figure bounded by 
straight lines, and therefore with as many 
angles as sides. The triangle is the simplest 
polygon, and lies wholly in one plane. Or¬ 
dinarily the term is applied to figures which 
have more than four sides. •* 

Polygonaceae, a natural order of herba¬ 
ceous plants, bearing spikes or panicles of 
small flowers, often unisexual. Among the 
common species are buckwheat (Polygonum 
fagopyrum); the common knot grass (P. 
aviculare); P. convolvulus, the climbing per- 
sicaria, as well as the various docks and sor¬ 
rels. 

Polygpnatum," a genus of plants, belong¬ 
ing to the order Liliacese, characterized by 
the flowers having six-cleft corollas, and by 
the fruits being berries. There are two similar 
species, called ‘Solomon’s seal’ in eastern Am¬ 


erica, having slender arching stems, with 
many broad leaves, and two or more bell¬ 
shaped, greenish flowers depending from the 
axils. These are succeeded by blue berries, 
with a bloom. 

Polygonum. A genus of the buckwheat 
family including many of our common weeds 
and several cultivated plants. The flowers 
are small, generally perfect, white, green, or 
rose-colored, in various clusters. 

Polyhedron, a finite portion of space 
bounded on all sides by planes. The plane 
figures which bound it are called ‘faces’; the 
sides of these faces, ‘edges’; and the points 
where the edges meet, ‘corners,’ or vertices. 
A regular polyhedron is one in which all the 



1, Octahedron; 2, Dodecahe¬ 
dron; 3, Icosahedron. 

faces are equal regular figures, in which case 
at least three faces must meet to form a ver¬ 
tex; the maximum plane angle must be that 
of a pentagon, since the three angles of a 
hexagon cannot form a solid angle. 

Polynesia, in the wider sense, is synony¬ 
mous with the South Sea islands. But the ex¬ 
pression is now usually confined to the e. 
section, which is, roughly, limited westwards 
by a line drawn from New Zealand through 
Samoa to Hawaii, and extends eastwards to 
Easter I. in no 0 w., about 2,400 miles from 
S. America. The Kanakas, as the natives of 
this insular world call themselves, belong un¬ 
doubtedly to one primitive stock, which dif¬ 
fers essentially from both the Papuan and 
the Malayan. The physical type is everywhere 
marked by regular, almost European fea¬ 
tures, tall stature (averaging about 5 ft. 10 
in.), straight and very black hair, and gener¬ 
ally light brown complexion. Their speech is 
a distinct branch of the Malayo-Polynesian 
stock language. Their mental characters, their 
traditions, mythologies, industrial arts, and 
usages are everywhere almost identical. The 
Polynesians have steadily decreased in num¬ 
bers ever since their first; contact with Eu- 



Polyp 


3780 


ropeans. The Tahitians, who in Cook’s time 
mustered 68,000 warriors, are now reduced to 
about 15,000; the Maoris have fallen from 
perhaps 200,000 to 40,000 ; the Hawaiians 
from 300,000 (?) to less than 50,000; and all 
the Polynesians from certainly over 1,000,000 
to about 150,000. 

Polyp, a name applied to those Ccelenter- 
ata in which the body has the form of a 
tube, fixed at one end, and bearing a circle 
of tentacles round the other or free end. This 
form is well exemplified in the common fresh¬ 
water polyp Hydra; but the name is equally 
applicable to the individual sea-anemones, 
and to the members of a colonial ‘coral,’ or 
other compound hydrozoan. 

Polyphemus, in ancient Greek legend, one 
of the Cyclopes. He devoured some of the 
comrades of Odysseus, who visited his cave 
on their return from Troy. Odysseus pre¬ 
sented him with some strong wine, and when 
he had 1 alien into a deep sleep, put out his 
eye with a burning pole, and escaped. 

■ Polyphemus Moth, one of the large Am¬ 
erican silkworm moths (Telea Polyphemus) 
See Moth. " 

Polyphonic, a musical term applied to a 
form of composition in which two or more 
distinct melodies of equal importance are 
used conjointly in such a manner that the 
union of their notes produces correct chordal 
combinations. 

Polypodium, a genus of ferns, generally 
with sori on the back of the lobes. The spec¬ 
ies are very numerous. P. vulgare is a stiff 
fern found on rocks throughout the north¬ 
ern hemisphere. 

Polypterus, a genus of fishes, which con¬ 
tains but a single species, the bichir (P. 
bichir) of the Nile and other rivers of trop¬ 
ical Africa. 

Polypus, in surgery, a tumor, frequently 
multiple, of. various sizes, and with a narrow 
neck. The term is generally used for non- 
malignant growths on mucous membranes, 
found^most commonly in the rose, where they 
may interfere: with respiration. Polypi also 
occur in the uterus, mouth, rectum, and other 
places.. Where they are of serious importance 
they snould be removed. 

; Polytechnic -Institute of Brooklyn. An 
institution in the borough of Brooklyn, New 
York City,, developed' from: - the Brooklyn 
Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute, founci- 
e d.m,iS53. The curriculum, at first mainly 
preparatory for college and business pursuits 
was enlarged until in 1870 it comprised two’ 


P omaee$a 

courses of study leading to the"bachd^ 
degree in art and science. In 1S90 the in¬ 
stitute was reorganized and received a col¬ 
lege charter. 

. Po MecIinic Schools, educational institu¬ 
tions in which instruction is afforded in nu¬ 
merous arts and sciences, more particularly 
With reference to their practical application. 
I he first polytechnic school was the Ecole 
Poly technique, founded by a decree of the 
French Convention in 1794. In Germany the 
most important industries have been created 
by means of the education afforded in these 
schools. In France technical education has 
been fostered by similar institutions. In Am¬ 
erica, among the more important institutions 
are the Massachusetts Institute of Techno] 
ogy, Boston; Worcester Polytechnic Institute 
Mass.; Rensselaer .Polytechnic Institute at 
Iroy N Y.; Stevens Institute at Hoboken, 

W J ; Case School of Applied Science at 
Cleveland; Purdue University at Lafayette, 
Ind.; Rose Polytechnic Institute at Terre 
Haute, Inch; Armour Institute of Technol¬ 
ogy at Chicago; Iowa State College of Ag¬ 
riculture and Mechanic Arts at Ames, and 
the Carnegie Institute at Pittsburgh. Several 
important polytechnic schools form depart¬ 
ments of universities or colleges, such as the 
School of Mines, .etc. (Columbia University 
New York), Sheffield Scientific School 
(Yale), etc. 

Polytheism, belief in a plurality of gods, 
is a^stage in the development of the religious 
spirit. In a general sense it may include 
naturism and animism. The great nations of 
antiquity were generally polytheistic—Assy-' ' 
ria, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, as 
well as India (Brahmanism), though the last- 
mentioned shows an underlying pantheism, 
bee Religion. 

Polyzoa, or Bryozoa, a group of animals 
of somewhat obscure affinities. Almost all are 
colonial, and although the individuals are 
small, the colonies reach a considerable size. 
Among the more lamiliar forms are the sea- 
mats (Elmira ), often abundant on the beach 
after storms, and taken for seaweed; the en¬ 
crusting Lepralia , which forms a lacelike pat¬ 
tern on the fronds of weed; the gelatinous 
Alcyonidium. All these are marine, but there 
ate also a considerable number of fresh-water 
forms. At one time the Polyzoa were classed 
with Hydrozoa, but they are in many res¬ 
pects much more complicated in structure. 

Pomaceae, a family of flowering plants 
near to the order Rosacese, which bear fruits 



pomace fly 


3781 


Pompadour 


called pomes. The quince, hawthorn, apple, 
pear, and mountain ash are well-known ex¬ 
amples. 

Pomace Fly, a small yellowish fly of the 
genus Drosophila, several species of which 
abound about cider-mills and places where 
decaying fruit or fruit juice is stored. 

Pome, a name given to a form of indehis- 
cent fruit, in which the epicarp and meso- 
carp, together with the calyx, form a fleshy 
mass, the endocarp forming scaly-walled cells 
enclosing the seeds. The apple and pear are 
examples. 

Pomegranate (Punka granatwn ), a small 
deciduous tree growing wild in Persia, Af¬ 
ghanistan, and adjacent countries. It has 
been cultivated from time immemorial. It I 
was one of the fruit trees of the Promised 



Pomegranate. 

i, Fruit; 2, section of fruit. 


Land, and in the Odyssey it is stated to oc¬ 
cur in the gardens of Phaeacia and Phrygia. 
The fruits have a tough, thick, bitter rind, 
of a reddish-yellow color. They are apple- 
shaped, with a crown of sepals, and are filled 
with seeds, each surrounded by acidulous, 
crimson pulp. The shrub itself is of consid¬ 
erable grace and beauty, enhanced by the 
scarlet flowers and golden fruits. 

Pomerania, prov., Prussia, stretching along 
the Baltic, e. and w. of mouth of Oder and 
Stettiner Haff. It belongs to the N. German 
plain, but is traversed by the Baltic ridge, 
on which are numerous small lakes. Agricul¬ 
ture is the principal occupation. Poultry are 
raised and fish caught. Stettin is the capital. 
Area, 11,625 sq. miles; p. 1,878,781. Pome¬ 
rania was Slav down to 1637. Most of Hither 
Pomerania and part of Farther Pomerania 
remained in Swedish hands from about 1630 
down to 1720, and the remainder of the 
former down to 1815; 


Pomeranian Dog, or Spitz Dog, a small 
bushy-haired, prick-eared, curly-tailed dog. 
of German origin, anciently of service as a 
hunting dog, but now only as a pet. It was 
originally of a pure white color, and weighed 
from 20 to 25 lbs.; but the specimens most 
valued now are the diminutive varieties that 



Pomeranian Dog . 


scale from 4 to 8 lbs., and are colored black, 
sable, and parti-colored. The breed became 
very popular in Great Britain in the latter 
part of the 19th century owing to the fact 
that it was a favorite of Queen Victoria. 

P omo, an Indian tribe of northwestern Cal¬ 
ifornia speaking a distinct language known 
as the Kulanapan. They are divided into 
thirty bands, each living in a separate moun¬ 
tain. valley. Their claim to fame is based 
upon skill in basketry, for among all the In¬ 
dian basket-making tribes on the Pacific 
coast the Pomo rank first. They are pro¬ 
ficient in every variety of basketry, twined 
or coiled, and know a few stitches that are 
peculiar to themselves. 

Pomona, in ancient Roman mythology, the 
goddess of fruit-trees and fruits. 

Pomona, city, Los Angeles co., Cal. Owing 
to its attractive site and beautiful surround¬ 
ings, it is a well-known residential city and 
health resort. At Claremont, 4 miles distant, 
is situated Pomona College. The city is in a 
rich fruit and vegetable district, and has a 
large trade, especially in oranges, berries, and 
alfalfa, as well as in fruit canning and pack¬ 
ing; p. 23,539. 

Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Pois¬ 
son, Marquise de (1721-64), mistress of 
Louis xv. of France, was born in Paris. The 
king met her at a bal masque in 1745, was 
captivated, and established her at Versailles, 
and ennobled her in 1745. ‘La Pompadour' 
became the center of a brilliant intellectual 
and artistic circle, including Voltaire, Ques- 
nay, Boucher, and Greuze. Louis, a mere 
puppet, gave her tremendous power. She 
made and unmade ministers, diplomatists, 


Pompano 


37 S 2 


Pompems 


and generals. During the Seven Years’ War 
France supported her hereditary enemy Aus¬ 
tria, merely because Maria Theresa had writ- 
fen a courteous letter to the Marquise de 
Pompadour, while Frederick the Great com¬ 
posed scandalous verses about her. 



Pompano, the name in the United States 
of several excellent fishes of the family Car- 
angidse widely distributed along the coasts of 
the warmer parts of the world, everywhere 
regarded as of high quality both as game and 
for the table. The commonest and best 
known of the American species is the Floridan 
pompano (T. carolinus ), which enters the 
bays and estuaries of all the South Atlantic 
and Gulf states to spawn in the spring, and 
then is esteemed one of the most delicate.of 
all coast fishes; it is taken about southern 
Florida and the West Indies all the year, and 
is fattest and best there in the fall, when it 
again forms in large schools. It reaches a 
length of about 18 inches, and, like its con¬ 
geners, is vertically flattened and ovate in 
form, and a beautiful silvery blue in color. 
The fish called ‘pompano,* and highly valued 
in southern California, is in another class, 
being an ally of the harvest fishes, 

Pompeii, a city of Campania, in ancient 
Italy, at southeast, foot of Vesuvius. It cer¬ 
tainly existed. before 500 b.c. ; about 400 b.c. 
the city was captured by the Samnites. About 
300 b.c. . Pompeii was brought into depen¬ 
dence. on Rome; but in 90. b.c. it joined.the 
Italian allies against Rome in the Social War, 
and in 89 it was unsuccessfully besieged by 
Sulla, who, however, in 80 settled there a 
colony of Roman veterans. The industries of 
the city were wine-making, fishing, the man- 


■ ufacture of millstones of lava, and the work¬ 
ing of pumice stone. In 63 a.b. a violent earth¬ 
quake threw down many of the city build¬ 
ings. On Aug. 24, 79 a.d.. Vesuvius broke out 
in eruption, and by the evening of the 25th 
Pompeii was covered, all but the roofs of its 
houses. It has been estimated that about 
2,000 persons perished. 

The result of excavations has been to bring 
to light the forum and the buildings which 
surround it—namely, the temple of Jupiter, 
the basilica or town hall, the temple of Apol¬ 
lo, the macellum or provision market, the 
shrine of the city lares, the temple of Ves¬ 
pasian, the building of Eumachia—probably 
a bazaar for wearing apparel—the comitium 
or voting place, and the municipal offices; 
the temple of Fortuna Augusta; a large and 
a small theatre, with a colonnade adjoining; 
a wrestling-place, or palaestra; three bathing 
establishments; and an amphitheatre. The 
private houses, of which many exist, throw 
light on ancient domestic life. Several of 
them contain a complete arrangement for the 
bath, with warm and hot chambers, heated 
by hot air, and swimming tanks. The walls 
were painted, usually in fresco, with orna¬ 
mentations. Elegant columns and mosaic 
floors added to the beauty of the rooms. As 
many as 3,500 paintings have been recovered. 
The discovery of a set of auctioneer’s re¬ 
ceipts indicates clearly Latin methods. 

Pompeius, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus 
(106-48 b.c.) , commonly known as Pompey 
the Great. When in 83 b.c. Sulla was about 
to land in Italy on his return from the East, 
Pompey raised three legions, and utterly de¬ 
feated one of three Marian armies which 
surrounded him. In 77 Lepidus, who had 
tried during his year as consul to overthrow 
the constitution of Sulla, marched with an 
army on Rome; and Pompey had to defeat 
him. His next command was in Spain, against 
Sertorius, the last remaining leader .of the 
Marian party. Pompey was in Spain from 
76 to 71 B.C. 

On his return Pompey’s popularity gained 
him a triumph and the consulship for 70 b.c. 
In 67 an extraordinary command against the 
pirates who then infested the Mediterranean 
was given 'him, and /in three . months he 
cleared the sea of them. In 66 by another 
special law, that of Manillas, he was appoint¬ 
ed to succeed Lucullus in Asia, retaining also 
the supreme command over all the Mediter¬ 
ranean and its coasts. In 66 he defeated Mith- 
ridates, and subdued Armenia; in 65 he re¬ 
duced W. Pontus to a province, and in 64 did 




ORIENTAL POPPY 

There are many varieties of poppies, but this is the mosi 




Ponce 


3783 


Ponce 


the same with Syria. In 63 he captured Jeru¬ 
salem, and entered the Holy of holies in the 
temple. He next joined with Casar and Cras- 
sus in the first triumvirate. As the result of 
this, Caesar was consul for 59 b.c., and Pom- 
pey married Caesar’s daughter Julia. Through 
jealousy of Caesar he became the head of the 
aristocratic party. Then followed the civil 
war between Pompey and Caesar. After rais¬ 
ing an army in the East, Pompey established 
himself in Epirus, near Dyrrachium. In 48 
Caesar followed him; and near Pharsalus 
was fought on August 9 the battle which de¬ 
cided the war in Caesar’s favor. Pompey es- 


Plaza de las Delicias and the Plaza Principal. 
If is the most modern city of Porto Rico, 
being well built, with clean and wide streets, 
and having good water, public schools, lib¬ 
rary, theatres, asylums, and hospitals. There 
are also electric street railways and electric 
lights; p.41,912. 

Ponce de Leon, Juan (1460-1521), cele¬ 
brated Spanish explorer, bom in San Servas, 
Spain, according to some accounts accom¬ 
panied Columbus on his second voyage; and 
in 1502 was a member of Nicolas de Ovando’s 
expedition , to Hispaniola. He became gov¬ 
ernor of part of the island: in 1508 led an 


m 



caped to Egypt, but was murdered as he was 
landing. As a general Pompey was bold, rapid, 
and foreseeing in action; a wise administrator 
and governor; and personally a man of 
brave, upright, and just nature; but he was 
no statesman. 

Ponce, the capital of the department of 
Ponce, Porto Rico, 50 miles southwest of 
San Juan. It is connected by an electric road 
with its port, Playa de Ponce, 3 miles dis¬ 
tant. It is the second largest city of the island 
and the first in commercial importance, hav¬ 
ing a large export trade in coffee, sugar, rum, 
molasses, and tobacco. The two most prom¬ 
inent features are the squares known as the 


expedition to Porto Rico; and in 1510 was 
made governor of the island, which he pro¬ 
ceeded to conquer. Having been deprived of 
Ms position in 1512, he determined to go in 
search of a fountain of perpetual youth. 
With three ships he sailed northwest in 
March, 15x3, and on March 27, Palm Sun¬ 
day ( Pascua Florida ), sighted land. On Aprfi 
8 he landed near the site of the present town 
of St. Augustine, and, taking possession, 
named the land ‘Florida.’ Returning to Spain, 
he secured an appointment as governor of 
the new region; and in 1521, after one abor¬ 
tive attempt in 1515, led an expedition to 
conquer the country. The attempt was un- 






Poncho 


3784 


successful; Ponce de Leon failed to find the 
much desired fountain; many of his follow¬ 
ers were killed by the Indians, and he him¬ 
self was- wounded by an arrow and died soon 
after in Cuba. 

Poncho, a usualh* waterproof narrow blan¬ 
ket with an opening; in the middle for the 
head, and hanging down loosely before and 
behind, affording freedom to the arms. It is 
used by the native Indians, as well as by the 
Spaniards old South America. Ponchos are us¬ 
ually made of india-rubber and are a part of 
the soldier’s equipment. 

Pond, Frederick Eugene (1856-1925), 
American editor and author, was born in 
Packwaukee, Wisconsin, and became inter¬ 
ested in out-of-door sports at an early age. 
From 1881 to 1886 he was field editor of the 
N. Y. Turf, Field, and Farm, and during 
1888-9 edited Wildwood’s Magazine, the lat¬ 
ter taking its name from Pond’s pseudonym, 
‘Will Wildwood.’ This periodical he merged 
with Turf, Field, and Farm, for which he 
became corresponding editor. In 1897 he be¬ 
came editor of the Sportsman’s Review, and 
in 1917-8 was editor of the American Angler, 
after which he was editor of the Rod. and 
Gun Department, New York Herald . 

Pond, James Burton (1838-1903), Amer¬ 
ican lecture manager, was born in Cuba, 
Alleghany co., N. Y. At the outbreak of the 
Civil War he enlisted. From 1865 to 1S73 he 
followed mercantile pursuits in the West, and 
then purchased, with George Hathaway, Red- 
path’s Lyceum Lecture Bureau in Boston. 
Three years afterwards he acquired full own¬ 
ership, and in 1879 established the business 
in New York City as the American Lecture 
Bureau, which he managed until his death. 
.Among those who lectured under his man¬ 
agement were Henry Ward Beecher, Henry 
M. Stanley, Wendell Phillips, Emerson, Sum¬ 
ner, John B. Gough, Talmage, Anna. Dickin¬ 
son, Thomas Hast, Canon Kingsley, Matthew 
Arnold, Sir Edwin Arnold, Mark Twain, 
Max O’Rell, Conan Doyle, Anthony Hope, 
■and' George JCennan, 

Pondicherry, chief settlement of the 
French in India, on the e, coast of Madras. 
It has an area of 115 sq. miles, and is divi¬ 
ded into the White (European) • town and 
the Black town, separated hv a canal. Gov¬ 
ernment House, a handsome building, is situ¬ 
ated near the sea. Other buildings and institu¬ 
tions include the Cathedral, built in 1S55, a 
Hotel de Ville, a Colonial College, and sev¬ 
eral government schools. The chief industries 


Pont eve dr a 

are weaving and spinning; p. district, 185,- 
479; town, 47,678. 

Pond Lily. See Water Lily. 

Pondoland, district, in the eastern part of 
the Cape of Good Hope prov., South Africa, 
bordering on the Indian Ocean; area, 3,906 
sq. miles. It was annexed to Cape Colony in 
1894. St. John’s, at the mouth of the river 
of the same name, is an excellent port. 

Poniatowski, Stanislas II (1732-1798), 
last king of Poland as an independent king¬ 
dom, gave .Poland a constitution. 

Poniatowski, Stanislas, Count (1677- 
1762), Polish nobleman, father of Stanislas 
it., king of Poland; aided Charles xn. of 
Sweden against Russia. In 1733 he supported 
the unsuccessful attempt of Stanislas Lesz- 
czynski to gain the Polish, throne. 

Pons, Lily (1904- ), opera singer, was 

born in Cannes, France. She made her first 
appearance in New York, as Lucia with the 
Metropolitan Opera Co., Jan., 1931. 

Pomselle, Rosa Melba (1895- ), Am¬ 

erican singer, was born in Meriden, Conn. 
She made her successful debut at the Met¬ 
ropolitan Opera House in 191S, singing with 
Caruso, and continued, in many parts with 
much popular favor, singing in London in 
May, 1929. 

Ponta Delgada, largest town of the 
Azores, on 'the southern coast of Sao Miguel. 
A breakwater, 2,800 ft. long, protects the 
roadstead. Fruits and grain are shipped; p, 

18,000. 

Pont-a-Mousson, town, France, In the de¬ 
partment of Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the Mo¬ 
selle.. From 1572 to 1768 it was the seat of 
a university. It was heavily bombarded in 
September, 1914, and was within the Amer¬ 
ican zone during the battle of St. Mihiel 
(September,. 1918); p. 15,000. 

Pontchartrain, Lake, a salt water lake in 
the southeastern part of Louisiana; about 5 
m. n. of New Orleans, with which it. is con¬ 
nected by two canals, which are navigable 
for schooners and terminate in basins in the 
city. It is about 40 in. long and 25 m. wide, 
and although it is shallow, generally from 
t 2 to 14 ft. deep, it is used in the coasting 
trade with New Orleans, and is the channel 
of a considerable commerce. On the n. shore 
are located some of the suburbs of New Or¬ 
leans. . . ■ ■ 

Pontevedra, province, N.W. Spain, with 
an area of 1,695 sq* m. It has numerous 
deep bays forming excellent fishing grounds. 
The surface is extremely mountainous; the 



Ponievedra 


378S 


slopes furnish, pasturage for cattle and yield 
timber, and the valleys produce maize, grain, 
and vegetables; p.573,255. 

Pontevedra, city, Spain, capital of the 
province of the same name, is situated at the 
head of a deep bay. It is a handsome, pro¬ 
gressive city, of Roman origin (Duo Ponies), 
in the midst of the ‘Spanish Switzerland. 5 
Fishing, food preserving, and timber cutting 
are active industries; p. 22,300. 

Pontiac, city, Illinois, county seat of Liv¬ 
ingston co., on the Vermillion River. The Ill¬ 
inois State Reformatory is located here. Pon¬ 
tiac is in the corn belt and the surrounding 
region is devoted to agriculture and stock- 
raising. There are several mills and iron 
foundries; p. 9,585. 

Pontiac, city, Michigan, county seat of 
Oakland co., 25 m. n.w. of Detroit, with 
which it is connected by electric roads and a 
concrete highway. It is in a region contain¬ 
ing more than 400 picturesque small lakes 
on the shores of which are club-houses, 
summer residences, hotels, and the Michigan 
Military Academy. The Eastern Michigan 
Asylum for the Insane is the leading charit¬ 
able institution. Wool and agricultural 
products are shipped from the city in large 
quantities. Within recent years the indus¬ 
trial development of Pontiac has been rapid. 
There are iron foundries, brick yards, bot¬ 
tling works, flour mills, and planing mills, 
and manufactures of automobiles, gas and 
gasoline engines, farm machinery, bicycles, 
and pumps. Pontiac was named after the 
famous Indian chief; p. 66,626. 

Pontiac (c. 1720-69), head chief of the 
Ottawa Indians, born between 1712 and 1720, 
probably on Maumee river, near the mouth 
of the Auglaize. Nothing is definitely known 
of Pontiac’s early life, beyond the fact that 
by 1755 he had through the exercise of fierce 
courage, the arts of diplomacy and leader¬ 
ship, and uncommon skill as an organizer, 
become widely known and respected among 
the Algonquian tribes; and as principal chief 
of the Ottawa was at the head of the loose 
confederacy of the Ottawa, Chippewa, and 
Potawatomi, which with the Miami practi¬ 
cally dominated the country n. and w. of the 
Ohio River. After the surrender of Montreal 
(Sept. 8, 1760) and the fall of New France, 
Pontiac visited the British commander, Maj. 
Robert Rogers who had been sent to take 
possession of French forts along the upper 
Great Lakes, and declared.he was. ready to 
allow the strangers to. occupy his country ; so I 


Pontine 

j long as ‘they treated him with due respect 
and deference.’ 

Unlike the French, who generously treated 
the aborigines with all possible considera¬ 
tion, and even fraternized with them, the 
English were found by the latter to be harsh 
and tactless rulers, and Pontiac soon began 
the organization of a general native revolt, 
designed to destroy the newcomers. Pontiac’s 
indignation reached its height in the spring 
of 1763, on learning that by the Treaty of 
Paris (Feb. 10) the French ‘father’ had ceded 
vast stretches of Indian lands to the English 
‘father’ without the consent of the natives. 
Throughout that summer the English forts 
were besieged with a persistence rare among 
savages. As usual, the Indians in time wear¬ 
ied of their confederacy, and were cowed 
by repeated defeats at the hands of the Eng¬ 
lish punitive expedition. In May, 1765, the 
French induced Pontiac, now deserted by 
most of his followers, to sue for English 
friendship; a year afterward, at Oswego, 
peace was formally arranged. 

Pontifex, the title given at ancient Rome 
to the members of the college of priests. 
They were the supreme authorities in all 
religious matters, and were not attached to 
the service of any particular deities, but 
watched over the whole state religion. The 
college was said to have been founded by 
Numa. At the head of the college was the 
pontifex maximns, or chief pontiff, who held 
office for life. He was usually a man of high 
political standing—as Julius Caesar. The office 
was always held by. the emperor after the 
establishment of the empire; Theodosius was 
the first to relinquish it. In time it was as¬ 
sumed by the bishop of Rome, and is indeed 
the formal title of the Pope. 

Pontifical, a Roman Catholic service book, 
which contains those offices of the church in 
which a bishop or a bishop’s delegate alone 
is permitted to officiate. The Pontificate Ro - 
manum, compiled in 1485, contains offices for 
ordination, consecrations of places and peo¬ 
ple, .episcopal benedictions, and receptions of 
the religious. 

Pontine Marshes, marshy district, Italy, 
25 m. s.e. of Rome. It is from 18 to 25 m. in 
length, and has a width of from 4P2 to 5 m. 
Previous to the Roman occupation (358 b.c.) 
the district was carefully drained, and was 
studded with towns and villages. Subse¬ 
quently the drainage works fell into decay, 
and nothing was done until Appius Claudius 
constructed the Via Appia through them in 



Pontius 


3786 


Poodle 


312 b.c. In 1899 the Italian government set; 
aside $1,362,000 for drainage purposes, which 
is rapidly being accomplished. 

Pontius Pilatus, or Pontius Pilate, the 
Roman governor who authorized the cruci¬ 
fixion of Jesus Christ, was procurator of 
Judaea probably from 26 to 36 a.d. He was 
deposed from Ills office by Vitellius, the gov¬ 
ernor of Syria, because of his severity. He 
returned to Rome to stand his trial just 
after the death of Tiberius (March, 37 a.d.). 
According to Eusebius, he committed suicide 
soon afterward. 

Pontoons, boats used in the construction 
of military bridges and which serve as float¬ 
ing piers or supports for the roadway. In 
the American Army the wooden pontoon, 
weighing 1600 pounds complete, is used in 
the heavy bridge trains. 


chief importance under Mithridates vi., the 
Great, who carried on several wars with 
Rome. The only important town was Tra- 
peus, afterwards Trebizond. 

Pontus Euxinus, ancient name of the 
Black Sea. 

Pony. See Horse. 

Pony Express, a name given to a mail ser¬ 
vice between St. Joseph, Mo., and San Fran¬ 
cisco, Calif., about 1,960 m. distant, estab¬ 
lished in the early part of 1:860 to shorten 
the time required for letter transmission to 
and from the Pacific coast. Prior to that 
time most of this mail had been carried by 
way of Panama in about twenty-two days. 
The pony express reduced the time of trans¬ 
mission to about eight days. The route be¬ 
tween St. Joseph and Sacramento was cov¬ 
ered on horseback and from tlwre to San 



Pontoon Bridge: U. S. troops crossing Rhine into Germany. 


Pontoppidaii, Henrik (18.57- )> Dan¬ 

ish novelist, was born in Fredericia, and edu¬ 
cated at the University of Copenhagen, He 
first excited attention by his Staekkede Vin - 
ger (1881). His later works are master¬ 
pieces. of exact observation, written in a 
style not unlike that of George Eliot. The 
religious life of the country folk in Denmark 
is admirably described in his pages, not with¬ 
out a touch of humorous satire. In 1917 he 
received the. Nobel prize.in literature. His. 
principal works are Del forjeetiede Land 
(1892;. Eng. trans. The Promised Zand, 
1896); Dommensdag (18 95); Portmllinger 
(1899) t ® en gamh Adam ( 1894); IIdiscing 
(1896); Lykke Per. (1898-1900) ; Det. Ideaie 
Ejem (1900); Lille Rddhcet'te .(1901).; De 
Dodes Riga (19x2-16); Famingkolm (191.6); 
Hojsang (1921). 

Pontus, anciently a district of Asia Minor 
on the s.e. coast of the Enxine or Black Sea. 
In Pontus a native monarchy reached its 


Francheo by fast steamer. The scheduled 
daily distance to he covered by each rider 
was 75 m. The stations, at first about 25 
m. apart, were finally increased to 190 in 
number. In the beginning the postal rate was 
$5.00 per half ounce, hut subsequently it was 
reduced to $ 1.00. The first trip was begun 
on April 3, 1S60, and the service, which fre¬ 
quently suffered from the hostilities of the 
Indians, was discontinued in October of the 
following year, when transcontinental tele¬ 
graphic communication was opened. 

Pood, a Russian commercial weight, the 
sixty-third part of a ton. It contains 40 
Russian lbs., and is ordinarily reckoned equal 
to 36 lbs. avoirdupois, hut is actually 36 
lbs. i oz. 13 drs. 

Poodle, a dog popularly supposed to come 
from France, and sometimes therefore called 
the French poodle. It has a great capacity 
for learning and performing tricks. Like 
the bulldog, it varies greatly in size, ranging 






Pool 


3787 


Poor 


from 20 lbs. to 60 lbs. in weight. The poodle 
is gifted with a keen sense of smell, will take 
readily to the water, and is remarkably in¬ 
telligent and unsurpassed as a retriever. The 
head should be long, straight, and fine; the 
skull rather narrow and peaked at back; 
eyes almond-shaped, very dark brown, full 
of fire and intelligence; back short, strong, 
and slightly curved; legs well set, straight 
from the shoulders; tail set on rather high, 
never curled or carried on the back; coat 
profuse and of good hard texture—if corded, 
hanging in tight, even cords; if uncorded, 
thick and strong, of even length, and free 
from knots or cords. Colors should be black, 
white, and red, but not mixed. 

Pool, a game somewhat similar to billiards 
but requiring less skill. • The game is played 
on a flat table similar to a billiard table, but 
with six pockets. There are 15 numbered 
balls and one white ball, the latter being the 
cue ball with which the player plays from 
within the string at any of the numbered 
balls at the beginning of the game, and 
afterwards as he finds it upon the table. 
There are more than a score of variations of 
the game, such as Chicago, Two-ball, Forty- 
one, High-low-jack-game, Color ball, Skittle, 
Kelly, and others. 

Poole, Ernest (1880- ), American au¬ 

thor, was born in Chicago, Ill. He was grad¬ 
uated from Princeton University in 1902 and 
since then has lived in New York City. In 
1915 he was magazine correspondent in 
France and Germany, and in 1917, in Russia. 
His published works include None So Blind, 
and A Man’s Friend, both plays, and the 
novels The Harbor (1915) ; Danger (1923) ; 
The Avalanche (1924) ; The Hunter’s Moon 
(1925); The Little Dark Man (1925) ; With 
Eastern Eyes (1926) ; Silent Storms (1927) ; 
Great Winds (1933); Giants Gone (1942). 

Poole, William Frederick (1821-94), 
American librarian, was born in Salem, Mass. 
From 1856 to 1869 he was librarian of the 
Boston Athenaeum; from 1869 to 1873 be was 
librarian of the Cincinnati Public Library, 
and was later in charge of the new Chicago 
Public Library until 1887, when he was ap¬ 
pointed librarian of the Newberry Library in 
Chicago, which position he held until Ms 
death. He is best-known for his Index to 
Periodical Literature, which appeared in 
1853. In 1882, with the assistance of many 
other librarians, a greatly enlarged edition 
was published, followed at intervals until 
1900 by supplementary volumes edited by 
William I. 'Fletcher. 


Poona, town, and cantonment, India, cap¬ 
ital of Poona district, Deccan, Bombay; 
120 in. e. of Bombay. It is the headquarters 
of the Bombay army, and during the rainy 
season the seat of the government of the 
presidency. It has two arts colleges and a 
college of science. Gold, silver, and brass 
ware, ivory-carving, paper-making and the 
modelling of small clay figures are its chief 
industries. Poona is the center of Brahman - 
ical influence in West India; p. 234,000. 

Poona Wood, the timber of Calophyllum 
inophyllum, an Indian tree belonging to the 
order Clusiaceae. It is highly valued for masts 
and spars, and also for building purposes. 

Poor, Charles Lane (1S66- ), Ameri¬ 

can scientist, was graduated from the Col¬ 
lege of the City of New York in 1886, and 
from Johns Hopkins in 1S92. He was tutor 
in mathematics in the College of the City of 
New York in 18S6-88; instructor in mathe¬ 
matics in 1891-92; associate in astronomy in 
1892-95, and associate professor of astron¬ 
omy in 1895-99, in Johns Hopkins. In 1903- 
4 he was lecturer in astronomy, in 1904-10 
professor of astronomy in Columbia Univer¬ 
sity, N. Y., and since 1910 professor of celes¬ 
tial mechanics. His published works include 
The Solar System (1908); Nautical Science 
(1910); Simplified Navigation (1918); Grav¬ 
itation versus Relativity (1922); Relativity 
and the Motion of Mercury (1925). 

Poor, Enoch (1736-80), American sol¬ 
dier, was born in Andover, Mass. When the 
Revolutionary War began, he was living in 
Exeter, N. H., and was given command of 
one of the regiments raised by the New Hamp¬ 
shire province. He participated in the siege 
of Boston and in the unsuccessful campaign 
against Canada. In February, 1777, he be¬ 
came a brigadier general, and played a large 
part in the defeat of Burgoyne’s army at Still¬ 
water and Saratoga. He spent the winter of 
1777-73 at Valley Forge, fought at Mon¬ 
mouth, and commanded a brigade in General 
Sullivan’s expedition against the Indians. 

Poor, Henry Varnum (1812-1905), Am¬ 
erican journalist, was born in Andover, Me. 
He was graduated from Bowdoin College in 
1835, was admitted to the Maine bar, and 
began to practice in his native town. In 
1849 he became editor of The American 
Railroad Journal, the first periodical in the 
United States to be devoted to railroad 
news. He assisted his son, H. W. Poor, in the 
publication of Poor’s Manual of Railroads, 
and was one of the promoters of the Union 
Pacific Railroad Company. He was a prom- 




Poor 


3783 


Pope 


inent writer on financial and economic ques¬ 
tions. 

Poor, Henry William (1844-1915), Am¬ 
erican publisher, was born in Bangor, Me. 
He established in. New York City the firm 
of H. V. and H. W. Poor, which dealt ex¬ 
tensively in railroad securities. This busi¬ 
ness .required the keeping of a record of rail¬ 
road statistics for office use, which in a few 
years became so large and valuable that the 
firm decided to publish it for public use. It 
was at once successful, and Poor’s Manual of 
Railroads has become a standard work of 
reference for American railroads. 

Poor Clares. See Clare, St. 

Poore, Benjamin Perley (1820-S7), Am¬ 
erican journalist. After two years’ experience 
as editor of the Southern Whig in Athens, 
Ga., he was appointed attache to the United 
States legation in Brussels. For several years 
he was foreign correspondent of the Boston 
Atlas, and also an agent for Massachusetts 
in the collection and copying of papers in the 
French archives, of interest to New England¬ 
ers. In 1848 he settled in Boston, where he 
edited the Bee and the Sunday Sentinel. In 
1854 he moved to Washington, where he was 
correspondent for several newspapers. In 
1886 he published his Reminiscences of Sixty 
Years in the National Metropolis. 

Poore, Henry Rankin (1859-1940), Amer¬ 
ican artist, was born in Newark, N. J. He 
was a pupil of Peter Moran, Lumenais and 
Bouguereau in Paris. Returning to the 
United States he gave his attention chiefly 
to the painting of animals, developing also 
as a landscape painter, and in many of his 
pictures the dogs, of which he made a spe¬ 
cialty, and other animals, are incidental to 
the landscape. He received prizes and medals 
at several exhibitions and world’s fairs. 
Among his best-known paintings are Close 
of a City Day (1888); Fox Hounds (1888); 
Hounds in Winter (1898).; Clearing Hand 
(-903). 

Poor . Richard. See Franklin, Benja¬ 
min. 

Pope. See'Papacy. 

Pope, Albert Augustus (1843-1909) , Am¬ 
erican manufacturer, was bom in Boston. 
In 1862 he joined the Thirty-fifth Massachu¬ 
setts Infantry and rendered distinguished 
service in the Civil War. In 1877 he founded 
the Pope Manufacturing Company for the 
manufacture of small patented articles, and 
in 1878 he began to manufacture bicycles, 
being one of the pioneers in this field and 
in the work for better roads. 


Pope, Alexander (1.688-1744), English 
poet, born in London. His first publication 
was Pastorals (written 1704), which appeared 
in 1709 in Tonson’s Miscellany, along with 
his January and May. In 1711 he published 
the Essay on Criticism .. It was written in 
1:709, when he was only twenty; yet it is a 
marvel of epigrammatic brilliance, and re¬ 
mains the best English statement of the doc¬ 
trines of classicism. In 1712 he had con¬ 
tributed to Lintot’s Miscellany the Rape of 
the Lock, a heroi-comical poem. In 1717 he 
brought out an edition of his works which 
included, besides the poems already men¬ 
tioned, the Temple of Fame (1711), the Epis¬ 
tle of Eloisa to Abelard, the Elegy to the 
Memory of an Unfortunate Lady, the Imi¬ 
tations of Chaucer, and several translations. 
About .1713 he began his translation of the 
Iliad, which appeared from June, 1715, to 
1720. In 1723 he ‘undertook’ the translation 
of the Odyssey. In 1725 he brought out an 
edition of Shakespeare (6 vols. 4to), which 
was severely criticised by Lewis Theobald in 
Shakespeare Restored (1726). Pope’s resent¬ 
ment against him and his many other critics 
embodied itself in the Dunciad, which ap¬ 
peared in 1728. About 1730 he undertook, 
at the suggestion of Bolingbroke, a great 
didactic poem, comprising a complete system 
of ethics, and ‘vindicating the ways of God 
to man.’ The scheme, however, was not com¬ 
pleted, and we have fragments of it in the 
Essay on Man (four epistles, 1732-4) and 
the first four Moral Essays (1731-8). What 
is now known as the fifth Moral Essay (‘To 
Mr, Addison’) was written in 1715. The 
Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot has been well called 
the Apologia pro Vita Sua t and it is perhaps 
Pope’s most striking poem. 

His work is the most perfect expression 
in our literature of the ‘classical’ theories of 
poetry, and marks the culmination of a 
school which, developing with Waller and 
Denham, attained maturity in Dry den; He 
is unexcelled in precision, terseness, and epi¬ 
grammatic. brilliance. 

Pope, Franklin Leonard' (1840-95), Am¬ 
erican electrician. In 1862 he was appointed 
an assistant engineer to the American Tele¬ 
graph Company, and in 1864 he became engi¬ 
neer to the Russo-American Telegraph Com¬ 
pany, and surveyed a line route between 
Vancouver and northern Alaska. Afterwards 
he settled in New York, and entered into 
partnership with Thomas A. Edison, under 
the firm name of Pope and Edison. In 1870 
i they invented a printing telegraph, which, in 



P cpinja r ___ 3789 _ Population 

an improved form, is extensively used. In nation-flowered, and ranunculus-flowered 
1872 Pope invented the rail circuit for auto- poppies. The Oriental poppies are among the 
maticallv controlling the electric-block sig- the showiest of haruv perennial plants P 
nal system in use on American railroads. He somniierum, a tall annual plant with glaucous 
also made many valuable improvements in foliage, is the source from which opium is 
telegraph}', and was one of the pioneer patent ; obtained. 


attorneys in America, making a specialty of 
electrical inventions. In 1SS6 he was elected 
president of the American Institute of Elec¬ 
trical Engineers. 

. Popinjay, originally a parrot; then a mark 
like a parrot, put on a pole to be shot at by 
archers as a test of skill. 

Poplar. Trees of the genus Populus (Sal- 
icaceae). They usually have broad, alternate 
leaves, generally tremulous, and often with 
laterally flattened leaf-stalks. The poplars 
grow rapidly, and, as in the case of the Lom¬ 
bardy poplar (P. dilatata), with its narrowly 
pyramidal head, are picturesque at times. 
The cottonwood (P. deltoides) is common 
along the watercourses of the West, and 
forms a large, picturesque, rapidly growing 



tree; another familiar tree in the West, which 
turns to pale gold in fall, is the ‘quaking asp’ 
(P. tremuloides ), an aspen with similar, 
smaller leaves. It springs up quickly in clear¬ 
ings, and holds the soil on mountain sides 
until other trees are well started. In the 
East the awkward, brittle poplar of wood¬ 



lands is P. grandidentata, having large, 
coarsely toothed leaves, a pale-colored trunk 
of rapid growth, and quickly rotting wood. 

Poplin, a mixed material of silk and wor¬ 
sted, introduced into Great Britain by the 
refugees who fled from France on the revo¬ 
cation (1685) of the Edict of Nantes, and 
ever since it has been a peculiarly distinct 
Irish industry. Many poplins now made have 
not a particle of silk in their composition, 
but are woven of worsted and flax or wor¬ 
sted and cotton. j 

Popocatepetl (‘smoking mountain’), a vol¬ 
cano in Mexico, between the valleys of Mex¬ 
ico and Puebla, 45 m. s.e. of the former city. 
No considerable eruption has occurred since 
1548, although minor eruptions took place 
in 1802, and the crater still emits smoke and 
ashes. Snow covers the summit (17,783. ft. 
above sea level), below which are forests of 
pine and oak. Sulphur of great purity and in 
large quantities is obtained from its crater. 

Poppy (Papaver), a genus of plants, al¬ 
most all with showy red, white, or yellow 
flowers, and all valuable as annual or peren¬ 
nial garden plants. The common corn poppy 
is P. Rhceas; and of it numerous varieties are 
cultivated in gardens, such as the Shirley, car- 


Poppy. 

1, Ripe capsule; 2, section; 

3, seed; 4, section. 

Popular Sovereignty, or Squatter Sov¬ 
ereignty, is a term applied in the .United 
States before the Civil War to the doctrine 
that each Territory should be left free to de¬ 
cide for itself whether or not slavery was to 
be permitted within its limits. The doctrine 
seems to have been first enunciated by Lewis 
! Cass in 1847 >* hut Stephen A. Douglas was its 
most aggressive and conspicuous advocate, 
and it was the basis of the famous Kansas-Ne- 
braska Bill of 1S54. In 1S57 the U. S. Supreme 
Court, in the Dred Scott decision, declared 
that neither Congress nor Territorial legisla¬ 
tures had power to exclude slavery from the 
Territories. See Slavery. 

Population, the number of people in" any 
particular country or community. A study of 
population figures seems to indicate that under 
normal conditions the population of a com¬ 
munity should increase steadily; but a station¬ 
ary population may signify increased thrift 
and a higher standard of comfort, with a rela¬ 
tively large proportion of the people distribu- 




3790 


Porbeagle 


ted among the effective age groups, and with a 
relatively small proportion cf infants and de¬ 
pendents represented. An increasing popula¬ 
tion resulting from a high birth rate is actually 
less desirable than a low death rate and a grea- 
er average duration of life. At the present time, 
the increase of population is of less concern 
than its character, and sociologists and econo¬ 
mists are investigating carefully the great 
problems arising from the rapid development 
of densely populated centers. There is no abso¬ 
lute standard of population or over-popula¬ 
tion. The density of population—-the average 
number of persons per square mile—may in¬ 
crease without causing serious suffering, pro¬ 
vided the opportunities to secure subsistence 
increase correspondingly. A certain density of 
population is necessary to really effective social 
and political life; while an excessive density is 
detrimental to the health, and destroys the 
comfort of the inhabitants. 

Porbeagle (Lamma cornitbica) , a shark 
which occurs in the North Atlantic Ocean, and 
which is known among American fishermen as 
a mackerel shark. It reaches a length of ten 
ft., and feeds chiefly on fish. 



Porcelain, the material of the highest class 
of ceramic ware, is composed of a, kind of day 
(kaolin) mixed with feldspar and covered with 
a glaze. It is frequently decorated either under 
or over the glaze. By porcelain is now gen¬ 
erally meant hard porcelain, the secret of 
which was discovered in China. 

The process that distinguishes porcelain 
from pottery is the hard firing. In Chinese 
porcelain the body of kaolin and the glaze of 
feldspar are fired together at a temperature of 
about 1,400° Centigrade, or over 3,000° Fah¬ 
renheit. In European porcelain the body, of 
mixed kaolin and feldspar, is fired at a. low 
temperature; then, having been dipped in the 
glaze, it is ftred at a very high temperature. 

The materials of porcelain were discovered 
in Europe in 1709 by Bottgcr, chemist to the 
Elector of Saxony, who established the Dres¬ 
den manufactory. The Sevres factory, estab¬ 
lished by royal decree, began to make porce¬ 
lain in 176S, while factories were established 
in the towns of Plymouth and Bristol in Eng¬ 
land, 


Porphyry 

Porch, a covered space immediately in 
front of the entrance tn a building, open in 
front, and more or !e<> enclosed a! the sides, 
A porch is only a subordinate part of a build¬ 
ing, whereas the portico may be the whole of 
a front. 

Porcupine, a family of rodents. In Eu¬ 
rope. Asia, and Africa occur (lie members of 
the genus Ilystrix. 'The most familiar species 
is //. crist at a, found in S. Europe and N. 
Africa. The American porcupine*- differ in 
several respects from the Old World forms; 
they are all arboreal in their habits, and with 
tin* exception of the northern forms ( Erethi - 



Morth American Poreupiuc. 


zion dorsal us and E. r pixant h us ), all possess 
prehensile tails. In the common porcupine of 
Eastern North America tin* spines are short, 
and a re concealed by the long hair. They are 
also easily detached, and a re slight ly barbed 
at the points. The tail is broad and massive, 
and is the chief active means of defence, the 
animal delivering powerful lateral blows with 
it, 

Porgy. See Scup. 

Pork, the flesh of the pig, exclusive of bacon 
and ham. Bacon is the sides and hack of the 
animal and ham the thigh, both being salted 
and smoked. 

Porosity, a term indicating the presence of 
minute holes or pores throughout an otherwise 
solid body. Pores may vary much in size: thus 
in sponge and pumice stone the pores are ob¬ 
vious; but in charcoal and tmglazed earthen¬ 
ware tiny require to be demons!rated by the 
wax' in which such substances can suck up 
liquids or gases or allow tin; passage 1 of liquids 
or gases through them. Porosity is made use 
of to absorb liquids and gases, as. in the use 
of blotting-paper, or charcoal for filtration of 
liquids, and in separating gases by diffusion. 

Porphyry, a beautiful igneous rock show¬ 
ing bright-red spots on a dark-red ground. 
The porfuio rosso antico was much admired 
by the ancients, who used it for interior dec¬ 
orations and objects of art. Its color is due to 
the presence of a ml or pink variety of cpi- 
dote. The rock itself would at the present day 
be classed rather among the porphyrites than 
the porphyries, as its feldspar is mainly plagio- 
clase; it, contains also dark-brown hornblende. 




Porpoise 


3791 


Port 


At present the term, when used alone, is in 
strict usage restricted to a group of acid and 
sub-acid rocks, containing phenocrysts of or- 
thoclase feldspar. Granite porphyries are pink 
or gray rocks, with pale feldspars, dark plates 
of mica, and gray or colorless blebs of quartz 
in a micro-crystalline or felsitic quartzo-felds- 
pathic or granophyric ground-mass. Quartz- 
porphyries usually show rounded quartzes in a 
fine, stony matrix. 

Porpoise, a name applied by sailors indis¬ 
criminately to any of the smaller toothed 
whales, but which should be restricted to the 
members of the genus Phocasna, of which P. 
communis, the common porpoise, is abundant 
in all northern oceans. It reaches a length of 
about five ft., and has a rounded muzzle, not 
prolonged into a beak, as in the dolphin. The 
upper surface is almost black, and the under, 
which is constantly shown as the porpoise rolls 
in the water, is pure white. The two tints 
gradually fade into each other. 

Porsena, Lars, in ancient Roman legend, 
king of Clusium in Etruria, who soon after the 
expulsion of the kings of Rome in 509 b.c. 
tried to restore Tarquin. He took the fortress 
on the hill Janiculum, on the right bank of the 
Tiber, and would have crossed into Rome by 
the pile-bridge but for the bravery of Horatius 
Codes. See Macaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome. 

Portage, city, Wis., county seat of Colum¬ 
bia co., on the Wisconsin R. and the govern¬ 
ment ship canal between the Fox and Wiscon¬ 
sin Rs. Steamboats run regularly to and from 
Green Bay. It is the center of a region fertile 
in grain and tobacco, with mineral deposits of 
iron, copper, and marl. The chief manufac¬ 
tures are pickles, bricks, hosiery, underwear, 
flour, shoes, sashes, and blinds. There are iron 
works and grain elevators. The vicinity was 
one of the first localities explored by Father 
Marquette and was the scene of the Black 
Hawk War. The historic Fort Winnebago is 
just outside the city limits; p. 7,0x6. 

Portage Lake, a lake in Houghton co., 
Mich. Its s. part is connected with Keweenaw 
Bay by a narrow channel called Portage 
Entry. It is nearly 20 m. long and 2 or 3 m. 
wide, and is navigable by large vessels. A ship- 
canal nearly 2% m. long and 100 ft. wide con¬ 
nects its n. end with Lake Superior, enabling 
steamboats on the latter to pass through a 
route shorter than around Keweenaw Point. 

Portage la Prairie, tn., Manitoba, Cana¬ 
da, co. seat of Portage la Prairie co., is the 
market of a fertile farming region and has 
flour mills, brickyards, grain-elevators, and 


manufactories of aerated waters, farm imple¬ 
ments, pumps; p. 6,574. 

Portalis, Jean .Etienne Marie (1746- 
1807), French jurist, was born in Beausset, 
near Toulon. He incurred the animosity of 
Robespierre during the French Revolution and 
was arrested in 1793, but was released on the 
fall of his enemy, and became president of the 
Council of Ancients. In 1S00 he was employed 
by Napoleon to assist in drafting the famous 
Code Civil. 

Portal System, the four large veins, the 
superior and inferior mesenteric, the gastric, 
and the splenic, which unite to form the portal 
vein, carrying venous blood from the viscera 
concerned in digestion to the liver. 

Port Angeles, city, Washington, county 
seat of Clallam co., situated on the Strait of 
Juan de Fuca. It has a good harbor, is engaged 
in the lumber industry, and has several cream¬ 
eries. In the vicinity are two lakes affording 
splendid trout fishing; p. 9,409. 

Port Antonio, seaport town, situated on 
the north coast of Jamaica, British West 
Indies; the second commercial city of the 
island and the center of the fruit trade; p. 
7,074. 

Port Arthur, city and port of entry, Thun¬ 
der Bay district, Ontario, Canada, situated on 
an arm of Lake Superior. The city has steam¬ 
er connection with Duluth, Minn., and with 
Owen Sound on Lake Huron, and is one of the 
chief commercial points on the northwest 
shore of Lake Superior. It is the seat of ex¬ 
tensive lumbering and mining interests, has 
numerous grain elevators, and manufactures 
tents, awnings, and bricks; p. 16,134. 

Port Arthur ( Chinese Lu-shun-kau), nav¬ 
al and commercial port, situated at the south¬ 
eastern extremity of the Liao-tung peninsula, 
Manchukuo. It is situated on the northern 
and eastern sides of a bay of the Yellow Sea 
and is surrounded by. rocky hills. The harbor 
entrance, which is ice-free, is about 3S0 yds. 
broad. Port Arthur was taken by the Japanese 
in 1894 during the Chinese-Japanese War, but, 
upon the intervention of Russia, France, and 
Germany, was returned to China. In 1898 it 
was leased by China to the Russians, who 
fortified it and made it their chief naval base 
in the Far East and the terminus of the 
Siberian Railway. It was attacked by the 
Japanese at the outbreak of the Russo-Jap¬ 
anese War, and capitulated after a prolonged 
siege. The treaty of Portsmouth (1905) 
awarded it to Japan for the remainder of the 
period of the Russian lease, and in 1915 the 
lease was extended to 99 years; p, 14,000. 



Port 


3792 


Port an Prince, the capital and largest city 
of Haiti, W. I., is situated on the Gulf of Gon- 
aives on the western coast of the island. The 
buildings, mostly of wood, present a unique 
appearance interspersed with handsome trees. 
The chief features of interest are the cathedral, 
and the central market where produce from 
all parts of Haiti is displayed. The city has a 
good fortified harbor, the greater part of the 
island’s foreign trade being carried, on through 
Port au Prince. The chief exports' are coffee, 
cacao, logwood, and cotton. Port au Prince 
was founded in 1749. It was almost entirely 
. destroyed by earthquake in 1770; p. between 
80,000 and 90,000. 

Port Chester, village, Westchester co., New 
York, on Long Island Sound; 26 miles n.e. of 
New York City* It contains a public library, 
hospital, and a park. Industrial establishments 
include iron foundries and manufactures of 
bolts and nuts, shirts, and stoves; p. 23,073. 

Port Clinton, village, Ohio, county seat of 
Ottawa co., on Lake Erie, at the mouth of 
the Portage River; 14 m. n.w. of San¬ 
dusky, with which it is connected by trolley. 
It has a good harbor and a considerable lake 
trade. Grapes and peaches are raised in the j 
surrounding country ; p. 4,505. 

Portcullis, a barrier formed of large pieces 
of wood joined across one another like a har¬ 
row, and each pointed with iron at the bot¬ 
tom. It was generally hung vertically over 
the gateways of old fortified towns and castles, 
ready to be let down in case of a surprise be¬ 
fore the gates could be shut. 



Portcullis 


Port Darwin, a large inlet, Australia, on 
the n.w. coast of the Northern Territory. On 
it stands the town of Palmerston. 

P ort de Pane, town, Haiti, on the strait be¬ 
tween Haiti and Tortuga, and at the mouth of 
the Trots Rivieres. Coffee is its principal 


Porter 

product. Columbus visited this port in 14^- 
p. 10,000. 

Porte > Sublime. See Constantinople; 

Turkey. * 

^ Port Elizabeth, seaport town, Cape of 
Good Hope, South Africa, on Algoa Bay. The 
harbor is commodious, and the city is an im¬ 
portant port, being known as the Liverpool of 
South Africa; p.45,927, of which number 
19,987 are colored. 

Porter, Benjamin Curtis (1843-1908), 
American painter, was bom in Melrose, Mass! 
At first a figure painter, he gradually turned 
his attention to portrait painting. His por¬ 
traits of leading society women' of Boston 
and New York are characterized by grace 
and distinction. 

Porter, David (1780-1:843), American 
naval officer, was born in Boston. In April, 
1 7QS, he was appointed a midshipman in the 
American navy, and saw his first active service 
on board the Constellation in her battle with 
the French frigate V Insurgents in February 
1799. At the outbreak of war with Great 
Britain, in 1812, Porter was promoted to 
I captain, and was given .command of the frigate 
| Essex of 32 guns. In January, 1813, proceeded 
to the 1 acific Ocean for the purpose of pro¬ 
tecting American shipping and inflicting as 
much damage as possible upon that of" the 
enemy. After the close of the war, Porter was 
for eight years a member of the board of navy 
commissioners. In 1824, having attained the 
rank of commodore, he was sent to the West 
Indies in command of an expedition against, 
the pirates. David G. Farragut was his son by 
adoption. 

Porter, David Dixon (1813-91), Ameri¬ 
can admiral, son of Commodore David Porter, 
was born in Chester, Pa, He accompanied his 
father in 1824 in his expedition against the 
West Indian pirates. When the Civil War 
broke out, Porter had attained only the rank 
of lieutenant, but his rise thenceforth was ex¬ 
tremely rapid. He commanded the Powhatan 
in the relief of bort Pickens, and assisted in 
operations against Vicksburg and other places 
above New Orleans. In September, 1862, how¬ 
ever, he was ordered to command the Missis¬ 
sippi squadron as acting rear-admiral. He es¬ 
tablished a navy yard at Mound City, and by 
converting ordinary river steamers into gun¬ 
boats soon had a fleet of more than 120 vessels. 
With these, in January 1863, he assisted the 
army in the capture of Arkansas Post, and not 
long after successfully ran past the guns of 
Vicksburg and captured Grand Gulf. In Octo¬ 
ber. 1864, Porter was assigned to command 



Porter 


3793 


the North Atlantic squadron. With this fleet, 
consisting of more than 50 vessels, lie bom¬ 
barded and silenced the Confederate fortifica¬ 
tions at the mouth of the Cape Fear River 
(December 24). His last duty in the Civil 
War consisted in forcing his way up the Janies 
River and assisting in the final operations 
against Richmond. 

In July 1866, he was promoted vice-admiral, 
and during the next three years, as superin¬ 
tendent of the Naval Academy, effected a rev¬ 
olution in that institution. In 1870 he was 
commissioned admiral—one of the first two 
men to receive that distinction in American 
naval annals, the other being Farragut. 

Porter, Gene Stratton (1S6S-1924), Am¬ 
erican novelist, was bom in Wabash co., 
Indiana. Her best-known books were Freckles 
(1904), which was very popular; A Girl of the 
Limberlost (1909) ; and Michael O s HaUoran 

(1915). 

Porter, Horace (1837-1921), American 
soldier and diplomat, son of David R. Porter, 
governor of Pennsylvania, was born in Hunt¬ 
ingdon, Pa. He was with the Army of the 
Cumberland in the Chickamauga and Chat¬ 
tanooga campaigns, and was on the staff of 
General Grant during the campaigns of 1864-5 
in Virginia. General Porter was Assistant Sec¬ 
retary of War and private secretary to General 
Grant during his first administration, and sub¬ 
sequently raised the funds for the building of 
Grant’s Tomb in New York City. He was 
ambassador to France from 1S97 to 1905. 

As the result of a personal investigation, 
while ambassador, which resulted in locating 
the burial place of John Paul Jones, he super¬ 
vised in 1906, under commission of the United 
States Government, the transfer of the remains 
from Paris to Annapolis, Md. He was a dele¬ 
gate to The Hague Peace Conference in 1907. 

Porter, Jane (1776-1850), English, novel¬ 
ist, was born at Durham. In 1803 she pub¬ 
lished Thaddeus of Warsaw , following it in 
1810 with The Scottish . Chiefs . Both were 
enormously successful. 

Porter, Noah (1811-92), American edu¬ 
cator and writer on philosophy, was born at 
Farmington, Conn. He filled Congregational 
pastorates at New Milford, Conn., and Spring- 
field, Mass., from 1836 to 1846, and then ac¬ 
cepted the chair of moral philosophy and 
metaphysics at Yale, which he continued to 
hold after succeeding to the presidency of the 
college in 1871. He retired from both offices 
in 1886. During his administration the modern 
elective system was introduced at Yale; and 


Port Huron 


during this period the material prosperity of 
the college was very marked. 

Porter, Peter Bue! (1773-1844), Ameri¬ 
can soldier, was born in Salisbury, Conn. He 
was elected (1809-13) to the eleventh and 
twelfth Congresses. In Congress he played a 
prominent part in bringing on the War of 
1S12; served with distinction at Chippewa* 
Lundy’s Lane, and the defence of Fort Erie; 
was for a short time attorne}' r -general of New 
York; was one of the commission which ex¬ 
plored the route for the Erie Canal; and in 
1S28-9 was Secretary of War under John 
Quincy Adams. 

Porter, Robert Percival (1852-1917), 
American journalist and statistician, born in 
Norfolk, England. He came to the United 
States in 1867, and in 1872 joined the staff of 
the Chicago Inter-Ocean, devoting himself to 
economic questions. He was on the editorial 
staff of the New York Tribune and the Phila¬ 
delphia Press (1884-7). He was superintendent 
of the Eleventh Census (1890-4), and special 
fiscal and tariff commissioner to Cuba and 
Porto Rico under President McKinley. He 
joined the staff of the London Times as editor 
of the engineering supplement (1904), prin¬ 
cipal correspondent for North America (1906), 
and editor of the South American and Japan¬ 
ese supplements (1909-10). 

■Porter, Sidney (1862-1910), American 
author, better known under the pseudonym 
‘0. Henry/ was bom in Greensboro, N. C., 
and was educated in private schools in Texas. 
He wrote for the Houston Post, and became 
editor and publisher of the Iconoclast , later 
the Rolling Stone, in Austin. On the failure 
of this enterprise, he went to New York and 
engaged in literary work, contributing largely 
to magazines and newspapers. His stories, 
which have attained wide popularity, show 
first-hand acquaintance and sympathy with 
the life of the poor in New. York City, com¬ 
bined with lively humor. Among his published 
works are Cabbages and Kings (1905); Four 
Million (1906); Trimmed Lamp (1907) ; 
Voice of the City ( 1908 ); Roads of Destiny 

(1909)* 

Port Hope, chief town .and port of entry, 
Durham co., Ontario, Canada, on the north 
shore of Lake Ontario. The town has a fine 
harbor, with steamship connections with the 
principal, lake ports.. .There is a good trade In 
grain and lumber. Fishing is carried on by 
a large fleet; p. 6,000. 

Port Huron, city, Michigan, county seat oi 
St. Clair co., on Lake Huron, at the mouth oi 





Portion 


3794 


the St. Clair River. It is connected with Chi¬ 
cago, Detroit, and other ports by steamer, 
and is opposite Sarnia, Ont, with which it is 
connected by ferry and a railroad tunnel under 
the St. Clair River. The city is well known as 
a summer resort, and has mineral springs. 

Port Huron is a port of entry on the Great 
Lakes, with a deep river channel. It is an im¬ 
portant manufacturing and commercial center. 
It is the site of old Fort Joseph, which was 
built in 1686. It was settled in 1790, and in 
1814 the U. S. Government erected Fort Gra¬ 
tiot here; p. 32,759. 

Portion, in law, is a provision of a sub¬ 
stantial character made by a father for his 
children—by marriage settlement, or the pur¬ 
chase of a business. 

Port Jervis, city, Orange co., New York, 
at the Junction of the Delaware and Nave- 
sink Rivers; 88 m. n.w. of New York City. 
The many picturesque waterfalls, mountains, 
and general scenic beauty have made the 
place a popular summer resort. Tri-States 
Rock, just s. of the village, marks the inter¬ 
section of the boundary lines of New York, 
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; p. 9,749. 

Portland, largest city and chief seaport of 
Maine, county seat of Cumberland co., on 
Casco Bay, has direct steamship service with 
Boston, New York, St. John, N. B., and Port¬ 
land, Ore., and intermediate points, and is tin- 
winter port for several trans-Atlantic lines. 
The deep and spacious harbor is one of the 
best on the coast, and is protected by exten¬ 
sive modern defences. It has a 35-foot channel 
at mean low tide, from ocean to clocks. The 
city is situated on an elevated peninsula, and 
occupies an area of 18 sq. m. The eastern end, 
Munjoy Hill, is encircled by the Eastern 
Promenade, which commands a superb view of 
Casco. Bay, with its numerous.islands, many 
of which are popular summer resorts. The 
Longfellow house (1785), in which the poet 
lived, is now part of the Maine Historical So¬ 
ciety’s library. Portland has an, extensive 
coastwise trade, and commerce with Europe 
and the West Indies. There are also impor¬ 
tant fishing interests, and some shipbuilding. 

The first permanent settlement was made 
by the English in 1632V. During the American 
Revolution the town was bombarded and 
partly burned by the British. In 1786 it was 
incorporated under its present name; p. 
73,643. 

Portland, largest city of Oregon, and coun¬ 
ty seat of Multnomah co., is situated on the 
Willamette River, 12 m. above its junction 
with the Columbia, at the terminus of the 


Portland. 

Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, the 
Southern Pacific, the Union Pacific, the Ca¬ 
nadian Pacific Railroads. Located at the head 
of deep water navigation on the Columbia 
River system, the city has regular water com¬ 
munication with Puget Sound, Atlantic and 
Pacific Coast: ports, South America, British 
Columbia, Alaska, Europe and the Orient. Its 
fine fresh water harbor is accessible for large 
ocean-going steamers at all times, and 27 
ocean and coastwise steamship lines and 14 
river lines run from the port. The climate 
is mild and equable; the summers are cool 
and comfortable, and the winters moderate, 
with but little snow. Portland covers an area 
of 66-36 sq. m., and is built on slopes which 
rise gradually from either bank of the river. 
The main business and industrial section lies 
on the w. side, and the residential distict on 
the <\, traffic between the two being served by 
bridges and ferries. Council Crest, in the 
western part, commands an impressive view 
of the fertile river valleys, with the snow¬ 
capped peaks of Mounts Hood, Adams, Rain¬ 
ier, St. Ileh'n, and Jefferson towering on the 
horizon. The Columbia River Highway, which 
posses through Portland, reaches w. to the 
Pacific and e. to Central Oregon, and connects 
with the Old Oregon "frail in Eastern Oregon. 
A National Forest. Park parallels the Highway 
between the city and Hood River and the 
Highway pierces tin* heretofore inaccessible 
gorge of the Columbia River. Noteworthy 
edifices of Portland are the Custom House, 
Post Office, and Federal Court Building, each 
occupying an entire city block, the City Hall, 
Union Depot, County Court House, Museum 
of Art, and Northwestern Industrial Exposi¬ 
tion and Chamber of Commerce Building. The 
city has about 150 churches. Educational in¬ 
stitutions include the department of medicine 
of the University of Oregon, Reed College, the 
North Pacific College of Dentistry and Phar¬ 
macy, St. Helen’s School for Girls, St. Mi¬ 
chael’s College, Hill Military Academy, and 
Columbia University (Roman Catholic). 

I he leading industries are lumber and tim¬ 
ber manufactures, printing and publishing, 
fruit and vegetable canning and dehydration, 
foundries and machine shops, ship-building, 
bakeries, butter, cheese, and condensed milk 
factories, copper, tin, and sheet iron products, 
woolen and worsted mills, leather goods, flour 
and grist mills, confectionery, men’s clothing, 
and slaughtering and meat packing. The city 
has also many mercantile houses, and bank¬ 
ing institutions. Portland is the leading lum¬ 
ber exporting port in the world, and one of 



Portland 


3795 


Port Louis 


the leading wheat ports of the United States, hydraulic cement was developed between 1756 
The population of Portland is 3 ^ 5 > 394 - It and 1S24. Portland cement is a fine powder 
was 821 in 1850, 8,293 in 1870, 46,385 in 1890, of dark gray to greenish color, weighing about 
207,21:4 in 1910. Since 1912 Portland has been 90-100 lbs. per cubic foot (packed in bags of 
governed by a board of five commissioners 94 lbs.), and of specific gravity (weighed in 
(one acting as mayor), elected by popular oil) from 2.9 to 3.2. It does not deteriorate 
vote for four years on an alternating basis, by storage, if kept dry. Mixed with about 
Portland was founded in 1845 by A. L. Love- 25 to 30 per cent, of water, it forms a smooth 
joy and T. W. Pettygrove, New England real paste which by mixing with one to three 
estate men, who named it after Portland, Me. times its bulk of sand becomes cement mortar. 
It was chartered as a city in 1851. The Lewis Mortar mixed with two to three times its bulk 
and Clark Centennial Exposition was held of gravel or broken stone becomes concrete, 
here in 1905. by far the most important use of Portland 

Portland Canal, an inlet of British Co- cement. In final consistency, mortar or con- 


iumbia which stretches from Dixon Entrance < crete is like a hard limestone or trap, and in 



Portland, Oregon: The Gorge of the Columbia as seen from the Columbia River Highway . 


of Hecate ’Strait in a northwesterly direction both tensile and crushing strength it is equal 
for about 80 m., and which opens into the to good specimens of best stone. In this stone- 
Pacific at lat. 55 0 25' n. The Alaskan boun- forming powder lies the entire value of Port- 
dary arbitrators decreed in 1903 that the land cement. In American manufacture, the 
boundary line should run from Cape Mur- cement is burned in rotary kilns, which are 
zon, the southern extremity of Prince of horizontal, slightly inclined steel cylinders 6 
Wales Island, up Portland Canal, leaving the ft. in diameter,. 60 to 150 ft. long, lined with 
islands Wales and Pearse within the British refractories, rotated by power, having a flame 
limits. fed by pulverized coal blowm in at the lower 

Portland Cement, one of the general end, and the cement mixture fed in at the 
class of cements second only to steel in im~ other or chimney end. This machine has a 
portance as an engineering material, is an ar- large capacity, and is economical of labor 
tificial product similar to natural (Roman, and fuel. The largest amount of Portland ce- 
Rosendale) cements, but superior to them in ment is made in the United States. Eastern 
strength. Portland cement is produced by Pennsylvania was the original center of man- 
mixing finely pulverized limestone (or chalk ufacture, and is still the largest producer; but 
or marl) and clay (or shale), in proportions cement plants now exist in nearly every State, 
of about 75 to 25; grinding them together; See Cement; Concrete. 
then burning (clinkering) the mixture at very Port Louis, the capital and principal port 
high heat; and lastly, grinding the resulting of the British colony of Mauritius, is situated 
slag (clinker) to an impalpable powder. The on an excellent harbor on the n.w. coast. It 
■%ct that such a process produces a valuable is' defended by 'forts; is a. coaling station of' 







Port Natal 


3796 


Porto 


the British navy; and has barracks and mili¬ 
tary storehouses. There are three graving 
docks beside the harbor, through which all the 
commerce of Mauritius passes. The city con¬ 
tains a Protestant and a Roman Catholic ca¬ 
thedral, royal college, observatory, and botan¬ 
ical gardens; p. 50,000. 

Port Natal, South Africa. See Durban. 

Porto Alegre, capital of the state of Rio 
Grande do Sul, Brazil, stands near the 11. end 
of Lagoa clos Patos (‘Lake of Ducks’). It is 
favorably situated at the convergence of five 
navigable rivers, and is connected with the 
bar of Rio Grande do Sul by the Lagoa dos 
Patos. Extensive harbor improvements make 
It accessible for large vessels. The city is 
laid out on modern lines, with well-built 
streets and large squares. Porto Alegre is 
the principal shipping point of Northern Rio 
Grande do Sul, the export trade amounting 
to $1,500,000 annually, and the import trade 
to $11,000,000; p. 110,000. 

Port of Spain, chief town and port of 
Trinidad, West Indies. It has wide thorough¬ 
fares and handsome buildings, including a 
royal college, governor’s house, and Protes¬ 
tant and Roman Catholic churches. In ac¬ 
tive trade it has supplanted St. Thomas, and 
numerous lines of ocean .steamers call regu¬ 
larly ; p. 64,000. 

Portola, Gaspar de, Spanish pioneer, who 
in 1769, with a small company, travelled from 
Mexico through the hitherto unexplored re¬ 
gions of. California, and discovered the Bay 
of San Francisco. He founded a number of 
settlements, and became the first governor of 
California. In 1909 a commemorative pageant 
was held in San Francisco. 

Porto Maurizio, prov., Italy, bounded on 
the e. by Genoa, s. by the Mediterranean, 
and w..by France. It is mountainous through¬ 
out, belonging to the Maritime Alps. Fruit, 
wine, and olive oil are produced, and fresh-cut 
.flowers are exported, especially from San 
Remo. Area, 455 sq. m.; p. 160,000. 

Porto. Maurizio,. town, capital of Porto 
Maurizio province, picturesquely situated on a 
promontory. Surrounded by dense olive 
groves, the town is a favorite winter resort. 
It has a well-sheltered harbor, and a brisk 
trade in olive oil; p. 8,000. 

Porto Novo, seaport, India, in South Ar~ 
cot, Madras, on the Coromandel coast; 145 
m. s. of Madras by rail. Here on July 1, 
1781, Sir Eyre Coote defeated Haider All. 

Porto Rico (Spanish Puerto Rico), an is¬ 
land belonging to the United States, one of the 


West Indies and the easternmost and smallest 
of the Greater Antilles. It lies 1,000 111. e, of 
Key West, and 75 m. e. of Haiti; total area 
of 3,435 sq. m. The coast line is compara¬ 
tively smooth, and extends for a distance of 
360 m. During the winter the wind often 
blows with such violence on the 11. coast that 
anchorage is dangerous, except in the port of 
San Juan. The entire surface of the island, 
save for a narrow coastal plain on the n. and 
a somewhat wider plain on the s., is a mass of 
mountains, ridges, hills, and peaks interspersed 
with deep valleys, high tablelands, precipitous 
canyons or ravines, and a few small, interior 
plains. Several large rivers and numerous 
smaller streams flow from the central moun¬ 
tain range. None of the rivers is navigable for 
any great distance, but they are important 
sources of irrigation. The climate is equable 
and comparatively healthful. The mineral re¬ 
sources of the island are practically unexplored 
although the existence of extensive deposits 
of valuable ores b known. 

Porto Rico is notable for the beauty and 
brilliancy of its flora, though the abundant 
forests which formerly clothed the mountain 
slopes have been destroyed in all but a few 
sections, held by the government as forest 
reserves. Porto Rico is essentially an agri¬ 
cultural country, and practically the entire 
population is engaged in agriculture or allied 
industries. To supply the water needed for 
crops, particularly for sugar cane, the chief 
product of the southern coast, extensive irri¬ 
gation is required. 

The staple agricultural products are sugar, 
coffee, tobacco, and fruits. Since the Ameri¬ 
can occupation, the cultivation of citrus fruits 
and pineapples has made great progress, and 
there are now several thousand acres of fine 
orange and grapefruit groves in bearing, and 
a lesser number of acres devoted to pine¬ 
apples. 

M an ujacl urcs .—Mann factu ring is con¬ 
cerned chiefly with the products of agricul¬ 
ture. 

Transportation.*— Communication is dif¬ 
ficult, owing to the mountainous configura¬ 
tion of the interior, but transportation facili¬ 
ties are excellent. The population of the 
island, according to the U. S. Census of 1940, 
is 1,869,2.!$. San Juan, the capital and chief 
city, has a population of 169,247. 

Educa The Porto Rican school sys¬ 
tem is founded on American principles and 
comprises rural, elementary graded, continu¬ 
ation and high schools, as well as an excel- 



Porto 


3797 


Portrait 


lent university. School affairs are in charge 
cf a centralized Department of Education. 

Government ,—The government of Porto 
Rico is based upon the 'Organic Act’ passed 
by the U. S. Congress in 1917 and known as 
the 'Jones Act/ 'which conferred American 
citizenship upon the Porto Ricans and gave 
them a new system of government. Under 
its provisions the executive authority is vest¬ 
ed in a governor appointed by the President 
of the United States. The six department 
heads form a council to the governor, known 
as the Executive Council. The legislature 
consists of two elective houses—the Senate 
of 19 members (2 from each of the seven 
senatorial districts and five members at 
large), and the House of Representatives of 
39 members (1 from each of the 33 repre¬ 
sentative districts and four members elected 
at large). Porto Rico has, as its representa¬ 
tive in the Congress of the United States, a 
Resident Commissioner elected by the people. 

The judicial system comprises a supreme 
court, eight districts, thirty-five municipal, 
and various inferior courts. Under the Or¬ 
ganic Act there is also provided The District 
Court of the United States for Porto Rico, 5 
which has jurisdiction over all cases cog¬ 
nizable in the district courts of the United 
States. The chief justice and four associate 
justices of the supreme court, and the judge, 
together with certain other officials of the 
United States District Court, are appointed 
by the president, while the officials of the 
other courts are named by the governor. 
There are three political parties, the Union¬ 
ists, who favor independence; the Republi¬ 
cans, who advocate statehood; and the So¬ 
cialists. 

Porto Rico was discovered in 1493 by Co¬ 
lumbus, although it was not occupied until 
1508, when Ponce de Leon subdued the In¬ 
dians and founded the city of San Juan. An 
autocratic system of government was estab¬ 
lished by the early Spanish settlers, and the 
natives, subjected to a rigorous system of 
forced labor, diminished so greatly in num¬ 
bers that negro slave labor was introduced 
about 1775. In 1869 Porto Rico was made a 
Spanish province; in 1873 slavery was abol¬ 
ished; and in 1897 an autonomous form of 
government was granted. Before this could 
be put into effect, however, the United States 
declared war on Spain. As a result of these 
operations Porto Rico was ceded to the 
United States by the Treaty of Paris, signed 
on Dec. 10, 1898. Since the American occu- 
nation, the cities have provided pure water 


supplies and modern methods of sewage dis¬ 
posal; roads have been built; yellow fever 
and smallpox have been eliminated; bubonic 
plague has been controlled; and an active 
campaign has been waged against hookworm. 
Education has been fostered and illiteracy 
greatly reduced, especially in the cities, in 
Sept., 192S, Porto Rico was visited by a ter¬ 
rific hurricane with a wind which attained a 
velocity of 150 miles. \'ast groves of palm 
and fruit trees were uprooted, buildings were 
overturned, crops were totally destroyed and 
many lives were lost. During the persistent 
economic depression Porto Rico suffered from 
continuing low wage scales. There was con¬ 
siderable agitation for admission to the Union, 
and some sentiment for independence. In 
April, 1934, the Insular Legislature adopted 
a resolution petitioning Congress to grant 
Statehood with a large measure of autonomy. 

A bill was introduced into the Senate in 
1936, calling for a popular referendum on in¬ 
dependence, a transitional commonwealth, 
and the ending of American financial aid, 
but it was not enthusiastically received on 
the island, and the bill was not pressed. 

Porto Rico, University of, a co-educa- 
tional institution of higher learning located 
in Rio Piedras, Porto Rico. It was created 
by Act of the Legislature, March 12, 1903. 

Portrait Painting. Portraiture absolute 
would be a life-size colored statue, and the 
closest actual approach to this is the wax 
figure. But the difficulties and unsatisfactori¬ 
ness of this form, both artistic and practical, 
are prohibitive, and it has never borne any 
rank in art. Uncolored portrait statuary has 
engaged far abler hands, and in ancient 
Egypt and imperial Rome the portrait bust 
was a favorite, and rose to a high level of 
merit; but its limitations are too great to 
compete with painting. 

The present art is entirely modern. The 
early Egyptian form was conventional fig¬ 
ures in flat tints on mummy cases; later pan¬ 
els of true and expressive portraiture prove 
that it was not for lack of ability. Greece 
of the fifth and fourth centuries b.c. had por¬ 
trait art as famous, and therefore beyond 
doubt as masterly, as any other branch; but 
no works survive. With Greek freedom went 
its art ; Rome cared little for it, and mostly 
copied the Greek poorly; early Christianity 
was against art, and Lter took it up only to 
sink it to Byzantine conventionalism. 

The living system begins with Giotto 
(1266-1337), who places some real portraits, 
including Dante, among his ‘citizens. 5 Ma 





Portrait 


3798 


Portrait 


saccio (1401-28) made this a regular prac¬ 
tice, perhaps finding real faces easier than 
fancy ones; most of the great fifteenth-cen¬ 
tury masters did likewise, as Filippo Lippi, 
Benozzo Oozzoli, and above all Ghirlandajo 
(1449-94), whose frescoes are a gallery of 
Florentine aristocracy. Paul Veronese (1528- 
88) continued the practice. 

The separate individual portrait, compris¬ 
ing the picture’s sole interest, certainly fur¬ 
nished commissions at least by the early 14th 
century. It was greatly forwarded by the 
new oil paints which also made printing pos¬ 
sible, their invention credited to the Flemish 
Van Eycks, Hubert and Jan. The latter (V. 
1390-1440) was a wonderful portrait artist. 



pictures as mere sketchy suggestions. The 
German school is next in time. Its foremost 
name is Hans Holbein (1497-1543), who 
went to England in 1526, and became court 
painter to Henry vnx The Dutch school in 
average merit stands perhaps at the very 
head. The first great name is Frans Hals 
(1580-1600), who showed amazing skill in 
that most difficult form, the huge portrait 
groups so favored, in Holland, whose mem¬ 
bers often clubbed on shares for cost of in¬ 
clusion. Van der Heist (1615-70) was an¬ 
other master in this hind. But the chief 
name, and one of the greatest of all time, is 
Rembrandt (1606-60) ; he and Velasquez 
are perhaps the supreme portraitists of the 



Com posilr Pori rails. 

Left, Ten members of a did); Right, 49 members of college class. 


the greatest in the Flemish school before or 
with Van Dyck. 

Nearly contemporary was the Italian por¬ 
traitist Jacopo Bellini (c. 1400-66), But the 
first great pioneer of advance on the art side 
was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), whose 
treatment. of. shade gave his figures a new 
effect of roundness; his work is very scant, 
however, the most famous the Mona Lisa. 
Raphael (1483-1520) is a still greater name; 
but chief of all was Titian (1477-?x576), 
who also, gave more attention to portraits 
than either. Even he has other claims to re¬ 
membrance. Of almost pure portrait artists, 
with little note beyond, the first important 
name is G. B. Moroni (1525-78). All these 
painted all parts with equal care: the first 
innovator was the vehement idea-ridden Tin¬ 
toretto (1518-94), the founder of ‘impres¬ 
sionism,’ who deliberately left parts of bis 


world. After Holbein, the greatest was the 
Fleming Van Dyck ( 1590-164 1 ) , the most 
influentiaf artist ever in England, and some 
of his influence ill. His direct successors were 
Germans, Peter Lely and Godfrey Knellcr; 
clever craftsmen without genius. Suddenly, 
a century after Van Dyck’s death, there arose 
a splendid native school headed by three 
great painters, contemporaries practically 
through lift;: Joshua Reynolds (1723-92), 
Thomas Gainsborough (1727-88), and 
George Romney (1754-1802). The most 
powerful direct inheritor of Reynolds’ style 
was Henry Raeburn (1756-1823), unfortu¬ 
nately scant of training, provincial, and with 
some bad conventions; the most popular 
was Thomas Lawrence, whose name does not 
grow. 

The great reformer of English portraiture 
was John Millais (1829-96), who entirely dis- 





Portraits 


3799 


Portsmouth 


carded the factory plan and painted all parts' 
himself from the sitters. All since have fol¬ 
lowed his example. He was of the Pre- 
Raphaelite body, but later developed a 
wholly original style quite without manner¬ 
isms. Frank Holl (1S45-8S), with a nar¬ 
rower range and more conventions, had great 
power and character. George Frederick Watts 
(1S17-1904) was a poetic and intellectual 
artist who sought to express ideas and emo¬ 
tions, despised realism, and slighted tech¬ 
nique. 

By far the greatest names in recent por¬ 
trait art were J. A. M. Whistler and John 
S. Sargent, both American by blood. 

Portraits, Composite, a method of indi¬ 
cating the facial characteristics of a family 
or group of persons, while at the same time 
suppressing the peculiarities of individual 
members. The results are recognized as of 
considerable value to the student of anthro¬ 
pology. One way of obtaining these compo¬ 
site portraits is to take full-face photographs 
of each person composing the group, of such 
a uniform size that two fixed horizontal lines 
pass, one through the inner angle of the eyes, 
the other through the line dividing the lips, 
while a third fixed perpendicular line equally 
divides the nose. By this means the photo¬ 
graphs are brought approximately to the 
same size, and corresponding portions of the 
various faces occupy similar positions. 

Port Royal, town, Beaufort co., South 
Carolina. Port Royal has often figured in 
American history. In 1665 the forces of the 
Spanish Menendez de Aviles massacred a 
band of French Huguenots who had erected 
a fort in the neighborhood during the pre¬ 
ceding year. At the beginning of the Civil 
War, Confederate troops under Gen. Thomas 
F. Drayton blocked the entrance to Port 
Royal Sound by building Forts Walker and 
Beauregard. ; p. 34 2 * 

Port Royal, fortified town at the entrance 
to Kingston harbor, Jamaica, West Indies. It 
has a British naval dockyard, military hos¬ 
pital, barracks, and arsenal. On March 11, 
1911, the navy yard was wiped out by a de¬ 
structive fire. 

Port-Royal des Champs, a celebrated 
convent of Cistercian nuns, founded in 1204, 
and originally situated about 8 m. s.w. of Ver¬ 
sailles. The community removed to Paris in 
1626, and In 1663 to Port-Royal de Paris, 
and became devoted to the use of a lay com¬ 
munity. Port-Royal is best known for its 
adhesion to the Jansenist movement. 

Port Said, town and seaport at the western 


entrance to the Suez Canal, on a strip of land 
between Lake Menzaleh and the Mediter¬ 
ranean, owes its origin (in i860) to the Suez 
Canal, being named for Said Pasha, its pro¬ 
moter. A statue of De Lesseps, the con¬ 
structor of the canal, stands on the break¬ 
water, and there is a lighthouse in the town, 
visible 24 m. at sea. Port Said is the resi¬ 
dence of the governor-general of the canal. 
It is one of the largest coaling stations in the 
world; p. 100,899. 

Portsmouth, city and seaport, Hampshire, 
England; 18 m. s.e. of Southampton. It has 
the greatest arsenal and is the most strongly 
fortified place in the United Kingdom. The 
younger Brunei, Charles Dickens, Sir Walter 
Besant, and John Pounds, a pioneer in ragged 
school work, were natives of Portsmouth. 
The house in which Dickens was bom is kept 
as a Dickens museum; p. 249,248. 

Portsmouth, city, New Hampshire, Rock¬ 
ingham co., on the Piscataqua River. It is 
the only seaport in the State, and the harbor, 
deep, and one of the best on the Atlantic 
Coast, is a port of entry. The town is the 
birthplace of Thomas Bailey Aldrich and 
James T. Fields, and was the home of Daniel 
Webster. 

The industrial life of Portsmouth is cen¬ 
tered in the United States Navy Yard located 
on an island in the Piscataqua River. Here 
the famous Rear sage was outfitted before 
sailing in quest of the Alabama. In the Navy 
Yard is the building-in which the peace con¬ 
ference between Japan and Russia was held 
and the treaty of Sept., 1905, signed (see 
Russo-Japanese War) ; p. 14,821. 

Portsmouth, city, Ohio, county seat of 
Scioto co., on the Ohio River, at its junction 
with the Scioto River. It is an important 
commercial and manufacturing centre, its 
industrial establishments including iron foun¬ 
dries, shoe factories, brick yards, railroad 
terminals. The surrounding country is rich 
in agricultural products, and coal, fire-clay, 
and sandstone are found in the vicinity; p. 
40,466. 

Portsmouth, city and seaport, Virginia, 
formerly in Norfolk co., but now independ¬ 
ent, on the Elizabeth River, Hampton Roads, 
opposite Norfolk. Portsmouth is a manufac¬ 
turing city of some importance. It has a 
shipbuilding plant, the shops of the Seaboard 
Air Line, and manufactures of fertilizers, hos¬ 
iery, lumber, cotton, oil products, copper, 
paper boxes, berry crates, and pickles. The 
surrounding country is one of the richest 
trucking districts in the South, supplying 




Port Townsend 


3800 


Portugal 


Northern markets with fruit, berries, and 
early vegetables; p. 5 o> 745 * 

Port Townsend, city, Washington, county 
seat of Jefferson co., is situated on Puget 
Sound, at its junction with the Strait of Juan 
cle Fuca. Three forts, Flagler, Casey, and 
Worden, equipped with the best modern 
armament, guard the harbor, which is one 
of the finest in the world. There is trade in 
grain, fish, farm and dairy products, live¬ 
stock, lumber, and oil. The surrounding dis¬ 
trict is heavily timbered and rich in agri¬ 
cultural produce. Copper, lime, coal, iron, 
and oil are found in the neighborhood; p. 
4,683. 

Portugal, a small country (republic) on 
the w. side of the Iberian peninsula. Its area 
is 35,490 sq. m., including Madeira and the 
Azores, which form an integral part of the 
territory. 

The surface is divided, by the two great 
rivers which rise in Spain and fall into the 
Atlantic on the Portuguese coast—the Tagus 
and the Douro—into three well-marked re¬ 
gions. Portugal has a coast line of over 450 m. 
and there are several good harbors, the most 
important being Lisbon, Oporto, Sctubal, 
Lagos, and Villa Nova. While the mineral 
wealth of Portugal is considerable, lack of 
coal and poor transportation facilities have 
prevented the development of valuable 
mines. The chief minerals' found are copper, 
iron pyrites, lead, iron, tin, coal, wolfram, 
and sulphur. Large quantities of sea-salt are 
exported. 

Agriculture, Stock Raising, Fisheries .— 
Agriculture is in a backward state, although 
it is the chief industry of the people. Cattle¬ 
raising is carried on extensively in the north, 
and sheep, goats, and swine are raised in the 
central and southern parts, lush are abund¬ 
ant in the rivers and coastal waters, and sar¬ 
dines and tunny fish are largely exported. 

Mamif act urcs.^Miim A n.ctwiivj, is in a low 
state of development, due chiefly to lack of 
coal and raw material, and to poor transpor¬ 
tation facilities. The large majority of the 
population is Roman Catholic. Education is 
poorly organized, and the number of illiter¬ 
ates large. Instruction is divided into three 
classes, primary, secondary, and higher or 
special. 

The principal Portuguese colonies are Goa, 
Macao, and Timor (part) in Asia; and Cape 
Verde Islands, Portuguese Guinea, the islands 
of Sao Thome and Principe, Angola, and 
Portuguese East Africa in Africa—the total 


area being about 936,264 sq. m. and the total 
population 6,826 ,000. 

Up to 1910 Portugal was a constitutional 
monarchy, the last king being Manuel 11. who 
succeeded to the throne on the assassination 
of his father and elder brother in 1908. On 
Oct. 5, njio, after a diort revolution, a re¬ 
public was proclaimed, with Theophile Braga 
as provisional president, and in 1911 a new 
constitution was adopted. There are two 
chambers: the National Council with 164 
members elected by direct suffrage for three 
years, and the Second or Upper Chamber, 
with 71 members, elected by the Municipal 
Councils ami renewable, half at a time, every 
three years. The two chambers elect the 
president for four \ears; and he is ineligible 
for re-election. The ’Mini-dry is appointed by 
the president and is responsible to Parlia¬ 
ment . Cap., Lisbon. The early history of 
Portugal is pretty nearly that of the penin¬ 
sula as a whole. The dominant power was 
Carthage-, from the third century me. until 
the country was subjugated by Rome in 
138-72 iu\ In the fifth century a.d. the pen¬ 
insula was overrun by the Alans and Suevi, 
and later by the Visigoths, and was con¬ 
quered by the Arabs in 711. Ferdinand of 
Castile (10.33-65) recovered most of the 
country from them. Before the death of the 
wise King John, his fourth son, Henry the 
Navigator (born 1393), had made his coun¬ 
try celebrated, not only by the capture of 
Ceuta, on the n. coast of Africa, in 1415, but 
by the geographical discoveries which he en¬ 
couraged, and owing to which the Portu¬ 
guese possessions were enormously increased. 
Bv 144 2 Madeira and the Azores were dis¬ 
covered. Trade with the interior of Africa 
rapidly increased, and the traffic in slaves be¬ 
came immensely profitable to Portugal. In 
the reign of John ir. (1481-95), Bartholo¬ 
mew Diaz (1486) rounded the Cape of Good 
Hope, and discovered a new route to India, 
and under his successor, Manuel (1495- 
152!), Vasco de Gama achieved the passage 
by sea to India (1497), and Portuguese sail¬ 
ors reached Brazil (1500). When John in. 
(1521-7) ascended the throne, Portugal was 
at the height, of its fame and prosperity. 
But the introduction of the Inquisition, with 
1 the persecution and expulsion of the Jews, 
, checked the development of the country. 
After the treaty of Fontainebleau, Napoleon, 
in order to fovea; Portugal to join his Conti¬ 
nental System, sent Junot to take Lisbon. 
Junot occupied the country, and the Regent 




Portugal 

John sailed with all the royal family to Bra¬ 
zil (1807). The consequent French annexation 
of Portugal was followed in 1808 by the es¬ 
tablishment of Joseph Bonaparte at Madrid 
as king of Spain. But the Spanish people rose, 
and, Britain sent a force under Arthur 
Wellesley to Portugal in 1808. Thus opened 
the Peninsular War, which continued till 
1814. 

For years the throne of Portugal had been 
tottering. Not even the riches of Portugal’s 
colonial possessions could offset the corrup¬ 
tion at home. A strong anti-clerical feeling 
existed, and Manuel exhibited pro-clerical 
sympathies. The murder of Professor Bom- 
barda, a well-known Republican and anti¬ 
clerical leader, led to open insurrection and 
on Oct. 4, 1910, Manuel and the Queen 
Mother fled, first to Gibraltar, then to Eng¬ 
land ; the soldiers pulled down the royal flag, 
and warships bombarded the royal palace. 
On Oct. 5 Theophile Braga was chosen pro¬ 
visional president of the Republic. On Oct. 
9 Cardinal Netto and about 5,000 monks and 
nuns were expelled from the country, taking 
refuge in Spain. On Oct. 18, the Govern¬ 
ment issued a decree of exile against the Bia- 
ganza dynasty. In 191.1 a new constitution, 
modelled somewhat upon that of France, 
was adopted. 

The following years, 1920-26, were char¬ 
acterized by continued unrest and disorder. 
Ministry succeeded ministry. Riots and bomb 
throwing were a frequent occurrence. In 
1926 a dictatorship was established by Gen. 
Carmona, who was same year chosen Pres¬ 
ident, which office he has held ever since, 
having been several times re-elected. Por¬ 
tugal’s present constitution was adopted in 
1934. The legislature is bicameral. There is 
also a Council of State, a Council of National 
Defense and a Council of the Colonial Em¬ 
pire. The Premier is given broad powers. 
Although Portugal strove to preserve her 
neutrality, the seizure of Portuguese Timor by 
the Japanese in 1942 threatened to draw her 
into World War II on the side of the Allies. 

Portugal: Language and Literature— 
With the conquest of Southern Spain by Fer¬ 
dinand in. in the 13th century, and the adop¬ 
tion by Alfonso x. of the Mozarabic dialect, 
now called Castilian, as the literary language 
of his realm, the struggle of the Peninsular 
tongues commenced. Of these, Catalan, Val- 
encian, Galician, and Portuguese managed to 
hold their own in their respective territories 
against the newer Castilian speech, which, 
from the end of the 13th century, dominated 


Portuguese 

the rest of the Peninsula. It is not too much 
to say that Diniz did for Portuguese lan¬ 
guage and letters what Alfonso the Learned 
did for Spain. He found a chaotic dialect, 
and he left a cultured language. For the next 
hundred years poetry flourished in Portugal. 
It was the poet Sa de Miranda (b. 1495) who 
did most to modernize Portuguese poetry and 
drama, though his excessive love for classic 
and Spanish forms led him to introduce many 
incorrect idioms. The late 15th and 16th 
centuries were the golden age of Portuguese 
literature. As in Spain, the iSth century 
brought to Portugal a loosening of the old 
literary fetters under the great reformer 
Pombal. The wars of the early 19th century 
checked progress; but after 1S53 a great 
historical revival took place, of which the 
leaders were Hercuiano, the Viscount de San- 
tarem, and Rebello da Silva. In poetry and 
belles-lettres the movement was also marked, 
and the poets Almeida Garrett, Castilho, and 
Mendez Leal produced work which will live. 
Portugal has produced of late poets of high 
rank, such as Palmerim and Soares de Passes; 
historians worthy to follow Hercuiano in 
Luz Suriano, Latino Coelho, and Oliveira 
Martins; while novelists of the newer school 
are represented by Ega de Queiros and other 
writers of merit. 

Portuguese East Africa, a dependency 
of Portugal. Known as Mozambique until 
1891, it is now divided into the provinces of 
Mozambique, Zambesia, and Lorenzo Mar¬ 
ques. Total area, about 301,000 sq. m. Around 
Inhambane sugar, tobacco, tea, coffee, rice, 
millet, and beans flourish. The low coast- 
lands produce cocoanut and other palms, in¬ 
digo, tobacco, coffee, and oleaginous plants. 
The higher lands yield timber. Cereals are 
grown in the Zambezi delta and the valley of 
the Busi. On the Lower Zambesi are sugar 
plantations. The chief exports are sugar, 
ores, wax, ivory, maize and raw cotton. In 
1919 the Treaty of Versailles allotted to Por¬ 
tugal the territory s. of the Rovuma, known 
as the Kionga Triangle, formerly a part of 
German East Africa; p. 4,995,750. 

Portuguese Guinea, colony of Portugal, 
on the w. coast of Africa, lying along the At¬ 
lantic, between ii° 40' and 12 0 40' n. lat. It 
consists of the low coast and of the Bissagos 
Archipelago; area, 13,940 sq. m. The princi¬ 
pal products are wax, ivory and hides. The 
capital ’is Bulama and the chief port Bissao; 
p. (1940) 426,009. 

j Portuguese Man-of-War (Pkysalia), a 
‘ genus of Siphonophora. Structurally, it is a 


3801 




colony of polyps, whose members show great the tentacles come into contact with human 
diversity of labor. The colony consists of an skin their stinging cells produce a burning 
air-sac or vesicle, filled with gas, which pro- sensation which in some cases may have seri- 
jects at the surface of the water, and hears ous effects. 

a number of modified polyps on its under Port Wine, a pale red to a very dark red 
side. The commonest species is P. pelagica, or even violet-colored wine, produced from 
whose; air-sac is a brilliant, iridescent blue and special vines grown on the s. and southwest 
whose appendages are both blue and red. If mountain slopes of the Douro valley in Port- 












Poseidon 


3803 


Postal 


ugal, and in northeastern Spain around Cata¬ 
lonia. Port is a rich, heavy wine, of from. iS 
to 25 per cent, alcoholic content, which owes 
its strong characteristics partly to soil, but 
largely to climate. 

Poseidon, in ancient Grecian mythology, 
the god of the sea, was a son of Cronus and 
Rhea, and brother of Zeus and Pluto. He is 
closely connected with the horse, which he is 
said to have created. Earthquakes were at¬ 
tributed to his agency, and he caused, con¬ 
trolled, and calmed the storms of the sea. 

Posen or Poznan, city, Poland, chief tn. 
of the co. of Posen, on the river Warthe; 175 
miles w. of Warsaw. It is a strongly fortified 
town and is industrially important. Since the 
Great War the town has been completely 
transformed from a German to a Polish city. 
Agricultural implements, machinery, liqueurs, 
beer, and cigars are the principal products. 
In 1793 it was annexed to Prussia and at the 
close of the Great War it was restored to 
Poland; p. 269,000. 

Positivism, the school of philosophical 
thought founded by Comte. It was the ulti¬ 
mate aim of Comte’s philosophy to lay the 
foundations of a comprehensive social re¬ 
construction. For Comte himself this work of 
social reorganization was to be completed by 
the institution of a new religious system. But 
into this religious development of Comte’s 
philosophy a number of his disciples, headed 
by Littre, refused to follow him. On this is¬ 
sue the school divided; so that positivism has 
a double meaning, according as we include 
or exclude the religious part of the founder’s 
work. 

Possession, Legal, the relation in which 
a person stands to a thing when the 
law attributes to him the advantages or legal 
incidents of possession, whether he is ap¬ 
parently in physical possession or not. Legal 
possession generally includes physical posses¬ 
sion, but not always ; and physical may exist 
without legal possession. For example, a man 
may leave his house unoccupied to go to 
business, and when he returns find an in¬ 
truder in it, but the owner has not thereby 
lost legal possession, and has the right to 
forcibly eject the trespasser. However, if one 
loses his umbrella, he has lost legal possession 
and he must bring an action to recover it 
from the finder. Possession gives a good title 
to property against all but the true owner— 
a rule which has important consequences in 
connection with lost property, unclaimed 
bank balances, and the like. Under the sta¬ 
tutes of limitation, in most states adverse 


possession of real property for a long period, 
usually twenty years, gives a person absolute 
title. 

Post, George Browne (1837-1913), Am¬ 
erican architect, was born in New York City. 
He engaged in architecture in New York, be¬ 
coming one of the leading architects of his 
day, and the designer of many of the im¬ 
portant buildings of his native city, including 
the original Equitable Building, the Stock 
Exchange, Produce Exchange, Cotton Ex¬ 
change, Pulitzer Building, Western Union 
Building, Mills Building, City College group, 
New York Hospital, and the residence of 
Cornelius Vanderbilt formerly at 57th Street 
and Fifth Avenue. 

Post, Melville Davisson (1871-1930), 
American author and lawyer, was born in 
Harrison County, W. Ya. Among his pub¬ 
lished works are The Corrector of Destinies 
(1909) ; The Gilded Chair■ (1910) ; The 
Sleuth of St. James Square (1920) ; Walker 
of the Secret Service (1925) ; The Man Hun¬ 
ters (1926) ; The Revolt of the Birds (1927) ; 
besides numerous short stories and magazine 
articles. 

Post, Wiley (1899-1935) , round-the-world 
flyer who was killed when his airplane crashed 
near Point Barrow, Alaska, on August 15, 
1935, while on a vacation trip with Will Rog¬ 
ers, the humorist, who also lost his life. On 
June 23, 1931, he and Harold Gatty took off 
from Roosevelt Field, Long Island, on the 
globe-girdling flight which brought them 
fame. They completed the trip in eight days, 
fifteen hours and 51 minutes. Post equipped 
his plane, the Winnie Mae, with a robot pilot 
and made the same trip alone in 1933, lower¬ 
ing the time of the previous flight and estab¬ 
lishing a record for the New York-Berlin leg 
—twenty-five hours and forty-five minutes. 

Postage Stamps, printed labels fixed to 
letters, parcels, or other mailable matter to 
indicate the prepayment of postage. In the 
United States the first stamps were issued by 
individual postmasters at their own expense 
in 1845, but these were superseded in 1847 
by the first Government issue. The manu¬ 
facture of U. S. postage stamps is carried on 
by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. 
The collecting of postage stamps, known as 
Philately or Timbrology, has a wide vogue. 

Postal Savings Banks, a system of sav¬ 
ings banks established by government au¬ 
thority and conducted through the Post Of¬ 
fice Department. Postal savings in the Uni¬ 
ted States date from 1910, when Congress 
authorized the establishment of postal sav- 



Posters 


3804 


Post Office 


ings depository offices, and coraled a board 
of trustees, consist km of die dost master Gen¬ 
eral, the Secretary of the Treason , and the 
Attorney General, with power to de.dgnate 
such post office- a.- dor might select to be 
depository office-, and to have supervision 
and control of the -a me. The Act provides 
that any person of the age of ten years or 
over may, in his or her own name, open an 
account in any postal savings bank deposi¬ 
tory; but no person can have more than one 
account in his or her own right. Accounts 
may be opened by the deposit of a dollar or 
a larger sum in multiples of a dollar, or by 
purchasing a postal savings card for 10 cents 
and affixing thereto, at convenience, nine 
specially prepared p o s t a 1 savings stamps 
costing 10 cents each. In 1941 there were 
about 3,000,000 depositors. 

Posters, advertising sheets of considerable 
size, usually printed and often illustrated, 
and bearing large letters so that when posted 
on a wall, or any similar spot, they may easily 
be read. Poster work in the United States 
had its origin in the old circus and theatrical 
show bills printed from wooden blocks. The 
use of the lithographic stone was introduced 
in the early ’go’s, but it was not until after 
1890 that modern poster work took its rise 
in this country with the development of such 
poster artists as Maxfield Parrish, Louis 
Rhead, Will H. Bradley, Edward Penfielcl, 
Ethel Reed, J. C. Leyendecker, Will H. Low, 
George Wharton Edwards, and others. Post¬ 
ers are not now as noticeable in the United 
States as they were some years ago; but. the 
poster ’character of design is introduced far 
more extensively in advertising and cover 
reproduction, even entering the field of il¬ 
lustration. 

Post Impressionism, a name given to the 
art development following Impressionism and 
representing not a continuation but a reaction 
from the former movement. It combats the 
attitude that art is a matter of imitation, and 
.holds rather that its chief concern is.creation; 
that its aim, as.has been said, is ‘not at illusion, 
but at reality.* Among the acknowledged 
leaders of the movement are Cezanne, former¬ 
ly associated with the Impressionists, Gauguin, 
Van Gogh, and Matisse. Of the various mani¬ 
festations of Post Impressionism the two 
which have attracted the greatest attention are 
Cubism and Futurism. 

Post Mortem, or Autopsy, an examina¬ 
tion after death to ascertain the condition of 
the various parts of the body, to note any 
changes in the organs, and to determine, 


as far as possible, the cause of such changes. 

Post Office, a government service designed 
primarily for the despatch of written com¬ 
munications, but comprising in modern times 
a number of other services, as the transmis¬ 
sion of merchandise and of printed matter, 
postal savings banks, the issue of money or¬ 
ders, and in some countries telegraph and tele¬ 
phone facilities. In America the first step in 
the establishment of a postal system was the 
appointment by the General Court of Massa¬ 
chusetts, in 1639, of an official to take charge 
of the delivery of letters. 

Under the Constitution, a postal service was 
authorized by Congress in 1789, and Samuel 
Osgood became the first Postmaster-General 
of the new station, the office being subordinate 
to the Treasury Department. Seventy-five lo¬ 
cal post offices were in existence at that time, 
and the mails were carried on 1,875 miles of 
road at an annual cost of less than $25,000. In 
1836 the postal service was reorganized on its 
present financial basis. In 1847 the use of 
postage stamps was officially authorized; and 
in the same year the first postal treaty with 
a foreign government was concluded with 
Bremen, then an autonomous German state. 

On the basis of receipts, post offices are di¬ 
vider! into four classes, as follows: first class 
offices, with gross receipts exceeding ,$40,000 
per annum; second class, with receipts from 
$S,qoq to $.jo,ooo; third class, from $1,500 to 
$8,000; and fourth class, less than $1,500. 
Postmasters in the first three classes are ap¬ 
pointed by the President with the advice and 
consent of the Senate. Fourth class postmast¬ 
ers are appointed by the Postmaster-General, 
those receiving annual compensation of $500 
or over being appointed after competitive ex¬ 
amination, and the others on the recommenda¬ 
tion of the post office inspectors after personal 
investigation. Clerks and letter carriers in 
places where free delivery exists, assistant 
postmasters at first and second class offices, 
and all clerical positions at the same offices 
are subject to civil service rules. 

Railway Mail Service.- —M.ail was first car¬ 
ried by rail in 1S34, but the railway mail serv¬ 
ice, providing facilities for the separation and 
distribution of mail on the cars while inmotion, 
dates from 1864, when George B. Armstrong 
of Chicago opened the first railway post of¬ 
fice in the United States on the Chicago and 
Northwestern Railway, from Chicago to Clin¬ 
ton, la. The experiment proving successful, 
the system was rapidly extended to other lines, 
and in 1875 the fast mail service was inaugu¬ 
rated. Air MaiL-~A daily transcontinental air 




Postulate 


3805 


di service is carried on between New York | potheses; and on the other, admitted only"^ 


and San Francisco. Postage is charged on 


the warrant of an objective moral necessity 
We believe in free will, not merely because w< 


wujaj. a xyiKLXdj v^aa iiiaugU- 

rated in cities on a small scale in 1863, and 
was gradually extended until in 1SS7 it was 
made allowable in every city of 10,000 or 
more, or at any post office having a gross rev¬ 
enue of $10,000. Rural free delivery was be¬ 
gun on an experimental scale in 1S96, and has 
been extended continuously among the rural 
population. Postal Rates. —All mailable mat¬ 
ter is divided into four classes, and rates are 
fixed accordingly. First Class Matter consists 
of letters and other matter wholly or partly 
in writing, as well as all matter sealed or other¬ 
wise closed against inspection. 

Second Class Matter embraces all newspa¬ 
pers and other periodical publications fulfill¬ 
ing certain statute requirements and duly en¬ 
tered as second class matter. Third Class 
Matter comprises printed matter other than 
newspapers and periodicals admitted to the 
second class and merchandise not exceeding 8 
ounces in weight. Fourth Class Matter — Par¬ 
cel Post .—Until Jan. 1, 1913, merchandise was 
carried at the rate of 1 cent an ounce, the 
weight limit being 4 pounds. Since that 
date it has been reorganized under parcel 
post regulations. Fourth class matter, un¬ 
der the 1925 regulations, embraces all mat¬ 
ter weighing over eight ounces not included 
in the first, second, or third class, not ex¬ 
ceeding 50 lbs. in weight (70 lbs. in the first, 
second, and third zones), nor greater in size 
than 89 inches in length and girth combined. 

At the head of the U. S. Post Office Depart¬ 
ment is the Postmaster-General. To his office 
are attached the Chief Clerk, Superintendent 
of Post Office Department Buildings, appoint¬ 
ment and disbursing clerks, Solicitor for the 
department, Purchasing Agent, and the di¬ 
vision of post office inspectors under the Chief 
Inspector. There are four assistant postmast- 
ers-general. Closely affiliated with the Post 
Office Department, though an officer of the 
Treasury Department, is the Comptroller for 
the department, in whose office the accounts of 
postmasters are received and audited, and all 
money order accounts are examined. 

Postulate, a term brought into philosoph¬ 
ical use by Kant, who used it to express as¬ 
sumptions implied in morality, but not ca¬ 
pable of theoretical .demonstrations—' viz., the 
existence of free agents, the immortality of 
the soul, and the existence of God as a moral 
governor. By Kant himself these moral postu¬ 
lates were, on the one hand, carefully dis¬ 
tinguished from theoretical principles and hy- 


wish to do so, but because as moral agents wi 
must. But the conception has come to be used, 
especially by writers on the doctrine of prag¬ 
matism, without any regard to these limita¬ 
tions. 

Potassium (K, 39.10), one of the alkaline 
metals, first isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in 
1 So 7, and the first metal to be isolated from 
an earth by the electric current. The impor¬ 
tance to the 'world of the potassium supply 
may be judged from an enumeration of the 
wide uses to which its salts—commonly 
known as potash—are put. Not only do the 
potash salts form an essential ingredient of all 
commercial fertilizers, but a large amount is 
used in glass and soap making and in the 
manufacture of numerous chemical products. 
Potassium never occurs free in nature, al¬ 
though it is present in fertile soils, from which 
it is extracted by plants. In combination, usu¬ 
ally as the chloride, sulphate, and carbonate, it 
is found in sea water, in many minerals (micas 
and feldspars), as an incrustation of the soil, 
and in vegetable and animal substances. Be¬ 
fore the beginning of the Great War (1914), 
practically the world’s entire supply of potash 
salts came from the mines of Stassfurt in 
Prussian Saxony. 

In 1909-10 the German-American potash 
war first awakened American interests to the 
fact that they were dependent on Germany 
for this most important product; and with the 
complete cutting off of this main source of 
supply by the war, the U. S. Geological Sur¬ 
vey redoubled its efforts to discover new 
sources in the United States. California is by 
far the greatest producer, with Maryland sec¬ 
ond, but far behind. The discovery of potash 
in Western Texas in 1912 has led to the center¬ 
ing of interest in that region as a probable 
future commercial source of natural salts of 
potash. The following are the chief compounds 
of potassium: Potassium hydroxide , also 
known as Caustic Potash, KOH, is formed by 
the action of the metal on water and the elec¬ 
trolysis of potassium salts, and prepared com¬ 
mercially by boiling potassium carbonate with 
milk of lime and evaporating the clear solu¬ 
tion till it solidifies on cooling. 

Potassium carbonate, ox Potashes, KsCOs, 
may be prepared as in the black ash process 
for obtaining sodium carbonate, but is mainly 
obtained from wood ashes and beet root resi¬ 
due. Potassium nitrate, Nitre, or Salpetre , 
KNOa* is chiefly obtained by the interaction of 



Potato 


3800 


Potential 


potassium chloride from Stassfurt with the 
sodium nitrate of the Permian deposits. Po¬ 
tassium chlorate, KClOn, is obtained by -the 
action of excess of chlorine on a ho! solution 
of caustic potash (oKOlT-f^CL—sKCl-f- 
KCIO3-+-3H2O), or indirectly thro null the cor¬ 
responding calcium compound prepared in a 
similar way. Potash inn cyanide , for w hi eh line 
sodium compound is now largely subsdiluled, 
is a white fusible sal! that is soluble in water 
and is intensely poisonous. Potassium chlor¬ 
ide, KC1, known commercially as Muriate of 
Potash , closely resembles common sail, and 
has been largely obtained from the deposits at 
Stassfurt. 





Potato 

1. Potato plant—leaves, roots, under¬ 
ground Btyrns_wil.il tuners showing ‘eyes’; 

2. flower, section; 3, fruit, section; Usec¬ 
tion of leaf, greatly osdnrced, showing the 
fungus Plujunpuhom m fa-,tans, winch gives 
rise to late blight. 

Potato, the edible farinaceous tuber of a 
native American perennial (Solanum tuberos¬ 
um), one of the most widely cultivated of ag¬ 
ricultural plants, and next to the principal 
cereals the most valuable as a source of human 



food. It came originally from South America; 
was introduced into North America and Eu¬ 
rope in the 16th century; and by the latter 
half of the iSth was recognized as a staple 
crop in the temperate regions of both conti¬ 
nents. The potato thrives best in a rich, sandy 
loam abundantly supplied with organic mat¬ 
ter, and naturally well drained. Potatoes are 
grown primarily as a food crop, but are of 
importance as a. source of starch, especially for 
sizing paper and textiles. They are used also 
1 as a source of industrial alcohol in Europe, as 
a stock food, and in the manufacture of potato 
flour and glucose. The potato is subject to a 
number of diseases, some of which are at times 
the cause of serious loss. Early Blight or Po¬ 
tato Leaf Blight is a widespread and destruc¬ 
tive disease due to the fungus AUernaria solani. 

Late Ft tight, known also as Potato Disease 
and Potato Blight, is especially prevalent in 
clamp, dull weather and in moist or wet soil. 
It is due to the fungus Phytophthora infe-stans, 
and is much more destructive in European 
countries than in America. Wilt or Brown Rot, 
especially troublesome in the southern United 
States, is caused by the Bacillus solanacearum, 
and may be recognized by the sudden wilting 
of the vines and the browning of the vascular 
bundles in the tubers, followed by rotting. 
Potato Scab is due to a soil fungus, Oospora 
■ scabies, which causes rough irregular blotches 
: on the tubers sometimes covering the entire 
surface. The most serious insect pest of the 
potato is the Colorado Potato Beetle, or Po- 
tola Bug (Leptinotarsa decemlineata ), a leaf¬ 
eating insect native to the Rocky Mountain 
region, whence it has spread eastward to the 
Atlantic Ocean. Another serious insect pest 
is the Flea Beetle (Kpitrix cucumeris ), a tiny 
black insect, about one-sixteenth of an inch in 
length, which feeds upon the leaves of the 
young plants. 

Potemkin, Gregory Alexandrovitch, 

Prince (1739~9*), Russian statesman, mem¬ 
ber of a Polish family, was born near Smo¬ 
lensk. During the short reign of Peter m. he 
and the Orloffs plotted with Peter’s wife, Cath¬ 
erine, to bring about the adbication of the 
Tsar and the accession of Catherine. In 1776 
he became the acknowledged favorite of the 
Tsaritsa and from that time till his death he 
guided the foreign policy of Russia. 

Potential, a function of fundamental im¬ 
portance in the theory of attractions, and also, 
by a mathematical extension of meaning, in 
hydrodynamics. It is a function of the posi¬ 
tion of a point, its value depending upon the 
attracting matter which acts upon unit mass 




Potentilla 


3307 


Potter 


supposed to be placed at the point. Once the ! 
function is known, we obtain the force in any 
direction at the point of calculating the rate 
of change of the potential in that direction. 
Thus we arrive at the conception of what are 
called equipotential surfaces, which are at 
every point perpendicular to the force at the 
point. The general mathematical conception 
of a potential function is that i; h a function 
whose rates of change along any three chosen 
perpendicular directions give the components 
in those directions of an important directed 
quantity, such, as a force in attractions or a 
velocity in fluid motion. 

Potentilla, a genus of mostly perennial 
herbs and shrubs belonging to the order Ros¬ 
acea:. They usually bear corymbose cymes of 
white or yellow flowers with a ten-cleft cal\x 


| Virginia and Virginia on the s. and w., and 
empties into Chesapeake Ray. The scenery 
of the upper Potomac is picturesque, but is 
marred by the yellow color of the water. It 
is about 400 m. long and its chief tributaries 
are the Shenandoah, the largest, the Cacapon, 
the Monocacv, and Bull Run. 

Potosi, town, Bolivia, on the flank of Cerro 
de Potosi (15,724 ft.); 50 m. s.w. of Sucre. 

' The leading industry is mining but the once 
famous silver mines have greatly decreased in 
output, though still profitable. 

Potsdam, city, Prussia, capital of Bran¬ 
denburg province; 16 m. s.w 7 . of Berlin. It is 
beautifully situated on an island in the Havel 
River which here expands into a series of 
lakes. It is chiefly celebrated for the royal 
palace erected and adorned by Frederick the 



Potsdam , Germany: Orangerie at Sans Souci. 


in two rows, five petals, and numerous stam¬ 
ens. Among the species are the common P. 
canadensis , the cinquefoil, a trailing, early- 
flowered plant. 

Potenza, town, Italy, capital of Potenza 
province; 93 m. n.w. of Taranto. It has a 
cathedral and a small museum. In 1857 nearly 
the entire town was destroyed by an earth¬ 
quake; p. 23,738. 

Pot “holes, circular depressions in the chan¬ 
nel of rivers where they flow rapidly over 
bare rock. They may be a few inches or several 
feet across, and at the bottom there are usu¬ 
ally few pebbles. 

Potidaea, ancient Greek city,. founded by j 
a colony from Corinth about 600 b.c., on the 
isthmusof Pallene, s. of Macedonia. At the end 
of the 4th century b.c. Cassander built a new 
city on the site, called Cassandria, which be¬ 
came the most prosperous city in Macedonia. 

Potomac River, an important river in the 
United States which forms the boundary be¬ 
tween Maryland on the n. and e. and West 


Great; the Babelsberg palace in English Goth¬ 
ic style, erected in 1843-9, where Emperor 
William 1. spent Ms summers; p. 65,795. 

Potsdam Beds, The, comprise the Upper 
Cambrian rocks of North America, and in¬ 
clude the Olenus fauna. They are developed 
about Lake Champlain, in the Adirondacks, 
and in the St. Lawrence valley. 

Potsdam Conference. See U. S. United 
Nations Conferences. 

Pottawatamies, a tribe of North' Ameri¬ 
can Indians, a western branch of the Algon- 
quian stock, who formerly ranged round the 
southern shore of Lake Michigan. 

Potter, Edward Clark (1857-1923), Amer¬ 
ican sculptor, was bom in New London, Conn. 
He collaborated with D. C. French in sculpture 
for the Chicago Exposition, and executed stat¬ 
ues of General Grant, Washington, Hooker, 
De Soto and others. Other works include 
groups at the‘Buffalo Exposition and in the 

Morgan Library, New York City. 

' Potter, Cora Urquhart (1859-1936), Am- 





Potter 


3808 


erican actress. During lhe* Boer War (189^- 
1902) she was active in raising funds (0 buy 
and equip the American hospital ship Maine 
which was sent out to the Cape, and in 1910 
she toured as Jacqueline in Madame X. 

Potter, Henry Codman (1835-1908), 
American clergyman. In 1SS3 he was con¬ 
secrated coadjutor bishop to his uncle, Ho¬ 
ratio Potter, Bishop of New York, succeeding 
the latter as bishop on his death in 1887. 
During his bishopric was the beginning of 
the erection of the Cathedral of St. John the 
Divine in New York City. 

Potter, Paul Meredith (1853-1921), 
playwright, born in Brighton, England, His 
first accepted play was The City Directory 
(1889). Then followed The Ugly Duckling 
(1890); The World’s Pair (1S91) ; The 
American Minister (1892), and Trilby (1895). 

Potter’s Earth, or Pipeclay, a white clay 
consisting chiefly of kaolinite, ALOazSiOazHA), 
used for making tobacco pipes, and white 
pottery. 

Potter’s. Field, the name given to the 
burial place of those who die alone and penni¬ 
less. 

Pottery or Ceramics, a term used to des¬ 
ignate a large class of objects, both useful and 
ornamental, fashioned of some variety of clay 
when moist and plastic, and then fired. It is 
one of the oldest branches of human industry. 
Probably the earliest home of the ceramic 
art is to be found in Egypt where excavation 
has discovered specimens of pottery said to 
have been fashioned as far back as the .20th 
century b.c. The history of the art in Greece 
shows a remarkable and rapid development 
from the crude productions of prehistoric 
times to the exquisite beauty of the work of 
the 4th century b.c. 

In the East, notably China and Japan, 
ceramics have always held an important place. 
Among the products of European countries 
several stand out prominently for their beauty 
and artistic merit. Thus we have the gray, 
blue, and white delft of Holland, the fa¬ 
mous porcelain of Sevres and Limoges in 
France, the Dresden and Royal Berlin por¬ 
celain of Germany, the Royal Copenhagen, 
and Rorstrand porcelains of Denmark and 
Sweden respectively, and the Wedgewood, 
Crown Derby, Royal Worcester and Lowe¬ 
stoft porcelains of England. The Incas of 
Peru and the natives of Mexico have left us 
the most beautiful and ingenious specimens, 
showing that among these tribes the ceramic 
art had known great development. Many of 
the objects left by the Aztecs were elaborate- 


P ottery 

ly modelled and profusely dm>rated. The 
settlers in New England and the Southern 
States found the pottery of the nomadic 
tribes in possession very coarse and fragile. 
About 161:2 brick making was started in the 
United States and about 1734 a stoneware 
factory was established in New York. In 
the latter part of the iSth century German 
potters in Pennsylvania began the manufac¬ 
ture of terra cotta roofing tiles and earthen¬ 
ware. In 1S25 a successful factory for hard 
porcelain was opened in Philadelphia. Stone¬ 
ware for domestic purposes is manufactured 
in enormous quantities in Ohio and Indiana, 
largely from local materials which are so 
abundant in those two States. Most of the 
whiteware and porcelain produced in the 
United States is for table and toilet purposes, 
and while there are a number of factories 
scattered over the States east of the Missis¬ 
sippi, the two great pottery centers are Tren¬ 
ton, N.J.. and East Liverpool, Ohio. Not a 
little Belleck porcelain, however, is made in 
Trenton. 

In recent time a number of potters have de¬ 
voted attention to the development of wares 
having artistic value. Of these the Rockwood 
Pottery of Cincinnati has achieved great suc¬ 
cess. Many art potteries have specialized in 
the development of opaque mat glazes of 
green, blue, and other colors, such as are 
seen in the Grueby, Teco, and Van Briggle 
ware. Other decorative and artistic pottery is 
the Aurelian, Louwelsa, Eocean, and Sicardo 
ware of the Weller pottery at Zanesville, O.; 
the copper-red Rozanc pottery of the Rose¬ 
ville pottery; in the sang de boeuf and crackle 
ware of the Dedham pottery at Dedham, 
Mass.; the original and beautiful ware pro¬ 
duced by the Newcombe Memorial College, 
New' Orleans; and the Robineau ware of Sy¬ 
racuse, N.Y. 

The raw material used is clay, but it is clay 
of varying quality and to which other sub¬ 
stances are frequently added. Cornish clay, 
or kaolin, a creamy white, plastic substance, 
forms the main body of porcelain everywhere. 
Glazes are specially composed glasses, ground 
fine in water and spread over the warer to he 
fused at a second baking in the oven. In some 
cases the decorations, if such there be, are 
under the glaze, in others, over it. There are 
two chief glazes, lead and salt. The modern 
glazes are generally transparent silicates of 
alumina, compounds of Cornish china (koa- 
lin); flint, and white lead, with borax and al¬ 
kalis added as a flux. The steps common to all 
grades pf ware are: preparation, tempering, 




Pottery 


3809 


Poultry 


moulding, drying, and firing. The care of 
preparation increases as the grade of the ware 
.rises, and in glazed wares a second firing is 
also necessary if the body must be burned be¬ 
fore the glaze is applied. 

Firing is the final and most important step 
in the making of pottery for on it depends 
much of the quality of the resulting object. 
Pottery kilns are .of three general classes: bis¬ 
cuit, glost, and enamel. The biscuit kilns are 
those in which the clay is changed to ‘biscuit.’ 
They reach a very high temperature, from 2,- 
000 to 2,500° f. The glost or glazing kiln is 
similar in construction to the biscuit kiln, but 
usually smaller and the heat is less intense. 
Whiteware and porcelain are often elaborate¬ 
ly decorated, either under or over the glaze, 
but the style of decoration most often seen is 
printwork. Modern ceramics, from 1935 to 
1937, has been confined for the most part to 
work on china. The Japanese have repro¬ 
duced many of the old shapes and patterns 
still popular in cheap wares, and American 
producers of quality china have put on the 
market fine earthenware, and porcelain dish¬ 
es with decorations simple even to the point 
of austerity. 

It is notable that porcelain has a hard¬ 
ness most easily discernible. The modern 
china contains bone ash, ironstone and feld¬ 
spar (introduced by Spode). 

A name of great importance in American 
ceramics today is that of the Walter S. 
Lenox organization which still carries on 
the traditions of the Mintons, Spodes and 
others renowned in American pottery. 

Figurines are popular for decoration to¬ 
day. Ceramists are using a wider range of 
animals than ever before and the classes of 
human figures and groups are nearly end¬ 
less including the interpretive element of 
humor and the visible influence of athletics. 
These figurines are sculptured in metal, wood, 
plaster and porcelain glazed as finely as 
china. 

Some of the outstanding ceramists are: 
Wayland Gregory and Genevieve Thomas; 
and prominent among the Germans is Ru¬ 
dolph Struck. 

Gayety and abundant decorative sense— 
typical of modern things originating on the 
European continent—make it comparatively 
easy to identify the influence of Austrian and 
French artists on many of the modern Ameri¬ 
can figurines. There are, however, many in 
the American field today whose art Is alive 
with a freshness and an originality that 
make it really important and individual. 


Pottstown, borough, Pennsylvania, in 
Montgomery co., on the Schuylkill River, 40 
m. n.w. of Philadelphia. It is an important 
manufacturing center, the production of iron 
and steel goods being especially large. Other 
products are agricultural implements, silk, 
hosiery and bricks: p. 24,530. 

Pottsville, city, Pennsylvania, county seat 
of Schuylkill co., on the Schuylkill River. In¬ 
dustries include the manufacture of structur¬ 
al steel, iron, lumber, 'furniture, shoes, tex¬ 
tiles, and clothing. The district contains ex¬ 
tensive deposits of anthracite ; p. 20.104. 

Poughkeepsie, city, New York, county 
seat of Dutchess co., on the e. bank of the 
Hudson River, 75 m. n. of New York City. 
It is the seat of Vassar College. There are 
manufactures of mowing and reaping ma¬ 
chines, cream separators, horseshoes, knit 
goods, underwear, shoes, shirts, cigars, auto¬ 
mobile accessories, hardwear, trousers, dyes, 
cough drops, chairs, buttons, etc.; p. 4 ° 47 $* 

Poulsen, Valdemar (1869-1942), Danish 
inventor. He devised (1900) the telegraphone, 
an apparatus for magnetically recording tele¬ 
phone conversations and discovered the Poul¬ 
sen arc and the Poulsen wave upon which 
the Poulsen system of wireless telegraphy 
is based. See Wireless Telegraphy. 

Poulson, Niels (1843-1911), manufactur¬ 
er and philanthropist, was born in Denmark, 
and went to America, where he formed a 
partnership with Charles M. Eger, and in 1897 
the firm was incorporated as the Hecla Iron 
Works. He gave $100,000 for the purpose 
of exchanging lectures and students between 
the United States and Scandinavia. His for¬ 
tune of $500,000 was left to the same cause. 

Poultice, or Cataplasm, any soft, moist 
pultaceous mass employed for the external ap¬ 
plication of moist heat to the body. The effect 
of a poultice is to produce dilatation of the 
blood-vessels where it is applied, and so to 
relieve congestion, pressure, and pain. 

Poultry and Poultry Farming. The word 
poultry is a general term for that group of 
domestic birds which includes the ordinary 
domestic fowl, the turkey, guinea fowl, pea¬ 
fowl, pheasant, duck, and goose. It does not 
include pigeons or cage birds. The birds of 
the poultry group are of economic value for 
their flesh and eggs, which are among the 
most valuable of foods. The most important 
of the birds of the poultry group, economic¬ 
ally, is the ordinary domestic fowl, or chicken. 
Domestic Fowl .—The most popular general 
purpose breeds of domestic fowl, i.e. } breeds 
which are adapted both to egg production 




Pound 


3810 


Powderly 


and to tabu- purposes, are tne Plymouth 
Rock, Vo andoUe, Orpington, and Rhode 
Island Red. The favorite American breed is 
the Plymouth Rock. 

Meat fowls are heavier and larger than 
either the egg or general-purpose breeds. They 
are persistent sitters but indifferent layers. The 
eggs are large and brown shelled. Standard 
breeds are the Brahma, Cochin, Cornish, 
Langshan, and Dorking. In addition to the 



Courtesy Lenox Inc., Trenton, N. J. 


1 933 > 1 94 °I • His works and translations in¬ 
clude A ; oh or Accomplishment (1917); Let¬ 
ter of John Haller Yeats (ed. un*;) ; Insti¬ 
gations (1920); Indiscretions (1923). 

Pound, Roscoe (1S70- ),' American 

educator, was born in Lincoln, Neb. He was 
professor of law at Northwestern University 
(1907-00), and at the Univerrity of Chicago 
(1909-10) ; and Slor\ pro Asm) r of Law (1910- 
13), Carter professor of jurisprudence (1913- 
); and dean of tLe Low School (1916- 
1:936), at Harvard University. His published 
works include various textbooks on law; Law 
and Morals t hj.uj ) ; and Criminal Justice in 
America (1030). 

Pound Sterling, the British monetary 
unit, was originally an actual pound weight of 
silver of 5,760 grains of a certain standard of 
fineness (925 in 1,000), 

Poussin, Nicolas (1593-1665), French 
classical landscape and figure painter, was born 
in Les Andelys, Normandy. He was court 
painter to Louis xm. from 1640 to 1642, but 
thereafter went to Rome, where he spent 
the rest of his life. His paintings are to be 
seen in Rome, in the Louvre, in the National 
and Dulwich Galleries and the Wallace Col¬ 
lection, London, and in other European gal¬ 
leries. 


Modeling Clay. 

classes mentioned, there are a number of pure¬ 
ly ornamental breeds, including Silkies, Sul- 
tans, Frizzles, and Bantams . Duck Raising on 
a large scale has been developed in the United 
States to a considerable extent on Long Is¬ 
land and in sections within easy distance of the 
larger eastern cities. Turkey Raising is ordi¬ 
narily engaged in as a side line by" the gen¬ 
eral farmer. The most popular breed is the 
Bronze, after which come the While Holland, 
Bourbon, Red, Black, Narragansett, and Slate, 

Pound, an enclosure for the reception and 
detention of animals taken while strasing on 
the highways, or trespassing and doing dam¬ 
age on private.property. 

Pound, Ezra (1885- ), American poet 

was born in Hailey, Idaho. In 1914 he be¬ 
came literary executor for Ernest Fcnollosa, 
the American orientalist, and did constructive 
work on the Japanese Nob. drama and on Chi¬ 
nese and Japanese poetry. He was London 
editor of The Little Review (1917-19), and 
published a number of collections of poems— 
Per some (1909); Exultations (1909); Can- 
zoni (r9.11); Ripostes (1912); Cathay 
11915) ; Lustra (1916) ; Quia Pauper Amavi 
(1919); Poems (1921); Cantos (1925, 1928, 



Major-General Baden-Powelt 

{Photo he mtlott «fc Fry.) 


Powderly, Terrence Vincent (1849- 
1924), American labor leader, born in Carbon- 
dale, Pa. In 1897 President McKinley appoint¬ 
ed him U. S, commissioner-general of immi¬ 
gration, which oifice he retained until 1902. 
He was admitted to the bar oi the Supreme 
Court of the United States in r90 t. In 1906 
he was appointed a special agent. Department 




Powell 

of Commerce and Labor, to study causes of 
European emigration, and in 1907 chief of di¬ 
vision of information, Bureau of Immigra¬ 
tion. 

Powell, John Wesley (1834-1902), Am¬ 
erican geologist, was bom in Mount Morris, 
N. Y. He was professor of geology in the Illi¬ 
nois Wesleyan University (1865-8), and suc¬ 
cessfully explored the Grand Canon of the 
Colorado (1868-9) • In 1S81 he succeeded Clar¬ 
ence King as director of the U. S. Geological 
Survey, but was compelled by ill-health to re¬ 
sign the position in 1894. In 1900 he conducted 
an exploring expedition to Cuba to study pre¬ 
historic remains there. 

Powell, Maud (1868-1920), American vio¬ 
linist, was born in Peru, Ill. For 20 years she 
devoted herself to concert playing with the 
most important orchestras of the country, 
taking rank as the foremost woman violinist 
of America. In 1892 she accompanied the 
Arion Society of New York upon a tour to 
Germany, and afterwards made successful pro¬ 
fessional visits to England, Germany, Russia, 
Denmark, and South Africa. 

Powell, Sir Robert Stephenson Smyth 
Baden (1857-1941), British general, en¬ 
tered the army in 1876. During the Boer War 
(1S99) he was in command of the small force 
which held Mafeking for 2x5 days against a 
large besieging army, and in recognition of this 
accomplishment was promoted major-general. 
In 1908 he founded the organization of Boy 
Scouts and Girl Guides to promote good citi¬ 
zenship in the rising generation. 

Power, or Power of Appointment, in 
law, an independent authority vested in one 
or more persons to alienate orencumber lands 
irrespective of the ownership thereof. Such 
authority must be derived from the present 
or a former owner of the lands subject there¬ 
to, and it may be conferred on the person in 
whom an estate in the lands is vested, or, as 
is more frequently the case, upon one who has 
no interest whatsoever in the lands. Powers 
are frequent!) employed both in England and 
in America to vest a power of sale or devise 
in a life tenant, or a power of sale in executors 
in the settlement of estates. In several States 
of the United States they are wholly regulated 
by statute. 

Power Development, The supremacy of 
the United States in national wealth and pro¬ 
ductive capacity is primarily due to the in¬ 
tensive exploitation of its resources, its labor- 
saving machinery, and its sources of power. 
Its high scale of production in agriculture, 
mining, and manufacturing must, therefore, 


Powet 

be credited in a large measure to the extensive 
use of power-driven machinery. 

Aside from the attempts to utilize the di¬ 
rect radiation of the sun, the use of the wind¬ 
mill, tide mill, and wave motor, and the re¬ 
cent generation of steam in pipes sunk into 
the ground in volcanic regions, the world’s 
supply of power is dependent upon the 
chemical storage of the sun’s energy in the 
form of coal, oil and natural gas, and wood, 

I and the potential energy of water impounded 
above sea level. Among the latter common 
sources of energy the most abundant sup¬ 
ply is found in the coal deposits. The heat of 
combustion of coal, most of which is supplied 
by the carbon content, may be utilized to de¬ 
velop steam pressure in a boiler, and the steam 
in turn may be made to drive a steam engine 
or turbine and produce mechanical power. 
Unfortunately, the distribution of the coal de¬ 
posits is not uniform over the United States, 
the most extensive area of high-grade coal ex¬ 
isting for the most part east of the Mississippi 
River. This fact is intimately connected with 
many problems of power development. 

In some remote geologic age another form 
of organic matter, possibly of the animal king¬ 
dom, became sealed up in the crust of the 
earth and in the course of time became con¬ 
vex ted into oil and natural gas. Oil contains 
an even greater amount of energy per pound 
than coal. It may be burned under boilers to 
produce steam tor engines or turbines and 
possesses the further advantage over coal of 
being more easily handled and controlled. By 
mixing air with the lighter grades of distilled 
oil a combustible gas is formed which may be 
exploded by electric ignition in the cylinders 
ofjin internal combustion engine, with high 
efficiency. This type of engine as designed for 
automobile and airplane service possesses the 
important property of developing more power 
per unit weight of engine than an}’ other type 
of prime mover. The Diesel engine, which is 
adapted only to stationary power plants, may 
be operated with crude oil or even wit.h the 
residue of crudr oil after the lighter constitu¬ 
ents of the oil have been abstracted for other 
important purposes. 

While the use of Diesel engines on land or 
ship power plants not exceeding a few thou¬ 
sand horsepower in capacity is at present de¬ 
sirable in the economic sense, and the internal 
combustion engine utilizing gasoline as a fuel 
is now unsurpassed for automobile, tractor, 
and airplane service, the continued use of oil 
in these developments depends seriously upon 
the relationship of the supply to the future 


3812 



Power 


3813 


Power 


demand for the oil. There is a prevalent idea 
that hydraulic power may be developed in the 
future to such an extent as eventually to dis¬ 
place the present major use of coal and oil as 
a source of energy. The late Dr. Steinmetz 
made a comprehensive study of this possibility 
and demonstrated with certanty that no such 
substitution could be expected. If the equiv¬ 
alent of natural gas and oil is included in the 
estimate, the annual consumption of coal in 
the United States at present is nearly one bil¬ 
lion tons. 

The annual potential energy of the water 
powers of the United States, determined by 
multiplying the average height of the land 
above sea level by the average annual rainfall, 
gives a value of approximately one billion kilo¬ 
watt-years or the power of one billion kilo¬ 
watts developed continuously throughout one 
year. Much of this rainfall must be utilized, 
however, for agricultural purposes, and a con¬ 
siderable portion of it is lost for power pur¬ 
poses by seepage into the ground and evapora¬ 
tion into the air, so that according to Stein¬ 
metz, not more than 20 per cent, of the theo¬ 
retical total supply, or 200 million kilowatt- 
years, could be utilized for power develop¬ 
ment. Since one ton of coal contains about 
one kilowatt-year of energy it is obvious that 
the energy equivalent of the present annual 
coal and oil consumption is five times greater 
than the total possible amount of energy avail¬ 
able each year from all sources of hydraulic 
power. Another factor which opposes the gen¬ 
eral use of hydraulic power is that it is not 
adapted to the operation of most portable 
conveyances. 

From this survey of our resources in energy 
it will be seen that the nation must depend 
primarily upon its deposits of coal. Hydro¬ 
electric power will be developed and utilized 
most effectively on the Pacific Coast where 
coal is scarce and hydraulic power is abundant. 
It has been estimated that the available hy¬ 
draulic power of the western States is six times 
greater than the total power demand of that 
region for all purposes. The bituminous coal 
resources in the middle-western and eastern 
part of the country are so great that their de¬ 
pletion at the present rate of consumption is 
not expected for many centuries. One careful 
estimate indicates that the coal supply will 
last for 4,000 years. The future power supply 
in the United States is evidently dependent 
upon the construction of larger and more effi¬ 
cient steam-electric ‘power stations supple¬ 
mented by hydro-electric power stations 
wherever a source of hydraulic power can be 


economically utilized. Present practice favors 
the location of the steam-electric plant on 
tide-water, lake, or river, in the general vicin¬ 
ity of the region where the major portion of 
the power is consumed. 

Thoughtful consideration has recently been 
given to the question of safeguarding the con¬ 
tinuity of service of the existing electric trans¬ 
mission systems which have grown to such an 
extent that millions of people distributed over 
a large area are dependent upon a single sys¬ 
tem for their supply of power. These systems 
are usually supplied by several power plants 
operated by steam or a combination of steam 
and hydraulic power. The reliability of such 
systems may be increased by interconnecting 
the various parts of the system by transmis¬ 
sion lines which form a network, so that the 
failure of any transmission line or the suspen¬ 
sion of service of any power plant will not ore- 
vent the continuous delivery of power to most 
of the consumers. An interconnected system 
of this nature which covers the States of Cali¬ 
fornia and Oregon extends in one direction for 
a distance of over one thousand miles. A sim¬ 
ilar system in the southeastern part of the 
United States extends for 600 miles from Ala¬ 
bama to North Carolina. In the plan known 
as the super-power system it is proposed that 
all sources of power in the United States be 
ultimately interconnected to form a single na¬ 
tional network of power supply. 

One advantage of a super-power system 
would be the decreased coal consumption 
which would result from the operation of. few¬ 
er but larger power plants on a system of large 
power capacity. Another factor which favors 
the tying together of existing power systems 
is the consequent improvement in the uniform¬ 
ity of the power demand upon the combined 
systems. While the major economic advan¬ 
tages of a super-power system relate to a sav¬ 
ing in fuel consumption and a decrease in the 
capital invested in the associated power plants, 
many other specific arguments may be offered 
for the plan. A large power network may be 
made to serve a greater population, since the 
interconnecting lines may be constructed 
through regions which previously possessed no 
power supply. The electrification of railroad 
trunk lines could be executed with less diffi¬ 
culty by reason of the probable closer proxim¬ 
ity of some source of electric power. Wherever 
a transmission line came within reasonable dis¬ 
tance of a possible source of hydraulic power a 
hydro-electric plant could be constructed 
which might otherwise have been unjustified 
by reason of its isolated location. 



Powers 


3S14 


Powers, Hiram (1805-73), American 
sculptor, was bom on a farm near Woodstock, 
Vt., and in 1810 went with his family to Cin¬ 
cinnati, where in 1826 lie began to model and 
repair wax figures for a local museum. His 
Greek Slave, now in the Corcoran Galley in 
Washington, was finished in 1843 and was gen¬ 
erally admired. Other noted works are his 
Eve Tempted (1840), Penseroso (1845), Fish¬ 
er Boy (1846), Proserpine (1846), and Cali¬ 
fornia (1858, now in the Metropolitan Mu¬ 
seum of New York). 

Powhatan (c. 1550-1618), celebrated Indi¬ 
an chieftain, whose real name was Wahusona- 
cook. He was head chief of the Indian tribes 
with whom the settlers at Jamestown, Vir¬ 
ginia, came in contact. In 1607 Capt. John 
Smith, while on an exploring expedition, was 
captured by Powhatan’s followers, and ac¬ 
cording to an account not historically verified, 
escaped execution only through the interces- 


________ _________ Pragmatism 

cated nearby and a particularly good cement 
made from earth peculiar to the locality ip 
manufactured. It was made a Roman colony 
in 1:94 b.c.j and refounded by Augustus, Nero, 
and Vespasian. It was the chief port for the 
Roman trade with Alexandria and Spain; p. 
c. 23,000. 

Pradler, James (1792-1852), French 
sculptor, was born in Geneva, Switzerland. 
Among his works are Bacchante and Centaur 
(1819), The Children of A'iohe ( 1S22), Psvche 
(1S24), An Odalisque (1841). Spring (1849), 
Pandora (at Windsor), the St rassburg and 
Lille monuments in the Place do la Concorde 
in Paris, Sap ho, The Toilet of Malania, the 
Three Graces, and tin: spandrels in the Arc de 
Triomphe. 

Prado, the national Spanish Museum of 
Art at Madrid. 

Praed, Winthrop Mackworth (1802-39), 
English poet, was born in London. Praed’s 


sion of the chief’s daughter, Pocahontas. poems, cast in the lighter vein, are character- 

Powys, John Cowper (1872- ), an- ized by grace, <leJieac\, and brilliance of wit; 

thor and lecturer, bora in Derbyshire, Eng- while in the Red Fisherman he shows a won- 
land, resident of the United States much of the derful power of imagination. 


time since 1905. Among his books are Wolf- 
Bane (1916) ; M and r agora (1917) ; The Com¬ 
plex Vision (1920); The Meaning of Culture 
(1930) ; A Glastonbury Romance (1933) ; and 
Apobiography (’ 34 ) ; Owen Glnuhnver C 41 V 

Powys, Llewelyn (1884-1930). author, 
bom in Dorchester, England, resident of New 
York much of the time since 1920. His pub¬ 
lished books include Ebony and Ivory (1923) ; 
Black Laughter (1925); The Verdict of Bri¬ 
dle goose (1926) ; Apples Be Ripe (1930); Im¬ 
passioned Clay (1931); and Abridgement of 
the Life (1932). 

P oy nt.er, Sir Edward John (1836-1919), 
English historical and classical painter and au¬ 
thor, was born in Paris. He was director of the 
National Gallery, London, from 1894 to 1905, 
and became president of the Royal Academy 
on the death of Millais in 1896. He was cre¬ 
ated a,baronet in 1902. Povnter’s work in¬ 
cludes frescoes for St, Paul’s (London), St. 
Stephen’s (Dulwich), and other, buildings; 
portraits, notably those of Edward vn. and 
the Duke of Northumberland, j 

, Pozzuoli, town and episcopal see, Italy, in 
the province of Naples, on a promontory in 
the Gulf of Naples, 6 m. w. of Naples. Its 
mineral springs made it a favorite resort of 
the Romans, and it contains important Roman 
remains and ruins— the bridge of Caligula, an 
amphitheatre, the Scrapeum, villas, and mau¬ 
soleums, A branch of the Armstrong shipbuild¬ 
ing yards, with arsenal and navy yard, is lo- 


Praemunire. The English Statute of Prae¬ 
munire (1392) forbade the purchase or pur¬ 
suit in Rome ot translations, excommunica¬ 
tions, etc., under pain of outlawry, forfeiture 
of goods, and attachment. 

Praetor, the chief magistrate of ancient 
Rome, first elected in 366 n.o,, from among 
the patricians. His main function was at first 
to rule in Rome while the consuls were ab¬ 
sent on military service; hence he was much 
concerned with civil matters, especially law, 
which came to be his chid' province. 

Praetorians, of ancient Rome, a body of 
household troops, instituted by Augustus in 

2 n.c. They consisted at first of nine or ten 
thousand men, horse and foot, and were in¬ 
creased by Vitellius to sixteen thousand. They 

j were suppressed by Constantine the Great in 

3 1:2 A.D. 

Pragmatic Sanction, a name given in the 
middle ages to any ordinance affecting the 
! general interest (sauctio prngmatiai ). By the 
, Pragmatic Sanction of 1438 Charles vn. of 
France asserted the rights of the Gallican 
Church. Another famous Pragmatic Sanction 
was that drawn up by the emperor Charles 
vr. of Austria in 1713. It declared the indi¬ 
visibility of the Austrian dominions, and the 
right of his daughter Maria Theresa to in¬ 
herit them. 

Pragmatism, a system of philosophy 
which in its broadest sense means the ac¬ 
ceptance of the categories of life as funda- 






Prague 


3S16 


Pratt 


mental. According to the pragmastist an idea 
is true when it works, when it performs that 
which is expected of it. Pragmatism is con¬ 
cerned not with thought but with thinking; 
not with feeling subjectively, but with feeling 
objectively. Pragmatism was first clearly out¬ 
lined in the United States in 1878 by C. S. 
Peirce. It was elaborated and expounded some 
twenty years later by Professor William 
James of Harvard and has among its most 
distinguished followers Professor John Dew¬ 
ey of Columbia, Professor Schiller of Ox¬ 
ford, Professor Jerusalem of Vienna, Jules 
Henri Poincare, and Henri Bergson of France, 
Ostwald and Mach of Germany, and Papini 
of Italy. -Consult James’ Pragmatism; Leigh¬ 
ton’s Man-and the Cosmos (1922). 

Prague, city, capital of Bohemia, is 
situated on both banks of the, Moldau; 60 
miles northeast of Pilsen. The city itself 
consists of seven districts, the Old Town or 
Altstadt, Josephstadt, the New Town or 
Neustaclt, and Wysehrad on the right bank; 
the Little Town, or Kleinseite, Hraclschin, 
and Holschowitz-Budna on the left bank. 
Further up the river are the suburbs of 
Smichov, Ziskov, Weinbergc, and Karoli- 
nental. The Josephstadt, the former Jewish 
Quarter, lies e. of the Ruclolphinum and con¬ 
tains the Staronova Skola, the oldest syna¬ 
gogue in Prague, and a curious Jewish burial 
ground. 

The Little Town is chiefly residential and 
contains the fine churches of St. Nicholas and 
St. Thomas and the Wallenstein and Lobko- 
witz palaces. The fortress of Hraclschin 
(i333”i7S7-75) dominates the left bank of 
the Moldau. From one of its. windows in 
1618 were hurled the imperial officers Mar- 
tinitz and Slawata, the initial event of the 
Thirty Years’ War. Prague is the leading in¬ 
dustrial and' commercial center of Bo¬ 
hemia. Its .industries include iron works, 
manufactures of chemicals, cement, pottery, 
linen, leather, cottons, hats, carpets,' beer, 
railway cars, and paper. The establishment of 
the University in 1348 made it one of the 
leading cities in the German Empire. At the 
close of the Great War (1:918) it was made 
the capital of the newly constituted republic 
of Czechoslovakia, dissolved, 1938 ; p.Sao.ooo. 

Prague, University of, an institution of 
learning founded in 1348 by Charles, king of 
Bohemia, and amalgamated in 3653 with the 
Jesuit College of Prague. 

Prairie, an undulating grass-covered plain 
as distinguished from a forested region 


or from a. dry semi-arid region known as 
steppes. 

Prairie Dog, a large ground squirrel of the 
Western United States and Mexico. There are 
three species of prairie dogs, the most com¬ 
mon of w h i c li is Cynomys ludovicianus, 
found on the open plains e. of the Rocky 
Mountains. The prairie dog dwells in col¬ 
onies or Towns’ of burrows. 

Prairie Fox, the Kit or Swift fox of the 
Western plains. See Fox. 

Prairie Grove, Battle of, a battle of the 
Civil War, fought in Northwestern Arkansas, 
Dec. 7, 1862. The battle was stubbornly con¬ 
tested all day, but during the night the Con¬ 
federates withdrew. T h i s defeat checked 
further advance into Missouri. 

Prairie Hen, a genus (T y nip antic hus) of 
American game birds, belonging to the same 
subfamily as the grouse. The common species 
(T. amcricanus) inhabits the region drained 
by the Mississippi, extending as far n. as 
Ontario. 



Prairie Hen, 

Prairie Rattler, the small ground rattle¬ 
snake of the open interior region of the Uni¬ 
ted States. See Rattlksxakk. 

Prang, Louis (1824-1909), German-Amer- 
ican engraver, lithographer, and art pub¬ 
lisher, was horn in Breslau, where he studied 
engraving, chemistry, and dyeing. He es¬ 
tablished the Prang Educational. Company, 
which issued drawing-books for school use 
that attained an immense circulation. 

Prase, a green variety of chalcedony, some¬ 
times used for ornaments, rings, and brooches. 

Praseodymium, Pr. 140.5, one of the con¬ 
stituents of did.ymium, is a metallic element 
of the rare earths. It forms green salts with 
a characteristic absorption spectrum. 

Pratt, Bela Lyon (1867-19x7), American 
sculptor, was born in Norwich, Conn. Among 
his best works are the two figures ‘Science’ 
and ‘Art’ in front of the Boston Public Li- 



Pratt 


381? 


Prayer 


brary; Philosophy 5 in the Congressional Li- j way in. which he makes his statues represent 
brary, Washington. ; some mood or feeling. During the excavations 

Pratt, Charles (1830-91), American phi!-i at Olympia a nearly perfect statue of Her- 
anthropist, was born in Watertown, Mass. , nies by him was discovered. Other statues 
He was for many years a trustee of the j attributed to him are even more famous, es- 
Adelphi Academy in Brooklyn, and was elec- j pecially an Aphrodite, which he made for the 
ted its president in 1879* I* 1 1S87 he founded j Cnidians, an idea of which may be gained 
the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn for technical, J from a copy in the Vatican, and the basis of 
mechanical, commercial, and similar bran- j 
dies of education. 


Pratt, Orson (1811-81), Mormon apostle, 
brother of Parley Parker Pratt, was born in 
Hartford, N. Y. In 1830 he joined the Mor¬ 
mon Church, and by 1S35 bad become one 
of the Twelve Apostles. He was one of the 
first to enter Utah, and was seven times 
speaker of the Utah House of Representatives. 
In August, iSyo, he engaged in a debate with 
Dr. John P. Newman, chaplain of the U. S. 
Senate, on the subject of polygamy. The de¬ 
bate took place in the great tabernacle at 
Salt Lake City, and attracted widespread 
attention. By his numerous successful mis¬ 
sionary journeys to the East and to Europe, 
he gained for himself the designation, ‘the 
Paul of Mormonism. 5 

Pratt, Parley Parker (1807-57), Ameri¬ 
can Mormon apostle, brother of Orson Pratt, 
was born in Burlington, N. Y. He became a 
member of the Mormon Church in 1S30, was 
chosen one of the Twelve Apostles in 1S33, 
and was one of the first Mormons to visit 
Salt Lake. In 1857 he was murdered near 
Van Buren, Ark. 

Pratt, Silas Gamaliel (1846-1916), Am¬ 
erican composer, was born in Addison, Vt. 
He became professor of pianoforte in the 
.New York Metropolitan Conservatory. In 
1906 he went to Pittsburgh, where he estab¬ 
lished the Pratt Institute for Music and Art. 

Pratt Institute, a technical school in 
Brooklyn, New York, founded and endowed 
in 1887 by Charles Pratt, with the object of 
promoting industrial education. The Institute 
offers to men and women day and evening 
courses in a wide range of art, scientific, me¬ 
chanical and household subjects and con¬ 
ducts teacher training courses in fine and ap¬ 
plied arts. There are four schools: School of 
Fine and Applied Arts, Household Science 
and Arts, Science and Technology, and Li¬ 
brary Science. 

Praxiteles, a celebrated Greek sculptor, 
who is often ranked next to Phidias for the 
perfection of his work. He was a citizen, if 
not a native, of Athens, and lived about 400- 
330 b.c. The chief characteristics of his work 
are the perfection of his modelling, and the 


a group representing Apollo, Artemis and 
Leto in the presence of the Muses excavated 

at Mantineia. 

Pray, Isaac Clark (1813-69), American 
journalist and playwright, was born in Bos¬ 
ton. In 1836 lie became proprietor of the 
National Theatre in New York, where he 
produced his tragedy Guilietta Gordon and 
several other plays. He became dramatic 
critic for the New York Herald in 1850, and 
wrote and translated several plays, the most 
successful of which was Virginius . 

Prayer, Book of Common, the name giv¬ 
en to the service book of the Anglican and 
Protestant Episcopal Churches. The existing 
English service books are nearly all of the 
Roman type. Uniformity was not arrived at 
until the sixteenth century, which produced 
both the Book of Common Prayer and the 
Tridentine revision of the Roman services. 
From the thirteenth century to the Refor¬ 
mation there were three principal ‘uses 5 in 
English: those of Salisbury, York, and Here¬ 
ford. The Salisbury or Sarum use has most 
influenced the present Prayer Book. The 
movement for reformation in the public serv¬ 
ice of the English Church originated during 
the latter years of the reign of Henry vm. 
On June 11, 1544, were ‘set forth certain 
godly prayers and suffrages in our native 
English tongue, 5 also a Litany which is prac¬ 
tically the same. as the present Litany in the 
Prayer Book. A. committee of convocation, sat 
for seven years, and produced the Prayer 
Book of 1549 (the first Prayer Book of Ed¬ 
ward vi.). 

The second Prayer Book was published in 
1552. After Elizabeth’s accession a commit¬ 
tee was appointed. to deal, with divine serv¬ 
ice, and a Prayer Book was ready for pub¬ 
lication in 1559. It is practically the same 
book as. that now used in the. Church of 
England. .The commonwealth' formally sup¬ 
pressed the Book. of Common Prayer on Jan. 
4, 1645, and it was out of use until the 
restoration on May 26, 1660, when the Prayer 
Book was revised on lines as conciliatory as 
possible, without sacrifice of essentials, and 
was authorized in 1662. 

The Act of Uniformity of that year con- 



Prayer 


3818 


Precentor 


stituted it the only legal service book in 
England. There has been no substantial al¬ 
ternation in the English Prayer Book since 
that time, although since 1906 there has been 
a strong movement for its revisal and in 1927 
a revised form was presented to Convocation 
by the bishops. The principal changes offered 
were in regard to the Communion Office and 
the marriage ceremony. Provision was made 
for additional services and various occasional 
prayers were added. The adoption of the 
revision was voted on favorably by the 
House of Lords but was rejected by the 
House of Commons. 



Head of Her mi's by Praxiteles 


When the. American Episcopal Church was 
organized a Prayer. Book was compiled in 
1783 which made too radical departures from 
the English usage to meet with general ac¬ 
ceptance. Another was adopted in 1789 in 
which the most noteworthy change, aside 
from things required by local conditions, was 
the omission of the Athanasian Creed. An¬ 
other Prayer Book of the Protestant Epis¬ 
copal Church was published in 1892 after a 
revision carried on through nine years, aim¬ 
ing at liturgical flexibility and enrichment, 
but with due regard to conformity with the 
use of the Mother Church in England. In 
1913 at the General Convention of the 
Church a joint commission consisting of sev¬ 
en bishops, seven presbyters and seven lay¬ 
men was appointed to consider the revision 
and enrichment of the Prayer Book pro¬ 
vided certain conditions were complied with. 
In 1929 after a period of fifteen years de¬ 
voted to study and revision, the new Prayer 
Book was issued. The most important of its 


many changes are those relating to the mar¬ 
riage service. 

Praying Wheel, a mechanical device used 
by the Buddhists of Tibet and Central Asia 
as an aid to prayer. It is generally formed of 
a pasteboard cylinder, wrapped in long paper 
bands inscribed w i t li repetitions of the 



Praying Wheel (Tibet) 


prayer, Om muni pa (hue hum , which may be 
translated, ‘Oh, the jewel in the Lotus,’ re¬ 
ferring to the incarnation of Buddah in a 
lotus flower. The efficacy of the devotion is 
reckoned by the number of revolutions made 
by the wheel. 

Prebend, a term originally applied to the 
food given monks at their common table. In 
English ecdesia.dical law it now refers to an 
endowment given to a cathedral or collegiate 
church for the support of a secular priest or 
a regular canon. The holder of a prebend is 
called a prebendary. 

Precedence, the order in which individu¬ 
als are entitled to be seated at a, public din¬ 
ner, presented at any public function, or fol¬ 
low each other in procession. In the United 
States where there is no hereditary ranking, 
the most generally accepted order of pre¬ 
cedence is as follows: The President, the 
Vice President and President of the Senate, 
ambassadors in their order, the Chief Justice 
of the United States. Senators, the Speaker 
of the House, Representatives in Congress, 
associate justices of the Supreme Court, the 
Secretary of State, members of the Diplo¬ 
matic Corps, other than ambassadors, and 
foreign members of international commis¬ 
sions, the Secretary of the Treasury, the 
Secretary of War, the Attorney-General, the 
Postmaster - General, the Secretary of the 
Navy, the Secretary of the Interior, the Sec- 
, ref ary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Com¬ 
merce, the Secretary of Labor, the general of 
the army and the admiral of the navy, the 
governors of States, followed by the various 
army and navy officers, government officials 
and the like. 

Precentor, occasionally called Cantor, 
generally the leader of the musical portion of 
the service in a church; specifically an officer 
in an English cathedral, in rank next to dean, 
who has the direction of the music. 



Preceptory 


3819 


Premium 


Preceptory, a religious house belonging to 
the order of the Knights Templars. The three 
principal provincial preceptories were those 
of Jerusalem, Tripoli, and Antioch. 

Precession, a slow retrograde movement of 
the equinoctial points of the ecliptic, by which 
the interval between successive equinoxes is 
shortened by 20 minutes. The annual amount 
of the shift, called the ‘constant of preces¬ 
sion,’ is 50-25", giving 25,868 years as the 
period of one complete revolution of the 
vernal equinox. The phenomenon was dis¬ 
covered about 130 b.c. by Hipparchus, 
through its effects in changing the apparent 
places of the stars. 

Precipitation, a chemical action in which 
a solid is caused to separate from a solu¬ 
tion or sometimes from a gas. The process is ; 
utilized to purify solutions, and is also em¬ 
ployed in analysis. 

Predestination, a term meaning the decree 
of God by which all things are foreordained, 
and by which, in particular, some men are 
predetermined (elected) to salvation and 
others to perdition — the preordination to 
death being often called reprobation. 

Predicables, the name given to a certain 
logical classification of the kinds of predicates 
that may be affirmed of the subject of a 
proposition. By Aristotle four such predica¬ 
tes were recognized— ws. the definition, the 
genus (under which the differentia was in¬ 
cluded) , the proprium, and the accident. The 
predicate must either be convertible with— 
le, have the same application as—the subject 
or not, and if convertible, it must either ex¬ 
press the essence of the subject (definition) 
or not (proprium = attribute peculiar to the 
subject, and therefore convertible); and if 
not convertible, it must either be part of the 
essence (genus) or not (accident = an attri¬ 
bute neither essential nor peculiar). 

Pre-emption. In the United States, under 
the Pre-emption Act of 1841, an actual set¬ 
tler on the public lands enjoys the right, in 
preference to any one else, of purchasing at 
a fixed price the land on which he has settled, 
to the extent of not more than 160 acres. In 
the case of ‘offered’ lands the settler must 
file his ‘.declaratory statement’ within thirty 
days after entry, and within a year proof 
must be made of settlement and cultivation, 
and the land thereupon paid for, at $1.25 per 
acre if outside the limits of a railroad grant, 
or $2.50 if within such limits. 

Pre-existence,, the doctrine of the soul’s 
existence before union with the body, is one 
of the world’s common stock of ideas. It ex- I 


j isted in India, where the Brahmans justified 
and explained the caste system by proclaim¬ 
ing man’s position in the world to be the 
consequence of his merits or demerits in a 

previous state. It was found in Greece, where 
the Pythagoreans added the Egyptian con¬ 
ception of transmigration. Pre - existence, 
taught by Philo of Alexandria, was adopted 
by Origen, but combated by Augustine, and 
rejected by the Council of Constantinople, 
Trahucianism and Creationism being adop¬ 
ted subsequently as alternative beliefs. Direct 
intellectual interest in the doctrine of pre¬ 
existence has nearly died out in modem times, 
yet the dream has again and again haunted 
individual thinkers. 

Prefect, a name applicable to various 
Roman functionaries. The most important 
was the Prefect us urbi. or warden of the 
city, whose office existed at an early period 
of Roman history, but was revived under 
Augustus, with new and greatly altered and 
extended authority, including the whole 
powers necessary for the maintenance of peace 
and order in the city, and an extensive juris¬ 
diction civil and criminal. 

Preferential Voting. See Elections. 

Preferred Stock. See Stock. 

Pregnancy, the condition following fertil¬ 
ization of the female ovum, and lasting until 
delivery. 

Prehnite, a hydrated calcium and alumin¬ 
um silicate, which is a frequent secondary 
mineral in igneous rocks, and is derived from 
the decomposition of feldspar. 

Prelate (Latin prcelat-us, ‘one set over’), a 
holder of those dignities in the church, to 
which, of their own right, is attached a prop¬ 
er jurisdiction. In this sense the name com¬ 
prises not only bishops, but also the heads 
of religious orders, abbots or priors, and 
other, similar dignitaries. In the papal house¬ 
hold many not possessing episcopal jurisdic¬ 
tion have the insignia and title of prelate; and 
these honors are frequently bestowed on 
clergy whose duties keep them far from 
Rome. 

Prelude, in music, is.used to designate. a 
preliminary section of an introductory na¬ 
ture. Fugues'frequently contain this feature, 
and the first movement of a suite, is usually 
styled a prelude.' Chopin and others have 
used the name as the title of.a species of 
composition. 

Premium (Latin Prczmmm ) ‘profit,’ ‘re¬ 
ward’) is a term used in several connections 
in the world of commerce. In currency, it is 
the difference of value between gold and 




Prendergast 


3820 


Presbyterianism 


silver and paper notes of the same nominal 
amount. In insurance it is a sum periodically 
paid to secure from a company or association 
a stated amount in certain contingencies of 
loss or damage. Again, it means the sum paid 
in consideration of being taught a trade or 
profession; or it may be used in the sense 
of bonus, a sum given in respect of services 
rendered in addition to stated wages. Stock 
is said to be at a premium when its price is 
quoted above par—its face value. 

Prendergast, Edmond Francis (1843“ 
1918), American Roman Catholic prelate, was 
born in Clonmel, Ireland. He came to the 
United States in 1859; he was consecrated 
auxiliary bishop of Philadelphia. From 1895 
to 189.7 he was vicar-general of the arch¬ 
diocese, and in 1911 was appointed arch¬ 
bishop. 

Prendergast, William A. (1867- ), 

American public official, was born in New 
York City, and was educated in the public 
schools of New York and Brooklyn. From 
1907 to 1909 he was register of Kings County, 
N. Y., and in 1909 he was elected controller 
of the City of New York. He was active in 
the organization of the Progressive Party. 
From 1921-30 he was chairman, Public Serv¬ 
ice Commission, New York State. 

Preposition, in grammar, the part of 
speech which connects a noun or a pronoun 
in an adjectival or adverbial sense with some 
other word, and which denotes position, di¬ 
rection, time, or similar relationship. 

Prepotency, a term used in discussions on 
heredity. Thus, if an organism A be mated 
with an organism B, and the resultant off¬ 
spring partake more of the characters of A 
than of those of B, then A is described as 
being prepotent. 

Pre-Raphaelites, a designation usually ap¬ 
plied to those artists of the nineteenth cen¬ 
tury who imitated the art of the Italian 
painters before Raphael. The name is com¬ 
monly used of the group of English artists 
originally. comprising, W. : H o 1 m a n Hunt, 
Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and, in his earlier 
period, John Everett Millais. Hunt, Rossetti, 
and Millais determined to disregard all ar¬ 
bitrary rules of existing schools, and to seek 
their own road in art by the patient study 
of nature, on which the great masters had 
founded their strength of style. Broadly 
speaking, their work is characterized by an 
exaggerated emphasis of detail, such as is 
found in the simpler art that preceded the 
advent of Raphael. Ford Madox Brown, 
from first to last, was in sympathy with the 


work of the younger men, and exercised a 
strong influence on them. For a time in 1850 
they published a periodical, the Germ , in 
which some of Rossetti’s earliest poetical 
work and his fine prose study, Hand and 
Soul, appeared. There can now be little ques¬ 
tion that the Pre-Raphaelite school has ex¬ 
ercised a powerful influence upon modern art. 
One of its chief ambitions from the begin¬ 
ning was the restoration of decorative art, 
and the sincere expression of spiritual and 
poetic feeling which had almost disappeared 
from British art. 

Prerau, or Prerov, town, Moravia. It 
has an old castle and a Gothic town hall. 
Manufactures include hardware, machinery, 
and sugar. It was formerly the chief seat of 
the Moravian Brethren; p. 21,416. 

Prerogative, in England, the right per¬ 
taining to certain offices, now commonly used 
in reference to the crown. The royal pre¬ 
rogative is a power of the crown that does 
not depend on the sanction of Parliament. 

Presbyter, an officer in the early church 
who acted essentially in a judicial capacity. 
The presbyters were the older men in the 
community and by some authorities the pres¬ 
byters and bishops are held to be originally 
identical It is more probable, however, that 
the bishops, aided by the deacons, were the 
administrative officers who directed divine 
worship and financial affairs. As the growth 
of church organizations progressed the eld¬ 
ers of the community formed two groups, 
the ruling and the executive officials, called 
bishops and deacons. At first the term pres¬ 
byter was applied only to the bishops but 
later presbyters and bishops were-identified, 
the terms became titles of separate officers 
and the hoard of executive officers were called 
presbyters while the head of the entire cong¬ 
regation was known as the bishop. 

Presbyterianism, a form of ecclesiastical 
government by courts composed of presby¬ 
ters (see Elders), being opposed to episco¬ 
pacy on the one hand, and to Congregation¬ 
alism on the other. Strictly interpreted, the 
term Presbyterian includes all bodies ac¬ 
cepting the principle of government by pres¬ 
byteries, regardless of their theological teach¬ 
ings. In general, however, Presbyterians are 
strongly Galvinistic. 

The Presbyterian form of worship is sim¬ 
ple. The church recognizes no priest save 
Jesus Christ, and its ministers exercise no 
priestly functions, but are simply preachers 
and spiritual leaders of the people. It ob¬ 
serves two sacraments — Baptism, which is 



Presbyterianism 


3821 


Presbyterianism 


administered both to infants and adults, 
either by sprinkling or pouring, and the 
Lord’s Supper. Scripture reading, non-Iit- 
urgical prayer, the singing of hymns, and 
preaching constitute the usual service. The 
irreducible unit in Presbyterianism is the 
congregation, in which there are three classes 
of officers—the pastor, the ruling elders, and 
the deacons, who are elected by the congre¬ 
gation. The congregation is governed by "the 
church session, composed of the elders,* pre¬ 
sided over by the pastor. This body is under 
the authority of the next higher court—to 
wit, the presbytery, in which all the cong¬ 
regations within a certain defined district are 
represented, each by its pastor and an elder. 
Over this^ is placed the synod, comprising the 
presbyteries, within a large province or sec¬ 
tion of the land; while the supreme court 
of Presbyterianism is the' General Assembly, 
to which all the presbyteries in the church 
send representatives. 

The first step in the organization of the 
Presbyterian church in Scotland was taken in 
1557, when the barons of the land bound 
themselves by the First Covenant to combat 
Roman Catholicism and to support the Re¬ 
formation. In 1559 John Knox, returning 
from Geneva, instilled new life into the 
movement; and in 1560 papal jurisdiction 
and the mass were abolished by Parliament, 
and the Reformed Church duly established. 
In 1577 a logical and thorough presbyterian 
system of church government was outlined. 
A century of conflict with episcopacy fol¬ 
lowed, which was brought to an end by the 
Revolution of 1688 and the formal re-estab¬ 
lishment of the Presbyterian Church (1690). 

The Secession Church of Scotland, begun 
in 1733 by the withdrawal of the Established 
Church of Ebenezer Erskine and three other 
ministers, as a protest against lay patronage 
and the Socinian tendencies of the church, 
enjoyed considerable popularity, those who 
limited the power of the state to secular mat¬ 
ters being called ‘New Lights,’ and the others 
‘Old Lights.’ Of the four bodies thus formed, 
the New Lights continued as separate church¬ 
es until 1847,.when they united with the Re¬ 
lief Church to form the United Presbyterian 
Church. The Old Lights of the Anti-Burgher 
division formed the Synod of the Original 
Seceders, while the Old Light Burghers re¬ 
joined the Established Church. 

The United Presbyterian Church was 
formed by the union of the Relief and Seces¬ 
sion churches on May 13, 1847. It continued 
to do effective work till, by the union with l 


the Free Church in 1900, it was merged in 
■ the United Free Church. 

The Reformed Church of Scotland, or Re¬ 
formed Presbyterians, was descended from 
the Cameronians and Covenanters, who 
withdrew from the church in 1712 because 
of the interference of the state in ecclesiastical 
affairs. In 1S76 the majority united with the 
Free Church; the minority continued, as 
Reformed Presbyterians. 

The Free Church of Scotland dates from 
the ‘Disruption’ of 1S43, though the cause 
of its separate existence was the restoration 
of lay patronage in 1712. On Oct. 31, 1900, 
the Free Church was joined with the United 
Presbyterian Church, the new bod}’ taking 
the name of The United Free Church of 
Scotland. After the establishment of William 
on the throne many Scottish settlers made 
their homes in the n. of Ireland, which there¬ 
by became strongly Presbyterian. Defection 
on doctrinal grounds weakened the church, 
which later sustained further losses by em¬ 
igration to America. In 1840 union was ef¬ 
fected between the parent synod of Ulster 
and that which had seceded, and the Pres¬ 
byterian Church of Ireland was organized. 

The earliest Presbyterian churches in the 
United States were established in New Eng¬ 
land, Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia, and 
were largely of English origin. In 1S01 a plan 
of union with the Congregational bodies of 
New England was agreed upon, which al¬ 
lowed the interchange of Presbyterian and 
Congregational ministers and the formation 
of churches composed of members of both 
denominations. Disruptions occurred over the 
question of slavery, resulting in the forma¬ 
tion of new organizations in the South. 

The Presbyterian Church in the United 
States of America has undergone consider¬ 
able change in its administrative organiza¬ 
tion, as the result of the consolidation of a 
number of its boards and agencies. 

The Cumberland Presbyterian Church 
grew out of a revival in the Cumberland 
Valley in Kentucky and Tennessee, which 
resulted in a dearth of' ministers for the 
churches and the irregular ordination of men 
without the customary . training. The Synod 
accordingly .dissolved, the Cumberland Pres- ■" 
bytery, suspended some of the ministers, and 
attached the rest to another presbytery. In 
1810 an independent body was organized as 
the Cumberland Presbytery; its doctrine be¬ 
ing moderately Calvinistic. In 1906 the Gen¬ 
eral Assembly of the Cumberland Church 
united with that of the Presbyterian Church 



Prescott 


3822 


in the United States of America. A consider¬ 
able number of Cumberland Presbyterian 
churches constituted a new assembly in 1906, 
perpetuating the name and organization. The 
Cumberland Presbyterian Church, Colored, 
was organized in .1869. 

The Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church 
was an offshoot of the body of the same name 
in Wales. The first church was organized at 
Remsen, N. Y., in 1826. 

The United Presbyterian Church of North 
America is the outgrowth of the union of 
Scottish immigrants and their descendants 
who had belonged to the Secession Presby¬ 
terians and the Associate and the Reformed 
Presbyterians of Scotland. 

The Associate Synod of North America is 
the continuance of those Associate and Re¬ 
formed Presbyterian bodies which did not 
enter the union out of which came the Uni¬ 
ted Presbyterian Church. 

The Associate Reformed Presbyterian 
Church is the result of a withdrawal in 1821 
from the Associate Reformed Church, at the 
time when the United Presbyterian Church 
was organized. 

The Reformed Presbyterian (Covenanter) 
Church was organized in 1798 and developed 
into a synod in 1809, hut was divided in 1833 
on the question of the relation of its mem¬ 
bers to the Government of the United States. 
The two parties were termed ‘Old Light’ and 
‘New Light/ The former became the Synod 
of the Reformed Church of North America. 
It refuses to allow its members to vote or 
hold office until there is constitutional recog¬ 
nition of God as the source of power, of Jesus 
as ruler, and of the Bible as the rule of life. 1 
The General Synod of the Reformed Church 
in North America, the other party to the di¬ 
vision of 1833, is known as the ‘New Light’ 
and its members exercise their discretion as 
to participation in political affairs. 

The Presbyterian Church in the United 
.States of America Is the largest Presbyterian 
body. The Presbyterian Church in the Uni¬ 
ted States (Southern) is the second largest 
Presbyterian body. 

Prescott,. city, Arizona, county seat of 
Yavapai co., situated at an altitude of 5,347 
ft., partly surrounded by Prescott National 
Forest,, is widely, known as a. health resort. 
The region abounds in gold, silver, and cop¬ 
per. The livestock industry is important; p. 
(1930)6,018. 

Prescott, George Bartlett (1830-94), 
American electrician, was born in Kingston, 
N. H. In 1858-66 he was superintendent of 


Prescott 

the American Telegraph Company, ancTffi 
1866-9 superintendent of the Western Union 
Telegraph Company. He was joint inventor 
with 1 ho mas A. Edison of several duplex 
and quadruplex telegraph instruments (1870- 
[). hi 1873-83 hr was electrician to the In¬ 
ternational Telegraph Company. In 1883 he 
visited London, and on his return home in¬ 
troduced the pneumatic tube system of trans¬ 
mitting messages in New York City. He was 
autnor ot various works on electricity. 

Prescott, William Hickling (1796-1859), 
American historian. In 18n he entered the 
sophomore class at Harvard College. In his 
junior year a blow from a piece of hard 
bread, carelessly thrown by a fellow student 
in the commons hall, destroyed the sight of 
his left eye. In spite of this serious handi¬ 
cap, however, he finished his college course 
in 1814 with sufficient credit to secure elec¬ 
tion to membership in the Phi Beta, Kappa 
Society. For a few months following his grad- 


William II. Prescott. 

nation he read law in his father’s office; but 
an acute attack of rheumatism, centering in 
his right eye, imperilled his life, and put an 
end for the lime being to all plans of regu¬ 
lar study or work. He continued to suffer 
Irom rheumatism, accompanied by intervals 
of blindness, throughout his life; and it was 
only by the exercise of the strictest self- 
discipline that he was able to pursue his lit¬ 
erary labors. . . 

In 1821 Prescott wrote for The North Am¬ 
erican Review a criticism of Byron’s Letters 
on Pope; and from that year until iS 50 he 
continued to be a regular contributor to that 
periodical. J he best of these were subsequent- 




Prescription 

ly collected and published (1845) in Eng- 
land as Critical and Historical Essays , and in 
America as Biographical and Critical Mis¬ 
cellanies. In 1S26 Prescott decided to devote 
himself to the writing of Spanish history, a 
decision undoubtedly influenced by the lec¬ 
tures of George Ticknor on Spanish litera¬ 
ture ; and in that year he began his first great 
historical work, Ferdinand and Isabella . He 
then began The Conquest of Mexico, the 
most popular of his works, which appeared 
m 1843, and which added still further to his 
reputation. The Conquest of Peru , a sequence 
to The Conquest of Mexico, was begun in 
1S44, and published in 1847. Later came the 
Reign of Philip II. 

In. 1850 Prescott visited England and the 
Continent, and was everywhere enthusiastic¬ 
ally received. In addition to his reviews and 
his four great historical works already men¬ 
tioned, Prescott wrote a Life of Charles 
Brockden Brown (1833) for ‘Sparks’ Library 
of American Biography,’ a memoir of John 
Pickering (1848) for the Massachusetts His. 
torical Society, and a continuation of Rob¬ 
ertson’s Charles the Fifth (1856). As a whole, 
his writings have stood the test of time, and 
are still the best histories of the events with 
which they deal. They have appeared in var¬ 
ious editions, and have been translated into 
several languages. 

.Prescription, a physician’s formula for 
his. prescribed medicines. Formerly written 
entirely in Latin, now Latin is usually em¬ 
ployed only in names of ingredients used. It 
is only by their botanical or chemical names 
that drugs can be definitely indicated, but 
the directions are now written in English. 

Prescription. In the most general sense 
of the. term the acquisition or extinction of 
legal rights by lapse of time. More specifical¬ 
ly, however, in our legal system the term is 
limited to the acquisition by long and unin¬ 
terrupted use of the various classes of rights 
known, as rights in another’s land. Both in 
the United States and England twenty years’ 
use is now generally declared by statute'to be 
necessary for the acquisition of a legal right. 

. Presentment. In law, technically, the ac¬ 
tion of a grand jury in taking notice of a 
crime of their own knowledge, where a bill 
of indictment has not been urged by the pub¬ 
lic prosecutor. In its broadest sense it in¬ 
cludes the finding of an indictment, and the 
presentment of a matter before any public 
body for its consideration. 

President of the United States.; The 


3823 


President 


chief executive chosen for a term of four 
years by an electoral college. In case of death, 
removal, resignation or inability, his place is 
taken by the Vice President. Under the Con¬ 
stitution the President, by and with the con- 
sent .01 the Senate, is empowered to make 
treaties, to appoint ambassadors and foreign 
ministers. The President is commander-in- 
chief of the land and naval forces of the 
United States. The power of direction over 
the executive departments was not clearly 
recognized by early Congresses. The act of 
1789 creating the Treasury Department con¬ 
templated the direct responsibility of the 
head of that department to Congress. In cre¬ 
ating the Postal Department, also, Congress 
failed to prescribe presidential direction. In 
his struggle with the United States Bank 
President Jackson, through successive re- 
movals of secretaries of the Treasury who 
refused to adopt his policy, definitely ^estab¬ 
lished the control of the President over all 
the executive departments. General control 
over the administration is exercised through 
the issue of ordinances or executive regula- 
tions. Thus there are organized codes of reg¬ 
ulations for the post office, the consular serv¬ 
ice, the army and navy, etc. Such regula¬ 
tions are sometimes issued by express” au¬ 
thority of Congress; sometimes as an exer¬ 
cise of the executive power. 

The constitutional legislative powers of 
the President are the veto power; the power 
to.lay before Congress communications re¬ 
lative to the state of the nation and to re¬ 
commend such legislation as he may deem 
expedient; and the powder to summon Con¬ 
gress in extraordinary session and to ad¬ 
journ it in case the two houses fail to agree 
upon a date of adjournment. All measures 
and resolutions voted by Congress, excepting 
a motion to adjourn, must be submitted to 
the President for approval; if he disapprove 
of such measures, a two-thirds vote in Con¬ 
gress is required for enactment. He is subject ’ 
to impeachment by the Senate for treason or 
other high.crimes or misdemeanors. Upon the 
expiration of his term of office he becomes 
liable for wrongful acts committed in his 
term of office. In case of death of both Pres¬ 
ident .and Vice .President elect, there is no > 
constitutional or statutory provision for fill¬ 
ing the office of President for the succeeding 
term. Constitutional qualifications for the 
Presidency are citizenship acquired by Am¬ 
erican birth, 14 years’ residence in the* U. S., 
and an age of not less than 35 years. His 




Press 


3824 


Prestonpans 


official residence is the White House, Wash¬ 
ington. For the mode of election, see Elec¬ 
tions. 

Press* Freedom of the. In England and 
the American colonies the si niggles against 
censorship of the press were marked by com¬ 
mon recognition of the facts that the ‘govern¬ 
ment may be criticised, and that the right of 
criticism ought always to be unfettered in 
matters plainly affecting the public good and 
public safety. There arose among friends of 
popular government there a conviction that 
the press was an indispensable instrument in 
securing its progress and permanence. But it 
was not till 1764, when the North Briton of 
John Wilkes was prosecuted by Grenville's 
ministry, that the right of the press to dis¬ 
cuss public affairs was established. Six years 
later the failure of the prosecution directed 
against ‘Junius’ for his Letter to the /way 
established the right of the press to criticize 
the conduct, not of ministers of Parliament 
only, but of the sovereign himself. 

In the American colonies, the governors 
were intrusted with the power of royal cen¬ 
sorship, but its exercise was strongly resisted. 
The methods of English opponents of a free 
press were practiced in Pennsylvania, New 
York, and other colonies. The most notable 
case was that of Peter Zenger, the publisher 
of the New York Weekly Journal , who was 
tried for libel. By their verdict of acquittal 
in 1735 the jury, ignoring the admonition of 
the presiding chief justice, assumed to decide 
both the law and the fact, and thereby es¬ 
tablished for all the colonies a precedent 
which assured free discussion. On the con¬ 
tinent of Europe no rigid censorship exists; 
but in its place, and in apparent defiance of 
constitutional provisions to the contrary, 
there are severe laws against certain activities 
of the press in several of the countries. 

Press Associations, local, national, or 
international associations for the collection 
and dissemination of news. The idea of col¬ 
lecting news and selling it to subscribers ap¬ 
pears to have originated with Paul Julius 
Reuter, a German telegraph employee, who 
about 1845 opened an office in Aix-la-Chap- 
elle. In 1851, having induced the London 
Times to try his service, he moved to London, 
where the business was conducted ^ ith such 
care and accuracy, especially with regard to 
political news, that the service was soon in¬ 
dispensable to every important newspaper in 
England and on the Continent. About 1857 
the New York Associated Press was organ¬ 
ized, with an agent in all large cities of the 


United States. It has photographic and feat¬ 
ure services as well as being the largest dis¬ 
tributor and gatherer of news, with private 
wire system. There are various other well 
known press associations and many press 
services which specialize in providing photo¬ 
graphs and feature news. 

Pressburg, or Bratislava, town, Slo¬ 
vakia, capital of the district of Bratislava, 
on the left hank of the Danube; 58 miles 
northeast of Odenburg. Pressburg is the cen¬ 
ter of a wheat and vine growing district. 
Glassware, musical instruments, gloves, min¬ 
eral oik champagne, and edible fats are the 
principal articles of commerce. Since the 
Great War it has become the chief Slo¬ 
vakian port on the Danube and has been 
greatly enlarged, and improved; p. 93,189. 

Press-clipping Bureaus, firms whose bus¬ 
iness is to supply extracts from the press of 
the United States and abroad on any partic¬ 
ular subject to those interested in such in¬ 
formation. 

Pressgang, a term in Great Britain denot¬ 
ing a gang or detachment of seamen em¬ 
ployed on shore to impress seafaring men and 
others into the king’s service in time of em¬ 
ergency. 

Pressure, a force which depends on two 
factors, being proportional to the force ex¬ 
erted, and inversely as the area acted on. 
Thus, if a force of 20 lbs. weight, is concen- 
trated on an area of 1 sq. inch, the pressure 
will In* 100 times greater than if the same 
force is spread over 100 sq. inches. 

Pressure Gauge, an instrument for indi¬ 
cating the pressure of a Hu id contained in a 
vessel. 

Prestcr John, or Presbyter John, a per¬ 
sonage believed in the 12th century to be 
reigning over a Christian kingdom in the Far 
East. In the popular belief he was often 
identified with the apostle John. Opinions 
differ as to the original of this practically 
mythical cha racier. 

Presto, a term in music meaning that the 
composition should he performed in a rapid 
manner. 

Preston, Thomas Scott (1824-91), Amer¬ 
ican Roman Catholic cleric. He served in 
several parishes in New York, and became 
private secretary to Archbishop Hughes. 
From 1853 to 1873 he was chancellor of the 
archdiocese; from 1873 to r88i, vicar-gen¬ 
eral; and domestic chaplain to the Pope from 
rS8i onward, with the title of Monsignor. 

Prefctonpan*, town on the n.w, coast of 
Haddingtonshire, Scotland; 9 miles e, of Ed- 



Presumption 


3825 


Pride 


inburgh. Near here Prince Charles Edward 
defeated the Royal troops under Sir John 
Cope (Sept. 21, 1745). 

Presumption of law is an inference drawn 
by the law in certain cases which may either 
be absolutely conclusive and irrebuttable by 
contrary evidence, or hold good only if the 
contrary is not proved. Examples of irre¬ 
buttable presumptions are that every one 
knows the ordinary law of the country or 
State, and that persons below seven are in¬ 
capable of committing crime. The second 
class may be illustrated by the presumption 
that persons who have not been heard of for 
seven years or some other period fixed by 
law are dead; that a husband is the father of 
his wife’s child; that a prisoner is innocent. 

Pretoria, city, seat of administration of the 
Union of South Africa, and capital of Trans¬ 
vaal prov. Pretoria University h located here 
and there are iron and cement industries. 
Pretoria was laid out in 1855, and named 
after Andries Pretorius, first president of the 
South African Republic. It succeeded Pot- 
chef stroom as the seat of government in 
1863. On June 5, 1900, it was captured by 
Lord Roberts, at the head of the British 
army. In 1909 it was made the seat of ad¬ 
ministration of the newly formed Union of 
South Africa; p. 96,500. 

Prevost, Abbe (1697-1763), Antoine 
Francois Prevost cTExiles, commonly called 
the Abbe Prevost, and immortal as the au¬ 
thor of Manon Lescaut, was bom in Hesdin, 
France. At twenty-four he joined the Bene¬ 
dictines of St. Maur. In 1728 he published the 
first of his novels, the Memoires d’tin Hom¬ 
me de Qualite, to which Manon Lescaut 
forms a kind of supplement. He was be¬ 
friended by Cardinal de Bissy, and by the 
Prince de Conti, whose chaplain he became, 
and in thirty years lie wrote over a hundred 
volumes. Manon Lescaut remains fresh, 
charming, and perennial. One feels in this 
unique book that it is impossible to say where 
reality ends and fiction begins, and it re¬ 
mains to this day unequalled as a truthful 
realization of one overmastering passion. 

Prevost, Marcel' (1862-1941), French 
novelist and dramatist, born in Paris. He was 
a civil engineer until 1890. His first success as 
a novelist was with Le Scorpion (1887). His 
earlier works include Mademoiselle Jauffre 
(1889); La Cousine Laura (1890). Les Demi- 
Merges (1894) is a study of the effect of a 
Parisian education and social life on young 
women, and it is for his delineations of 
feminine psychology that Prevost is especi- 


| ally known. Later works include Les Vierges 
fortes (1900) ; Les Lettres a Frangoise 
(1902); L’honime Vierge (1929). 

Prevost-Paradol, Lucien Anatole (1829- 
70), French journalist, was born in Paris. 
In 1855 lie was appointed professor of French 
literature at Aix. He at once became a con¬ 
tributor to the Journal des Debats and Cour¬ 
ier du Dimanche; and from time to time 
be published collections of essays on litera¬ 
ture and politics, of which the best is his 
Essais sur les Moralistes Frangais (1864). He 
was elected to the Academy (1865), and in 
1868 visited England. On the accession of 
Ollivier to power (1870) he allowed himself 
to accept the post of envoy to the United 
States. Scarcely was he installed when the 
war with Germany broke out, and Prevost- 
Paradol, his mind unhinged, committed sui¬ 
cide at Washington. His works include: Essai 
de Politique cl de Litterature (3 vols., 1S59- 
63); Quclones Pages d'Histoire Coniempo- 
raine (1862) ; La France Nouvelle (1868). 
Consult Greard’s Prevost-Paradol. 

Priam, or Priamus, king of Troy at the 
time, of the Trojan War, was the son of Lao- 
medon and Strymo or Placia. 

Priapus, in ancient Greek mythology, a 
son of Dionysus and Aphrodite. He was es¬ 
pecially worshipped at Lampsacus on the 
Hellespont. He represented the reproductive 
power and fertility of nature. Rude images 
of him often stood in gardens; he was 
represented carrying a sickle, and with a large 
phallus . Priapus was also regarded as a deity 
of lascivious passion. 

Pribylov (Pribilof) Islands, a group of 
islands in Bering Sea, Alaska. They are also 
known as the Fur Seal Islands. They' are a 
chief center of seal fishing. 

Prickly Heat ( Miliaria papulosa), a. skin 
disease characterized by minute but extreme¬ 
ly irritable red papules formed by hyper¬ 
emia of the sweat glands. The . condition 
is due to excessive sweating, such as. oc¬ 
curs in a hot climate. It seldom calls .for 
treatment,, but when the irritation is. very 
severe, sponging with an alkaline lotion 
gives relief. Those who suffer from, prickly . 
heat should take as little fluid as pos¬ 
sible. . 

Pride, Thomas (d. 1658) , one of the.most 
resolute of. Cromwell’s soldiers. On Parlia¬ 
ment showing a tendency to treat with the 
king, Pride, under orders from Fairfax, set 
a guard round the House of Commons, and 
excluded about ninety members favorable to 
an agreement (1648) . This act became known 



Pr I e ne _ _ . ____ Primates 


its ‘Pride’s Purge/ Pride was a commissioner 
for the trial of ('harks i., and signed his 
death warrant. 

Priene, anciently one ni tfie ‘t we! ve" cities 
of Iona, situated northwest of the mouth of 
the River Mwander, in Curia. Hie remains 
of the ancient city have been brought to light. 

Priest, the title, in sis most general signifi¬ 
cation, of a. niinister of public worship, but 
specially applied to the minister of sacrifice 
or other mediatorial office's. In Egypt the 
population Is supposed to have been divided 
info three or four eastes, at tin* head of 
which was tin* sacerdotal, or priests. Their j 
(1 utii'S appear to have comprised the genera 1 : 
cult us of the deity; the\ af-o interpreted tln* : 
oracles oi the temples. Beside.- the prophets ; 
of the gods, others were attai bed to the wor- 
shi[) of the kirn:, a nr I to varioiw oftices con¬ 
nected with the admini.-tration of the temples. 
The class ot priests called ah, or ‘pure/ were 
interior, and were also attached to the prin¬ 
cipal deities and to the personal worship of 
the monarch. They were required to be 
scrupulously neat tend clean, entirely shaven 
and ascetic in their diet, bathing and fasting , 
frequently. 

The priest hood of India, belongs to the 
first caste, or that of Brahmans, exclusively 
(see Oastk). But as the proper performance : 
of such functions requires, even in a Brah¬ 
man, the knowledge of the sacred texts to be 


common, 'flu* hoI\ order of priesthood can 
only be coni erred by a bishop, and he is or¬ 
dinarily assBfcd by two or more priests, who 
In common with the bishop, impose hands 
on the candidate. The rest of the ceremonial 
; n! ordination ron-T-ts in investing the cand¬ 
idate with the -acred iw-trumems and orna¬ 
ments of Ins order, anoint in;/ his hands, and 
reciting certain pra\ ers significative of the 
gifts and tlie dut ies of the office. 

I'he distinguishing vestment of the cele¬ 
brant prkst in the Mass is the Chasuble . In 
Catholic count ries jiriests wear even in pub¬ 
lic a datinrtive decs-, in most respects com¬ 
mon to them with the other orders of clergy. 

Priestley, John Boynton (1894- ) 

Kindis!) novelist and critic, wrote Good Com- 
pit)ih>u v (1 «)*’<)); AnyC Pavement (1930); 

1 Knejhdi Journey ( 11)34 5 * 

Priestley, Joseph (1 733-1804) , English 
| chemist, was horn near Birsta.II, Yorkshire. 

; 11 was while acting as literary companion to 
the Karl of Sheibourne that he made (1774) 
his epoi h -making discovery of oxygen. His 
later work on nitric oxide, hydrogen chlo¬ 
ride, silicon fluoride, sulphur dioxide, am¬ 
monia, air, and carbon monoxide was also 
of the highest value; and, in the rase of his 
observations of the action of electric sparks 
on the air, led to the analysis of the latter by 
( avendish. He was the first to apply carbon 
dioxide in aerating waters. 


recited at a. sacrifice, and of the complicated 
ceremonial of which the sacrificial acts con¬ 
sist, none hut a Brahman learned in one or 
more Vedas, and versed in the works treat¬ 
ing of the ritual, possesses, according to the 
ancient law, the qualifications of a priest. 

The Mosaic priesthood was the inheritance 
of the family of Aaron, of the tribe of Levi. 
It consisted of a high priest, and of inferior 
ministers, distributed 1* n t n twenty - four 
classes. 

The name given in classical Greek to the 
sacrificing priests of the pagan religion, Greek 
hi ere us, Katin sacerdos , is not found in the 
New Testament explicity applied to ministers 
of the Christian ministry; but very early in j 
ecclesiastical use it appears as an ordinary j 
designation; and with all those bodies of j 
Christians—Roman Catholics, Greeks, Syri¬ 
ans, and other Orientals--*who regard the 
eucharist as a sacrifice (see Liturgy) the 
two names were applied indiscriminately. | 

The priesthood of the Christian Church is 
one of the grades of the hierarchy, second in 
order only to that of bishop, with which j 
order the priesthood has many functions in I 


Primage, a small allowance (from three to 
ten per cent.) formerfv paid, in addition to 
wages, to the captain of a ship by the 
freighter, as a recognition of his care in sup¬ 
erintending the loading and unloading of 
goods while the vewel was in port. 

Primary Colors, the name of the colors 
into which 'Newton arbitrarily divided the 
spectrum, though sometime restricted to the 
three colors, red, yellow, and bine from which 
all the other colors may be produced. See 
Color. 

Primate (Latin primus L anciently a bishop 
holding a position of pre-eminence. Thus the 
bishop of Rome rfaimed the primacy of the 
whole church. In the Church of England the 
title is peculiar to the Archbishop of York, 
who is Primate of England. 

Primates, the first order of mammals, so 
called because it includes man. The order in¬ 
cludes two sub-orders, which by some au¬ 
thorities are raised, to ordinal rank, These arc 
the Lrmuroiflea t or lemurs, and the Aft thro- 
ponied } including monkeys in the wide sense, 
anthropoid apes, and man. The Lemuroidea 
arc much lower in organization than the An- 





Prime...... . 3827 _ Prince 

thropoidea. The Anthropoidea are divided! mental plants. The name primrose (French 
into live families: (i) the Hapalidae, or \ Primevere, Latin Primula) is derived from 
marmosets,, (2) the Cebidas, or New World ? the Latin primus , ‘first,’ and refers to the 
mon rey s, ( 3 ; the Cercopithecidas, or Old ; early appearance of the flowers of some of 
World monkeys; (4) the Simiidae, or anthro- | the most common species in spring. The com- 
poid apes; and (5) the Hominidae, including : mon primrose (P. vulgaris) , abundant in 
only man. See Mammals. I 


Prime, Samuel Irenasus (1S12-S5) , Am¬ 
erican clergyman and editor, was born in 
Ballston Spa, N. Y. Becoming editor of the 
New York Observer , his Trenaeus’ articles, 
published weekly, were one of the features 
of the paper. 

Prime, William Cowper (1825-1905), 
American writer on art, was bom in Cam¬ 
bridge, N. Y. In 1874 be was appointed first 
vice-president of the Metropolitan Museum 
of Art, and in 1884, as the result of his ef¬ 
forts, the authorities at Princeton established 
a chair of the history of art, of which he be¬ 
came the first incumbent. 

Prime Minister, or Premier. In constitu¬ 
tional countries having responsible ministers, 
the prime minister is that member of the 
parliamentary body who is chosen by the 
sovereign or chief executive to form and as¬ 
sume the leadership of the cabinet or min¬ 
istry, which is composed of the heads of the 
administrative departments of state. The 
prime minister usually takes for himself the 
portfolio of foreign affairs and in Great Brit¬ 
ain is leader of that House of Parliament of 
which he is a member. 

Primer, any device for igniting the pro¬ 
pelling charge of small arms or cannon. 

Prime Vertical, a great circle passing 
through the zenith at right angles to the cel¬ 
estial meridian, and hence through the e. and 
w. points of the horizon. 

Prime de Rivera, Miguel (1870-1930), 
Spanish soldier and political leader. He was 
appointed to the difficult and dangerous post 
of Captain-General of Catalonia, which was 
in a condition of chaos, due to a breakdown 
of the parliamentary regime. In 1923 he be¬ 
came Dictator of Spain. He resigned in Janu¬ 
ary, 1930, going into exile voluntarily, and 
died soon after. 

Primogeniture, the rule of law under 
which the eldest son of the family succeeds 
to the father’s real estate in preference to, and 
in absolute exclusion of, the younger sons 
and all the sisters. 

Primrose ( Primula ), a genus of plants of 
the natural order Primulaceae. There are 
more than 100 species, mostly perennials and 
many beautiful hybrid forms have been de¬ 
veloped and extensively cultivated as orna- 


voods, hedgebanks, and pastures in most 
parts of Europe, has obovate-oblong, wrink¬ 
led leaves, and single-flowered scapes; the 
flowers about one inch broad, yellowish 
white. 

Primulaceae, an order of plants containing 
more than two hundred known species, most¬ 
ly inhabitants of the cooler parts of the 
world. Among its best known members are 
the primrose, cowslip, polyanthus, auricula, 
pimpernel, cyclamen, and soldanella. 

Prince, a title originally used to denote 
the person who was entitled princeps sena- 
tus in the Roman state. Subsequently it be¬ 
came a title of dignity. In the course of time 
it came to be applied to certain sovereigns of 
smaller states possessing more or less political 
independence. It is now very generally ap¬ 
plied to the sons of kings and emperors and 
persons of the blood royal, sometimes with a 
territorial title (Prince of Wales, Prince of 
Orange) , or with an addition, ‘crown prince,’ 
or ‘prince imperial.’ 

Prince, John Dyneley (1S6S- ), Ameri¬ 

can educator and diplomat, born in New 
York City; professor of Semitic languages 
(1892-1902), dean of the Graduate School 
(1895-1902) at New York University; and 
professor of Semitic languages (1902-15) and 
'of Slavonic languages (1915-21) at Columbia 
University. He was envoy extraordinary and 
minister plenipotentiary to Denmark (1921) 
and to Yugoslavia (1926-33). His writings 
include, Mene t Mene, T e k el, Upharsin 
(1893) ; Assyrian Primer (1909); Practical 
Grammar of the Lettish Language (1925) ; 
Grammar of the Serbo-Croatian Language 
(1929). 

Prince Edward Island, a province of the 

Dominion of Canada. The island is the shape 
of a crescent, with, its concave side toward 
the n. Its coast line, particularly on the 5., is 
very irregular, and deeply indented with 
arms of the ocean. The climate is milder than 
that of New Brunswick, and is not subject 
to,.such extremes. The soil is extremely fer¬ 
tile, and its great, productivity, has . given: to 
the island the popular name of the ‘Garden 
of the Gulf.’ The fisheries form an important 
source of revenue. Agriculture is the most 
important industry. Manufactures are not 
important and are mainly seasonal, being al- 



Princeton 


lied with the farming and trifling iiuiuslries. 
Fox farming was introduced about 1.SS7 and 
by a system of breeding a pure type of silver 
black foxes was established, the pelts of 
which brought such high prkes that t In¬ 
growth of their industn. uas asMired. There 
were in 193.* approximately 700 randies on 
the island ranging from two pairs up to over 
100 pairs per ranch. 

Prince Edward Island is the most densely 
settled province of Canada. Over 97 per cent, 
of the population is Canadian born and de¬ 
scended from English, Scotch, Irish and 
French settlers; p. 88,03 s. Charlottetown is 
the capital. Jacques Cartier discovered Prince 
Edward Island in 1534, but thought it was 
part of the mainland. When its separate en¬ 
tity was established it was given the name of 
Isle St. Jean. In 1798 it was renamed Prince 
Edward, as a compliment to the Cuke of 
Kent, who at that time was commander-in¬ 
chief of the British forces in the British Am¬ 
erican provinces. In 1603 Champlain claimed 
possession. In 1758 it was occupied by a 
British force, and was finally ceded to Great 
Britain in 1763. Consult B. Bremner, Island 
Scrap Book (1932); The French Regime in 
Prince Edward Island (1926) ; W. R. Living¬ 
ston, Responsible Government in Prince Ed¬ 
ward Island (1931); Handbook on P. E. 
Island, 

Princeton, borough, Mercer co., New Jer¬ 
sey. It is the seat of Princeton University 
and of Princeton Theological Seminary. The 
chief architectural features are the hand¬ 
some Gothic buildings 0 n t h e university 
campus; p. 7,719, 

Princeton, Battle of, in the American 
Revolution, was fought near Princeton, N. J 
on Jan. 3, 1777. The Americans were scat¬ 
tered and General Mercer was mortally 
wounded, 

Princeton Theological Seminary, a di¬ 
vinity school of the Presbyterian Church, at 
Princeton, N. J., founded in 1812. 

Princeton University, a leading institu¬ 
tion of higher education at Princeton, N. J., 
founded in 1746 as the College of New jer¬ 
sey. The college was opened at. Elizabeth¬ 
town with Jonathan Dickinson as president. 
On his death, in 1747, Aaron Burr became 
president and the institution was removed to 
Newark. In 1756 it was transferred to its 
present site at Princeton, where the first 
building had been erected and named Nassau 
Hall. Jonathan Edwards was elected presi¬ 
dent in t 757, Samuel Davies in 1759, and 
Samuel Finley in 1*61. In 1768 John Wither- 


^ __________ Pr inting 

spoon came from Scotland to take the presi¬ 
dency, ;11:d he remained at its head through 
the Revolutionary War period. The war told 
heavily on the college. In 1783 Congress was 
obliged to retire to Princeton, and for a time 
Xassau Hall became the capital of the nation. 
Dr. Withewpoon was mu reeded in 179^ by 
Samuel Stanhope Smith. During his admin¬ 
istration, Nassau Hall was burned (1802) 
and rebuilt in 1804. During the administra¬ 
tion of I rands Landey Patton (18N8-1902) 
the number of students and instructors was 
more than doubled, seventeen new buildings 
were added, and in iScjO the corporate title 
was changed from the College of New Jersey 
to Princeton Universif\. President Patton re¬ 
signed in T002 and was succeeded by Wood- 
row Wilson, the first lay president". He re¬ 
signed in 1910 to become Governor of New 
jersey. John Grier llihben was elected presi¬ 
dent and inaugurated May 11, 1912. He was 
succeeded, June, 1933, bv Harold Willis 
Dodds. Consult Williams' Handbook 0] 
Princeton; Collins' Princeton (1914); An¬ 
nual Catalogues of Princeton University. 

Prince William Sound, a large inlet of the 
Pacific Ocean, on the southern coast of 
Alaska, just e. of Kenai peninsula. It is a 
strikingly picturesque region backed by tow¬ 
ering snow - capped mountains and forest- 
lined cliffs. 

Principal and Agent. When one person 
authorizes another to art on his behalf, ac¬ 
cepting responsibility for such action as far 
as it lies within tin* scope of the authority 
gianted and when such other person under¬ 
takes to exercise the authority thus conferred 
upon him, they are known respectively as 
the principal and the agent, The relation of 
principal and agent is usually created by 
umtracL ” 

Printing.— Early History .—Printing was 
practiced in the Low Countries and in Ger¬ 
many during the first half of the 15th century, 
in the harm ol xylography ■ impressions taken 
hy ‘squeezes’ from inked wood blocks upon 
which an illustrated text had been cut. This 
was the ‘iorcfmilding’ of (ypography, which 
was invented some time before 1450 by Jo¬ 
hann Gensffdsch or Gutenberg, The earliest 
dated documents printed from movable types 
are two indulgences (grants of spiritual privil¬ 
eges in return for alms), printed in the autumn 
of the year 1454. These can be assigned with 
certainty to the city of Mainz in Germany, 
and the printer of one of them must have 
been Johann Gutenberg, and the other Johann 
Fust, a goldsmith who had lent Gutenberg 




Printing 


382H 


money, but with whom by this time he had 
quarrelled. Gutenberg had been making ex¬ 
periments in printing from movable types, first 
at Strassburg, afterward at Mainz, since about 
1440? and in 1904 there were reproduced in 
facsimile fragments of a calendar, apparently 
for the year 1448, and of a short poem on the 
Judgment of the World, which may belong to 
this experimental period. The publication at 
Mainz of the magnificent 42-line Latin Bible, 
known as the Gutenberg (or Mazarin) Bible, 
marked the completion of the experimental 
stage of printing. In 1470 a Frenchman from 
Tours, Nicolas Jenson, also began issuing 
books at Venice, and his beautiful roman type 
has served as a model to many other printers 
both in his own day and in recent times. Dur¬ 
ing the 15th century more than a hundred and 
fifty firms of printers worked at Venice, whose 
output equalled that of all the 70 other Italian 
towns where the art of printing was practiced, 
and half that of Germany. 

The claim of Lourenz Janszoon Coster, an 
innkeeper, about whom as the inventor of 
printing a fanciful legend sprang up- in the 
16th century, is unsupported by any evidence. 
In what is now Belgium, printing began at 
Alost in 1473; in 1474 or 1475 it was intro¬ 
duced into Spain at Valenciaand in 1476 in¬ 
to England by William Caxton, who in the 
two previous years had printed a few books 
at Bruges, with the help of a Bruges calli¬ 
grapher, Colard Mansion. The first book 
printed by Caxton at Bruges was The Recuyell 
of the Eistoryes of Troye; the first dated book 
printed in England, The Dictes and Sayings of 
the Philosophers (1477). About 1520 the pri¬ 
macy of European printing passed from Italy 
to France; and under the influence of the 
Estiennes, Simon Colines, Geoffroy Tory, and 
Jean de Tournes much excellent and scholarly 
work was produced both in Paris and in Ly¬ 
ons. When religious persecution lost France 
many of her best printers, Antwerp, under the 
influence of Christopher Plantin, became for 
a time the most important center of printing 
in Europe. But by the beginning of the 17th 
century the desire for cheapness, which had 
caused a steady deterioration in both paper 
and ink, had reduced printing to a low level 
all over Europe. But toward the end of the 
17th century British printers, who had hither¬ 
to slavishly imitated the Dutch, now began 
• to initiate good work, partly through the im¬ 
proved types supplied by William Caslon (d. 
1766) , the first great English typefounder. 

The experiments of John Baskerville (1706- 


Printi&g 

| 75) with types in which the differences be- 
i tween the thin and thick strokes were strong¬ 
ly accentuated, were imitated abroad in Italy 
by Bodoni of Parma (1740-1813), in France 
by Didot (1720-1804), and in German}/ by 
Goschen of Leipzig (1752-1828). The re¬ 
vived use of old-faced type by the Chiswick 
Press (founded by Charles Whittingham in 
17S9) was followed by an increased attention 
to the decoration of books, which after some 
vicissitudes reached its culmination in the ex¬ 
periments of William. Morris and his follow¬ 
ers with the books of the Kelmscott Press, the 
Vale Press, the Dove Pre£s, and others. 

It is probable that intaglio printing may 
be considered one of the earliest forms of 
printing used, as some time before the date 
ascribed for the invention of letterpress 
printing, mediaeval goldsmiths doing niello 
work were accustomed to fill the incised lines 
in the metal plates with coloring matter from 
which proofs showing the progress of the 
design could be drawn. 

Composition is the name given to the op¬ 
erations of setting type and preparing it for 
the printing press. The ‘copy 5 is ‘set 5 by a 
compositor standing in front of two trays. 
The two cases are designated as upper and 
lower cases, the upper case containing the 
capital letters, signs, etc., the lower case .hold¬ 
ing the small or lower-case letters of the al¬ 
phabet, the figures, punctuation marks, etc. 
In ‘setting/ the compositor picks out one by 
one the letters, needed to form each word, and 
arranges them in a ‘composing stick’ or metal 
box (set to the required. width of page or 
column), which he holds in his left hand. 
Type, being the reverse of the printed im¬ 
pression, is set from left to right and upside 
down. 

A galley is a shallow quadrangular box, 
open at the top and at one end. A ‘proof 
(rough impression)' is then taken from the 
matter on a. hand-press, or more frequently 
a. specially designed proof-press, and is given 
to. a ‘reader 5 for comparison with, the copy*. 
Corrections to be made are noted on the 
proofs by special ‘readers’ marks/ the com¬ 
monest of which are shown in the accom¬ 
panying illustration. It should be noted that 
today very little ‘straight matter’ is set by 
hand. Although matter set by a skillful com¬ 
positor presents a more smooth, even, and 
beautiful appearance, typesetting machines 
are able to do this work so much more cheap¬ 
ly that hand-set matter is used only in de 
luxe editions of books and in advertising dis- 



Ewing Galloway . 


Graduate Colic 






Printing 


3S31 


pla>. All newspapers and magazines are now 
set by machines. For a description of these, 
see Typesetting Machines. 

The original press was made of wood with 
a P laten lowered and raised by a screw in- 


Printing 


to ink the form, and to lower the platen. The 
only modem presses, other than hand-presses, 
retaining the platen device are the small- 
power jobbing presses, in which the form is 
placed in a vertical position, the platen at a 


- ^w in- piaxcu. in a vertical position, me piaten at a 

^ ea o b> a lever with mechanical attach- varying angle. The invention of the cylinder 


$ Delete; take out Marked type, 
word, or sentence. 

C| Reverse type. 

^ .Insert a space, or more* space. 

L Dess space. 

3 Close up.' 

J Take oat and elope up. 
f Move to left. 


Signs amd Abbreviation*. 


1 Move to right. 

3 Indent line 1 
£ New paragraph. 

Jj Range lines. 

' Range letters or lines. 

J, Push down appearing space. 
X Change broken type. 


w/., wrong font *, tr., transpose; l.e. t lower case type .or email letters; s.c., 
small c&pitaldetters; caps., capital letters; rom., change italic to roman; 
change roman to 4 fcakc; stet. y retain what is crossed out, - 

Specimen 4 First Proof* 

JOHNSON. 

fc... Thomas ^arlylft- 

Aa for Johnson, I have- always considered him 
to to be*, by nhture, one of our great English Ttrm.. 
8 ouls. 4 A(Strona^nd|noble / man; (somuch[left* L 
Undeveloped in hin^;. in a finder element what A/ 

might he not have-been, A Poet, Priest, sove* /w/ 7 
reign juler! On the whole, a man mns^iot $ 
pomplain of his ‘element,.of his "time/ or the 4 

Ililrfl r if; io rr; Ji.*_ * 


CaJxM 

AC. 


.# 


cap. 

II * 




.Eke ; it is thriftless work doing so'. ■ His’ time 
y I had f well, then, he is thjfre to make it 
/ { better, i 

(Johnson’s youth was poor, isolated, hopeless, 
very ^ miserable { Indeed, it does not seesg 
possible that, in any tho’lavoura^fe B t outward 
circumstance^, JoHnsor^ life could have been 
otjjer than a painful one. The word might Jtj 
have had more of rif ofit-.o.hle. work out of him.. 


<9 

V 

Jajf 

/ 




& 


H 


i 


nave had more of ...proOi.o.ble. work out of him., 
or lessor but his effort against the world^workl&Z/& 
could never havE been a light one. Q^ature, in p 
retiirn for his nobleness, had said to him, Eve in cap. 
an e ^^ ent of sorrow . Nay, perhaps 

fcho jhdhleneaa l and the T sorrowjwere intimately *tr. 
and even-nQeparably connected with eac^ther. $ 

At all events* poor J<mson had to go about gM&b., , 
with contmualhypcgjKbndna, physical andspi^ -^4/ 
itualjpain. Lake ajjjfercules with the burning ^ 3%- 
Nessus^hirt on him, which shoots in on form 
dull, incurable misery: the Nessus’-shirt not 
to be stript off,, which is his own natural strip| \j 


Proof-readers* Marks 


ments Eke the later models. About 1800 
Lord Stanhope built the first iron press, very 
similar to the hand-presses now in use. With 
the introduction of steam came the steam 
platen press, using power to move the form 
backwards and forwards under the platen, 


press by Friedrich Konig in 1811-14 revolu¬ 
tionized printing. The platen was replaced by 
an iron cylinder, the tympan by packing 
fastened around the cylinder. Instead of 
sheets being laboriously attached to the tym¬ 
pan, they were seized by metal ‘grippers’ on 




Printing 


3832 


the cylinder. The bed with the form still 
travelled backwards and forwards,' but the 
improvement in feeding allowed it to move 
at ten times its former speed without any 
difficulty in keeping it supplied with paper. 
Cylinder presses, improved from Konig’s 
model, remain today the commonest form of 
printing press. It should be noted that there 
are two kinds of cylinders in use in printing 
presses—‘impression cylinder 5 and ‘form’ or 
Type cylinders.’ The first cylinder presses, 
printing one side of the paper only, had one 
impression cylinder, the form being fiat; the 
perfecting press, printing both sides, had two 
impression cylinders, the form being still 
flat. Rotary presses have the form curved 
around a form cylinder. They have either 
one impression cylinder and one form cylin¬ 
der, and print one side of the paper, or two 
of each, and print both sides. The cylinder 
press provided for an ‘impression cylinder’ 
with a fiat form. Later came the further de¬ 
velopment of a ‘form cylinder,’ with stereo 
or electro plates curved round it, the two 
cylinders — impression and type — running 
continuously in gear, and the paper being im¬ 
pressed between them. This movement has 
greatly increased the possible speed and out¬ 
put of printing machinery. The first press of 
this type, the rotary press, was invented by 
Thomas Nelson of Thomas Nelson and Sons 
Edinburgh, and exhibited, 1851. Almost 
every rotary machine is designed specially 
and no general description is possible. 

Lithography (commonly called ‘iitho’) 

This process was developed through the dis¬ 
covery of certain properties of a German 
limestone, called lithographic stone. The 
Jitho process depends on two properties of 
the stone its absorption of grease and the 
fine polish which its surface will take—and on 
the mutual antipathy of grease and water. 
The design to be printed is drawn on the 
stone in reverse with a greasy ink. The stone 
is then fastened in a machine resembling an 
ordinary flat-bed press. The printing is done 
as * n hatter, with the exception that a 
water-roller goes over the whole stone before 
the ink-rollers are applied. The greasv ink 
of the design repels the water, and none can 
settle on it; but where there is no design 
the water damps the finely-polished surface 
of the stone. The effect of the ink-roller is 
exactly the opposite. The greasy design free¬ 
ly takes additional ink; the moist, polished 
surface repels it. In this way only those por¬ 
tions of the printing surface covered with the 
design receive the necessary ink for printing. 


-Printing 

The aluminum rotary printing pressT^ 
printing one side of the paper from a'sheet 
of that metal bent around the cylinder is 
rapidly displacing the ordinary lithographic 
press as. it more than doubles the output 
An aluminum perfecting press has also been 
invented. Lithography was, until thirty 
years ago, practically the only method of 
printing designs and work in colors It is 
now however, possible to make a'raised 
plate from any design (see Process Work! 
and prmt from it by the letterpress method’ 
which is cheaper and quicker for large edi’ 
tions.. Lithography by the photo-litho¬ 
graphic process, and particularly when print¬ 
ed by the off-set process, has recently made 
great strides and is competing on even terms 
with letterpress printing. Off-set printing i s 
now by far the most important branch of 
lithography. 

Intaglio Printing.— This method is the 
costliest form of printing. The surface con¬ 
sists o.l a smooth plate of copper or steel 
m which depressions are either cut by hand 
with a ‘graver 5 (a fine engraver’s chisel) 
or bitten out by add. An ‘ink-ball 5 (leather 
pad with a handle), thickly coated with 
m.k, is rubbed over the surface of the plate 
until the depressions are well filled with 
mk. The surface is then rubbed dean, the 
paper is placed in contact with the plate and 
put into a cylinder press. The process is 
superior to all others for giving great den¬ 
sity of color m the dark parts of the plate 
and variety and contrast in the lighter tints. 
Music may be set up in type and printed 
as letterpress, but the finest music is en¬ 
graved on a metal plate. 

^ IIKKK “Cor.oR Work or Trichromatic 
I rintino. Fullv-colored pictures may now 
be reproduced in three printings from three 
plates printing yellow, red, and blue re¬ 
spectively. (For the preparation of these 
plates, see Process Work). The most suc¬ 
cessful fast color-printing press is an Amer¬ 
ican aluminum rotary, printing seven colors 
m perfect register. See also Bookbinding; 
Copyright; Magazines; Publishing and 
Bookselling. 

Printing Ink, an ink made from oils or 
varnishes, mixed with lampblack or other 
pigments, and ihereaiter thoroughly milled 
or ground through steel, granite," or porce¬ 
lain roller mills. The principal oils used are 
linseed, poppyseed, hempseed, resin, and 
mineral oils. The two last, after being re¬ 
fined and purified with steam, are chiefly 
mixed with ordinary lampblack; and this 



Prints 


3833 


Prisons 


compound, after careful grinding, Is suitable 
for newspapers, the paper for this class of 
work being usually of such an absorbent 
nature that a better quality of varnish is 
unnecessary. For book work and magazines, 
where high-class illustrations such as line 
and process plates are employed, a totally 
different varnish must be used, the paper 
having a different texture and finish, and the 
ink used must here depend more upon sur¬ 
face drying than upon absorption. To this 
end the so-called drying oils are employed 
in the varnish. Linseed oil has been found 
to give the most reliable results. 

In the manufacture of colored inks chemi- 
cal knowledge is necessary, so that the chem- 
icals employed in the manufacture of the 
pigment or varnish do not react upon each 
other. Lithographic inks, black and colored, 
are prepared from carefully selected var¬ 
nishes, and contain a much larger percentage 
of pigment than letterpress inks. 

Prints, designs or pictures placed on paper 
or a similar substance by means of pressure, 
usually in a printing press. Prints are pro¬ 
duced in three ways: relief processes, in¬ 
taglio processes, and planographic processes. 
The relief processes comprise woodcuts and 
wood engravings. Intaglio processes com¬ 
prise engraving, dry point, mezzotinting, and 
etching (see Engraving ; Etching) . Plano¬ 
graphic processes comprise lithography, 
which is based wholly on chemical and 
physical action. The charm and value of a 
print lies essentially in the quality of line 
peculiar to the process employed in its mak¬ 
ing, something which cannot be reproduced 
in the ordinary process of wholesale print¬ 
ing. The subject of Japanese prints forms a 
study in itself (see Japanese Art). Consult 
Richter’s Prints: A Brief Review of their 
Technique and History (1914). 

Prior, Matthew (1664-1721), English poet, 
was born probably in Wimborne, Dorset¬ 
shire. Of his works Prior himself regarded 
with most favor Solomon on the Vanity of 
the World; but his only other long work, 
Alma, or the Progress of the Mind, a poem 
in the Hudibrastic manner, has generally 
been preferred. His greatness as an artist, 
however, is most clearly shown In his shorter 
pieces such as the Lines written in Mezaray } s 
History of France, and his verses to children. 

Priory, a monastic community governed by 
a prior or prioress. Simple or obedientiary 
priories are dependent upon abbeys, either 
paying a yearly tribute or yielding their 
revenues entirely to the superior order. Con¬ 


ventual priories are autonomous houses 
which have no abbots. See Monastery. 

Pripet, or Pripyat, river, West Russia, one 
of the chief tributaries of the Dnieper. Its 
course of nearly 500 m. crosses a vast marshy 
district estimated to cover over 30,000 sq. m., 
of which over 22,000 have been drained 
and reclaimed by the Russian government. 
In the early part of the Great War it was 
the scene of several engagements in the 
vicinity and in February, 1918, an armed 
flotilla on its waters was captured by the 
German forces. 

Priscianus, Roman grammarian, was born 
probably in Caesarea, about 500 a.d., and 
taught at Constantinople. His Latin gram¬ 
mar was a standard work, and all subse¬ 
quent grammars have been based on it. 

Prism, a solid figure whose ends or bases 
are two identically equal polygons lying in 
parallel planes, their corresponding sides be¬ 
ing joined b}^ parallelograms. The prism is 
triangular, quadrangular, etc., according to 
the form of the bases. 

Prisoners of War. An officer or soldier 
who is captured or who surrenders must be 
given quarter, and Is entitled to be adjudged 
a prisoner of war. He must be treated with 
humanity, and his personal property, ex¬ 
cluding arms, horses, and military papers, 
must be protected. Wages may be devoted 
to improving the prisoner’s condition. He 
cannot be required to engage in military op¬ 
erations against his own country. The cap- 
tor may lawfully shoot the prisoner who at¬ 
tempts to escape while engaged in the act, 
but he cannot punish him afterward for the 
attempt. A prisoner is required to state his 
true name and rank, but cannot be required 
to give any other information which might 
prove of value to the enemy. All civilized 
nations signed the Hague Convention of 
1907, which provided rules for treatment 
of prisoners. After the conclusion of peace 
the repatriation of prisoners of war takes 
place as speedily as possible. 

Prisons. Prisons and dungeons are men¬ 
tioned in the Hebrew Bible and in other 
ancient writings, showing that they must 
have existed in some form from earliest 
times. They were probably used at first for 
prisoners of war or enemies of the govern¬ 
ment till released by death or otherwise. 

In 1769 John Howard of England began 
his ceaseless labors and journeys in behalf 
of prisons and prisoners, which brought 
about improvements in his own country 
and on the Continent. The most widespread 



Prisons 3334 

7~ : — -;-— - - - —.—--------- - I risons 

improvement m prisons took place m Eng- Albany County Penitentiary. Louis D Pik~ 

land alter the change of law, in , 8 7 S, which bury, the son of Amos, was superintended 
placed all prisoners under state control and of State prisons in New York form 
made prison administration uniform through- years. It is said of these three generation! 
out Great Britain. The State of New York of prison reformers that they were ‘rated 
built a prison at Auburn in 1816, and the as the best prison keepers in the worid - 
followmg year Pennsylvania built one at Associated with these men at Wethe,"field 
Philadelphia, These two prisons were destined and at Albany was Z R Brock wav ' h 
to give their names to the systems known afterward made a business'success of the in 
everywhere as the Auburn and Pennsylvania dustries of short-term prisoners The V LL 
systems. The Auburn system worked the atory at Elmira, known "Logoutthe' 
convicts in community by day and separated world for its excellent discipline, was estab 
them at night, silence being observed. The lished in 1876, and Mr BroclVVv f 
Pennsylvania system gave to each man a quarter of a'ce’ntmy fas af the hSd of it* 



Stale Prison, Auburn , N. F, 


separate cell, with liis own exercise yard and 
work in his cell. Within recent years prisons 
have been improved in construction as well 
as in administration, and in the principles 
on which they are conducted, the result of 
general advance in science and humanity. 
The countries which lead in this respect are 
Great Britain, France, and the United States. 

In the United Stales the pioneer prison 
reformer was Moses C. Pilsbury. He initi¬ 
ated reform in discipline and made a finan¬ 
cial success of prison industries. Later his 
son Amos inaugurated a similar industrial 
system for short-sentence prisoners In the i 


The law establishing the so-called indeter¬ 
minate sentence was passed in New York in 
and it lies at the foundation of the 
Elmira system, the third American prison 
system. Since the foundation of the Elmira 
Reformatory numerous reformatory prisons 
have been organized in the United States, 
uhile the majority of Slates have adopted 
an essential reformatory feature—release on 
parole. The system of putting accused per¬ 
sons on probation, instead of sending them 
to prison, has been adopted in many places 
with excellent results where there are wisely 
selected probation officers to keep track of 



Prisons 


3835 


Privy 


probationers. In all prisons certain indus¬ 
tries are carried on, varying with different 
countries and with different parts of large 
countries. In the United States, for instance, 
the large prisons of the North engage in 
manufacturing. In the South, convicts make 
roads, run turpentine camps, and farm. In 
World War II, through a special ruling of the 
Attorney General, State prison industries were 
converted to war production. 

The State of New York has erected an 
agricultural prison for women, where they are 
taught farming, gardening, bee culture, dairy¬ 
ing, and poultry raising by women. 

The places where criminals are held, both 
before and after sentence, are known by 
various names. In addition to the rural lock¬ 
up and the city police station, to which the 
prisoner is first taken, there are penal institu¬ 
tions known as houses of correction, work- 
houses, bridewells, jails, and penitentiaries. 
The word penitentiary is sometimes used as 
a synonym for State prison, but in other 
places, as in New York, it is a county or 
district prison where misdemeanant prison¬ 
ers sentenced for short terms are confined, 
though occasionally felons are imprisoned 
there. Architecturally there is a great diver¬ 
sity in prisons. The first object being safety, 
they are massively constructed, the shops 
and factories being within the walls. Those 
of the United States, with a few exceptions, 
have corridors outside the cells, so the sun¬ 
light must cross the corridor before reaching 
the cell. Open-work doors prevent privacy, 
though giving more access to air and making 
it easier to guard the prisoners. Modern 
prisons are supplied with electric lights, 
baths, good food, libraries* and excellent 
sanitary arrangements. The effort in the 
States most alive to reform is to put all 
convicted prisoners in State institutions and 
keep jails only for persons detained for trial. 
The buildings for reformatories are better 
adapted for their uses than the average pris¬ 
on. They have gymnasiums, school rooms, 
trade schools, baths, graded dining rooms, 
and special quarters for the different grades. 
A chapel is an essential feature in every 
prison, and in many there are three—Prot¬ 
estant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish. In ad¬ 
dition to the warden, superintendent, ^ or 
governor of a prison, a chaplain, a physician, 
and instructors are usually attached to the 
staff. See Criminology; Reformatories. 
Consult Reports of the American Prison As¬ 
sociation ; the writings of E. C. and F. H. 
Wines, Z. R. Brockway, Eugene Smith, 


Charlton T. Lewis. Warren F. Spalding, S. J. 
Barrows, Lewis E. Lawes, also Clark and 
Eubank’s Lockstep and Corridor. 

Pritchett, Henry Smith (1857-1939), 
U. S. astronomer. In 1S97 he became super¬ 
intendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic 
Survey. In 1900 he was appointed president 
of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ 
nology, resigning in 1906 to become the head 
of the Carnegie Foundation, where he re¬ 
mained until 1930; later becoming pres, 
emeritus. 

Private. All men belonging to the United 
States army who have not attained the grade 
of non-commissioned officers are termed ‘pri¬ 
vates’ after they are taken up for regular 
duty with their organization, before which 
time they are called recruits. See Army of 
the United States. 

Privateering, Privateers, vessels of war 
armed and equipped by private individuals 
and furnished with a commission or license, 
known as, ‘letters of marque,’ from the state, 
to cruise against the shipping of the enemy. 
The commission placed the privateer practi¬ 
cally on the footing of a man-of-war, and 
allowed the owners to keep the prizes which 
they took, also granting them a certain sum 
for every man of the enemy taken or de¬ 
stroyed. The practice of privateering grew 
up in the 15th century, and until the middle 
of the 19th century was generally employed 
by naval powers. By the Declaration of 
Paris, in 1856, privateering was abolished so 
far as the powers signatory were concerned; 
and in wars conducted since then, even by 
non-signatory powers, no letters of marque 
have been issued. See Letters of Marque; 
Hague Peace Conference. Consult Statham’s 
Privateers and Privateering (1910). 

Privet, the popular name of several species 
of hardy shrubs and small trees belonging 
to the genus Ligustrum (Oleaceas). Their 
chief value lies in their use for hedges, as 
they stand shearing remarkably well. The 
Japanese privet (L. ovalifoUum )—miscalled 
California, privet—is preferable for hedge 
purposes, especially along the seacoast. 

Privilege. In law ..this term is used to de¬ 
note: (1) certain fundamental political rights 
enjoyed by all citizens; (2) the exemption 
from certain legal or political duties or bur¬ 
dens enjoyed by a limited number of citizens. 

Privy Council in Britain is nominally an 
assembly of advisers to the sovereign on 
matters of state. At earlier periods of Eng¬ 
lish history it exercised large powers, but it 
ceased to exercise its ancient functions when 



Privy 


the principles of government by cabinet be¬ 
came firmly established. 

Privy Seal. A seal of the English govern- 
ment which is affixed to documents not re¬ 
quiring the Great Seal. Sec Seal. 

Prize Fighting. See Boxing. 

Prize Money, in the navy, is the money 
resulting from the capture of an enemy's 
property at sea and delivery to the govern¬ 
ment. If the prize is lost or destroyed, the 
captors receive only a bounty. In iSgg all 
provisions of law authorizing the distribu¬ 
tion of prize money or the payment of 
bounty were repealed. See Prize of War 
Consult Oppenheim’s International Law 
(1905-6). 

Prize of War is property captured by a 
belligerent at sea, either from vessels of the 

hostile nation or from vessels violating neu¬ 
trality,^ or from subject vessels having dcal- 
mgs wrth the enemy. Down to the middle 
of the 19th century not only enemy shins 
and enemy goods, but neutral goods 'in ene¬ 
my ships and neutral ships carrying enemy 
goods were often made prize of war. The 
Declaration of Paris established the rule 
now generally followed by non-signatory 
powers, that the neutral flag covers'enow 
goods except those contraband of war; and 
that, with the same exception, neutral goods 
m enemy ships are exempt from seizure' (See 
Contraband of War.) The right to prize is 
determined by a prize court according to the 
rules_ of international law, in the absence of 

2E2* m •"-** 

Proa or Prau, a boat used by the natives 
of the Ladrone Islands and other islands in 
the Malay Archipelago ami the Chinn Sea. 
One side ol the boat is round or bilge shaped 
W lie the other is Hat and perpendicular. It 
IS_ also .filed with an outrigger. The sail is 
triangular or lateen shaped and of great size. 

Frobabilism, a doctrine of Roman Catho¬ 
lic ethics, developed mainly by Jesuit theo¬ 
logians. It is an application of the juridical 
axiorn that a doubtful law is not binding, 
and is to the effect that when there exists 
a theoretical doubt or controversy as to the 
obligation of a moral law in a given case' 
one may safely follow in practicc :ltruh ; 
probable opinion against the law, even 
though the opposite opinion be more prob- 

Probabilitie*, Chances, or the Theory 
of Averages. To assign a number which 
measures the probability of a future event 
may at first seem impossible; and vet the 


3836 


whole business of many large insurance 

l ames is mamly based upon the methods of 

a.-s.gning such a number, When it is cer 
t.un J1.1t a luhire event will take place or 

Hill not take place, a fixed number is sorted 

bu e.uli case to indicate that then the prob 
a.alitv amounts to certainty; and these two 
measures are the limits of our scale •£ 

' ;’ U . n .‘ 1M -' b)-morrow morning in the east? 

ml moon be seen to-morrow morning in the 
cast? Probability 0 . certain!v against Be 
ueon these two limiting numbers, o and 1 
l*cs the number (a proper fraction) which 

■vZT n '\ IU ' obabilil > «f any undecided 
! ™p«rtanf extension of the theory 

I ■vents / “’dependent 

V " . ‘ occurring is measured by the 

! ,,r ° <im ' ( >■* ‘l*’* separate probabilities' Th e 
™>sl. important of all ,i u . applications of the 
I .‘‘‘ ,,r . y 01 P r, d>ubi | ity is in the caleulation of 
! hie insurances and annuities. During the 
early part ol the i.Sth century the celebrated 
bondon mathematician lie Moivre const ruct- 
ed a tormula ot great simplicity which is 
sail available, although largely superseded 
!- e'aborate 'tables of mortality’ which have 
.-mce been compiled in all commercial coun¬ 
tries. Some ol the higher applications of the 
doc!nne ol probability require a knowledge 
01 the infinitesimal calculus, and are of in- 
leivst only to exports. 

Probang, in surgery, an instrument used 
force foreign bodies into the stomach 

to can U T T liU ' <i flK ' l:s, ’ I>1,!1Rl,s s <> ^ 
to cause choking. 

Probate, the proof of a will before a proper 
our Dpon the death of a person leaving 
■’ will. It is the duly of the person or persons 
Iheictn named as executors to offer the will 
lor Probate, in most. 0 f the United States 
separate courts, known as Surrogate’s or 
l “‘hate Courts, are maintained f„ r this pur¬ 
pose. When the will is offered, a citation or 
notice ,s.issued, directed to all the heirs and 
next ol kin ol (he deceased who would have 
taken his property if he had died intestate 
announcing the day on which the will is to 
be probated, if no objection is made. On 
tip day mentioned, the parties thus cited, 
or any of them, may appear and object to 
the probate of the will on various grounds. 

U no objections ore interposed to the pro¬ 
late, or if the object Tons are finally dismissed 
unc t i will declared a valid instrument, 

It is admitted to probate. See Administra¬ 
tor; Executor ; Witt. 

Probate Court is a tribunal exercising jur. 





Probation 


3837 


Procedure 


isdiction in questions relating to the probate 
of wills, the administration of property left 
by intestates, the management of testamen¬ 
tary trusts, the guardianship of infants, and 
similar matters. A Probate Judge is com¬ 
monly called a Surrogate, and in some States 
the tribunal itself is known as a Surrogate’s 
court. See Courts ; Surrogates. 

Probation, a plan whereby adults who 
have been convicted of crime or children 
who have been declared delinquent are set 
at liberty by the court, without confinement 
in a prison or reformatory, under the watch- 
care and supervision of a probation officer, 
who occupies the position of a friendly guar¬ 
dian or adviser, and who is responsible to 
the court for the good conduct and reforma¬ 
tive progress of the probationer. 

The probation of adults was first estab¬ 
lished by law in Massachusetts in 1878. All 
of these laws are established on the theory 
that the reformation of the criminal is the 
most effective protection to society, and that 
in the early stages of criminality, reforma¬ 
tion is much more probable if the individual 
is allowed to live under normal circum¬ 
stances, with the advice and guidance of a 
probation officer, than if he is placed in the 
abnormal conditions of prison life, and then 
turned loose with the handicap of a jail 
bird’s reputation. As in the case of adult 
probation, juvenile probation was tried out 
for twenty years in Massachusetts before it 
was adopted by other States. In the early 
days of probation, both adult and juvenile, 
the idea prevailed that almost any one would 
do for a probation officer. In recent years, 
however, - there has been a gradual recogni¬ 
tion of the fact that high character, fidelity, 
good sense, and knowledge of human nature 
are essential qualifications, and there has 
been a steady advance in the quality of the 
service. The work of probation for women 
and girls is more difficult than that for men 
and boys. Nearly all of those who are 
brought into court have had an immoral 
experience, and the problem is not an easy 
one. The difficulty is increased by the de¬ 
fective mentality of a large portion of the 
female probationers—probably 20 to 25 per 
cent. It goes without saying that women 
and girls must have women probation offi¬ 
cers, who should be of unusual wisdom, pa¬ 
tience, and tact. ! ' 

Probation After Death, a theological 
doctrine according to .-which.-..the gospel is 
preached to men after death, and they are 
placed on trial either for a stated time or 


until they shall have accepted salvation. The 
idea of probation is not to be confused with 
that of purgatory, the object of which is the 
purification of the faithful after death. 
Probationer, one who is on probation. 
Problems, in mathematics, are proposi¬ 
tions in which some operation or construc¬ 
tion is required, or in which a proof of some 
statement is demanded. 

Proboscidea. See Elephant. 

Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus) , or 
Nose A.pe, a monkey nearly related to the 
langur, but found only in the island of Bor¬ 
neo. The special peculiarity is the great elon¬ 
gation of the flexible nose of the adult male, 
which reaches the proportions of a pro¬ 
boscis. 

Probus, Marcus Aurelius (d. 82), emper¬ 
or of Rome, was born in Sirmium, Pannonia. 
By the Emperor Tacitus he was appointed 
governor of the Asiatic possessions of Rome; 
and on the death of Tacitus he assumed the 
purple, and was enthusiastically hailed em¬ 
peror by all classes (276 a.d.) . He defeated 
the Goths,' quelled the robbers of Isauria, 
and made peace with the Persians at their 
request. 

Procedure, a general term denoting the 
methods of proceeding and carrying on an 
action at law, from its commencement to 
i final judgment and final process thereon, in- 
i eluding the rules of pleading, evidence, and 
general practice. The term is more common¬ 
ly used, however, to designate the various 
steps in an action,* the rules of evidence and 
pleading being important subjects in them¬ 
selves. The procedure in actions varies con¬ 
siderably as to forms and details in the dif¬ 
ferent States of the' United States; but cer¬ 
tain essential steps are common in all. The 
common law system of pleading and prac¬ 
tice, as it existed and was enforced in the 
original thirteen colonies, prevails in the 
various courts of the United States and in 
many States, with modifications. 

The first step is the issuance and service 
of process notifying the defendant of the 
commencement of the action. The defendant 
should enter his appearance by service of a. 
notice on the plaintiff’s attorney or filing it 
with the clerk of court, or file or serve a 
written answer or demurrer. If he defaults 
the plaintiff may enter judgment, either with 
or without leave of court, according to the 
nature of the case. If an answer or demurrer 
is served or filed, the case is then at issue, 
and either party may have it placed upon 
the calendar of the proper court. The cause 



Process 


3838 


is usually given a number and awaits its 
turn in being reached for trial. ' Meanwhile, 
certain motions relating to the pleadings may 
be made; to make them more definite, or 
for a bill of particulars of the claim. The 
trial is usually before a judge and jury if 
issues of fact are involved, or before a judge 
only if an issue of law is raised by a demur¬ 
rer, or if it is an equity case. After verdict 
a motion for a new trial may be made, and 
an appeal taken from the ruling of the court 
if adverse. In most states there are at least 
two appellate courts to which a case may 
be taken; one, of course, being higher than 
the other. If a judgment rendered in a trial 
court is reversed by an appellate court, it is 
usually sent back for a new trial. If the 
judgment is sustained, the final process of 
execution is generally issued to collect the 
judgment, or if it is an injunction it is made 
permanent. See Plea; Pleading. Consult 
Martin, Civil Procedure at Common Law; 
Pomeroy, Code Remedies. 

Process. A general term including all writs, 
summons, warrants, subpoenas, and other 
mandates of a court, which may be executed 
by an officer of the court, or any person spe¬ 
cially authorized by a court or judicial offi¬ 
cer. See Pleading; Procedure. 

. Processions occupied an important posi¬ 
tion in the worship of the mediaeval church, 
as they do at the present time in the Church 
of Rome. St. Chrysostom is credited with 
the introduction of ecclesiastical processions, 
at Constantinople in 39S, in opposition to 
certain Arian demonstrations. 

Process Work is the name given to the 
modern chemical and mechanical methods 
of preparing surfaces for printing designs 
and illustrations. Almost all process work is 
primarily dependent upon photography. 
With its assistance process work produces 
surfaces of the three kinds used in printing 
—viz. raised or relief surface, level or plano¬ 
graphic surface, depressed or intaglio sur¬ 
face. For the reproduction of designs and 
illustrations process has largely superseded 
hand work. It is divided into two main 
branches—-the reproduction, of subjects in 
‘black and white*, i.e. solid black designs on 
a white ground, and of subjects in ‘light and 
shade*, such as photographs and wash draw¬ 
ings, containing not only solid black and 
pure white but many intermediate gray tints. 
The former class is the easier. ‘Light-ami- 
shade* reproductions are more difficult. It is 
obvious that black ink applied all over a 
printing surface cannot print the innumer¬ 


Process 

able gray tints which make up the light "and 
shade of a picture. It is possible, however, 
to give the effect of tints by printing masses 
of black through which the white paper is 
allowed to appear in varying proportions. 
In photogravure, and in other intaglio proc¬ 
esses, also, the tints are produced by the ac¬ 
tion of more or less light on a chemical skin 
with which the printing surface is coated. 
The ordinary process used for reproducing 
photographs or wash drawings (called ‘half- 



Light, medium and dark tmts 
as obtained by wood engraving 
(Upper) and half-t one. process 
(Lower). 

tone*) proceeds on an entirely different and 
still more ingenious method. The negative is 
made through a ruled screen ol glass, and in 
the process of photography this screen breaks 
up the tints of the original into dots and lines 
of such a size and at such a distance from 
each other as to give the effect of tints of the 
depth required. The processes generally used 
fot blaek-and -white’ work can also produce 
tints. In addition to photography, process 
work depends on the action of light on a 
film of gelatin or similar substance when 
treated with bichromate of potash, and on the 
mordant or biting action of acids on various 
metals. Photo-lithography (the parent of all 
process) is the process of making photo- 



Procida 


Proctor 


3839 


graphic prints of ‘black-and-white’ subjects 
on paper coated with sensitized gelatin, ink¬ 
ing these prints, and transferring them to the 
lithographic stone. In this way much copy¬ 
ing of designs by hand drawing upon the 
stone was avoided. 

Line-etching.—The last process led natu¬ 
rally to line-etching. Line-etching has dis¬ 
placed every other process for the cheap and 
rapid reproduction of designs which do not 
contain light and shade. As in photolith¬ 
ography, a light-and-shade effect can be se¬ 
cured, provided that the original itself con¬ 
tains that effect in lines or dots—not in 
washes. The line-etching process has now 
been improved by printing from the negative 
direct on the zinc plate, instead of printing- 
on paper and transferring to zinc. 

The half-tone process faithfully repro¬ 
duces light and shade in a copper block suit¬ 
able for raised printing. The discovery of 
‘half-tone’ is the chief cause of the great in¬ 
crease of illustration in books and magazines. 
The printing and the biting of the zinc plate 
are the same as in line-etching. Process was 
early applied to the production by photo¬ 
graphy and etching of metal surfaces for de¬ 
pressed or intaglio printing. In tnis group of 
processes the design must be bitten away in¬ 
stead of being left in relief, so the photo¬ 
graphic printing of the plate must be done 
from a positive or reverse negative. A simi¬ 
lar process called rotogravure was brought 
out in the United States in 1912. In this 
process illustrations with accompanying text 
are etched on copper cylinders and printed on 
a rotary machine. This prints both sides of 
the paper simultaneously at a speed of 3,000 
impressions per hour. -This process is used 
extensively in newspaper art supplements 
and illustrated weeklies. 

The latest development has been the in¬ 
vention of three-color process work, by 
which fully-colored pictures are placed on 
the photographer’s screen, and three nega¬ 
tives made through different colored glasses 
placed in front of the camera lens. Each of 
these negatives is then used for making a | 
half-tone block, and the three blocks—print¬ 
ed in yellow, red, and blue respectively, one 
above the other—produce a faithful repre¬ 
sentation of the original. See Verfasser’s 
Half-tone Process (3d ed. 1904), Von Hiibl’s 
Three-color Photography, Jenkin’s Manual 
of Photo-engraving. 

Procida, isl., Italy, w. of Gulf of Naples, 2 
m. from mainland. It is of volcanic origin. 
The capital of same name, also known as 


Sancio Cattolico, has a good harbor. The 
island was formerly owned by John of Pro¬ 
cida, the chief instigator of the Sicilian 

Vespers; p.14,440. 

Proclamation. The announcement of some 
state matter or law to the public, usually by 
the chief executive of a nation, state, or mu¬ 
nicipality. It is generally confined to the 
announcement of some executive act, as the 
fixing of a day for general thanksgiving. See 
Statute. 

Proclus (412-485), a philosopher of the 
Neo-Platonic school, was a native of Con¬ 
stantinople, but spent most of his life ai 
Athens. In philosophy he attempted to blend 
Aristotle’s logic with the Neo-Platonic spec¬ 
ulations. The most important of his works 
are commentaries on the Timosus and other 
works of Plato. 

Procne. See Philomela. 

Proconsul, in ancient Rome, a consul who 
had his power prolonged beyond his 
ordinary year of office, which practice 
arose in 327 e.c., from the necessity of 
keeping several armies In the field and pro¬ 
longing the command of a victorious general. 
A proconsul was supreme in his province, 
and carried on war on Ms own authority. 

Procop, Andrew (c. 1380-1434), a Bohe¬ 
mian monk, who went over to the Hussites, 
and after the death of Ziska (1424) became 
leader of the Taborites, the more fanatical 
party of that sect. He wrought great havoc 
among the towns and villages of Austria, 
Silesia, Saxony, and Franconia, and defeated 
several ‘crusading’ imperialist armies that 
were sent against him, especially at Taus in 
1431. 

Procrustes, in ancient Greek legend, a rob¬ 
ber of Attica, whose real name was Polype- 
mon or Damastes. He invited strangers 
to his house, and then forced them into a 
bed; if they were too tall for it, he hewed 
off their limbs; if too short, he stretched 
them until they died. 

Procter, Bryan Waller (1787-1874), 
English poet and biographer, born at Leeds. 
Procter wrote under the pseudonym ‘Barry 
Cornwall,’ an imperfect anagram of his 
name. His Poetical Works have had a wide 
circulation in the U. S. as well as in Eng¬ 
land. 

Proctor. The name applied to an attorney 
in ecclesiastical and admiralty courts in Eng¬ 
land and in admiralty courts in the United 
States. See. Attorney. ■ 

Proctor, Richard Anthony (1837-88), 
English astronomer, born in Chelsea, Lon- 



Procurator 3g 

don. He lectured in iSS.j and 1X47, and re- 
nio\'cd with his fa mils’ in the- latter year 
to Florida. I’motor's researches into the 
theory ot the solar corona and the rotation 
period of Mars proved of great value. Ifis 
numerous works, ably and luridh writ fen, 
include S,if ur, 1 > 1u 1 / his System ( < s (>5 ), II .//;- 
hours with lhr Stars (1SS7), and 77 m Orbs 
.Iromul Us (18 7 „>). 

Procurator. The name commonly used in 
Glasgow and tIn; surrounding districts for 
a la w-a gent or solicitor. 

Procurator Fiscal (Scots law), a public 
prosecutor. 

Procyon, the Lesser Dog-star, — a Can is 
Minoris, a, star of 0.48 may nil ude, with a 
spectrum intermediate between thorn of 
Sirius and of the sun. The bright star is live 
times more luminous than the sun. 

Prodicus, ancient Greek sophist, was a na¬ 
tive of Ceos, and lived probably from about 
480 to a tittle alter 400 n.r. Tie appears 
prominently in Plato's Pro ta yarns. 

Professor. A title among the Romans ap¬ 
plied to public teachers of grammar and 
rhetoric, and in the universities of the mid¬ 
life ayes synonymous with doctor or magis¬ 
trate. In the modern university the profes¬ 
sor is the head instructor in a department, 
responsible for its conduct, and holdiny a 
seat in I lit* laculty. With the yrowth of the 
colleyes, the ranks of adjunct, assistant, and 
associate professor have been created, differ¬ 
entiated b\ their responsibilities and func¬ 
tions from tutors, assistants and instructors, 
who usuaby have no voice in the manage¬ 
ment .0 the department. 

Profit a Prendre. A riyht to enter on the 
land of another, and to take some profit 
from it. ft may he a riyht incident to the 
ownership of land, or it may he held in gross 
without any estate to support if. It may he 
created by prescription. See Faskmkxt; 
consult Jones, Easements. 

Profits, accordiny to common usage, de¬ 
note comprehensively the return obtained 
from business enterprise, after deduction of 
the yross expenses. Adam .Smith, writiny be¬ 
fore the industrial revolution, naturally re¬ 
garded profits as varying strictly accordiny 
to the amount of stock or capital employed, 
and as wholly distinct from the wages of 
inspection and direction. It was no less 
natural that the American economist, P, A. 
Walker, writing toward the end of the 19th 
century, should wish to confine the term 
profits to the reward for the work of the 
employer as such, and to establish a rigid 


40 r* mr 

..... _ __ _ _____ ir jfoiit oharmg- 

distinct ion between the remuneration for 
business enterprise* and interest on the cap¬ 
ital used. J. S. Mill, on the other hand, 
vGww book appeared in the middle of the 
naUmy, stated that (here were three 
eomponent elements in profit, which were 
•Merest on capital, insurance against risk 
and wages of siiperintendenee, or earnings of 
manayement. Recent studies in economic 
theory distinguish .mother element in nrotits 
e...., the gains that accrue tu certain employ¬ 
ers through the introduction to new methods, 
e.r through sudden expansion of the demand 
lor goods. Profits from such sources are 
temporary in their nature, the general adop¬ 
tion ot improvements, wit la tin* resultant fall 
in prices, reducing profits ton minimum. See 
Gapital; I vrhKKs r; Moxurours: Profit 

SliAkrNO, 

( onsult Walkers li ayes (J nest ion; Bage- 
hot’s Eranomie Studies; (dark’s Distribution 
of Wealth; Carver's Distribution of Weafh; 
ovhgman's Principleof Economics; Fpstein 
& Giark, Source-Hook for the Study of In¬ 
dustrial Profits (lb S. Dept. Com., 143a) ; A, 
B. Adams, Profit 4 Progress and Prosperity 
(19.17); Fairchild, Profits or Prosperity? 
C1932). 

Profit Sharing, a modification of the wage 
system, under which the workman receives 
in addition to ordinan wage-, a stipulated 
proporiion 01 the proliD ot the enterprise. 
In true proiil diaring the amount to be dis¬ 
tributed varies with and depends upon the 
net vrolits or upon tin* amount of dividends 
paid to stockholder--; the proportion of prof¬ 
its to he distributed is definitely determined 
in advance; the benefits of (be plan are ex¬ 
tended to at, least one-third of the total num¬ 
ber ot employees, and employees other than 
executive and clerical are included; and the 
method ol determining individual shares is 
known, at least in a general wa\, to the par¬ 
ticipating employers. 

I he term Protit Sharing is also applied, 
though less correctly, to plans whereby the 
profits are shared with less than one-third of 
the total per-ons employed. As a rule, the 
distribution among the several employees is 
in proportion to the annual wage received by 
each. In the earlier profit-sharing experi¬ 
ments, the dividend to labor was made in 
the torm of a cash payment or bonus; and 
this form is still largely employed. However, 
many profit sharing firms have adopted the 
policy of crediting a bonus to the workman, 
to be withdrawn by him only after a stated 
period of service. In the plan most favored 




Profit Sharing 1 


3841 


Progressive 


by employers, the dividend to labor is de¬ 
clared at stated periods, but in the form of 
stock in the company. In a study made by 
the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company 
(1926-27), it appeared that out of 87 firms 
in United States, Canada and England which 
had had experience with profit sharing, 15 
had discontinued it and 72 had survived dull 
periods. Most executives who replied to the 
questionnaire found the system satisfactory 
as tending to stabilize the working forces, 
prevent strikes and eliminate waste. 

The chief arguments brought forward 
against the system by employers, besides its 
failure to secure increased efficiency, are that 
competitive conditions usually preclude the 
long continuance of any profit in excess of 
a fair return on capital, and that it is unjust 
for labor to share in the profits when it 
does - not share in the loss or risk of the busi¬ 
ness. Profit sharing is not favored by leaders 
of organized labor for these reasons: The 
workers have no voice in the management; 
they cannot check the accuracy of profit re¬ 
ports ; it is an unstable factor in industrial 
life, subject to change at employers’ whims; 
to modification or abolition with change of 
management, death of employer, or dissolu¬ 
tion of the business. Above all, it is de¬ 
signed to keep wages down, arrest the mili¬ 
tancy of the workers, and halt the advance 
of trade unionism. Modern profit sharing 
may be said to have originated in France 
about the middle of the 19th century. The 
greatest success in England has been en¬ 
countered in the gas business, where only one 
out of 34 plans put into operation failed. 

Profit sharing in the United States is a 
comparatively late development. In 1867 the 
Bay State Shoe and Leather Company of 
Worcester, Mass., began the division of 25 
per cent, of the net profits to its employees, 
continuing until 1873, when a strike for 
higher wages caused its abandonment. In 
1923 there were 100 profit sharing concerns, 
but since the depression from 1929 many 
firms were compelled to abandon the scheme. 

The U. S. Steel Corporation adopted its 
plan of profit sharing in 1903. Only the 
higher class employees—those upon whose 
faithful performance of duties the successful 
operation of the works depends—are allowed 
to participate. The plan of the Ford Motor 
Works was introduced in 19x4, and involves 
the distribution to over 25,000 employees of 
one-half the estimated net annual profits to 
be added to the usual wages in the form of 


a bonus. See Bonus ; Co-operation ; Old- 
age Pensions ; Insurance, Industrial. 

Programme Music comprises that class of 
musical composition which depends for its 
effect upon the literary scheme or programme 
on which it is based. While pure or absolute 
music develops organically from the inherent 
qualities of musical expression, programme 
music requires the accompaniment of the 
'book’— e.g., the Don Quixote of Richard 
Strauss. The term is also applied to compo¬ 
sitions of concert-hall scope, as distinguished 
from music dramas and operas. 

Progreso, seaport town, Mexico, the prin¬ 
cipal port of entry and centre of distribu¬ 
tion for the state of Yucatan; 25 m. n. of 
Merida; p. 5,000. 

Progression, in mathematics. See Series. 

Progression, in music, is applied to the 
changes from note to note in melody; to the 
succession of chords in harmony; and to the 
motion of parts in compositions of a contra¬ 
puntal nature. See Counterpoint; Har¬ 
mony. 

Progressive Party, an American political 
party formed in 1912 to secure direct popu¬ 
lar control of elections and legislation in the 
States and nation; to bring within Federal 
jurisdiction problems too difficult to be dealt 
with by individual States, to establish a 
strong national regulation of interstate cor¬ 
porations, and, broadly speaking, a larger 
measure of social and industrial justice. 

The Progressive Party had its immediate 
origin in the Republican National Conven¬ 
tion held in Chicago June 18-23, 1912, in a 
controversy between the adherents of for¬ 
mer President Theodore Roosevelt and of 
President William H. Taft, candidates for the 
Presidential nomination. In the Convention, 
the. decision' of the National ..Committee in 
seating a large number of contested delegates 
resulted in the exclusion of.many Roosevelt, 
supporters, and Taft was renominated by a 
vote of 561 to 107—344 delegates signifying 
their disapproval of the action of the Com¬ 
mittee by refusing to vote. 

On June 22, 1912, a number of the Roose¬ 
velt delegates held an independent meeting 
in Chicago, and laid the foundation for the 
formation of the Progressive Party.. . On 
August 5, the first National Progressive Con¬ 
vention met in Chicago, in response to a 
call issued by 63 well-known men from 40 
States. Theodore Roosevelt of New York 
was nominated for President, and Governor 
Hiram Johnson of California for Vice-PresL 



Prohibition 


3842 


Prohibition 


dent. In the Presidential elections of 1912, 
the total popular vote for the three leading 
candidates was 13,879,142. Of this number, 
Roosevelt received 4,106,247, as compared 
with 6,291,776 for Woodrow Wilson, the 
successful Democratic candidate, and 3,481,- 
119 for William H. Taft, the Republican can¬ 
didate for re-election. 

The State elections of 1914 revealed a con¬ 
siderable decline in power of the Progressive 
Party, and a movement for reunion with the 
Republican Party was inaugurated. In 1916 
the Progressive Committee endorsed the can¬ 
didacy of Mr. Hughes, in accordance with 
the expressed wishes of Colonel Roosevelt. 

See United States, History; Republican 
Party. 

Prohibition, in law, is a writ issued by a 
superior court, directed to the judge and 
parties at action in a court of inferior juris¬ 
diction, requiring them to stop immediately 
the prosecution of the action or proceeding. 
The writ is granted only where the inferior 
court has exceeded, or threatens to exceed, its 
jurisdiction. 

Prohibition, the policy of prohibiting by 
law the sale and manufacture of alcoholic 

beverages. In the United States, the first 
prohibitory law was enacted in Maine in 
1846. About 1880 the movement spread to 
the Middle West; at the opening of the 20th 
century it invaded the Southern States; and 
in more recent years many of the Western 
States entered the prohibition list. On Jan. 
1, 1919, the following States and territories 
had full prohibition: Alaska and Porto Rico, 
Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Dis¬ 
trict of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, 
Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Michigan, 
Minnesota (effective 1920), Mississippi, Mon¬ 
tana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, 
New' Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, 
Ohio (effective May 20, 1919), Oklahoma, 
Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Ten¬ 
nessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, 
West Virginia, Wyoming (effective Jan 1, 
1920). 

With the establishment of the Parcels Post, 
in 1911, a movement began in Congress for 
the protection of the ‘dry’ States, and a bill 
was passed forbidding consignments of liquor 
from any State to an individual residing in 
another State, and making all shipments of 
liquor subject to the police power of the 
State at the border line. On July 1, 1917, no 
less than 23 States became ‘bone dry* when 
the Reed Amendment to the Post Office Ap¬ 
propriation bill went into effect, prohibiting 


the shipment of liquor into any territory 
where its manufacture or sale is prohibited; 
while 11 other States were partially affected. 
Two Federal prohibition enactments were the 
direct outgrowth of conditions during the 
World War (1014-18). The Pood Control 
Act forbade the use, after Sept. 8, 1917, of 
food materials in the production of distilled 
spirits for beverage purposes, and empow¬ 
ered the President to place similar restric¬ 
tions on the manufacture of malt and vinous 
liquors (see Food Control) . Thu Fmergency 
Agricultural Appropriation Act, for stimulat¬ 
ing agricultural product ion, signed by Presi¬ 
dent. Wilson, Nov. 1 S, 19 1 s, carried a War¬ 
time Prohibition rider providing for nation¬ 
wide prohibition of the manufacture and sale 
of intoxicating drinks from July 1, 1919, un¬ 
til after the signing of peace and the com¬ 
plete demobilization of thr army. 

On Aug. i, 1917, the U. S. Senate by a vote 
of 65 to 20 passed the Sheppard resolution 
calling for a vote of the legislatures of the 
48 States upon a constitutional amendment 
for nation-wide prohibition. By Jan. 16, 
1919, the proposed amendment had been rati¬ 
fied by 36 States. On Jan. 29, it was ac¬ 
cordingly proclaimed by the Acting Secretary 
of State, Frank L. Polk, a valid part of the 
Constitution of the United States. Subse¬ 
quently ten more Stales voted for ratification. 

The terms of the Amendment made it effec¬ 
tive one year from ratification, but since the 
Wartime Prohibition Act went into force 
July 1, 1919, national prohibition in the 
United States may be said to date from that 
time. The Volstead Art, giving Congress pow¬ 
er to enforce the measure, became effective 
Jan. 16, 1:920. According to the Volstead 
Act, ‘liquor/ or ‘'intoxicating lit j nor,’ was de¬ 
fined as including ‘alcohol, brandy, whisky, 
rum, gin, brer, ale, porter, and wine, and in 
addition thereto any spirituous, vinous, malt, 
or fermented liquor, liquids, and compounds, 
containing one-half of one per centum, or 
more, of alcohol by volume, which are fit 
for use for beverage purposes.’ The Volstead 
Act further defined the terms of the amend¬ 
ment; provided for certain exemptions, in¬ 
cluding wine for sacramental purposes, pat¬ 
ent medicines, toilet preparations, etc., made 
provision for the granting of permits for the 
legitimate use of intoxicating liquors; and 
entrusted the investigation of violations of 
the Amendment to ‘the Commissioner of In¬ 
ternal Revenue, his assistant, agent, and in¬ 
spectors,’ such violations to be reported to 
the U. S. Attorney for the district in which 



Prohibition 


Prohibition 


3843 


committed, who was charged with the duty 
of prosecuting the offenders. 

In order to carry out this last provision 
there was created in the Bureau of Internal 
Revenue a special organization, known as 
the Prohibition Enforcement Unit, under a 
Prohibition Commissioner, subordinate to the 
Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who in 
turn was subject to the Secretary of the 
Treasury. On April 30, 1924, the TJ. S. Su¬ 
preme Court handed down a decision that 
the 18th Amendment and the National Pro¬ 
hibition (Volstead) Act applied to all mer¬ 
chant vessels, both domestic and foreign, 
when within the territorial waters of the 
United States, except in transit through the 
Panama Canal, and they did not apply to 
domestic vessels when beyond these waters. 

The chief obstacle to prohibition in the 
past was the widely prevailing idea that it 
is hostile to the purpose of the Constitution 
and the ethics of personal liberty. Another 
argument adopted against its being carried 
into effect was that prohibition is the parent 
of illicit liquor traffic and enormously aggra¬ 
vates the drink evil. Still another was the 
loss of that enormous revenue from the sale 
of intoxicants by which many public institu¬ 
tions of social, charitable, and educational 
utility are maintained or greatly aided. 

Over against these criticisms the advocates 
of prohibition asserted that neither the mak¬ 
ers nor sellers of beer and other intoxicants 
provide such revenue; that it comes out of 
consumers, who by their consumption are 
made non-producers to a burdensome extent; 
that pauperism, crime, and vice are the di¬ 
rect result of such consumption; and that 
these cost the taxpayers many times more 
than any sum the liquor traffic ever claims to 
pay. Regardless of the controversial theoret¬ 
ical aspects of prohibition, the national gov¬ 
ernment prosecuted its enforcement with a 
rigor temporized only by the extent of its 
available funds, but a success contingent in 
large measure on a varying local receptivity. 

The prohibition years, however, were by 
no means arid. Considered as more than a 
joke was the common remark that ‘Prohibi¬ 
tion is better than no liquor.* The ‘better* 
was none too good: home brew, flavoring 
extracts, bay rum, hair tonics, a variety of 
medicinal preparations, and alcohol of ques¬ 
tionable genealogy (as well as industrial al¬ 
cohol rendered, in theory, impotable and 
even poisoned by the government) caused, 
by their induction, many deaths, and many 
cases of blindness. After 1924 the chief sup¬ 


ply came from diverted industrial alcohol. In 
1926, it was estimated, 60,000,000 gallons 
were so diverted, for the delectation of 
‘speakeasy’ patrons or home bibbers, in the 
form either of ‘cut’ or synthetic liquor. The 
profits from this eventually highly organ¬ 
ized trade in illegal liquor, and from illicit 
brewing and distilling, enabled a large crim¬ 
inal element to extend their operations to 
many equally well developed rackets. 

A comprehensive survey of the prohibition 
situation was contained in the final report of 
the Wickersham Commission, presented to 
President Hoover on Jan. 19, 1931. The com¬ 
mission, read the report, was opposed to re¬ 
peal of the Eighteenth Amendment, to re¬ 
turn of the saloon, to the Federal or State 
governments’ going into the liquor business, 
to legalization of beer and wines. Some of 
the commission favored further trial of the 
Eighteenth Amendment in its existent form, 
others considered it to have already been 
demonstrated as unenforceable; all agreed 
that if revised it should permit Congress to 
determine national policy with respect to the 
liquor traffic (something forbidden by the 
Constitution). 

Public dissatisfaction became manifest 
from the beginning of the ‘dry’ era in 1920, 
and the prohibition experience of the United 
States ran the same course as it did in all 
other countries where a similar attempt was 
made. From about 1907 to 1920 the tide of 
sentiment seemed to favor, after 1925 it op¬ 
posed, prohibition. Polls of the Literary Di¬ 
gest in 1930 and 1932 further illustrated the 
popular desire for repeal or reform. Dwight 
Morrow in 1930 joined the repealists, and 
many other prominent citizens, notably John 
D. Rockefeller Jr., followed suit. (For the 
important political aspects of the prohibition 
issue see United States: History.) 

The last ‘lame-duck’ Congress failed to 
pass beer legislation, in spite of Democratic 
efforts. It did, however, agree on a resolution 
for the repeal of the Eighteenth Amend¬ 
ment, which Secretary Stimson on Feb. 21, 
1933, submitted to the States for ratifica¬ 
tion by State conventions to be called for 
the purpose. In March the restrictions on 
the prescription of medicinal liquor were 
withdrawn. On April 7 legalized beer went 
on sale in nearly half the States. 

On April 10 Michigan became the first 
State to ratify the Twenty-first Amendment. 
Convention after convention followed this 
example in a ‘wet* march broken only by 
North and South Carolina; with Utah’s 



Prohibition 


3844 


favorable vole, the ;UU!i, on December 5 the 
Eighteenth Amendment was read out of ex¬ 
istence. The reiurn of liquor immediately 
raised a number of complex problems, Mich 
as the manner and division of control by the 
Federal and Slade governments, the protec¬ 
tion of dry States against the importation 
of liquor; taxation; the elimination of the 
bootlegger and (he speakeasy; the prevention 
of the return of the generally unwanted 
saloon. By the date of repeal several States 
had a I reach prepared regulations, usually of 
a liberal nature, for the retail sale and con¬ 
sumption of liquors. Federal control was 
vested in a newly-created Federal Alcohol 
Control Administration, headed by Joseph 
H. Choate Jr. Under the distillers’ cede 
signed by President Roosevelt, the FACA 
could revise the prices fixed by the liquor in¬ 
dustry, control production and distribution 
through a quota, system, and hold tight rein 
over all phases of the industry. Import re¬ 
strictions and quota system embodied in a 
marketing agreement with the Department 
of Agriculture were to control the supply of 
hard liquor. Thus, in the midst of the travail 
accompanying the birth of a new one, ended 
a significant phase of American social life. 

Under the Canadian Constitution, juris¬ 
diction in the matter of the control or prohi¬ 
bition of the liquor traffic is divided between 
the Dominion and the provincial govern¬ 
ments and provinces have power to regulate : 
or prohibit the sale of liquor within their own j 
boundaries. In Canada, as in the United 
States, the prohibition cause was advanced 
by the war. Provincial prohibition, which 
had been adopted in Prince Edward Island 
in 1900 and in Nova Scotia in iqio was in 
1929 abandoned, as the result of popular 
vote, in .favor of government control; New 
Brunswick, which adopted prohibition in 
1917, likewise changed to State control. 

In Ontario provincial prohibition was 
adopted by the legislature in j91 6 but in 
rcj27 it was repealed in favor of strict gov¬ 
ernment control of liquor sales under a per¬ 
mit system, with sale in hotels, dubs, or by 
the glass in drinking establishments forbid¬ 
den. The government monopoly in all the 
provinces has made the liquor traffic a source 
of considerable revenue. Nowhere in Canada 
is the manufacture of intoxicating liquors 
prohibited, and exportation by brewers and 
distillers is nowhere forbidden. 

Ollier Countries .—During the World War 
Dorq-ig) the drink problem received seri¬ 
ous attention from many national govern- 


Prohibition 
ments. Following the war, Great Britain 
enacted the intoxicating Liquor Bill, forbid¬ 
ding the sail- of intoxicating liquor to any 
person under nS yearn of age. Northern Ire¬ 
land and the Isle of Man passed similar in¬ 
toxicating liquor measures providing for the 
Sunday closing o 1 liquor .-hops and setting 
an age limit for purchasers. 

In 1910 Norway adopted partial prohibi¬ 
tion under which the sale of beer and wines 
was permitted. Sweden in a national refer¬ 
endum in 1922 < Idea ted prohibition by a 
margin of 35,000 votes. Under the Bratt sys¬ 
tem for restricting the liquor traffic in that 
country, the Wine and Spirits Central is the 
only organization having the right to manu¬ 
facture and sell liquor wholesale. All profits 
above 5 per cent, from the sale of alcoholic 
liquors go to the government. Estonia tried 
prohibition during the World War but subse¬ 
quently changed to a system like Sweden’s. 
In Finland prohibition, which went into ef¬ 
fect in 19Kg resulted in conditions much like 
, those in the United States, and was aban¬ 
doned in 1952 as the result of a referendum 
in which 70.5 per cent, of {lie voters demand¬ 
ed repeal. A new law provided for strict gov¬ 
ernmental regulation, as in Sweden, and set 
up a corporation which gives permits to man¬ 
ufacture and sells licenses to ieJailers. Prof¬ 
its of the company (08 per cent, of the stock 
ot which is owned by the government) above 
a dividend of 7 per cent, go to an old age 
ami unemployment fund, to further temper¬ 
ance work, to the support of cultural and 
temperance activities in all communities, and 
(50 per cent.) to defray expenses in the 
campaign against the illegal liquor trade. The 
sale, manufacture, and importation of spirits 
rnav he prohibited in municipalities by a 
two-thirds vote ot the municipal council con¬ 
cerned. 

Prohibition was tried, in many other 
countries, but when hinland abandoned it in 
1932, the United States was the only coun¬ 
try still having national prohibition. The 
example oi these last two countries was not 
of a nature to inspire imitation. Regulations 
of one sort or another to further temper¬ 
ance, nevertheless, are in effect in most coun¬ 
tries, and as a problem for local concern, pro¬ 
hibition continues in many places. See 
Ciumk; Temperance; Prohibition Party, 
Bibliography G. Hayler, Prohibition Ad¬ 
vance in Alt Lauds (1914); S. Crowthcr, 
Prohibition and Prosperity {1930); C. War* 
burton, Economic Results of Prohibition 
(1932); S* Walker, Night Club Em (1933); 



Prohibition 


3845 


Projection 


R. B. Fosdick and A. Scott, Toward Liquor 
Control (1933). 

Prohibition Cost In U. S. A. —On Dec. 6, 
c 933> it was stated by Department of Jus¬ 
tice officials in Washington that 92 Federal 
agents and 17S civilians had been killed in 
the efforts to enforce national prohibition, 
and $128,810,291 spent between Jan. 16, 
1920, and Oct. 31, 1933. An earlier report 
of November estimated the death toll at 
over the 1,500 mark. In 1931 Senator Mil¬ 
lard E. Tydings of Maryland in the Senate 
put at 1,550 the lives that prohibition had 
cost until then. His figures did not include 
deaths from poisoned alcohol. 

Convictions for the period 1920-1933 to¬ 
taled 534,335. Fines amounting to $80,337,- 
012 were imposed against 494,764 persons. 
Property seized was valued at $219,302,464.90 
from 1926. The most was seized in 1930— 
$29,238,000 worth. 

Prohibition Party. In the early years of 
the agitation for prohibition, its advocates 
showed no disposition to form an independ¬ 
ent party, but gave their support to those 
candidates of other political parties who 
seemed most favorable to the repression of 
the liquor traffic. That the same policy is 
still followed by many of the advocates of 
prohibition is evident when a comparison is 
made between the vote of the Prohibition 
Party at the polls and the long record of 
anti-liquor legislation. 

Projectiles. In projectiles there is a 
movement of the axis similar to that of the 
earth and of all rotating bodies. In the 
case of elongated projectiles of approximately 
cylindrical shape (with one or both ends 
pointed), considerable information has been 
obtained. In such projectiles, the point de¬ 
scribes a curve about the line of flight which 
varies with the velocity, the shapes of the 
head and base, the position of the centre of 
gravity, and the density. It is most marked 
in projectiles which have the centre of grav¬ 
ity near or abaft the centre of figure, such 
as the elongated bullets of small arms. It is 
least in the projectiles of large guns which 
have hollow bodies and solid heads. It has 
a marked effect upon the drift, possibly 
greater than the frictional resistance, par¬ 
ticularly as the velocities of translation and 
rotation decrease. 

Projection. The projection of a point on 
a surface is the point where a line drawn 
from it according to a fixed law meets the 
surface, and the projection of a line or fig¬ 
ure is the new line or figure formed by the 


projection of all the points which compose 
the original. The methods of projection most 
commonly used are the orthogonal , in which 
the lines are drawn at right angles to a 
plane; and the conical, in which the lines all 
meet in a point. The rules of perspective 
drawing are deduced from the principles of 
conical projection, lines drawn from the ob¬ 
ject to the eye being intercepted by the pic¬ 
ture plane. In the construction of maps also 
projection is extensively used, though the 
term ‘projection' is then applied to methods 
not involving true projection. It is impos¬ 
sible to represent a spherical surface on a 
plane surface with perfect accuracy, for. 
however small the parts into which a spher¬ 
ical shell is divided, each retains its spher¬ 
ical form; but if the shell be supposed per¬ 
fectly elastic, we can imagine it to be 
stretched out into a plane surface. As the 
angles and distances cannot be the same on 
the sphere and on the map, and hence dis¬ 
tortion and inequality of area arise, the 
choice of a projection depends on the pur¬ 
pose for which the map is constructed; for 
general maps, one in which both distortion 
and inequality are present, but neither error 
is excessive is best. Among the various kinds 
of projections are stereo graphic, cylindrical, 
conical, globular, etc. In the cylindrical the 
surface of the sphere is projected on to the 
cylinder touching it at the equator; the 
cylinder is then unrolled into a flat surface. 
The simple form, made by lines drawn 
from the centre of the sphere, is enormously 
extended towards the poles, and is of little 
practical use. The modification introduced 
by Mercator, however, is of great value. The 
meridians being projected into straight lines 
perpendicular to the equator, the degrees of 
longitude are equal at all latitudes, and con¬ 
sequently the length of a degree of longitude 
on any parallel is to its length on the sphere 
in the ratio sec. lat.: 1. Mercator made his 
distances from the equator increase at 
every point in this ratio, so that the.angles 
at each point are true (see Herschel, loc. cii., 
p. 103). A line, then, which makes equal 
angles with the meridians on the sphere will 
also make equal angles with them on the 
projection, and on the latter will be a straight 
line. Of course the areas in the projection are 
greatly exaggerated towards' the poles, and 
these are at an infinite distance. 

These projections are used for general 
maps, and most of them for such alone. Oth¬ 
ers have some special quality. Great circle 
. sailing requires a particular chart, in which 





Proletariat 


3846 


Pronunciation 


great circles are represented by straight lines, 

as loxodromes are on Mercator’s projection. 
See Maps and Mapmaking. 

Projection of the World.—This system or 
process as a whole forms a special branch 
of the subject demanding methods other than 
those used for producing national or region¬ 
al maps or charts of the whole world for a 
special purpose unattainable by any other 
method, like Mercator’s. Mr. B. J. S. Cahill, 
a California architect, has devoted 35 years 
to this task, the outcome of which is the 
Octahedral System of Projection, popularly 
known as the Butterfly Map. It is, in reality, 
not only a single mappemonde but a com¬ 
plete system of presenting the surface of our 
planet on a plane with the very minimum of 
exaggeration, distortion and interruption. The 
butterfly form is capable of four arrange¬ 
ments with a repeat octant East and West if 
desirable as on Mercator’s Chart, Many oth¬ 
er dispositions of the octants are possible to 
suit various dynamic needs. 

Proletariat, the lower classes of the com¬ 
munity. In the time of Servius Tullius a 
proletarius was a citizen of the lowest class, 
who was considered useful in the state only 
in begetting children (proles). In modern 
socialism the word is applied to the wage¬ 
workers collectively. 

Prologue, usually a short poem or verses 
sometimes prefixed to new plays to recom¬ 
mend them to the favor of the readers, or 
spectators—in the comedies of Plautus, Ter¬ 
ence, and other poets. 

Prome, chief town, Promc (list., Lower 
Burma; exports silk, cotton, rice and sugar; 
■P- 28,295. 

Promethea Moth, a common large brown 
silkworm moth of the United States. 

Prometheus, in ancient Greek mythology, 
was one of the Titans. /Eschylus regards 
him as a god, but correctly speaking he is 
rather a hero. The chief legends about him 
are that he stole fire from heaven to give to 
men (for this he was chained by Zeus to a 
pillar, an eagle coming every day to devour 
his liver, which grew afresh every night; at 
last Hercules slew 1 the eagle and released 
him.) . ■ ' 

Promissory Note. An unconditional pro¬ 
mise in writing, signed by the maker, where¬ 
by he agrees to pay on demand, or at a 
fixed or determinable future time, a certain 
sum in money to a specified person or order, 
or to bearer. 

Promotion, Military, is the advancement 
of an officer of one grade to a higher grade 


in the service. The grades of officers and 
non-commissioned officers In the United 
States army range from that of lieutenant- 
general down to corporal. Officers and non¬ 
commissioned officers are generally appointed 
to the lowest grades and promoted as va¬ 
cancies occur to the higher grades in succes¬ 
sion. Promotions in the line of the array are 
made by seniority up to and including the 
grade of colonel; general officers are pro¬ 
moted by selection. Second lieutenants, first 
lieutenants, and captains are required by law 
to pass a rigid physical and mental examina¬ 
tion to determine their fitness for promotion. 

Pronghorn. The ‘antelope’ (Antilosapra 
amcricana) of the N. American plains stands 
in a family by itself because of the singular 
structure and shape of its horns, which make 
the name pronghorn far more appropriate. 
This animal, which is related by descent to 
the deer as closely as to the true antelopes, 
Is unlike any other sheathed-horn creature in 
the way its horns are acquired; in their be¬ 
ing branched; and most of all in the,, fact 
that they are annually shed and renewed. 
The pronghorn once ranged in enormous 
numbers over all the plains and valleys, from 
the valley of the Saskatchewan s. to central 
Mexico; but now only scattered remnants re¬ 
main. 

The prong-horn is a denizen of the dry. 
bunch-grass plains, where it was wont to 
thrive on the sun-cured nutritious herbage 
after revelling for a short period each spring 
on the juicy new pasturage. The speed of 
the pronghorn exceeds that of any other ani¬ 
mal of the American plains, but cannot be 
maintained for many miles, nor does it seem 
able or willing to leap over an obstacle more 
than about three feet high, so that the cattle- 
ranchers fences have had a, great influence in 
its decrease. Formerly the northern prong¬ 
horns gathered in the autumn into vast herds, 
and moved southward to areas warmer and 
freer from snow; yet thousands perished an¬ 
nually from exposure and starvation. In 
1934 fossil remains of an extinet species were 
found in a cave in southern Arizona by 
Quentin Roosevelt and J. W. Burden. This 
antelope was four horned, at least in appear¬ 
ance. 

Pronunciation, in its widest sense, is the 

art of articulate utterance, but Is often, as 
here, taken to mean the art of uttering words 
with their correct, sounds and accents, or as 
it is specifically called orthoepy . In orthoepy, 
as in orthography, the only practical record 
of what is the best, that is the conventionally 



Pronunciation 


3847 


Propagation 


accepted, pronunciation is the dictionaries. 
For most words both the English and the 
American dictionaries agree upon essentially 
the same pronunciations, but, yet, there are 
many words the English pronunciations of 
which differ more or less widely from the 
American, and also there are many variations 
in pronunciation for which no written di¬ 
rections can be given. In the pronunciation 
of proper names there is less uniformity than 
in that of common words, but for names in 
foreign languages the best usage now is to 
give as nearly as may be the pronunciation 
given to the name in the language to which 
the name belongs, English usage in this re¬ 
spect differing largely from the French and 
German. 

Most of the sounds in foreign languages 
are fairly well represented by the ordinary 
English sounds, so that the chief difficulty 
in a fairly correct pronunciation of foreign 
words is to know what values are to be 
given to the letters with which they are 
spelled. 

Although many of the consonant letters 
of foreign languages have essentially the same 
values as in English, it is quite impossible to 
give any general rule that will insure even a 
tolerably correct pronunciation of foreign 
names. Loosely, we may say that in foreign 
languages each vowel is sounded, except in 
the case of double vowels, which usually 
make a single long syllable. 

In most languages there is a distinctly ac¬ 
cented syllable in each word, and this syllable 
corresponds in most languages, especially the 
Teutonic ones, to what would be the natural¬ 
ly accented syllable in English. The unac¬ 
cented syllables are generally more distinctly 
pronounced than in English, and there is 
relatively less emphasis on the accented syl¬ 
lable. 

The glides of our English vowels, which 
when exaggerated produce a characteristic 
drawl, seldom occur in foreign languages, and 
care should always be taken, therefore, not 
to drawl or unduly prolong the vowels in 
foreign words. In a few languages the accent 
usually follows certain general rules that are 
helpful enough to be worth stating. In Ara¬ 
bic the last long syllable is accented, that is 
the last syllable having a long vowel or a 
vowel followed by a consonant in the same 
syllable, except that a final vowel is not ac¬ 
cented. In Czech and Hungarian the spoken 
accent is always on the first syllable, the 
written accent in Hungarian being used only 
to indicate vowels long in sound. In French 


there is characteristically no strong syllabic 
accent, but there is a slight emphasis upon 
the last syllable. In modern Greek the spoken 
follows the written accent. In Italian the ac¬ 
cent is usually on the penult, except in words 
derived from Latin words having the penult 
short, when the Italian accent is usually on 
the antepenult. A graphic accent generally 
denotes an accented syllable, except in case 
of the acute accent on the letter i in the ter¬ 
minations 4 a, 4 e, where the graphic accent 
is used to distinguish words spelled alike. 
In Polish and Welsh the penult usually takes 
the. accent. In Spanish and Portuguese the 
accent is generally on the last syllable, ex¬ 
cept when the last syllable ends in a vow T el, 
or when, in Spanish, the last syllable is un¬ 
accented and ends in n or s, in which case 
the accent is usually on the penult. In Turk¬ 
ish the last syllable usually receives a slight 
emphasis, much as in French. In general in 
Japanese the accent is on the first syllable. 

Proof, in law, the establishment of facts al¬ 
leged in the pleadings. Sometimes the word 
‘proof’ is used as synonymous with the evi¬ 
dence itself, and it then means simply com¬ 
petent legal evidence as distinguished from 
irrelevant and hearsay evidence. 

Proof Spirit. The legal definition in the 
U. S. is ‘that mixture of alcohol and water 
which contains one-half of its volume of al¬ 
cohol, the alcohol, when at a temperature of 
6o° 3?., being of specific gravity .7939, refined 
to water at its maximum density as unity.’ 

Proofs, Correction and Reading of. 
See Printing. . 

Propaganda (Congregatio de Propaganda 
Fide), the most important of the congrega¬ 
tions of the Roman curia, and also a mis¬ 
sionary college at Rome, constituted for the 
spread of the faith throughout the world. 
The congregation was founded by Gregory 
xv.in 1622. 

■ Propagation of'Plants. The division of 
the root-stock is a method applicable to the 
majority of perennial plants. In the case of 
most corms and bulbs it is necessary to sep¬ 
arate the young bulbels or cormels, and to 
plant them out in a bed.. In the division of 
the root-stocks of herbaceous plants each 
plant must include.at least one eye or bud, 
and must usually also be provided with a 
supply of rootlets. Many plants may be 
propagated by layering. The carnation is 
usually propagated in this way, the layering 
being performed in July, and the young 
plants being separated a few months later. 
Roses may be pegged down and layered in a 



Proportional 


Propertius ■ **** 

somewhat similar wav, but in their case it is 
the middle of a branch and not its base which 
is cut and pegged beneath the soil Another 
method by which many plants can be in¬ 
creased is that of cuttage. This is usually 
employed lor chrysanthemums, pansies, and 
certain other plants. A cut should be made 
in a slanting direction through the stem to be 
severed just below a joint. As a mle, cut¬ 
tings of herbaceous plants should be made in 
the spring. Some cuttings will root readily 
in light soil in the open air if a shady posi- 
tion'be selected; but usually it is better to 
plant the cuttings in pots of sandy loam and 
place them in a hot bed, taking care to shade 
from the sun until they are rooted. 

Propertius, Sextus, Roman elegiac poet, 
was born probably about 50 b.c. at Asisium, 
now Assisi, in Umbria. He .possesses great 
vigor of passion and of expression; and 
though his work is unequal, he clearly pos¬ 
sesses a more original genius than either cf 
his rivals, Tibullus and Ovid. 

Property. In the legal sense the rights of 
control and enjoyment which one may pos¬ 
sess in material things. Where one is the ab¬ 
solute owner of a horse it is safe and proper 
to describe the animal as his property; but 
where land is held by a tenant for life or 
years, subject to a reversion or remainder in 
fee, it would not be accurate to describe the 
land as the property of either the tenant or 
the landlord. The truth is that the property 
of the one is his estate for life or years, 
while that of the other is his estate in fee 
simple. 

Our classification of property as real and 
personal is based primarily on the two classes 
of actions formerly available for the protec¬ 
tion of property rights — the real action, 
which aimed at the restoration of the sub¬ 
ject matter of the property in specie , being 
strictly confined to property rights in land; 
and the personal action, which was aimed at 
the person interfering with the properly, and 
which was satisfied bv a payment of its 
value, being appropriated to rights in chat¬ 
tels. There is in our law no such thing as 
the absolute ownership of land by a private 
individual, but the greatest interest which 
the subject or citizen can hold in land, the 
fee simple absolute, is only an estate in the 
land, held in subordination to the superior 
title of the state, and in legal theory falling 
far short of absolute ownership. The classi¬ 
fication of property as corporeal and incor¬ 
poreal belongs almost exclusively in the field 
of real property. The literature of the sub¬ 


ject is extensive and includes Blackstone’s 
Commentaries on English Law , Kent’s Com¬ 
mentaries on American Law , Pollock and 
Wright, Essay, on Possession in the Common 
Law (Oxford, 1S88), and Holland on Juris¬ 
prudence (10th eel. London and New York, 
1906), 

Prophecy. None of the original Hebrew 
terms for ‘prophet’ necessarily contains the 
idea of prediction. The prophet was a ‘forth 
teller 5 rather than a ‘foreteller, 5 regarded as 
a divinely commissioned agent and interpre¬ 
ter of the counsel of the Most High. In the 
times of Samuel, as later of Elijah and Elisha, 
there were ‘schools of the prophets, 5 associa¬ 
tions where the gift could lie nurtured and 
directed; but from the 8th century onwards 
the prophet was one who had not been taught 
of man, but received his call and equipment 
direct from God. Having the faculty of spir¬ 
itual inright, they not only proclaimed moral 
and religious truth, but anticipated the fut¬ 
ure. See Davidson’s Old Test inn nil Prophecy 
(k}°3)* 

Prophylaxis and Prophylactics, in med¬ 
icine, the taking of measures to prevent dis¬ 
ease, ana the means employed. For example, 
in smallpox, isolation of the patient is pro¬ 
phylaxis for those not yet infected; so is vac¬ 
cination previous to infection. Quinine is a 
good prophylactic against: malaria; but the 
best is the prevention of mosquito bites. 

Proportional Representation, a system 
of election of representatives in legislative 
bodies which, without making it compulsory 
on the voter to name one candidate, permits 
him to insert a second name under the first, 
a third under the second, and so on, at his 
discretion. A vote is to be given to the cand¬ 
idate placed second on the paper if the first 
has had enough voles without it. 11 658,000 
people voted, and there wen* 658 members, 
1,000 would be enough lor each member; 
and if any candidate had more than t, 000, 
the excess beyond that number would be 
transferred t. o t h e successive candidates 
named in the voting-papers. The voting is 
general, not local. Every elector may vote 
for whom he pleases in any constituency. The 
method enables the elector to put. his vote in 
writing, and makes it possible that the vole, 
although without effect in his own constitu¬ 
ency, may in some other place aid in the 
election of the candidate for whom it is given. 
This system has been employed successfully 
in Switzerland, It has been proposed in sev¬ 
eral states of the United States, but it has 
failed of popular support, 



Prosecution 


3849 


Protein 


Prosecution, See Crime and Criminal 

Law, 

Proselyte, originally a person dwelling in 
a strange land; in the New Testament ap¬ 
plied to a convert to the Jewish religion. The 
word is now applied generally to converts 
from one religion to another. 

Proskurov, or properly Ploskurov, tn.. 
in the Ukraine, Russia, with oil, brick kilns, 
potteries, copper foundries, candle manufac¬ 
tory^ It contains in its cathedral a famous 
4 Virgin/ venerated by Roman Catholics and 
Orthodox alike; p. 27,000. 

Prosody, See Verse, 

Prostate Gland, in anatomy, a gland pres¬ 
ent only in the male, surrounding the neck 
of the urinary bladder and the commence¬ 
ment of the urethra. 

Prostitution, In law a prostitute is a wom- 
man who has common and indiscriminate 
sexual intercourse with men for gain. The 
subject of prostitution is regulated by statute 
in most states. Various means of attempting 
to suppress or control it have been adopted. 
Some states have followed the European idea 
of inspection and license of houses of prosti¬ 
tution, while others have attempted to sup¬ 
press them entirely, always without success. 

Protagoras, Greek sophist of the 5th cen¬ 
tury b.c. His chief doctrine in metaphysics 
was a sheer sensationalism, which is shown 
by his recorded saying, ‘Man is the measure 
of all things/ He is ‘ the leading figure in 
Plato’s dialogue called by his name. 

Protection in economics stands in opposi¬ 
tion to free trade. Its purpose is, by duties 
on imports, to shelter home producers from 
foreign competition. It is based on the belief 
that the industries of a country need the 
support of the state in their struggles with 
foreign competitors either by duties on im¬ 
ports or by bounties on home produce. The 
modern theory of protection, in its more in¬ 
telligent form, finds its defence in proposals 
urging restrictions upon imports for only a 
limited time; or it is supported upon military 
and political considerations which overbal¬ 
ance the economic ones. Different arguments 
for protection have been employed at dif¬ 
ferent times in the industrial development of 
a country. 

1. A protective policy would tend to in¬ 
crease the productive power of a nation by 
stimulating producers to take up more rap¬ 
idly than would be otherwise possible those 
industries which would be most productive. 
2. A stronger argument than the foregoing is 
that protection promotes diversity of em¬ 


ployments : manufacturing centers furnish 
desirable home markets for agriculture, add 
to the value of land, and stimulate intellect¬ 
ual activity. 3 . Under a high protective tariff, 
it is claimed that if foreigners wish to enter 
the American market the}" can do so by 
transferring their capital and skill to this 
country. 4 . Although protective duties may 
increase the cost of living for a time, it is 
urged that they eventually bring about lower 
prices, through increased competition within 
the country. 

3. Protection operates to encourage infant 
industries. 6. An effective argument in the 
United States has been that the workingman 
is largely benefited by protection. The argu¬ 
ment rests for its validity on the fact that 
the resources of the country, and the capital 
employed, are greater with protection than 
without. 7. Conversely, it is commonly be¬ 
lieved that when once high v T ages are paid, 
they make protection necessary to their main¬ 
tenance. S. An argument for protection which 
has been exploited in Great Britain refers to 
the advantages of a protective tariff as a 
basis for commercial negotiations. A country 
which pursues a free-trade policy must al¬ 
ways be at a disadvantage in negotiating with 
a protectionist country. See Free Trade; 
Tariff. Consult Alexander Hamilton’s Re¬ 
port on Manufacturers (1791), an able 
statement of the arguments for protection; 
and Taussig’s Some Aspects of the Tariff 
Question (1915). 

Protector, an English state title, first as¬ 
sumed by .the Earl of Pembroke (1216), and 
afterward by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucestei 
(1422); by Richard, Duke of Gloucester 
(1483); by the Duke of Somerset (1547); 
by Oliver Cromwell (1653); and by his son, 
Richard (1659). 

Protectorate, country which, as regards its 
foreign relations, is under the exclusive con¬ 
trol of the sovereign of another power, so 
that its government cannot hold direct com¬ 
munication with any other foreign power. 
Thus since 1S20 Liberia has been virtually 
a protectorate of the United States. The 
Republic of Panama, may also be regarded as 
a virtual protectorate of the United States.: ' 

Protein,, the name . applied to a' group, of 
highly complicated carbon compounds, .pro¬ 
duced, by animal and vegetable organisms, 
and' : essential to their life.. It is. the ■ chief con¬ 
stituent of meat and of eggs, and is composed 
of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. In the 
body it is employed for building new tissue 




Proterosaiinss 


3850 


Prothallus 


and as a source ol energy. Proteins are in¬ 
soluble in and usual!) coagulated by alcohol. 
They are also coagulated by heat. 

Profcerosaurus, a fossil reptile found in the 
Permian strata of Bohemia and North Amer¬ 
ica. 

Proterozoic Era, that period of geological 
time between the making of the igneous com¬ 
plex of the oldest known rocks and the be¬ 
ginning of the lowest system now known lo 
contain well-preserved fossils. It is therefore 
the time between the Archean in its restricted 
sense and the Paleozoic. As thus used, it is 
a synonym of the term Algonkian of the U. 
S. Geological Survey. 

Protestant. See Protestantism. 

Protestant Episcopal Church, the title 
officially adopted by the Anglican commun¬ 
ion in America (see Church, Anglican - ). The 
church of the Jamestown colonists in 1607 
was the Anglican. With the recognition of the 
independence of the Colonies, at the close ol 
the Revolution, tho English Church as such 
ceased to exist there, but loyal Churchmen 
set themselves the task of organizing a na¬ 
tional church upon Episcopal foundations 
and traditions, fn the year 178.-1 a movement 
was begun to unite the Episcopalians in the 
United States in one organization. The Eng¬ 
lish Prayer Book was lo be the basis of tlu* 
Liturgy, but so modified as to he suitable for 
the new political status. 

The first General Convention, composed 
of 16 clergymen and 24 laymen from seven 
States, met in Philadelphia, Sept. 27, 1785, 
drafted an ecclesiastical constitution, and be¬ 
gan the preparation of a liturgy. Corres¬ 
pondence with the Archbishop of Canter¬ 
bury and the passage of the Act of 'Parlia¬ 
ment enabling the English episcopate to con¬ 
secrate bishops for America, prepared the 
way for the consecration in 1787, of Dr. 
White of Pennsylvania and Dr. Provoost of 
New York. The General Convention which 
met in Philadelphia, July 28-Oet. 16, 17K0, 
completed the union of the church in the 
States under one name and government. 

The ministry of the c h u r c h comprises 
bishops, priests, and deacons. The territory 
of the United States is divided into dioceses 
or missionary districts, each under the juris¬ 
diction of a bishop. Bishop-coadjutors are 
allowed the right of succession, and also 
suffragan bishops who are eligible but have 
not the right of succession. The dioceses and 
missionary districts are further grouped into 
eight provinces, with a metropolitan see at 
the head of each. In matters of legislation 


the General Convention is first, then the 
diocesan convention, and lastly the parochial 
vestry. The General Convention meets every 
three years. An\ revision of the constitution 
of the Prayer Book must lie over from one 
convention to another and be passed by 
both. The diocesan conventions meet annually 
and legislate for their own internal affairs. 
Vestries are elected by the members of the 
parish. Rectors are chosen by the vestries, 
usually with the advice of the bishop. In 
matters of discipline there are canonical pro¬ 
visions, both general and diocesan. 

There are various organizations devoted to 
the religious, social, and educational work 
of the church. The leading church publica¬ 
tions an*: The Church al Work, The Church¬ 
man , The Living Church , The Spirit of Mis¬ 
sions, 77 /o Witness, The Chronicle and The, 
An^iieo}! 'Theological Review. Consult Bishop 
Perry's History; Hodges'* Three Hundred 
Years of the Episcopal Church in America. 

Protestantism. The name‘Protestant’ was 
first given to the supporters oi Luther, who 
‘protested’ against the decree of the second 
Diet, of Spires, in i.S-o. The name was soon 
extended to all the churches which separated 
from Rome, whether Episcopal or Presby¬ 
terian. Since the Oxford movement in the 
Church of England it has sunk into dis¬ 
favor with the Anglican Catholic party. 

Proteus (Proteus anyutnus ), a long, slen¬ 
der amphibian, representative of the family 
Rrotexke, which retains throughout life ex¬ 
ternal gills, which are provisional larval 
structures in mo>t Amphibia,. It lives always 
in absolute darkness. So far as is known, it 
never halves the water. The laxly is white, 
faintly touched with red by the blood. The 
animal reaches a. length of about a foot, has 
a long tail, four weak limbs placed far apart. 
A related species is found in the United 
States, in eaves in Texas. The American mud- 
puppy or mud-eel, another related form, is 
nocturnal in its activities, searching at night 
for the worm:-, crayfish, frogs, etc., on which 
it lives and hiding under rocks, or amid 
weeds, during the day. 

Protem, in ancient Greek mythology, The 
oh! man of the seaJ lie had prophetic pow¬ 
ers; but any man who desired his advice 
must seize him and hold him while he 
changed into one shape after another: if he 
was kept a prisoner, at last he returned to his 
true form and declared the future. 

Prothallus, the name given to the flat, 
heart-shaped body which results from the de¬ 
velopment: of a spore of a fern. On the under 




3351 


Proust 


Protococcus 


surface of the prothallus also appear in due 
course the sexual reproductive organs—the 
antheridia (male) and archegonia c female'-. 

Protococcus, a genus of single-celled Al¬ 
ga often forming a yellowish-green stratum 
on trees, damp walls, and shallow pools. 

Protocol, originally the first leaf glued on 
to a manuscript to show under whose direc¬ 
tion and by whom the work was written. 
Later the word was used to denote docu¬ 
ments drawn. up by notaries. In diplomacy, 


; tying on all the animal functions, including 
. that of reproduction. The Protozoa are thus 
1 contrasted with the Metazoa, in which the 
; organism consists of many cells, arranged in 
l at least two layers, which have different 
‘ physiological functions. Protozoa may be di¬ 
vided into three classes: The Rhizopoda, in- 
, eluding forms generally resembling Amoeba, 

| whose locomotor organs are pseudopodia; the 
j Infusoria, or forms which progress by ac¬ 
tively moving threads, either of the type of 
flagellse, as in the Flageilata, or of cilia, as 


a protocol is the preliminary draft intended 
to serve as a basis for a subsequent treaty, 
or the minutes of a congress or conference 
recording an agreement to attain certain 
ends by peaceful means. In industry the term 
protocol is sometimes used of agreements be¬ 
tween employers and employees for the peace¬ 
ful adjustment of labor problems. 

Protogine, a modified form, of granite 
which has taken on the characters of gneiss 
in the course of metamorphism accompanying 
mountain making. The term is used especially 
of the rock composing the central axis of the 
Swiss Alps. 

Protophyta, a collective name given in some 
classifications to the simplest single-celled 
plants. With the Protozoa, animals of equ¬ 
ally simple structure, they make up the Pro¬ 
tista of Haeckel. 

Protoplasm, the physical basis of life, most 
familiar as the jelly-like substance in certain 
cells. In its simplest known state, cytoplasm, 
it appears to be a homogeneous, transparent, 
semi-fluid substance; but high magnification 
and the use of suitable staining materials re¬ 
veal a complicated structure. This appears to 
differ in different cells and at different times, 
but in general it is fibrillar — interspersed 
with minute filaments of denser material ; 
reticular—with a mesh-work of delicate 
threads; granular—with exceedingly minute 
particles scattered in the substance; or alve¬ 
olar—with a foam-like structure of liquid 
containing vacuoles round which the proto¬ 
plasm streams. Protoplasm is continually un¬ 
dergoing chemical change, in the course of 
which complex substances are built up from 
simple ones, and are then in their turn broken 
up, the whole series of changes constituting 
what is known as metabolism. 

Protozoa, or primitive animals, are typi¬ 
cally unicellular organisms, In which the 
whole organism takes part in the reproduc¬ 
tive process. Not a few Protozoa consist of a 
colony of cells, but generally in such colonies 
the units are more or less physiologically 
complete, each being usually capable of car- 


in the Ciliata; the Sporozoa, which in the 
adult stage have no definite locomotor proc¬ 
esses, are parasitic in habit, and reproduce by 
means of spores. 

Protractor, a drawing instrument for lay¬ 
ing off angles. It is usually in the form of a 
circle, semicircle, or quadrant, graduated 
along the margin into degrees, the central 
point being indicated by a mark or hole. 
Protractors may also be constructed on or¬ 
dinary straight divided scales if these are 
broad enough. 

Proud, Robert (1728-1813), American his¬ 
torian, born in Yorkshire, England. He emi¬ 
grated to Pennsylvania in 1759, and taught 
in Philadelphia until the outbreak of the 
Revolution. His History of Pennsylvania (2 
vols., Phila., 1797-8) is still valuable for the 
period it covers, from 1681 to 1742. 

Proud Flesh, the popular term for exub¬ 
erant granulations of ulcers or wounds. The 
new formed cells, which should lie at the 
level of the skin about the ulcer, and be of 
a bright-red color, in proud flesh rise above 
the common level, and are more or less pale 
and watery in .appearance. They are, in fact, 
redundant and weakly. The proud flesh 
should be treated with dry dressings, and, if 
necessary, rubbed freely with sulphate of 
copper (blue stone) or sulphate of zinc. 

Proudhon, Joseph (.1809-65), French so¬ 
cialist, born at Besangon. He first became fa¬ 
mous by Ms tract (1S40), What is Property i 
He was a dreaded critic of the dominant 
bourgeois party, and spent a considerable 
time in. prison. He framed no system and es¬ 
tablished no doctrine; but he regarded the 
constant appeal..to the state for assistance 
as the bane of French political and social 
life. His few followers called themselves mu- 
tualists, .. and. their idea is. that society ought 
to rest on a basis of. equality and of recip¬ 
rocity of service rendered. 

Proust, ■: Joseph Louis (1755-1826), 
French chemist, was born at Angers. : His work 
was characterized by its great exactitude, and 



Proust 3852 __ ^ Provencal 

led him to establish the principle, that cheni- mcdiawal ports. Guiraut Riquior (d. 1294), 
ica! compounds arc ot fixer! proportions how- J who oiten success! 11 S!\ reproduces the frcsh- 

ever prepared, known as Proust V Law. j ness o! earlier days, i.s one of the last of the 

Proust, Marcel (1871-1022), French nov- j great poets. The ioundation of a poetical 
elist, was bom and lived al! hi> life in Paris, j aradeni} at Toulouse (1323). and the com- 
After 1902 an invalid, he pave up miscellane- j position, b\ its chancellor, of a Poetics of 
ous literary work and devoted himsell to a j troubadour poetry (the Lt'ys d’A mors) , bear 
long novel which was to recapture his mem- j eloquent testimon> that the literature was 
ories of his whole experience, 'This novel ,i * really dead. 

la recherche, du temps perdu (lopwioeo) | Hut alter the middle ages the influence of 
ran to 15 vols. in French, 7 in the English j the troubadours spread, through Petrarch, 
translation by C. K. Scott Mancrieff (1922- ov(T the whole of Europe. The troubadours 
1932). Proust is the most distinguished j nc\er addressed unmarried women. The ob~ 
French writer of the present century, and his I jects of their adulation were mostly great 
novel, called Remembrance oj Things Past ladies, the wives of their patrons. The mis- 
in English, is one of the 'great novels of the tress was the teudal lord, the poet her vassal, 
world. With such a code, whirl) was zcalmislv fost- 

Prout, Samuel (1783-1852), English paint- errd bv the ladies themselves at courts like 
er in water-color, born at Plymouth.. His | that of Eleanor of Poitiers, much of the 
East Indium ail Ashore (iKkj) shows a re- j poetry was neces^arilx conventional and 
markable talent for marine painting; but he much of the love thinned. Still, we have evi- 
became famous as the painter of cathedrals, deuce that caws of true affection and of true 
cities, and market-places, inspiration were by no means rare, and that 

Provencal Language and Literature, at times the relations between poet and be- 
Provencal, the general term for the tongue loved were any thine but platonic. The love 
of southern France, is one of the Romance poem was called the ranso, and rhymed in 
languages, and none of the sister tongues the most, complicated fashion; indeed, this 
possesses a literary monument so ancient as question of rhyme played a great part in all 
the Boethius fragment (10th century). Pho- the genres. The sirvente was devoted in the 
netically (and geographically), Provencal main to non-amorous poetry (mostly po- 
stands midway between Italian and Spanish lit ica!), and the tenso to disputes (real or 
on the one hand and French on the other, pretended) between two or more poets. If 
Through political events northern French he- we except the crusading songs, which are per- 
came the official language, of the s. from the haps rather sirventes, we have only a few 
15th century. But in Bearn the southern rlia- religious h ries. 

lect was preserved till the 17th century. Lit- 2. Epic and Narrative Poetry.— It used to 
erary production of some kind has never be held that there once exi.ded a large body 
ceased; but the works belong properly to of Provencal epic poetry, now lost; but more 
dialect literature, and are composed in the recent research has proved that the few 
speech of Provence (proper), Languedoc, or poems of the kind extant are derived from 
Gascony. Mediieval Provencal literature may northern French originals. Of Provencal or- 
be divided into four classes. igin are the novas , which have considerable 

t. Lyrical Poetry.-— r V hen* seems to be no literary merit, and are important as showing 
doubt that the courtly lyrics of the trouba- the manners of (he time. The longest, and 
dours had their origin in popular poetry. The most valuable is the Elam emu, a. mine for 
facts known to us are not sufficient to ae» the historian of literature and civilization, 
count for the finished state of Provencal lit- 3. Didactic Literature "Including religious 
era!ure in the poems of the earliest trouba- and seeular. There is no rompleie prose trans- 
dour, William ix., Count of Poitiers (d. latinn of the Bible, but several of the books 
1127), which are licentious but full of spirit, have been rendered separately, often with 
The poems by Bernart de Ventudour prob- skill and charm. First, in bulk of the secular 
ably appeal to modern taste more than those didactic are the vast encyclopedias. Many 
of any other troubadour: they are elegant, scientific subjects were treated separately, 
tender, simple, and truly inspired. Bind ran de Among histories we have a highly important 
Bern's historical importance has probably Chanson de la Croisade. A number of ensen- 
been exaggerated (partly owing to Dante); hamens, written for the instruction of trou- 


but his warlike ditties, love poems, and badmirs, jolars (jongleurs), serving men and 
phmhs secure him a place among the best women, anti other classes of society, are as 




Provence 


3853 


Providence 


bright and interesting as they are instructive., varied character and date, which was brought 
me works in this section are mostly in verse. , together not later than 230 B.c. 


4. Dramatic Literature. —-We have frag¬ 
ments of dramatic pieces dealing with relic- 
ious themes. From the 15th century there are 
complete sets of mystery plays, but they pos¬ 
sess no literary value. Secular plays (farces 
or moralities) are mentioned from the 15th 
century onwards, but all trace of them is lost, 
Seethe history of Provengal literature (medi- 
mval and modern) by Oelsmer. Downer’s 
Mistral (1903) contains a sketch of the move¬ 
ment, a good bibliography, and an accotmt 
of the language. 

Provence, old prov., s.e. corner of France 
its capital was Aix. First the habitat- of wild 
Iberian and Ligurian tribes. In 1100 it passed 
to the counts of Barcelona, who made Pro¬ 
vence the cradle of poetry and romance and 
the paradise of troubadours. In 1245, on the 
death of the last count, it was transferred to 
his daughter’s husband, Charles of Anjou, 
it only became French in 1481, under Louis 
xi. Thanks to its dry climate, Provence has 
preserved its Roman remains in a fashion 
rivalled only by Italy herself. 

Proverb. The best definition of a proverb 
is perhaps that given by Cervantes — viz. 
‘short sentences founded on long experience 
Every true proverb is pithily expressed, and 
is based upon the experience of mankind; 
but it must also meet with popular acceptance 
and be of widespread application. The great 
bulk of the better-known proverbs cannot be 
claimed as the property of any one nation ; 
they are found in the mouths of all races. 
Differences in expression there may be, but 
the root idea remains the same. Thus, take 
our common saying, ‘God helps those who 
help themselves.’ The Greeks said, ‘Pray not 
to God with hands folded.’ The Spaniard 
words it, ‘God helps the earl}* riser’; and the 
natives of the Basque provinces have found 
perhaps the neatest expression of all—‘God is 
a good worker, but He likes to be helped.’ 

Aristotle made a collection of proverbs, 
and so also did Plato. Shakespeare uses them 
as titles to his plays, and the same custom 
prevailed among the Spanish dramatists. But 
in no literature, as among no people, does the 
proverb play so important a part as in that 
of Spain. Strange to say, the Celtic races, 
with whom we associate quickness of percep¬ 
tion and nimbleness of wit, are notably lack¬ 
ing in proverbs, whereas the intellectually 
less agile Teuton is particularly rich in them. 

Proverbs, Book of, in the Old Testament, 
a collection of Hebrew didactic poetry, of 


Providence, capita! and chief city 0f 
Rhode Island, co. seat of Providence co., and 
the second city in New England, is situated 
on both banks of the Providence River, a 
narrow navigable arm of Narragansett Bay, 
35 m. from the Atlantic Ocean and 44 m. 
s.w. of Boston. The business district of Prov¬ 
idence occupies the central part of the city 
and has many handsome substantial build¬ 
ings. Roger Williams Park (103 acres), at 
the s. end of the city, has a zoological garden, 
a fine bronze statue of Roger Williams, lakes, 
playgrounds, and boulevards. Among the 
many buildings are several libraries; the 
Public Library; the Athenaeum, one of the 
first public libraries in America; the John 
Carter Brown Library, containing a collec¬ 
tion of books and manuscripts on American 
history; the State Law Library, and the li¬ 
braries of the Historical Society, the Medi¬ 
cal Society, and the Y. M. C. A. 

The oldest church building, the First Bap¬ 
tist, was built in 1775. A charter for a col¬ 
lege was granted in 1764, and the first build¬ 
ing of Brown University (originally the Col¬ 
lege of Rhode Island), one of the leading 
educational institutions in New England, was 
erected in 1770. Among other educational 
institutions are a Friends’ School for boys 
and girls (1S1S), the State Normal School, 
Academy of the Sacred Heart, Lasalle Ac¬ 
ademy, St. Francis Xavier Academy, the 
Rhode Island School of Design, and the 
Franklin Lyceum. 

Providence is the leading city in the Uni¬ 
ted States in the manufacture of jewelry and 
silverware and has, one of the largest mech-' 
anical tool factories in the world. There are 
also important printing and publishing in¬ 
dustries, and manufactures of lumber, text¬ 
iles, knit goods, brassware, copper smithing . 
and sheet-iron .products, carriages and wag¬ 
ons, electrical apparatus and supplies, en¬ 
amelled goods, mineral,and soda waters, soap' 
and paints. The population of Providence is 
S3,$o4. 

In 1.636.-..the General Court at Salem, Mass./ 
exiled 'Roger Williams because of his religious 
opinions, and in the same, year he fled from 
the colony, bought land w.. of Narragansett 
Bay from the Indians, and founded a town, 
which he then called Providence, in recogni¬ 
tion of divine guidance. In 163S the first Bap¬ 
tist church in America was organized here, 
with Williams as its pastor. Complete sep¬ 
aration of temporal and religious affairs, with 



Province __ ___ _ ___ __ _ Pradden 

entire religious freedom, wore mu.dc the basis cun Protestant-ixpiseopal pi elute, of Hugue- 
of the new settlement, for which, with Ports- not uncordrv, was bom in New \ ork City, 
mouth and Newport, Williams obtained the son of a wealth) merchant. In 1784 he 
(1644) a royal charter as the ‘'Providence became rector of Trinity church, New York, 
Plantations in the Narragansett Bay in New and two years afterward was elected first 
England,’ Bishop of New \oi.k. 

Province, originally, in undent Rome, the Provost 1 Iuit . posit ns » . the chief magb~ 
department oi public business assigned to a irate 01 a. lunch in Scotland, t 011 isponding to 

particular magistrate. When Rome acquired the may 01 in England. Xhc t*.n.1.1 is applied 

dominions outside Italy, they came to he also to the heads of certain colleges in Eng- 
called provinces in a more special sense; and land, and the l niversity ot Pennsylvania in 
thus the term finally came to mean a district, the United States. 

and not a department. Provost Marshal, a military officer, com- 

Provincetown, town, Barnstable co., mon to all a 1 mies, who is dttaihd in charge 

Massachusetts, at the extremity of Cape Cod of the police ot a camp, garrison, or army in 
on the inland side, 120 m. by rail s.e. of the field. In the United Stales service each 



d / 

. • du ,uu - 

\ : r «''y , s , * 

i t*- 4 * 1 ^ ® I 

' ’ J J I 11 8 1 I1 I f I 

»!h I «. H-lflil*;,, p 


. 

-,v. 


Provhieure , R. /. 

Left, Cathedral; Right, State House. 


Boston. It is a quaint old town with a fine 
harbor, has whaling and fishing interests, and 
is a popular summer resort. Province!own 
was permanently settled in 1714; p. y,ho8. 

Province Wellesley, British colony on 
the w. coast of the Malay Peninsula, op¬ 
posite Penang or Prince of Wales Island, to ; 
which it belongs, administratively. It has been 
British since 1798. 

Provisors, Statute of, a British statute 
passed in the reign of Edward nr., prohibit¬ 
ing the making of a reversionary grant of a 
benefice, or receiving a fee or reward out of 
a living, as a provision for foreign cardinals. 

Provo, city, Utah. Utah Lake, the Provo 
Canon,,.and Bridal Veil Palls, in the vicinity, 
make it attractive to tourists. Provo is situ¬ 
ated in a fruit-growing and cattle-raising re¬ 
gion and exports large quantities of fruits 
andvegctabl.es; p. 18,071. ^ 

Provoost, Samuel (1742-1815), Ameri- 


separate army in the field has a Provost 
Marshal General, of the grade oi field officer, 
each arm>' corps a ProvoM Mamba! of field 
rank, and each dive-ion one of the rank of 
captain. In the navy, tin* provost marshal is 
a ]lemon appointed to have charge of a, pris¬ 
oner before a court -mart ial and until the 
sent(uice of the court i> carried into execu¬ 
tion. 

Prox. (proximo), ‘in the next month.’ 

Proxy, a term applied to the authority 
granted to one pemun to vote in place of an¬ 
other, and a bo to the person who votes in 
exercise of that authority. 'To vote ‘by proxy/ 
therefore, is to vote by representation. In the 
conventions of poIiWad parties voting by 
proxy is sometimes allowed, but never at 
elections. 

Prudden, Theophxl Mitchell (1849- 
1924), American pathologist, was born in 
Middlebury, Conn. He was connected with 


Prunes 


3855 


Prussia 


the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Co- j 
lumbia University from 1879 to 1909. His | 
works included Hand-book of Pathological 
Anatomy and Histology (with Francis Bela- 
field, 6th ed., 1901). 

Prunes. The term prune may be applied to 
any plum which dries readily, without fer¬ 
mentation, but more particularly to those 
varieties which contain over 12 per cent, of 
sugar. 



Position of Cut 

1. Correct, 2. Too high.: wood dies 
down to dotted line. 3. Angle too great! 
injures bud. 

Pruning, the process of removing portions 
of the branches or roots of trees, shrubs, 
brambles, etc., for the purpose of rejuvenat¬ 
ing the plant, making it more shapely, pro¬ 
ducing larger or better fruit or flowers, re¬ 
moving useless or injurious parts, facilitating 



a. Pruning a standard rose to form the 
head; first and second years’ work. b. 

Pruning a peach tree; 1st, 2nd, and 3rd 
years’operations on same branch. 

tillage, spraying and harvesting, or of train¬ 
ing the plant to some systematic form. Heavy 
pruning of the top of a tree or shrub tends 
to produce a strong increased growth of 
shoots and wood. The converse of this prin- 


| ciple is that heavy pruning of the roots tends 
to decrease the production of wood. One of 
the applications of this principle in orchard 
work is that when the trees are making a late 
summer growth of wood the roots may be 
slightly pruned by running a plough between 
the rows. This cutting of the roots tends to 
stop wood growth and to induce the forma¬ 
tion of flower buds and fruitfulness. 

'The amount and time of priming vary 
with the locality. If orchard trees are winter 
pruned in the dry Northwestern States they 
lose much moisture and become weakened. 
In the sunny Southwestern States, if the tops 
are thinned out to any great extent, the 
disease known as ‘sunscald’ is induced. In the 
more humid Eastern States, much pruning is 
often necessary for the development of fruit- 
buds on the inner branches of the tree and 
the production of high-colored fruit. Consult 
Bailey’s The Pruning Book; U. S. Dept, of 
Agriculture Farmers 7 Bulletin , No. 181; Fer- 
now’s The Care of Trees. 

Primus, a genus of hardy trees and shrubs 
belonging to the order Rosaces. The fruit is 
a fleshy berry containing a one-seeded stone. 
The genus includes apricot, plum, cherry, 
almond, and peach. 

Prurigo and Pruritus, in medicine, a cu¬ 
taneous eruption, papular, and accompanied 
by severe itching, or pruritus. There may be 
no eruption if scratching be avoided. The 
process which causes itching (in such cases) 
is possibly chemical, possibly acid in nature, 
for alkaline solutions often relieve the itch¬ 
ing. If severe and of long standing, as is often 
the case, it produces a highly nervous condi¬ 
tion through want of rest. 

Prussia, former kingdom of Germany, since 
1918 a state of the German Reich, lying 
between Poland and Russia on the e., Hol¬ 
land on the w.. the Baltic Sea and Denmark 
on the n., and Bohemia and Bavaria 
on the s.; area, 113,157 sq. m. Prussia is the 
chief mineral producing state of Germany, 
the principal minerals being coal, lignite, iron, 
salt, zinc, lead, and petroleum. Prussia is an 
agricultural country. The leading crops are 
wheat, rye, summer barley, oats, potatoes 
and hay. All hardy fruits are raised, vine¬ 
yards . yield large amounts of wine, and hops 
are extensively planted. Cattle breeding and 
horse raising, are .important, and the forests 
yield valuable timber. 

The textile industries comprise the most 
important manufacturing interests. Others 
include dyeing, paper-making, glass and por¬ 
celain, cement, chemicals, leather goods and 



Prussia 


3856 


P saints 


tanning >a\\ milling and distilling, sugar 
manufacture. iron ami >u*el works. Educa¬ 
tion is free and compulsory for children be¬ 
tween six and fourteen. On November 13, 
1918, Prussia was proclaimed a republic. 
Besides the Diet there was a State Council 
(Staatsrat) elected by the Provincial As¬ 
semblies, whose function was to advise and 
control the Diet. The Diet elected a premier. 
Prussia so functioned as a State of Federal 
Germany until the abrogation of States’ 
rights by Hitler’s totalitarian regime, 1933. 

The population of Prussia is 41,762,000. 
The principal cities are Berlin, 4,332,000; 
Cologne, 769,000; Essen, 660,000; Breslau, 
615,000; Frankfort, 547,000; The early his¬ 
tory of the kingdom of Prussia is closely 
connected with that of the mark of Brand¬ 
enburg, received as a fief in .1154 by Albert 
the Bear (a Saxon) ; the duchy of Prussia, 
united to Brandenburg in 1:618; and the 
house of Hohenzollern, the reign of Prederick- 
William (1640-88) of this family being so 
effective as to raise Prussia to the rank of a 
leading European nation. Since 1S71, when 
King William of Prussia was proclaimed 
German Emperor, Prussia has been a part of 
Germany. Under the Peace Treaty of Ver¬ 
sailles in 1918, Prussia lost the province of 
Posen, most of West Prussia, and parts of 
East Prussia, Silesia, Schleswig-Holstein, and 
the Rhine; province, with nearly 4,(>00,000 in¬ 
habitants, Nazi Germany seized and an¬ 
nexed these territories in 1930. See Gkrmany ; 
Prussia, East; Prussia, West. 

Prussia, East, province, Prussia, in the 
extreme n.c.; belongs to the North German 
plain, and includes part of the Baltic ridge, 
with numerous lakes. It is primarily agricul¬ 
tural and is especially famous for the breed¬ 
ing of horses. Other industries include iron 
works, shipbuilding, sugar factories, brew¬ 
eries, distilleries, sawmills, and paper and 
glass works. Amber is obtained on the coast 
n.w. of Konigsberg, the capital. The original 
inhabitants, the Pruzzi (whence Prussians), 
were a Lithuanian tribe, who were subdued 
in the 13th century by the Teutonic Knights. 
From the beginning of the 15th century 
until 1660 the province was subject to Po¬ 
land. Tn 1656 the duke—the FJcclor of 
Brandenburg—secured the independence of 
his duchy, and in 1701 proclaimed himself 
king of Prussia. Certain districts in East 
Prussia, subject to plebiscite by the Treaty 
of Versailles, have been retained by Prussia. 

Prussia, West, province of former king¬ 
dom of Prussia, held mostly bv Poland, 19x0- 


39. It lies in the basin of the lower Vistula, 
and in the n. touches the Baltic. It belongs 
to the North German plain, but is diversified 
by the Baltic ridge, and Is essentially an 
agricultural region. Much attention is given 
to the breeding of horses. Iron works, saw¬ 
mills, breweries and distilleries, sugar fac¬ 
tories, shipbuilding, and glass works repre¬ 
sent the other principal Industries. West 
Prussia remained in the power of Poland 
down to 1772, when it passed to Prussia. At 
the conclusion of the Great War, the greater 
part was allotted to Poland. It was seized 
by Germany, 1950, one of the first steps in 
the European War, 193,9. 

Prussian Blue, a dark blue solid of cop¬ 
pery lustre, and possessing a variable com¬ 
position depending upon the method of its 
preparation. Prussian blue is insoluble in 
water and stable to dilute acids, but is de¬ 
composed by alkalis; and though formerly 
much used for laundry purposes, paper- 
staining, and the preparation of blue ink, it 
has been largely superseded by aniline prod¬ 
ucts, Its present largest use is in the manu¬ 
facture of paints and printing inks. 

Prymixe, William (1600-69), Puritan 
pamphleteer, was born in Swans wick, Somer¬ 
set. He became involved in ecclesiastical con¬ 
troversy as the champion of the Puritan 
party. He was fined, expelled from the bar, 
sentenced to the loss of both ears and im¬ 
prisonment for life; was released, lined again 
and branded on the face. He \\ as elected 
.\r.i\ for Newport, Cornwall (1648); but was 
again imprisoned for three; years by Crom¬ 
well. After the Restoration he was appointed 
keeper of the records in the Tower. His only 
works of any value are A Brief Register of 
. . . . Parliamentary Writs (r. 1662) and 
An Exact Abridgment of the Records in the 
Tower of London (1656-7). 

Przemysl, city, Poland, seized by Russia 
1939; is a. Roman Catholic bishopric (since 
1375) and Greek bishopric (1218), and has 
t wo cathedrals. It has a good trade in wood, 
leather, corn, and linen; p. 47,948. 

P.S. (post script am) , postscript. 

Psalms, Book of, one of the books of the 
Old Testament, tin; first of the tbird division 
or Kcthuhlnm of the Hebrew Bible, and the 
second in the Septuagint and other versions. 
The English version contains x$o lyrics, as 
do the Hebrew and the Septuagint. Probably 
the most important questions regarding the 
psalms are those of authorship. Though the 
collection is called the ‘Psalms of David/ it 
has never been maintained that David wrote 



Psaltery 


3857 


Psychiatry 


them all. The titles giving the writers 5 names 
are certainly ancient, but in most case? con¬ 
siderably later t h a n the compositions to 
which they are prefixed. Another interesting 
question is whether any particular writer in 
the psalms speaks for himself or in the name 
of the ‘church-nation.’ It is plain that while 
the 'church-consciousness’ is present in some 
psalms, it is going too far to assert that it 
dominates in all; and while some, perhaps 
most, are transcripts from personal experi¬ 
ence, yet the usual interpretations of the past 
went to extremes of individualism. Consult 
Davison’s Praises of Israel, King’s Psalms in 
Three Collections, Brigg’s Commentary. 

Psaltery, a musical instrument used by the 
ancient Hebrews, with whom it was a fav¬ 
orite. It was shaped somewhat like a harp 
and was played by plucking the strings with 
or without a plectrum. Later a keyboard me¬ 
chanism was attached to it and it thus be¬ 
came the parent of the spinet, harpsichord 
and eventually the piano. 

Pseudomorph, a mineral that occurs in the 
form whuch is characteristic of another min¬ 
eral. In the clayey sandstones accompanying 
the salt measures of Cheshire the surfaces of 
the beds are often covered with small per¬ 
fect cubes of sand. These are pseudomorphs 
after crystals of salt, and show- that the bed 
of sediment was laid down in saline lakes 
which were subject to desiccation. 

Pseudonyms, fictitious names adopted by 
writers to conceal their identity. They take 
the form either of a signature wholly differ¬ 
ent (pseudonym), transposing the letters, or 
portions of their real name (anagram), a 
special phrase having direct reference to the 
subject-matter treated (phraseonym), aspir¬ 
ing to a title or a supposed aristocratic name 
(titlenym or aristonym), or simply employing 
one or more initials of the author (initial- 
ism). 

Psidium, a genus of tropical shrubs and 
trees belonging to the order Myrtaceae. The 
fruit, a globose or ovoid berry, known as 
‘guava,’ is a favorite for preserves, jellies, and 
the like. That of P. Gw java and pyriferum 
is yellow and aromatic, is pleasantly acid, 
and is made into the exported ‘guava-jelly.’ 
The ‘strawberry-guava’ has a small spherical 
fruit; acidulous, strawberry-like in taste and 
fragrance. It is deep red in color, fading to 
white in the center of the pulp. Both species 
are cultivated in Southern California, and 
are common in the West Indies and tropical 
America. 

Pfittaci. See Parrot, .. 


Pskov, coveminent, Northwest Russia; ly¬ 
ing s. of the government of Leningrad. The 
northern part is a low-lying plain; the south¬ 
ern part rolling plateau country, often rising 
into hills. The climate is severe but variable. 
Forests cover a third of the area, and yield 
pitch and tar. Cereals and flax are raised for 
export, and hunting and fishing are import¬ 
ant. Manufacturing industries consist chiefly 
of distilleries, tanneries, brick w’orks, flour 
mills, and flax works. 

Pskov, Pleskov, or Pleskau, tn., North- 
w-est Russia, capital of the government of the 
same name; 171m. by rail s.wn of Leningrad. 
The city is the seat of an archbishop and has 
a cathedral of Russo-Byzantine style (1689- 
98), and other interesting old churches. Tan¬ 
neries, distilleries, sawmills, flour mills, man¬ 
ufactories of tobacco, cordage, flax materials, 
and sailcloth represent the chief industries; 
p. about 44,000. 

Psoralea, a genus of shrubby and herbace¬ 
ous plants belonging to the order Legumi- 
nosae. P. esculenta, a native of the Western 
States, yields an edible tuberous root, known 
as pom me de prairie, the introduction of 
w-hich into Europe was unsuccessfully at¬ 
tempted at the time of the potato rot. It was 
an important foodplant of the Indians and 
early settlers, who boiled it and found it 
palatable. 

Psoriasis, a cutaneous disease character¬ 
ized by slight elevations of - the surface of the 
skin, covered wdth whitish scales. The erup¬ 
tion begins in small rounded spots, which 
may remain small, or may enlarge indefinite¬ 
ly, the center becoming more normal, wdiile 
the inflamed margin continues to extend. 
Itching is often absent altogether, and very 
seldom, severe. If left to itself, the disease gen¬ 
erally tends to persist indefinitely. Butin the 
great majority of cases it is. very .amenable 
to treatment, both local and constitutional. 

Psyche, in Greek mythology, a maiden so 
beautiful that Venus herself w-as jealous of 
her .and ordered Cupid to go and inspire'her 
with love for the meanest of men; but in¬ 
stead he fell in love with..her himself. He 
charged her never to. inquire who. he was;, 
but she disregarded. the in junction, and the. 
god left her. In her abandonment Psyche 
wandered from place to place to seek him; 
until at least she w T as made immortal, and 
was united to Cupid for all eternity. 

Psychiatry, that branch of medicine w 7 hich 
relates to mental diseases, and studies their 
pathology, clinical conditions, cause, and 
treatment. Physicians who specialize in this 



Psychology 


3858 


Psychical 

science are called psychiatrists or alienists. 

Psychical Research, the systematic in¬ 
quiry into such phenomena a> alleged tele¬ 
pathy, apparitions, clairvoyance, premoni¬ 
tions, mediumistic phenomena, ha unleu 
houses, dowsine, and till residual mental phe¬ 
nomena. Traditionally these alleged phenom¬ 
ena have been associated with the belief in a 
spiritual world and generally ma.de evidence 
of its existence. The London Society for Psy¬ 
chical Research was incorporated to investi¬ 
gate such phenomena in iSSr and has pub¬ 
lished volumes of Proceedings and a journal 
representing the results ot its work. An Am¬ 
erican Society was founded in 18X5, but soon 
afterward was dissolved by u n i o n as a 
Branch of the Knglish Society. This branch 
was later dissolved and a new society in 
1:906, to be independent of the parent body, 
was organized. It. publishes a monthly Journal 
and Proceedings similar to those ot the Brit¬ 
ish Society. 

Psychoanalysis. See Psychotherapy. 

Psychology. Psychology is sometimes de¬ 
fined as the science of mind and sometimes 
as the science of behavior. These two defini¬ 
tions mark a fundamental divergence of opin¬ 
ion. The older scientific psychology concerns 
itself with the study of mind and defines 
mind as the sum total of immediate experi¬ 
ence. More recent psychological trends have 
been toward behaviorism, which studies, not ! 
the immediate experience of an animal or j 
human being, but its behavior or actions in j 
response to certain stimuli. The greater body j 
of scientific results has been obtained under 1 
the former point of view. The behavioristic 
attitude came much later and was first ap¬ 
plied to the study of animals. Afterwards in 
mental tests and in diagnosis of mental dis¬ 
ease this altitude was extended to the study 
of human beings. All scientific results require 
previous observation by highly trained ob¬ 
servers. In the. older psychology a trained 
observer observes and reports upon his own 
mental processes. In a behavioristic psychol¬ 
ogy a trained observer observes the behavior 
of others, notably of very young children 
who have not yet had opportunity to learn 
ways of action. In general the two methods 
yield dispa,rate results and can not be com¬ 
pared. For the former consult works by 
Titehener and Boring; for the latter, works 
by John B. Watson. 

Of the numerous topics in the older psychol¬ 
ogy memory is selected for discussion here. 
Memory can be explained by the law of 
association. This law may be stated: when¬ 


ever a sensation or image comes into mind, 
there tend to come with it all the other sen¬ 
sations and images that have ever before 
been in mind with it. Naturally there are 
too many previous associates for them all to 
appear at any time; there must be some sel¬ 
ection. The laws of memory state the prin¬ 
ciples under which the selection occurs. A 
thing can not take on meaning for us as idea 
or perception unless it is in some way fam¬ 
iliar. The term memory is usually restricted 
to a successive revival of sensations and im¬ 
ages by association, c.g v the bringing up of 
one idea out of another or out of a percep¬ 
tion, and thus does not include the almost 
simuhaneous association of the perceptual 
context and core. 

The laws of memory have lteen worked 
out by experiments in the. psychological lab¬ 
oratory. A subject is required to learn some 
material --prose, poetry, or a series of non¬ 
sense syllables like bam-l up-ior-kiz-ivcx. 
Learning is very greatly aided by a mental 
grouping of the material into parts. Nonsense 
syllables are most easily learned when re¬ 
peated in rhythm, and poetry is easier to 
learn than prose. Meaningful material is 
much more easily mastered than nonsense, 
and the more meaningful the material the 
easier it is. to learn it. It. is always easier to 
learn understandingly than blindly. 

It is best to go over material slowly if 
permanent acquisition is desired. A doctor’s 
knowledge that must needs be always avail¬ 
able should be acquired as slowly as is com¬ 
patible with good attention, if the learning 
is to be efficient. The speaker, however, who 
prepares for a particular address should go 
over his notes rapidly wadi in advance and 
, also just before the time of the speech. He 
! thus learns more economically for the given 
| occasion, but forgets faster afterwards than 
he would have done with slow' learning. Ft- 
onomy of learning is also secured by a wide 
temporal distribution of the repetitions for 
learning. More is learned by tw'o repetitions 
of a given material on each of six days than 
by six. repetitions on each of two days; and, 
within practical limits, the longer the time 
through which the effort is distributed the 
greater the result. 

In a long material economy is served by 
repeating the whole material as a unit rathei 
than by learning it one part at a time. Op¬ 
posed to this rule is the fact that long ma¬ 
terials are intrinsically difficult; doubling the 
length of a task more than doubles the effort 
required for its learning. The gain, however, 





Psychology 3859 Psychology 


that comes in learning separately the parts : 
of a long poem or speech is more than offset * 
by the final difficulty of so welding the sepa™ | 
rately^ learned parts together as to give the I 
material as a whole the familiarity of the j 
several parts. Forgetting takes place rapidly 
at first and then more and more slowly until 
finally the change is so slow as to be dis¬ 
cernible only over long periods of time. In 
one typical experiment over half the material 
was forgotten in the first twenty minutes and 
one-fifth of it was remembered after a 
month. Things that can not be recalled at all 
can not, nevertheless, be said to be entirely 
forgotten, for they can be relearned with a 
saving over the initial effort. In this sense a 
thing once thoroughly learned may be said 
never to be entirely forgotten, for the span 
of life is probably too short for the effort of 
the learning to become inappreciable. The 
childhood memories of the aged, of drowning 
people, and those that occur in dreams, attest 
this fact. 

Behavior Psychology .—Opposed to the de¬ 
finition of psychology as the science of im¬ 
mediate experience is the view that psychol¬ 
ogy is the science of behavior. Behaviorism 
as a recognized field of scientific endeavor is 
an outgrowth of animal psychology, and it 
has achieved a following only since 1910. 
Behaviorists, from the first, were interested 
in the behavior per se—the animal’s responses 
to stimulation arid its adjustment to situa¬ 
tions within its environments. Thus, with¬ 
out refuting the earlier points of view, be¬ 
haviorism, an experimental or observational 
biology, has supplanted them. The scientific 
accord effected thereby has been offset, how¬ 
ever, by a disagreement in terminology. In 
addition to animal psychology, behaviorism 
was strengthened from two other directions: 
from psychopathology and from applied psy¬ 
chology. 

Animal Psychology .—Most of the investi¬ 
gations of animal behavior have dealt either 
with the capacity for sensory discrimination 
of different animals or with their ability for 
learning. The former studies show the funda¬ 
mental capabilities of an animal for respond¬ 
ing to various aspects of its environment; the 
latter evaluate its capacity for modification 
of behavior over against new environmental 
situations. Learning is thus a measure of the 
intelligence of the animal. 

Learning, a modification of behavior as the 
result of repetition of a situation, occurs at 
all levels of the animal scale. When a weak 
stimulus acts repeatedly on a simple animal, 


the animal may learn to cease responding, 
or, when a strong stimulus acts a train and 
again, it may learn to avoid it completely by 
a heightened reaction. At higher levels learn¬ 
ing is said to be associative. In this form of 
learning a second stimulus, associated with 
the one that initially sets off the reaction, 
comes as a result of its repeated association 
to touch off, by itself, the reaction. The sa¬ 
liva flows in the cat’s mouth at the sound of 
the dinner bell, and the cat is said to be 
conditioned to the sound of bell; the earth¬ 
worm, that has been repeatedly given elec¬ 
tric shocks when it crawlec| on a piece of 
sandpaper, now draws baefc as soon as it 
feels the sandpaper. The numerous experi¬ 
mental studies in which animals learn to 
open puzzle boxes or to find their way 
through mazes are complicated forms of this 
kind of learning that are susceptible to quan¬ 
titative measurement. 

Instincts are inherited forms of behavior. 
All behavior must be either instinctive or 
learned. Among the lower animals learning 
plays but a small part and most behavior is 
instinctive. In the higher forms learning is 
increasingly important, but complicated in¬ 
stincts also exist. Generally the two kinds of 
behavior are intricately interwoven, as, for 
example, in the sexual behavior of man. The 
most complex forms of instinctive behavior, 
with the smallest admixture of learned be¬ 
havior, are to be found in the insects, es¬ 
pecially in ants and bees. 

Freudian Psychology .—The Freudian psy¬ 
chology of human nature looks upon the be¬ 
havior of an individual as the resultant of 
many interacting trends called f wishes. 5 It 
recognizes that the conduct of a human being 
is not singly motivated, but that a person 
acts very frequently upon conflicting wishes. 
If I meet someone, whom I intensely dislike 
I.am beset by two opposing motives: I wish 
to tell this man my opinion of him, and. I 
wish also to observe the polite conventions, 
The wish that is stronger at the time wins. 
If the wishes are nearly equal in. strength, I 
may start politely, and end in anger, or I 
may begin rudely and conclude with an 
apology. If one wish is much stronger than 
the. other, it may. suppress the other almost 
entirely." Nevertheless the suppressed wish 
generally has some effect on behavior. If 1 
am polite, my tongue may stumble and spoil 
the suavity of my assurances. If I am angry, 
I may cloak my rudeness in the courteous 
phraseology of sarcasm. Wishes are biological 
trends of the organism for response and are 



Psychology 


not necessarily conscious. The per>c 
has them may be unaware oi their 



__ Psychology 

supplying missing words in a 
range of information, and of gen- 


and they are thus sometimes paradoxically 
referred to as "unconscious ideas. 1 

Instincts axe wishes in this sense, and the 
sexual and nutritive instincts in their vari¬ 
ous forms are important in determining con¬ 
duct. The wish to conform to the social code 
of ethics is called the "censor,’ for the reason 
that it conflicts with and often represses un¬ 
ethical wishes, notably those based on the 
sexual instinct. The conflict between the cen¬ 
sor and a repressed wish may lead to a dis¬ 
sociation of the personality, in whieii each 
of the conflicting tendencies is expressed in a 
portion of the personality. Such an individual 
is persistently inconsistent. The phenomena 
of hy c teria, ‘shell-shock,’ and many nervous 
disorders are of this form. Repressed wishes 
are normally partially realized in the con¬ 
tent of dreams; in the dream-state, as in 
reverie and hypnosis, the censor is weakened. 
The nature of repress'd wishes can often lit' 
arrived at by the method of psycho-analysis, 
a method in which the behavior of tin 1 in¬ 
dividual under shrewd but sympathetic ques¬ 
tioning, his inadvertent admissions, the con¬ 
tent of his dreams, and many other symp¬ 
toms of conflict are pieced together by the 
expert clinician to give the information that 
the censor tends to repress. 

Mental Tests .—The mental test is a simple 
procedure for a quick determination of the 
degree of some human capacity. In a mental 
test the subject is given under standard con¬ 
ditions a simple task to perform and the de¬ 
gree or quality of his performance is noted. 
It is often impossible to define any general 
capacity of which the test is diagnostic. Ex¬ 
cept as they bear on intelligence, the use of 
tests has not as yet contributed greatly to a 
knowledge of the fundamental human capaci¬ 
ties. A very great variety of tests have been 
invented and used experimentally. There are 
tests of motor capacity (speed of tapping 
with pencil, accuracy of aiming with a pencil, 
steadiness of the hand), of sensory capacity 
(visual and auditory acuity, discrimination 
of brightnesses, colors, tones, and weights), 
of concentration (counting dots on a pci per, 
crossing out all the a’s on a page of pi, pier- 
forming disparate activities simultaneously), 
of description and report ('including the tests 
of fidelity of report which bear on the relia¬ 
bility of testimony), of learning (repeated 
tracing of a design by seeing the hand and 
pencil only in a mirror), of memory, of sug¬ 
gestibility, of imagination (seeing images in 


end inieliigt nee. 

Intelligence is the capacity of an individual 

adequately to adjust ids behavior to new 
situations. It is a general ability, independent 
of the nature oi the particular novel situa¬ 
tion, and appears as a a>n>ianl (actor in a 
given adult individual. In childhood intelli¬ 
gence develops steadily from infancy to adol¬ 
escence. In the early years (he development 
of intelligence is the most marked mental 
change that occurs; in adulthood almost all 
development is an advance in specific abilities 
and knowledge which is limited only by a 
maximum of hitellierncc already achieved. 
Since nearly ail mental tests require adjust¬ 
ments to novel situations, it follows that in¬ 
telligence is conducive to success in mental 
te.ds, no matter what their specific nature, 
and that, conversely, any mental test may 
in part measure intelligence. Hence intelli¬ 
gence is ordinarily not measured by any 
single test, hut by a combination of many 
tests. However, no combination of tests can 
more than parth memuirr the intelligence. 
Psychology law as yet attained to no more 
definite conception of intelligence, 'The sanc¬ 
tion for the concept lies solely in t lie fact 
that it works for progress both in the prac¬ 
tical list* and in the scientific development of 
mental tests, and that there is as close agree¬ 
ment. bet ween the results of intelligence tests 
and individual estimates of intelligence as 
there is between the various individual esti¬ 
mates themselves. 

Tin; prineipal method for testing intelli¬ 
gence is that oi the ilinet scale, which has 
passes! through several revisions and is now 
in wifle practical use in the testing of chil¬ 
dren. The scale in its latest form consists of 
a grader 1 series of ninety simple tests which 
are grouped in the series an ording to the 
age at which the developing intelligence of a 
normal child is adequate to them. The scale 
is administered hv determining (he level of 
difficulty at which the subject is unable to 
‘pass’ the tests. A child who passes all the 
tests normal to six years of age and fails on 
half of those for the seventh year and all of 
those for the eighth year has the intelligence 
of the "average’ child of seven and a half 
years, or, in technical terms, a hnental age’ 
of seven and a half. 'Flu* tests run from the 
third year on through the fourteenth year 
to groups of tests for ‘average adults’ and for 
‘superior adults.’ The, mental age of average 
adult is considerably less than sixteen years> 




Psychology 


3361 


Psychophysics 


i.e.^ in the average person the development 
of intelligence has reached its maximum be¬ 
fore the age of sixteen. 

Feeblemindedness is defective intelligence. 
Feebleminded persons can therefore be clas¬ 
sified with respect to their mental ages as 
follows: Idiot: Mental age three years or less. 
Imbecile: Mental age four to six years. 
Moron: Mental age seven to twelve years. 

Applied. Psychology,— Mental tests and 
psychological methods of investigation have 
been applied in various fields of practical 
work; notably in industry, in law, in social 
work, in medicine, and in education. In in¬ 
dustry use has been made of intelligence tests 
and of special vocational and trade tests for 
the purpose of classifying and employing 
men. The United States Army has also used 
trade tests, in connection with its system for 
classification of personnel, for the assign¬ 
ment of new recruits to skilled work within 
the army. A great deal of work has been 
done by industrial concerns on tests for the 
selection of salesmen. The psychology of ad¬ 
vertising has also received considerable at¬ 
tention. In the law and in social work con¬ 
siderable use has been made of intelligence 
tests for the determination of the responsibil¬ 
ity of delinquents. Various mental tests of 
diagnostic value have been utilized in psy¬ 
chopathology, while tests of learning and of 
mental equipment have found their places in 
education. Since 1935 many eminent psy¬ 
chologists have turned their efforts toward 
the study of psychometrics, the application 
of statistics to psychology. With psychomet¬ 
rics, theory and fact are being knit more 
closely together. Topology was in 1936 one 
of the most recent phases of psychology. 
It is the theory which correlates characteris¬ 
tics of the individual with his external 
stimuli. Through statistical investigations or 
“factor analyses,” important discoveries 
were made in 1936 in the field of individual 
psychology and political psychology. 

In September, 1936, the American Psy¬ 
chological Association held its forty-fourth 
annual convention at Hanover, N. H. Such 
subjects as mental and emotional hygiene, 
vocational guidance, and health guidance en¬ 
tailing the application of psychology were 
found to be eclipsing the classical subjects 
in the public schools. It further revealed a 
growing need for more psychology teachers 
and phychology text books in the schools, 
and that psychology pupils have better re¬ 
lationships with their parents, the opposite 
sex, ideals and religion. 


Psychiatric contributions were the reports 
of Drs. H. H. Jasper and H. L. Andrews, 
Brown University, who made use of the 
rhythmic electric impulses from the brain to 
locate defective areas in that organ. The 
hypnotic trance and how it differs psy¬ 
chologically from natural sleep was demon¬ 
strated by Drs. E. Newton Harvey of Prince¬ 
ton University, and A. L. Loomis and Gar¬ 
rett Hobart of Loomis Laboratories. 

During World War II hundreds of psychol¬ 
ogists were in full-time government employ 
engaged in work directly relevant to the war 
effort or to public welfare. Aubrey Lewis re¬ 
ported in 1942 that war stress has not ap¬ 
preciably increased mental disorders among 
British civilians; and J. C. Solomon, study¬ 
ing the reactions of children in San Francisco 
to their first blackout, found that the sudden 
darkening of homes produced excitement but 
little fear except when adults in charge of the 
children showed fear. 

Consult Brown’s Psychology t and The So¬ 
cial Order (1936) ; Lewin’s Principles of 
Topological Psychology (1936); Guilford’s 
Psychometric Methods (1936). See also Be¬ 
haviorism ; Gestalt Psychology; Intelli¬ 
gence ; Mental Deficiency. 

Consult general texts as Warren and Car¬ 
michael’s Elements of Human Psychology 
(1930); Watson’s Behaviorism (1930); 
Murphy’s Historical Introduction to Modern 
Psychology (1932); Boring’s History of Ex¬ 
perimental Psychology (1929); Cannon’s 
Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and 
Rage (1929); Adler’s Practice and Theory 
of Individual Psychology (3929); Freud’s 
Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1914) ; 
Terman’s Measurement of Intelligence 
(1916); Murchison (ed.) Hand-Book of 
Child Psychology (1931); Allport’s Social 
i Psychology (1924) ; . Hollingworth’s Voca¬ 
tional Psychology and Character Analysis 
(1930); Tiffin’s Industrial Psychology (1942). 

Psychophysics is that branch of psychol¬ 
ogy which studies the relation of mental to 
bodily processes. It is distinguished from pure 
psychology by the fact that it has bodily 
processes in view as well as mental, and 
from physiology by the fact that its primary 
interest is in the psychical processes rather 
than in their bodily conditions. Psychophy¬ 
sics must also be distinguished from what is 
known as experimental psychology; for al¬ 
though it necessarily uses experimental meth¬ 
ods, it may avail itself also of evidence in 
regard to the connection of mental and bod¬ 
ily states which is not experimental. As a 



Psychotherapy 3862 _____Psychotherapy 

definite branch of psychological inquiry psy- imperfectly developed. See Dubois’s Psychic 
chophysics was founded by Fechner in rS6o. Treatment of Nervous Disorders (igoy) * 
Weber had already employed what is known King’s Rational Living ( 1 007; James’s Psy- 
as the Method oi Least Diilerences. To this etiology (iSqi); Hoffding’s Outlines of Psy- 
method Fechner added two others n! a less etiology ('{rans. 1002): Worcester, MeComb 
direct character, (he Method of Right ami and CoviaEs Religion and Medicine (iqoS); 
Wrong Cases and the Method of Average jastrow's Fact and Fable in Psychology] 
.Error. For a brief account oi the Weber- Allen's Psycho!heropy zeith Children (1012) 
Fechner investigations see James’s Psy- Psychotherapy, Progress in. Develop- 
chology, vol. L, p. 533 ff.; and for fuller rnent in psychotherapy since 1035 has seen 
details as to methods and results, Kulpe’s this science engaged in gaining more detailed 
Psychology (Eng. trans. 1S93). knowledge of the relationship of psychic fac- 

Psychotherapy has come into wide use as tors or mental instabilities, which find com- 
tlie general name for the various forms of mmi gmund in such maladies as heart dis- 
menta! healing which have, lately sprung into orders, arthritis, stomach disorders and such 
prominence both within and without tin* distressing conditions as shortness of breath, 
medical profession. It is used to cover such weakness in the back, chest pains, exhaus- 
varied and opposing activities as the Em- (ion, nausea, faint ne>s. headaches, fatigue 
manucl Movement, Christian Science, Faith and speech impediment. Psychotherapy has 
Cure, etc. Definition is therefore important, made no attempt to treat organic disease hut 
and difficult. Dr. Richard C. Cabot, of the has been successful in conditions which are 
Harvard Medical School, defines psychother- partially or totally the resuit of mental agi- 
apy as the ‘attempt to help the sick through tation. The principal means of treatment 
mental, moral and spiritual methods.’ It ims has been the establishment of clinics in most 
been frequently said that psychotherapy is as of the large cities of the world. 'Flu* purpose 
old as the beginnings of medicine, but it was of the clinics is to secure for the patient 
not until the work of Bcrnheim and Liebault equanimity and to enable him to develop a 
a half a century ago that a thoroughly sci- normal personality. This process is called 
entitle basis was given for psychotherapy | re-cducation. The therapist tries to substi- 
properly so called. They laid the foundation j tide good mental habits for had ones. The 
for a system of therapeutics based on sug- j clinics offer “classes in thought control” and 
gestion. j by group Inst ruction they teach: first, re- 

Psychotherapy may he said to have its | Fixation; second, menial case through imag- 
basis in the quality of the human mind com- j cry; third, tests to verify that the first and 
mon to all - suggestibility. It follows that the ] second are being applied; fourth, patients are 
central method of psychotherapy is sugges- \ asked to relate the experiences of their all- 
(ion. Perhaps it would be more correct to ; meats; and fifth, the doctor delivers a lecture 
sum up the met.hods under six heads: Hyp- | based on each patient’s testimonial, 
notism. Suggestion, Auto-Suggestion, Per- | A 1033 tabulation diowed almost half the 
suasion, Re-education, and Psycho-analysis. I hospital beds in the Ended States are oecu- 
From the prominence given to hypnotism in | pied by mental case--, fn the la A fifty years 
thi' treatment there arose a measure of con- the population of tin* Ended States* has 
fusion. But, as Dr. Hinckle points out, ‘hyp- doubled while mentally ill cases have In- 
nosis of itself, without suggestion, never ac- creased ninefold. There were 168 private 
complished anything; the forceful directions mental hospitals in the Ended States in 11137, 
given the patient during the responsive state fifteen per cent of the total. Psychotherapy 
of hypnosis achieve the results.’ (See Hyp- as practiced in hospitals today* emphasizes 
notism-.) kinr 1 liners to patients and the stimulation of 

Psycho-analysis depends upon the theory their intelligence. The hid ter known thera- 
that ‘many nervous and mental diseases arise politic methods of the mental hospitals are: 
from suppressed emotions’ which for one Occupational Therapy, which instructs the 
reason or another do not run their complete patients in various forms of work, such as 
course. The psycho-analytic method aims at weaving, carving, knitting or carpentering; 
removing the repressive influence, bringing hydrotherapy, which consists of dousing the 
these forgotten ideas and emotions hack to patient with water to tone up his svstem, 
consciousness and giving them full (expression. Physiotherapy, or exercising him in gymna- 
1 he results alreadx gained by psychother- siums, through walks and playing games; and 
upv nave been notable, though it is as yet ! Practical Theruphy, or giving’ the patient 




Psychotherapy 


Ptolemy 


__ 3863 

normal treatment, encouraging Mm in normal 
mental and physical endeavors. 

Dr. William A. White of St. Elizabeth’s 
Hospital, Washington, believes that psycho¬ 
therapy may yet enlighten the dark areas of 
medicine—namely, epilepsy and cancer. 

The nervous breakdown, the American 
business man’s disease, has been aided by 
psychotherapy. Research by Pavlov and 
Gantt have helped to prove the breakdown 
is a state in which emotional factors prevent 
one from carrying on normal living. 

A survey was made in 1936 under the 
auspices of the Committee on Mental Hy¬ 
giene and Psychiatric Nursing to determine 
the need for specialized psychotherapeutic 
nursing in American hospitals. 

A new form of functional nervous disorder 
attacking only airplane pilots and called aero- 
neurosis was reported in 1937 and was being 
studied by the U. S. Medical Corps. In World 
War II the expression ‘shell shock’ of World 
War I was no longer heard, psychologists hav¬ 
ing affirmed the findings of 1914-18 that the 
types of neuroses and psychoses found in men 
in uniform do not essentially differ from those 
met in civilian life. 

In 1936 insulin was used in Europe for the 
first time in treating the mental disease, 
schizophrenia, and a little later metrazol also 
was used. The use of electroshock, introduced 
in 1939, has practically replaced metrazol and 
is being frequently used with insulin. ‘Shock’ 
therapy continues to be used extensively. 

Ptah, a deity in Egyptian mythology, the 
artificer of the universe, the creator of the 
cosmic egg, out of which came the sun, the 
moon, and the earth. 

Ptarmigan, a grouse of the genus Lago- 
pus, distinguished mainly by having the feet 
feathered to the toes, and by its northerly 
habitat, all the species living in the subarctic 
zone, or else upon high mountain tops. 

Pterichthys, or Winged Fish, is one of 
the curious fossil fishes. It belongs to a group 
which is entirely extinct, and is characterized 
by the presence of an armor of tuberculated 
bony plates which covered the head and the 
anterior part of the body. 

Pteridospermese, a class of Palaeozoic 
plants, embracing those Palaeozoic plants 
with the habits and much of the internal 
structure of ferns, which were propagated by 
seeds, not by spores. 

Pteris, a genus of ferns which includes a 
large number of species widely distributed 
over the tropic and temperate regions of the 
world. 


Pterodactyls, flying reptiles which inhab¬ 
ited the earth during the Mesozoic epoch. In 

size some were very small; others had a 
stretch of wings nearly equalling twenty ft. 
Their remains are found in the Jurassic and 
Cretaceous rocks both of Europe and N. 
America. 

Pieropoda, a group of molluscs grouped 
as opistho-branch gasteropods, which have 
been profoundly modified in order to fit 
them for the pelagic life. They are found in 
the open water, and though the number of 
species is small, the number of individuals is 
incalculable. 

Pterospermum, a genus of tropical Asia¬ 
tic shrubs and trees belonging to the order 
Sterculiacese. 

Ptolemaic System, the order of the uni¬ 
verse as expounded by Ptolemy. It rested on 
the postulates that the earth is spherical, that 
it occupies a fixed central position, and that 
the sphere of the heavens revolves round it 
from e. to w., carrying all celestial objects 
with it, once in twenty-four hours. 

Ptolemy, more fully Claudius Plate- 
maeus, astronomer; observed at Alexandria 
from 127 to 151 a.d. He embodied Greek as¬ 
tronomy in his Almagest, and his system of 
geography, containing a description and 
maps of the known world, preserved un¬ 
questioned authority down to the 13th cen¬ 
tury. A geometer of the first order, he ef¬ 
fectively founded trigonometry, discovered 
evection, and perfected the epicyclical theory 
of planetary movement. See Ptolemaic Sys¬ 
tem. 

Ptolemy, in Greek Ptolemasus, the name 
of a dynasty of kings of Egypt, the founder 
of which was one of Alexander’s generals. 
Ptolemy 1., surnamed Soter, or ‘the Saviour,’ 
reigned from 3.23 to'285 b.c. In the division 
of the provinces after Alexander’s death he 
managed to secure for himself Egypt. In 285 
Ptolemy abdicated in favor of his youngest 
son, Ptolemy Philadelphus; he lived for two 
more years. His name is memorable as that 
of the founder—though some ascribe the 
foundation to his son—of the .museum and 
library of Alexandria and the friend of Euclid 
and other learned men. 

Ptolemy 11. (Philadelphus), son of the 
above, who reigned. from .285.. to 247: b.c.,. Is 
famous chiefly for Ms internal administration 
and his patronage of learning; under him the 
museum of Alexandria became the center of 
literature and science. The Greek translation 
of the Old Testament, known as the Septu- 
agint, is said to have been made by his order. 




Ptolemy 


3864 


Ptolemy hi. (Euergetes), sun of the above, 
who reigned from .>.17 (o 22 2 i:.e. Soon alter 
his accession be invaded the Syrian kingdom, 
advancing as far as Babylon and Susa, con¬ 
quering Mesopotamia. Babylonia, and Susi- 
ana, and receiving the submission of ail the 
countries of Asia up to the Bactrian and In¬ 
dian frontiers. But Seleucus soon recovered 
all these provinces, except Syria itself. 

Ptolemy iv. (Philopator), eldest son of the 
above, reigned from 222 to 205 b.c. At the 
beginning of his reign he murdered his 
mother, brother, and uncle and in 217 he de¬ 
feated Antiochus the Great, who had con¬ 
quered most of Syria and Palestine, at Ra- 
phia. 

Ptolemy v. (Epiphanes), only son of the 
above, reigned from 205 to 181 b.c. Under his 
reign Egypt lost most of her foreign posses¬ 
sions. 

Ptolemy vi. (Philometor), elder son of the 
above, reigned from 1S1 to 146 b.c. In 170 
Antiochus of Syria conquered most of Egypt, 
but retired, being unable to take Alexandria. 

Ptolemy vir. (Euerget.es 11., nicknamed 
Physcon), brother of the above, reigned from 
146 to 117 b.c. lie gained the throne by mur¬ 
dering Philomel or’s son, Ptolemy. 

Ptolemy vlie. (Soter 11., commonly called 
Lathyrus), son of the above, reigned from 
1x7 to 107 b.c., in conjunction with his 
mother Cleopatra. In 107 she raised a rebel¬ 
lion against him, and reigned along with hi; 
brother Alexander until qo, when the latter 
murdered her. In 8q Lathy rus returned a,ml 
expelled Alexander; he then reigned until 81. 

Ptolemy xx. (Alexander), was the Alexan¬ 
der just mentioned above. Ptolemy Alexander 
il, son of the above, succeeded Ptolemy viil 
in 81, but the people put him to death in 80 
B.C, 

Ptolemy xi. (Auletes), was an illegitimate 
son of Lathyrus; he reigned from 80 to 51 
me. He spent great sums in getting the Rom¬ 
ans to recognize his title. 

Ptolemy xri., the eldest son of the above, 
reigned in conjunction with his sister, the 
famous Cleopatra. He reigned from 51 to 47 
b.c, Cleopatra was expelled by her brother’s 
minister, PotMnus, in 48 b.c. She raised an 
army in Syria, and was about to invade 
Egypt when Julius Caesar arrived; her charms 
won him to her side. Thereupon Pothinus 
raised Alexandria against him. Ptolemy es¬ 
caped from Caesar’s custody, and joined the 
insurgents, but was defeated, and drowned in 
an attempt to escape after the battle, 

Ptolemy xm, youngest son of Auletes, was 


Pubes 

made king by Caesar after his brother's death ■ 
he was to marry and reign in conjunction 
with Cleopatra, but in 43 she put him to 
death. Cleopatra herself was then queen of 
Egypt, along with Antony, until her death 
in 30 b.c. With her the family became ex¬ 
tinct. Consult Budge’s History of Egypt . 

Ptomaines, a term formerly applied to 
alkaloids produced by decomposition of body 
tissues; now also applied to alkaloids formed 
in the body during life and especially to such 
as are formed in the intestinal can;;], either 
introduced from without or generated within 
(lie body. They are transitions products in 
the processes of put refaction and are due to 
the action of bacteria. At one time, most cases 
of poisoning through foodstuffs were thought 
to be due to ptomaines. Recent investiga¬ 
tions, however, have shown that they are 
mostly due to certain specific bacteria, and 
then follow the introduction either of the 
bacteria themselves (infection), or of the 
poisons produced by the bacteria (intoxica¬ 
tion). Meat poisoning has three varieties: 
that from meat of diseased animals; that 
from putrefied meat; that from ‘sausage 
poison. 5 Poisoning from fish and oysters, 
cheese, ice cream, potatoes, and canned goods, 
is usually due to infection of the food by 
bacteria. In general, persons so poisoned be¬ 
come ill within a few hours after taking the 
food, with vomiting, diarrhoea, headache, 
cramps, and symptoms of collapse. 

Ptosis, in medicine, a term generally used 
for a drooping of the upper eyelid. It may be 
present from birth, or may arise later from 
various causes. Ptosis of the stomach, where¬ 
by it falls Into a lower position in the ab¬ 
dominal cavity, is termed gastropf osis; ptosis 
of a loop of intestine is termed enteroptosis. 

Ptyalin, the amviolytie (starch-changing) 
ferment of saliva. It is present only in very 
minute quantifies. 

Puberty, that period of bodily develop¬ 
ment in man and woman which lies between 
childhood and adolescence. It marks partic¬ 
ularly the commencing development of the 
reproductive system, which is not fully ma¬ 
tured until several years later. At puberty, in 
the woman, menstruation sets in, and the 
form begins to develop. The boy’s voice 
breaks, and after a varying interval assumes 
a register generally an octave lower than be¬ 
fore. 

Pubes, in anatomy, the front boundary of 
the true pelvic cavity. It is formed by the 
function of the two innominate bones. See 
Pelvis, 





3365 


Public Health 


Public Accountancy 

Public Accountancy is the name given to 
accounting work of a professional nature, 
wherein the accountant offers his services to 
the public for compensation. The public ac¬ 
countant differs from the bookkeeper, in that 
his qualifications are of a more expert nature. 

New York was the first State to recognize 
the profession in this country, and provision 
for it was made in 1896 by ‘an act to regu¬ 
late the profession of public accountants.’ 

The work of the public accountant consists 
generally in making audits, investigations, 
and examinations. The work in general con¬ 
sists in checking and proving the cash receipts 
and disbursements, obtaining certificates from 
banks where funds are on deposit, and re¬ 
conciling the balance with that shown by the 
cash book. 

Investigations differ from audits in that 
they are usually conducted for some special 
purpose. Rather than to prove the correct¬ 
ness of the bookkeeping, they are for the 
purpose of determining whether or not of¬ 
ficers and other employees of a concern are 
capable, have used good judgment, and have 
been faithful to their trusts and duties. Ex¬ 
aminations, like investigations, are conducted 
for special purposes. 

The report of the public accountant de¬ 
pends upon the nature of the engagement. In 
an audit he usually submits a balance sheet 
and a statement of the income and profit and 
loss, to which he certifies as being correct, 
and which he accompanies with comments. 
In investigations, examinations, and special 
engagements the form of his report depends 
on the circumstances in each particular case, 
and his certificate is so framed as to cover 
specifically the work which he has done. 

Each State in the Union has its own Public 
Accounting law. See Bookeeping. Consult 
Journal of Accountancy; Dicksee’s Auditing; 
also Bibliography of Works on Accounting by 
American Authors (1934), by Harry C. Bent¬ 
ley and Ruth Leonard. 

Publicani, or Publicans, in ancient Rome 
were contractors for public business gener¬ 
ally, such as bridge or road making, but par¬ 
ticularly for the farming of the state revenues,; 
the collection of which was let out by the 
censors to the highest bidder. 

Public Health, or State Medicine, 
means the practice of preventive and pro¬ 
tective medicine under the direction of the 
community, state, and nation. It is a co¬ 
operative enterprise in which official and un¬ 
official agencies join forces for the preven¬ 
tion of premature death, the reduction of 


disease, and the promotion of physical and 
mental health and efficiency in the commu¬ 
nity and the individual. The conservation of 
the public health is one of the essential func¬ 
tions of government; therefore local health 
departments possess unusual powers to con¬ 
trol individuals in a community. 

With the gradual elimination of the pestil¬ 
ences due to environmental filth, and with 
the growth of the science of bacteriology, the 
attention of the public health administrator 
at the end of the igth century turned to the 
control of the diseases which spread directly 
from one individual to another by personal 
contact. Isolation of cases, bedside sanitation, 
control of carriers, and vaccine and serum 
therapy made possible notable advances in 
the suppression of maladies of this type 
Among outstanding achievements of public 
health work may be mentioned the conquest 
of yellow fever in Cuba and the Panama 
Canal Zone, the control of pellagra, beri-beri 
and hookworm diseases in the southern 
United States; and the wonderful transforma¬ 
tions accomplished in Porto Rico and the 
Philippines. 

Sanitary administration in the United 
States is a function of the National, the State, 
and the local government. The Public Health 
Service under the Treasury Department is 
the most important national bureau dealing 
with health. It is now housed in a new ad¬ 
ministration building on Constitution Ave., 
Washington, D.C., completed in 1933 at a 
cost of about $1,000,000. In charge of its 
work is Dr. Hugh S. Gumming, Surgeon 
General, U. S. Public Health Service. The 
Department of Agriculture’s chief interest 
centers in foods. Its Bureau of Chemistry en¬ 
forces the Pure Food Law; its Bureau of 
Animal Industry places the stamp of govern¬ 
ment approval upon wholesale meat and 
dairy products; its Bureau of Entomology 
wars against disease-carrying insects; its 
agents go into rural districts to educate the 
people in such public health matters as farm 
water supply, sanitation, etc. The Depart¬ 
ment of Labor seeks to improve the physical 
conditions of workers. It controls immigra¬ 
tion, administers the quarantine laws, and 
makes medical inspections. Its Children’s Bu¬ 
reau is active in such matters as the birth 
rate, infant mortality, juvenile courts, or¬ 
phanages, desertion and child labor. The De¬ 
partment of Commerce collects statistics 
showing prevalent diseases and the success of 
the fight against them. The Department of 
the Interior through its Bureau of Education 



Public Health 3866 Public Health 

conducts school surveys and furnishes bul- designed to prevent the dissemination of the 
letins and lectures on health teaching. infectious agent and those directed toward 

State departments of health, operating un- the upbuilding of the vital resistance of ei¬ 
der State-wide sanitary codes, work in fields posed Individuals. Tuberculosis, if taken in 
not specifically dealt with by the Federal time, is curable. It is essential, therefore, to 
government. The principal agency in the conduct a far-reaching educational campaign 
campaign for public health is the local health to familiarize the public with the early symp- 
department. Sanitary codes provide the local toms of the disease, and should provide dis- 
commissioner of health with police powers, pensaries where those who fear that they are 
State expenditures for health purposes vary suffering from tuberculosis may go for diag- 
greatly between states, but in 1030 reached nosis and medical advice. An intelligent at- 
about" 10 cents per capita. Included in the tempt to remove unsanitary living and work- 
services of municipal health departments are: ing conditions is important in the anti-tu- 
health education, the taking of \itai statistics, berculosis movement. 

prevention of communicable diseases, ma- Another phase of public health work which 
ternity and child hygiene, public health nurs- requires special machinery for its effective 
ing, laboratory sendee, milk and food con- development is the campaign against vene- 
trol, sanitary inspection, and industrial real disease, which is prevalent to an alarm- 
hygiene. ing degree In civilian life. The early detec- 

* The most important: function of the health tion of gonorrhoea and syphilis followed by 
department is the education of the public in efficient treatment is vitally important to fif¬ 
th c principles of healthful living and disease feet their cure and prevent their further dis- 
prevention. The Model Vital Statistics Law, semination. All reported contacts should be 
or one which was similar, was in force in examined; adequate tollow-up oi all cases is 
1939 in all of the states. It provided for a necessary. Several States require the report- 
central bureau of vital statistics in the State ing by name, others require reporting by 
health department and local registrars in number only. Public Health Laboratories of 
primary registration districts to register both State and local departments of health 
births, marriages, and deaths. Only from such should be prepared to make free diagnosis by 
statistics can the points of profitable attack microscopic and cultural methods of cliph- 
be discerned and the fruitfulness of various therm, tuberculosis, typhoid, paratyphoid, 
preventive measures be estimated. See Vital malaria, and other diseases, to conduct other 
Statistics. laboratory work in the detection of disease. 

The Bureau of Communicable 'Diseases in- to examine water, milk, and other foods, tc 
eludes the control of tuberculosis and vene- make urinanalyses for health clinics, to ex- 
real diseases, for which separate divisions are amine pathological specimens, and to keep in 
provider!, and the control of 1 ho acute coin- stock antitoxins and vaccines, 
muni cable children’s diseases and of diseases The protection of the health of mothers 
of a communicable nature. In many diseases and young children is perhaps the most im- 
the use of sera, for the cure of those affected, portanl of all possible lines oi public health 
or for the protection of those who have been | endeavor. There should he prenatal clinics 
exposed, plays an important part in the prog- where prospective mothers may receive di¬ 
ram of practical control. Diphtheria antitoxin red ions regarding tin* care of themselves and 
and toxin-antitoxin or toxoid, vaccines for their babies. Field nurses must he available 
typhoid, paratyphoid and smallpox, antite- at time of delivery. Midwives must be li- 
tanic serum, anti meningococcus serum, and censed. An astonishing number of school 
the Schick test must be freely available to children are found to suffer from defects ol 
physicians and for distribution by the divi- eyes, ears, teeth, or the upper respiratory 
slon of communicable diseases. Immunization tract, and often the fitting ol a child to 
campaigns have been undertaken with glasses, the securing of needed dental care, 
marked success to combat diphtheria in New or the removal of tonsils or adenoids effects 
York State, New Jersey, and elsewhere. a complete revolution in general health, hap- 

Tuberculosis is of particular importance piness, and educational progress. In some 
because of its chronic character, because it cities special school clinics lurnish medical, 
usually affects family groups, particularly in surgical, and dental care without charge. . 
young adult life, and because it is one of the The chief functions of a bureau of sanita- 
principal causes of death. Control depends tion concern problems of water supply, sew- 
upon two distinct sorts of measures, those age disposal, sanitation of public buildings 



Public Health 


3867 


and industrial establishments (lighting, heat¬ 
ing, ventilation, etc.), supervision of swim¬ 


Public Lands 


ming pools, bathing beaches, barber shops, 
control of insect carriers, etc. 

The milk supply of a large city is a diffi¬ 
cult problem of the health department. Prop¬ 
er supervision involves the inspection of the 
farms where the milk is produced, of the 
conditions under which it is transported and 
under which it is handled in retail stores. 
Pasteurization should be defined by law and 
all milk, except that of certified grade, should 
be pasteurized. The United States Public 
Health Service has published The Standard 
Milk Ordinance as an aid to inspection. All 
milk to be sold raw should be tuberculin 
tested. 

The latest conception of State Medicine— 
free medical treatment for everyone at his 
earliest need—comes nearest to fulfillment in 
Soviet Russia, where the following point of 
view obtains: The Soviet government is a 
government by the workers and the health 
of the workers is the responsibility of the 
workers. The logical outcome of this con¬ 
ception is the disappearance of all private 
hospitals and of all private practice. Medical 
institutions and the treatment of disease were 
at once made a state function under the Peo¬ 
ple’s Commissariat for the Protection of 
Health. All doctors, nurses and pharmacists 
became civil servants; all hospitals, sanatoria 
and drug stores became state institutions; 
unified schemes of medical work were put in 
practice: nation-wide programs of child wel¬ 
fare, venereal disease and tuberculosis con¬ 
trol were applied; medical instruction for 
doctors was provided; and wholesale pro¬ 
duction and purchase of drugs became a state 
business. It is thus intended to make free 
medical help accessible to all citizens. All sal¬ 
aried workers and their families, all wounded 
ex-soldiers, all school children, and the poorest 
of the peasants hold health insurance. 

Every possible device is used for the pur¬ 
pose of selling health to the people. For those 
who cannot view the city health exhibits, 
traveling exhibitions are maintained which 
go in railway cars, automobiles, or vehicles 
drawn by horses, reindeer, or camels, carrying 
moving pictures, lectures, little plays, posters 
and literature to the very doors of the peo¬ 
ple. The radio is extensively used for health 
education. 

Public Health Service, a bureau of the 
Treasury Department of the United States, 
the largest Federal agency dealing with public 
health. Its activities include the protection of 


the United States against the introduction of 
disease from without, the medical examina¬ 
tion of all arriving aliens, the enforcement 

of interstate quarantine and the suppression 
of epidemics, cooperation with State and local 
health departments in public health matters, 
investigation of the diseases of man, control 
of interstate commerce in bacteriological 
products, promotion of health education, 
maintenance of marine hospitals and relief 
stations, the maintenance of narcotic farms 
for the confinement and treatment of drug 
addicts, and the provision of medical service 
in Federal prisons. 

This service dates from July 16, 1798, when 
Congress created the Marine Hospital Fund. 
In 1872 the Marine Hospital Service was re¬ 
organized and in 1902 its name was changed 
to Public Health and Marine Hospital Serv¬ 
ice; in 1912 it became the Public Health 
Service. In 1918 the Division of Venereal 
Diseases was created and in 1930 the Divi¬ 
sion of Mental Hygiene. Under the quaran¬ 
tine laws, the Surgeon-General, with the ap¬ 
proval of the Secretary of the Treasury, 
formulates rules and regulations for the gov¬ 
ernment of maritime and interstate quar¬ 
antine. Under the health provisions of the 
Social Security Act of 1935 and the Venereal 
Disease Control Act of 1938, national, state 
and local health services are co-ordinated. 

Public Lands of the United States.— 
The public lands came into the nation’s pos¬ 
session in several ways. The Revolution 
transferred to the United States all the ter¬ 
ritory of the original 13 colonies and all the 
land w. of them to the Mississippi. Those 
States claiming the country n.w. of the Ohio 
River were in controversy as to boundaries, 
and were regarded with jealousy by States 
whose charters confined them to the coast. 
Maryland refused to ratify the Articles of 
Confederation, forcing the cession of this 
‘Northwest Territory’ to the Union, which 
was followed by cession of the lands s. of 
Kentucky by the States claiming them, and 
by the Louisiana Purchase (1819); the Ore¬ 
gon acquisition (1846); the Mexican cession 
(1848); the Texas Purchase (1830); the 
Gadsden Purchase'from Mexico (1853), and 
the Alaska Purchase (1867). The total area 
was slightly under one and one-half billion 
acres. Over it the Federal Government was 
originally both sovereign and landowner. 

At first, lands were sold chiefly with 3 
view to profit. In 1812 the office of General 
Commissioner of the Land Office was created, 
under the Treasury Department. In 1846 tht 



Public Lands 


3368 


, Land Office was placed under the Depart¬ 
ment of the Interior. A Pre-emption Law au¬ 
thorized any settler to purchase 160 acres 
after a fixed term of residence. Finally, the 
Homestead Ad of iSO.: Drill in force with 
amendments') gave f6o acres of surveyed ag¬ 
ricultural land to aduh ril izens and brads of 
families upon proof of five years’ residence 
and cultivation, without pa\merit, except cer¬ 
tain fees ranging from $.*o to $50. The Pre¬ 
emption and Homestead Laws fulfilled the 
first requisite of a sound pul>!ic-land policy 
by creating; a large dass of small fanners, 
each cultivating his own land. But they were 
ill adapted to the arid region w. of the 100th 
meridian, where irrigation was, until the later 
application of dry-farming 1 methods, essen¬ 
tial to tillage. Without tillage the grazing of 
cattle or sheep was the only means of agri¬ 
cultural production, and vastly more than 
160 acres was necessary to sustain sufficient 
live stock for the support of one family. 

Several laws were passed to meet the new 
conditions. In 1894, the Carey Ad granted ; 
1,000,000 acres to each of certain States for 
irrigation at State expense, and sale to actual 
settlers in 160-acre tracts at cost. 'Phis, in the 
main, has worked will, and additional grants 
have been made to several of the States. In 
1902, the Federal Government undertook 
(‘Reclamation Act’) to build irrigation works 
on its own account, assessing the cost, on a 
uniform acreage basis, upon homesteaders 
taking up the land, payment to be made in 
ten annual installments. 

In the beginning, mineral lands were re¬ 
served from sale and leased for royalties. The 
remoteness and inaccessibility of the fron¬ 
tier, the rudimentary social and political or¬ 
ganization, and tlie complete ascendancy of 
unrestrained individualism c o m b i n e d to 
break down this system in the second quar¬ 
ter of the nineteenth century. Mineral lands 
were then taken up under the agricultural 
settlement laws. The priceless iron deposits 
of Minnesota, now held by the United States 
Steel Corporation, were sold for a nominal 
price, or given away; while the State, from 
the small fraction given to it, has accumulated 
a vast education fund. 

Surveyed coal lands were sold (Act of 
1872) at not less than $20 per acre, if within 
15 miles of a railroad, and not less than $10 
if more remote. Each person was limited to 
one entry of 160 acres for his own use. In 
1906 all known deposits were withdrawn 
from sale by President Roosevelt, An act of 
Feb. 2$, 1930, withdrew all mineral land con- 


Public Lands 
taining coal, oil, oil shale, gas, phosphate, and 
sodium, pending the enacting of a leasing bill 
and imposed a royalty burden of from \ to 
50 per cent. 

Timherhinds were first taken up under the 
H-t I lenient laws. The wonderful white pine 
inrests oi tlie Lake States, which under con¬ 
servative nitting would have been a, per¬ 
petual source of supply, passed into private 
ownership at nominal prices, or, seized with¬ 
out color or title, were ruthlessly swept away 
by axe and lire. Not until 190S were such 
lands appraised and sold above the minimum 
price. The supply was then nearly exhausted. 
During the Roosevelt administ ration the 
Forest Service ran a race with the timber 
grabbers, ami swept into National Forests, 
b> ITe.ddenlial proclamation, the gnater 
part ot their present area (about 17^.000,000 
acres) ; but the most valuable timber had 
been lost before the race began. I aider an Act 
<>1 190 1 the Forest Service could lease water¬ 
power sites for a uniform rental of Si per 
! home power, under conditions deemed neces¬ 
sary to restrict monopoly, for such uses as 
municipal supply and irrigation, for electric 
power, revocable rights for dams, reservoirs, 
conduits, etc. Under an act passed in 1911 
rights of way for transmission lines might he 
secured for a period of 50 years. 

Land grants have always been made to 
new States lor the support of common 
schools. Other grants have been made in aid 
of other State institutions. Vast grants have 
been made, first through the State, then di¬ 
rect to private 1 corporations, in aid of canals 
and other public works, especially railroads. 
Frauds have been practised under nearly all 
the public land laws. Under President Roose¬ 
velt, a. Public Lands (Commission was ap¬ 
pointed to investigate the subject and recom¬ 
mend legislation. In ioro it was enacted by 
Congress that the President may at any time 
in his discretion temporarily withdraw from 
disposition any of the public lands of the 
United States, including Alaska, and reserve 
the same for water-power sites, irrigation, 
classification oi lands or other public pur¬ 
poses, such withdrawals or reservations to 
remain in force until revoked by him or by 
act of Congress. The following year the Ap¬ 
palachian Forest Reserve Act was passed 
which made an appropriation of .$11,000,000 
in annual installments for five years, for the 
purchase of land for national forests on the 
watersheds of navigable streams, when such 
forests will tend to promote the navigability 
of such streams. 



Public Libraries 


3869 


Public Schools 


To June 30, 1941, the U. S. Government 
had made disposal from the public domain 
in the United States proper of some 285,- 
000,000 acres of land as homesteads, some 
420,000,000 acres in cash sales and some 
325,000,000 acres in grants to states, rail¬ 
roads, etc.; and title remained in the United 
States to some 411,096,048 acres, made up 
principally of National forests, Indian res¬ 
ervations, National parks, military and naval 
reservations, and lands unappropriated or 
withdrawn. 

Public Libraries. See Libraries. 

Public Meetings. In the United States 
there are no laws against the holding of pub¬ 
lic meetings, provided they are for legitimate 
purposes, and are conducted in an orderly 
manner. However, the ordinances of most 
towns and cities require the organizers of a 
public meeting to obtain a permit from the 
proper authority if the meeting is to be held 
on the streets or other public place. 

Public Parks. The term Public Park is 
very general in its application, being used 
alike to designate such limited areas as a 
square or triangle at the intersection of two 
or more city streets, which has been set aside 
for the rest and enjoyment of the people, 
and to describe such vast and lonely tracts 
as those set apart for the public by the na¬ 
tional government in the valley of the* Yel¬ 
lowstone and of the Yosemite. The one res¬ 
pect in which a public park differs from any 
other area of land is that its primary use is 
for recreation or rest out of doors. A Public 
Garden differs from a park in that it is dedi¬ 
cated more particularly to the culture of 
shrubs, flowers, and trees, for their own sake; 
but often the terms are used interchangeably. 

In New England cities the oldest public 
park is usually the ‘common, 5 set aside as a 
grazing ground when the place was settled. 
This common or green is characteristic not 
only*of the cities, but of the older New Eng¬ 
land villages. Most famous is the Boston 
Common which was the first to be set aside 
for outdoor recreation (1634). The move¬ 
ment to secure large public parks began with 
the acquisition of Central Park by the City 
of New York in 1853. This was the earliest 
landscape park (840 acres). Philadelphia fol¬ 
lowed the example set by New York by secur¬ 
ing its magnificent Fairmount Park in 1867 
(2,816 acres); and Boston secured Franklin 
Park in 1883 (527 acres). In 1S95 Essex 
County, New Jersey, pioneered in providing 
a park system on a county-wide plan and by 
y.930, 74 counties had parks. Of particular in¬ 


terest is the system in Westchester County, 
New York, which has a number of excel¬ 
lent connecting roadways. Cook County, Ill., 
is the other outstanding example cf county 
park systems. Interstate parks are owned 
jointly by two cr more States as in the case 
of the Palisades Interstate Park along the 
Hudson in New York and New Jersey and 
the wilderness trail planned to run from 
Maine to Georgia. The Boston Metropolitan 
Park System is extensive and varied and in¬ 
cludes 39 cities and towns and is adminis¬ 
tered by a commission. 

State parks are intended to preserve areas 
cf scenic, historic, scientific, cr recreational 
value. Among the largest State parks are 
the Adirondack and Catskill parks in New 
York State, together containing some 2,400,- 
coo acres. In 1S65 California ob¬ 
tained from Congress a grant of the famous 
Yosemite Valley as a State park and it re¬ 
mained such for 30 years until taken over by 
the Federal Government. The American side 
of Niagara Falls became a State reservation 
in 1885 and in the same year a beginning was 
made in the Adirondack reservation in New 
York State and Fort Mackinac was taken by 
Michigan for a State park. 

Public Policy, a phrase commonly employ¬ 
ed to designate a general principle of law 
that no one has a right to do any act which 
will work harm to the public. This principle 
is applied in many cases where the act is not 
specifically prohibited nor recognized as a 
criminal offence. It has been most frequently 
applied in the law of contracts. Some of the 
principles of law which have been evolved by 
the courts on the grounds of public policy 
have been incorporated into statutes in many 
States. The limits of this doctrine are not yet 
clearly defined. 

Public Schools, a term applied in the 
United States to schools open to all, main¬ 
tained by public expenditure, and controlled 
by an authority representative of the public. 
Since the function of a public school system 
is to secure an educated citizenry, the con¬ 
ception of public responsibility in education 
has been accompanied by an extension of the 
requirement of compulsory attendance at 
least during the period covered by the ele¬ 
mentary schools—usually to the age of four¬ 
teen, although by statute a number of States 
may require compulsory attendance of pupils, 
not suitably employed, up to the age of six- 
, teen. The development of compulsory school 
attendance has always been followed by re¬ 
strictions on the employment of -xliijdreii u^ 



Public Utility 


3870 


Public Utility 


der fourteen; and in some instances minimum 
standards of education must be attained by 
minors between the ages of fourteen and six¬ 
teen before they are permitted to take up 
employment. Another recent tendency is the 
provision of medical inspection and treat¬ 
ment of school children, together with close 
attention to hygiene, sanitation, and other 
aspects of a similar nature in the construc¬ 
tion of school buildings. 

The evolution of this public school system 
has been gradual. The public elementary 
school, in the sense of a school maintained 
out of public funds, appeared as early as 
1636 in Boston and 1638 in New York. But 


Service Corporation have been used to de¬ 
note a concern performing fora municipality, 
for pay, one or more of the public services 
which the town or city might itself perform 
—such as the supplying of gas or electricity, 
or the furnishing of means of transportation 
and communication (see Local Govern¬ 
ment; Municipal Ownership). Under the 
term (public utility’ are commonly included 
steam and electric railways, bus and steam¬ 
boat lines, express companies, grain elevators, 
public warehouses, telephone and telegraph 
syMcms, water companies and water depart¬ 
ments, electric central stations, gas supply 
works, pipe line companies, district steam 



the modern conception of the public school 
arose only about the middle of the last cen¬ 
tury. The first public high school was estab¬ 
lished in Boston in 1821, the first public eve¬ 
ning school in Louisville in 1834, ami the first 
public kindergarten in St. Louis in 1873. A 
compulsory attendance law was enacted in 
Massachusetts in ,1852, and eleven other 
States followed between 1867 and 1874. The 
public school is the characteristic educational 
institution of the United States. To it, are 
sent nearly ninety per cent, of the school 
population. See Education in the United 
States; Educational Systems, National; 
Schools, Private. 

Public Utility Regulation. In recent 
years the terms Public Utility and Public 


heating systems, sewage disposal companies, 
and radio. 

The present era of utility regulation may 
be said to have begun with the establishment 
of the Massachusetts Gas and Electric Light 
Commission in 1883 and the Interstate Com¬ 
merce Commission in 1887. The Interstate 
Commerce Act, strengthened by various 
amendments, was more or less the model of 
many State commission law’s—obviously in¬ 
fluencing even the Wisconsin and New York 
measures secured under the leadership of 
Governors La Toilette and Hughes in 1907. 
The success of these two measures in meet¬ 
ing with the demands of the time led other 
States to establish more or less similar bod¬ 
ies, or to enlarge the powers of old ones. 





Publishing 


3871 


Growing out of the long continued period 
of reduced railroad earnings,' the Interstate 
Commerce Commission, in March 1938. 
granted rate increases on certain railroad 
freight classifications designed to bring about 
an increase of yearly income to extent of 
some $270,000,000. The Commission also 
granted the railroads privilege to advance 
passenger fares to extent of one half cent 
per mile, but this proved unsatisfactory to 
the railroads and they soon of their own 
volition re-established the former rate of 
two cents per mile in order to try to regain 
as much business as possible lost by them 
to busses and to other means of transporta¬ 
tion. A committee of the Interstate Com¬ 
merce Commission considering the difficult 
position of the railroads, recommended ex¬ 
tensive loans by the Reconstruction Finance 
Corporation to the railroads and the estab¬ 
lishment of an Authority to compel railroads 
to enter into arrangements to pool traffic 
and earnings. There was a report on Dec. 
28, 1938 by a committee of three railroad 
executives and three labor leaders who had 
been appointed by Pres. Roosevelt to make 
a study of the plight of the railroads. This 
report favored the bringing of all modes of 
transportation under uniform regulations, 
and fixing bus rates so high as to include 
interest on the cost of public roads, and 
barge rates to include cost of waterways. 

The Roosevelt administration has given 
special attention to public regulation of util¬ 
ities. It has also gone forward with the 
great Tennessee Valley project and its sub¬ 
sidiary activities reaching into agriculture, 
animal husbandry, reforestation and the de¬ 
velopment of new uses for electricity. Grants 
and appropriations for this project, 1933 to 
1940 inclusive, amount to upward of $309,- 
000,000. The Tennessee Valley Authority is 
a government agency and makes electricity 
available for sale to municipalities, power 
companies and industrial concerns. In 1940, 
electric current generated by it was being 
supplied to some 335,000 domestic consumers. 
The administration dubbed the project a 
yard stick for measurement of rates charged 
by utility corporations, but thoughtful citi- j 
zens were none the less aware that public 
utility corporations are not financed by taxes 
levied on the general public, as is this ex¬ 
perimental project. 

Publishing andf Bookselling. Modern 
publishing is a specialized development of 
bookselling. In the height of its intellectual 
activity, Athens had an organized book trade, 


Publishing 

which is said to have taken its rise from the 
practice of Plato’s followers, who reported 
the lectures of the master, and either lent out 
the manuscripts for hire or sold them out¬ 
right. After the conquest of Greece by Rome 
the Athenian book trade grew considerably, 
owing to the demand for Greek books by the 
Romans. The great book mart of ancient 
days, however, was at Alexandria, where the 
production and sale of books were carried on 
in connection with Ptolemy’s museum. For 
more than two centuries after b.c. 250 Alex¬ 
andria was the center of book production for 
the whole world. 

A new impulse to book production and 
selling was imparted by the demand for 
copies of the Gospels arising out of the spread 
of Christianity. As a result, the bookselling 
industry passed to the scriptoria of the mon¬ 
asteries. By the middle of the thirteenth cen¬ 
tury we find the universities supplanting the 
monasteries in the production and sale of 
books. 

The introduction of printing is the great 
outstanding event in the history of publish - 
ing. In the United States it is not unusual to 
find the two trades combined, as in New 
York City, where a large retail business in 
the books of other houses, as well as in their 
own, is done by some publishers. 

The settlement of the American Colonies 
involved too strenuous labor on the part of 
the colonists for them to spend much time in 
reading; and up to the establishment of 
Stephen Daye’s press at Cambridge, Mass., in 
1639, and for many years after, there was 
little demand for printed matter. The first 
regular bookseller of whim there is any ac¬ 
count was Hezekiah Usher of Boston, known 
to have been in the business .as early as 1652. 
The manufacture of printing presses was not 
well established in this country until 1775, 
and Franklin’s type foundry, started in the 
same year, was but the third in America. 

With these hampering conditions, and with 
Indian wars and the manual work necessary 
for the development of the country, it is not 
surprising that out of nearly 8,000 extant 
titles of publications issued previous to ■ the 
Revolution, nine-tenths should be tracts or 
pamphlets. Many of the latter were almanacs 
—that of Franklin being a notable example. 
Mathew Carey began business as a printer in 
Philadelphia in 1785, and as a bookseller in 
1791, soon afterward issuing publications of 
his own. He published the first American 
‘best seller,’ Charlotte Temple, by Mrs. Row- 
son. The Methodist Book Concern was es- 



Publishing' 33 

tabfished in 17S(); Harper tv: Brothers in 
1817; William I). Ticknor (precursor of 
Houghton, JMifilin & Co.) in 1S52; J. B. Lip- 
pincoU & Co. in 1845; G. P. Putnam (as 
Wiley & Putnam) in 1856; Little Brown 
in i7. In 1 Sij 1, after years of effort, the 
first international copyright law was enacted 
by Comrress. 'The effect of this measure was 
markedly to simulate American book pro¬ 
duct ion, eneou raying both native literary 
talent, and the development of the mechanical 
side of book making. 

Into the making of a book go many arts: 
(1) paper-making, ( 2 ) type design and typ¬ 
ography, (4) book layout and designing, (4) 
binding, (5) jacket layout and designing, (6) 
book illustration. 

On the day published two copies of a book, 
with appliealion for copyright are sent to the 
Library of Congress; also copies to the trade 
book indexes of new books. Sewed but un¬ 
bound advance copies are often sent to re¬ 
viewers in order to secure reviews on ‘pub¬ 
lication date, 1 which is sometimes as soon as 
the hook may be printed and bound, but 
often some time later, with an interval for 
advance presentation, in fully bound form, 
to reviewers, jobbers, booksellers, book clubs, 
or influential individuals. 

The ‘book clubs' have become prominent 
factors in bookselling. Their boards of book 
judges select each month a particular book 
which they offer or send <0 their patrons, 
numbering from 10,000 to ho,000, and these 
patrons have the privilege of securing the 
^elected book each, month promptly and at, 
a saving. The book dubs usually print a 
special edition of the book, carrying their 
own imprint. 'Fite ‘lending libraries’ are a 
large factor in bookselling in America, and 
quite dominant in ftngland. For 15 t.o 25 
cents per book these lending libraries give 
readers the privilege of a week’s posses- 
don. 

Specialized book stores dealing in chil¬ 
dren’s, busintss or other types of books have 
.primp: up; also traveling bookstores on 
trucks. Mail order book selling has been 
quite successful. Book stores, drop anil sta¬ 
tionery stores are enjoying a wide sale of 
reprints, omnibus hooks, and low priced se¬ 
ries of classics and new books. Remarkably 
cheap editions of certain types of hooks for 
the 5 and 10 cent stores have abo appeared. 

Second-hand bookselling is a very large 
fjustness, using bookstalls, display rooms, 
catalogs, etc. Chains of these have sprung up. 


72 Puccini 

Rare bookselling is in a class entirely by itself^ 
appealing to a limited coterie of wealthy col¬ 
lectors, through dealers, auctions, catalogs. 
For centuries London was the world head¬ 
quarters ot the rare hook {radio the auctions 
at SothebyV being a focal center. Since pip 
when the famous Hoe collection was sold, 
Xew York has been the acknowledged world 
headquarters for run 1 hooks. 

Histone best sellers, 1 rom a list compiled 
( 1054) by the Institute of Arts and Sciences: 
In His Steps, C. M. Sheldon (1844), N,ooo,- 
000: Freckles, Gene S. Porter (1004), j,oco,~ 
000: Be a Ilur, Lew Wallace (iNSo), 1,050,- 
000; Girl ot the / Cmihcrlnst, Gene S. Porter 
(mop), 1,700,000; The Harvester , Gone S, 
Porter (ion), 1,000,000; 1 'om Sawyer 
Mark T wain (1875). 1.500,000: 77 m Wnniln^ 
of Barbara I Cart It, Harold Bell Wright 
(1011), 1,500,000; Laddie, (lent* S. Porter 
(1415), 1,500,000; ’I'he Virginia?!, Owen Wis- 
ter (j<)0.?), 1,.554,000; The Call of the Wild, 
Jack London (i<)i 7), 1,41.1,000 ; Story of the 
Bible, Jr.-sc L. Hurli)ut (1004), i,5.: 1,000; 
The 7 'rail of the Lonesome Pine, John Fox 
(1404 b 1,255,000; David liana?!, Fdward N. 
West cot t (1000). 1,200,000; 77 m Tittle Shep¬ 
herd of Kingdom ( 7 one, Jcdm Fox ( 1404), 
1, too,ooo; Five Tittle Peppers and How They 
Crete, .Margaret Sidney (1881 ), r ,040,000; 
Huckleberry Finn , Mark Twain (1SS4), t,- 
000,000: Ihdlyanna , Kleanor Steward (1415), 
i,000,000; Black Beauty, Anna Bewail (A877), 
1,000,000; 'Treasure Island, R. L. Stevenson 
(’1804), 1,000,000; 7 'rilby, George du Matirier 
(1844), 1 .ooowgu. .Mon* tvu'hl are: Anthony 
.idverse, limes Allen t eiy.B ; Gone With 
th" (Find, M trgarcl Mitchell fiod>); A* orth- 
tvest Pasotye, Kenneth Roberts ( 1047) ; Grapes 
of Wrath , John Sleinhirk (ippo). See Book; 
Bookjuxium;; ('oi'Ykmn 1 ; M aua/uxks ; 

N Is W S l * A t' K Kit; PlUNliM,. 

Puccini, Giacomo (1858-1424), Italian 
operatic composer, was born in Lrnra, Italy, 
of a, long line of musical ancestors. In Manon 
Le scant (Turin, 185)5) and La Boh hue 
(Turin, rXqh) , the latter his most popular 
work, he struck a new note of individualism. 
To sea (Rome, ipoo) and Madame Butterfly 
(Milan, 1404} followed, greatly adding to his 
prestige. Later works, however, failed to 
show the grow th that was looked for- La 
janeiutla del west (‘The Girl of tin* Golden 
West’) (New York, u)io) and three one-act 
operas. Puccini was especially happy in the 
creation of facile appealing, singable melo¬ 
dies of warmth and spontaneity, lie had also 




Puck 


3373 


Puerto 


a distinct orchestral sense that enabled him to 
create effects rich and coloristic. On these 
two elements his popularity rests. 

Puck, or Robin Good! ellow, a merry do¬ 
mestic sprite, famous for his mischievous 
pranks and practical jokes. Shakespeare in¬ 
troduces him into A Midsummer Night’s 
Dream as the jester to King Oberon. 

Pudding-stone, a rock made up of the 
water-worn debris of other rocks, many of 
the pieces being of the size of pebbles or 
larger. 

Pudsey, municipal borough of the West 
Riding of Yorkshire, England. It is noted 
for its manufacture of woolen and worsted 
goods and leather work; p. 14,762. 

Puebla, state, Mexico. It has an area of 
12,992 sq. m. It is generally mountainous and 
broken in the northern part, with swiftly 
flowing rivers which afford abundant water 
power. Within its borders are the snow¬ 
capped peaks Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl, 
which add sublimity to the scenery, and sev¬ 
eral ancient remains, including five pyra¬ 
mids, the largest being that of Cholula; p. 
1,146,734. 

Puebla, city, Mexico, capital of the state 
of Puebla. It has an elevation of 7,077 ft. in 
a broad, fertile plateau. It is the third city 
in size in Mexico, with ancient fortifications 
and broad streets lined with handsome build¬ 
ings. The city is noted for its cleanliness and 
healthfulness, and has many foreign resi¬ 
dents. The city is the commercial and dis¬ 
tributing center of the state. It manufactures 
woolens, paper, glass, iron products, pottery, 
structural tiles, leather, and straw hats. Pueb¬ 
la was founded in 1530; p. 95,535- 

Pueblo, a Spanish word having the general 
meaning of town. 

Pueblo, city, Colorado, county seat of 
Pueblo co., and second largest city in the 
State. Its fine climate attracts many visitors, 
especially in winter. Pueblo is the chief in¬ 
dustrial and commercial city of Southern Col¬ 
orado, and has an important trade in agri¬ 
cultural products and cattle. There are ex¬ 
tensive oil fields near the city, deposits of 
coal and other minerals, and many mineral 
springs. It is the largest smelting center in 
the' United States' for gold, silver, copper, 
zinc, and lead; p. 52,162. 

Pueblos, or Pueblo Indians, numerous 
groups of North American aborigines who 
have always dwelt in pueblos (Spanish, ‘vil¬ 
lages’) or agricultural settlements, as distin¬ 
guished front the roying ‘plains Indians.’ 


Some of the houses are of adobe. They are 
famous basket and pottery makers and are 

credited with being the originators of the 
‘Navajo’ blankets. 

Puefckes, the aboriginal Pampas Indians 
of Argentina, now nearly extinct. Of all the 
original natives of South America they most 

resemble the North American prairie Indians. 
They spoke a stock language, which died out 
after 1879, when these predatory bands were 
nearly exterminated by the Argentine forces. 

Puerperal Infection (Puerperal Fever) 
includes all the various morbid conditions 
which are due to the entrance, during labor 
or the puerperium, of infective microorgan¬ 
isms into the female generative tract. At one 
time the disease was very common and had 
a high mortality rate. Modern antiseptics and 
medical hygiene have reduced the number of 
cases. 

Puerperal Insanity, a term generally ap¬ 
plied to insanity occurring during pregnancy, 
or the puerperium—the time of lying-in, or 
first few weeks after childbirth—or during 
lactation. It is generally of a melancholic 
type, with delusions and perversions of the 
natural affections. Recovery of eighty per 
cent, is the rule. 

Puerto Cabello, seaport, Carabobo, Ven¬ 
ezuela. As the shipping port it handles the 
products of a large section, exporting beans, 
cofiee, cacao, cotton, hides, and skins, tobac¬ 
co, dye woods, timber, and indigo; p. 14,099. 

Puerto de Santa Maria, seaport, Cadiz, 
Spain. It is the principal place of export for 
sherry wines; p. 18,839. 

Puerto Plata, town, republic of Santo Do¬ 
mingo. It is the chief port of Santo Domingo, 
and a military post, a cable station, and an 
important commercial center; p. 7,807. 

Puerto Principe, the old name for Cama- 
guey, province, Cuba. Its area of 10,500 
sq. m. includes a few mountain ranges, 15 m. 
from the n. coast, where there are fine plateau 
grazing lands and important cattle-raising and 
horse-breeding industries. The chief agricul¬ 
tural product is sugar; p.-258,712. 

Puerto Principe, the old name for Cama¬ 
guey, city, Cuba. It is located in a broad, 
elevated plain, the center of the largest stock- 
raising industry of Cuba. There are also 
large sugar plantations in the vicinity. Puerto 
Principe was first founded in 1515 at Nuevi- 
tas, and moved to its present site in 1516. The 
town has had a long smuggling history, and 
was sacked in 1668 by the buccaneer Morgan. 
It was the seat of government for the Spanish 



Pufendorf 


3874 


Pulitzei 


West Indies for a time after 1800, and a mil¬ 
itary post till the end of the Spanish-Amer¬ 
ican War; p. 82,042. 

Pufenctorf, Samuel, Baron von (1632- 
94), German writer on history and jurispru¬ 
dence, was born near Chemnitz, Saxony. Im¬ 
prisoned on the breaking out of the war 
(165S) between Sweden and Denmark, he 
wrote his famous Elementa Jurisprudentim 
Universalis . On his release he was appointed 
by the Elector Palatine a professor at Hei¬ 
delberg, and was afterward transferred to 
Lund in Sweden, where he published De Jure 
Naturae et Gentium (1672), in which he im¬ 
proved on the speculations of Grotius. 

Puff-adder (Bitis arietans) , a highly pois¬ 
onous African viper, which reaches a length 
of four ft. or more. It is yellowish to orange 
brown above, with dark, angular markings, 
checkered with white, and whitish below. 

Puff-bird, a South American form related 
to the jacamar. It receives its English name 
from the puffy appearance of the soft feathers 
of the head. 

Puffin {Pratercula) , a bird genus of the auk 
family, characterized by the great develop¬ 
ment of the beak. The most familiar species 
is the common puffin or sea parrot (P. ar- 



tic a), which breeds on both shores of the 
North Atlantic—in America, as far s. as the 
Bay of Fundy. Its length is 13 inches; it is 
blackish above and on the throat, while the 
cheeks and under parts are white. 

Pug Dog, a breed of small, short-haired 
lap dogs, probably of Oriental origin, and in¬ 
troduced into Europe by way of Holland in 
the sixteenth century. The breed is charact¬ 
erized by the shortness of the face and up¬ 
lifted form of nose. Only a fawn color, with 


blackish face, was known until about 1873, 
when a wholly black varietv was introduced 
into the West from China. Pug-dogs, popu¬ 
lar about .1880, are now returning to public 
favor. 



Pug Dog, 


Puget, Pierre (1622-04), French sculptor, 
was bom in Marseilles. His line Hercules 
(Rouen Must-urn), Milo (Louvre, Paris), and 
Andromeda (Versailles) show a. keen ap¬ 
preciation ot natural beaut)' of form and 
moral grandeur. 

Puget Sound, an arm of the Pacific Ocean 
indenting the coast of Washington, and con¬ 
nected by the Strait ol juan de Fuca with 
Admiralty Inlet and Hood's ('anal. Its bold 
and picturesque shores are well wooded. It 
abounds in edible fish of a hundred sorts, its 
salmon fisheries bring famous. The cities of 
Seattle, I aroma, and Port Townsend are 
situated on its shores. 

Pugilism. See Boxing. 

Pugin, Augustus Welby Northmore 
(1,812-52), English architect, was born in 
London. He early became a Roman Catholic, 
and some ot His best plans were drawn for 
churches, including the cathedrals at Killar- 
ney and Southwark. He had also a large 
share in the designs and plans tor the new 
British Houses of Parliament (1856). 

Pulaski, Casimir (1748-70), Polish sol¬ 
dier and American Revolutionary general, 
was born in Podnlia, Poland. He was a vol¬ 
unteer aide to Washington at Brandywine, 
and was made a brigadier-general for gal¬ 
lantry. In the spring of 1779 he successfully 
field Charleston against the attack of Gen¬ 
eral Provost until reinforced, and harassed 
the latter’s retreat to Savannah, 

Pulaski, Fort, was erected by the IL S, 
Government on Ooekspur Island, at the 
mouth of the Savannah River, for the de¬ 
fence of Savannah, Ga, 

Pulitzer, Joseph (1847*191, t)> American 




Pulitzer 


3875 


Pulse 


editor and publisher, was born in Hungary. 
In 1883 Pulitzer bought the New York Work, 
making it the first successful exponent of 
popular journalism. In 1903 he endowed with 
$1,000,000 a school of journalism in connec¬ 
tion with Columbia University. By his will, 
Pulitzer left a second donation of $1,000,000 
to the School of Journalism, and $250,000 as a 
Pulitzer Scholarship Fund. To the Metropol¬ 
itan Museum of Art and the Philharmonic 
Society of New York he left $500,000 each. 
Included in the endowment to Columbia was 
a fund from which prizes for excellence in 
stipulated directions are awarded annually in 
journalism and letters. 

Pulitzer Prizes, a group of annual awards 
donated since 1917 by Joseph Pulitzer, who 
was publisher of the New York World. The 
prizes range from $500 to $2,000 and are 
given to the creators of the best American 
novel, play, book of poetry, historical work 
relating to the United States, outstanding 
newspaper reporting, newspaper cartoon, 
newspaper editorial and the biography en¬ 
grossing good American citizenship. A group 
of judges of which Nicholas Murray Butler, 
president of Columbia University, is chair¬ 
man, selects the winners. 

Pulitzer, Ralph (1879-1939), journalist, 
president of the Press Publishing Company, 
publishers of the New York World, 1911- 
30; vice president of Pulitzer Publishing 
Company, publishers St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 
1906- . He has written New York Society 
on Parade (1909); Over the Front in an 
Aeroplane (1915). 



Ralph Pulitzer. 

Pulley. The pulley, one of the so-called 
mechanical powers, consists of a grooved 
wheel or sheave capable of turning about its 
axis. It is sometimes placed inside a mass of 
wood or metal called the block. A fixed pul¬ 
ley gives no mechanical advantage, but mere¬ 


ly alters the direction of the force applied in 

the tension of the rope that passes over the 
sheave. If a pulley or a peg be assumed to be 
frictionless, the tensions of the strings on 
both sides of it are equal. Thus the tensions 
of in and n are both equal, also the tensions 
of / and m ; and as these support w, the ten¬ 
sion of each is y 2 w, the strings being parallel. 

Pullman, city, Washington. The State Ag¬ 
ricultural College and School of Science are 
situated here. It is the center of a wheat and 
livestock producing district, and has numer¬ 
ous artesian wells; p.4,417. 



Pulleys 



Pullman, George Mortimer (1831-97), 

American inventor and capitalist. In 1864 
he built his first modern sleeping car, the 
‘Pioneer/ It was first used on the train 
which carried the body of President Lincoln 
to burial. The orders for new cars came so 
rapidly that in 1867 Pullman formed and be¬ 
came president of the Pullman Palace Car 
Co. In 1880 he founded the model town of 
Pullman, Chicago, and in 1887 the first ves, 
tibule train was turned out of the works, 
He was a promoter and president of the New 
York City elevated street railroad. 

Pulmotor, an oxygen-fed and driven de¬ 
vice for inducing artificial respiration in per¬ 
sons overcome by noxious gases, those ap¬ 
parently drowned, and others in whom 
breathing has been seriously impaired but 
who still have slight heart action. 

Pulpit, originally that portion of the Ro¬ 
man stage (distinguished from the orchestra) 
on which the actors recited and performed 
their parts. It has since come to mean a piece 
of church furniture from which sermons, lec¬ 
tures, and other addresses are delivered. 

Pulque, a native Mexican and Central Am¬ 
erican drink, prepared by extracting and fer¬ 
menting the sap of the agave. 

Pulse (Lat. pulsus , £ a pushing or beating’), 
a phenomenon due to the distention of the 


Pulse 


38’ 


arteries consequent upon the intermittent in¬ 
jection of blood into their trunks from the 
heart during its contract ion period. It. is per¬ 
ceptible to the touch in ail excepting ver> 
minute arterites, and, in exposed positions, is 
visible to the eye. The pulse is usually ex¬ 
amined at ihe radial art err at. tin- wrist. 

Pulse, a name commonly given to the ed¬ 
ible seeds of leguminous plants, such as peas 
and beans. 

Pulsometer, the name of a well-known and 
widely-used steam-pump. See Pumps. 

Pulszky, Franz Aurel (1814-97), Hun¬ 
garian politician and writer, was born at 
Eperies. He was appointed under-secretary of 
State tor toreign allairs in 1X48, but under 
suspicion of revolutionary activities, lied to 
London, and later accompanied Kossuth to 
the i niled States. His works include. Ex¬ 
tracts from the Diary of a Hungarian Travel- 
levin C rent Dritain (iS 7 ) : White, Red, and 
Black ( r85 2), a description of his travels 
through the United States. 

Pulteney, William, Earl of Bath (1684- 
1764), British statesman, was born in Lon¬ 
don. lie started the Craftsman (1726), a 
journal devoted to the abuse and ridicule of 
Walpole. 

Pultusk, town, Lomiza government, Po¬ 
land. Here Charles xn. of Sweden defeated 
the Saxons in 1704, and here, too, was fought 
a drawn battle between the Russians and the 
French (Dec. 26, 1806) ; p. 14,742. 

Puma, Cougar, or Mountain Lion (Fells 
concolor ), the large American cat, or ‘pan¬ 
ther,’ iormerty to be met with anywhere 
from the St. Lawrence River and southern 
British. Columbia, to Patagonia, but now 
practically exterminated e. of the Rocky 



Puma * 


Mountains. When hunted with dogs (the us¬ 
ual method) , it tries first to flee, and when 
overtaken climbs a tree, where it remains, 
snarling at the pack of dogs until the hunter 
comes up and despatches it, nevertheless, 
when cornered it fights to the death. Consult 
Theodore Roosevelt’s Pastimes of an Ameri¬ 
can Hunter; W, H. Hudson’s The Nat m alts t 
in La Plata and Idle Days hi Patagonia. 

Pumice* or Pumice Stone, a light-colored, 
very porous volcanic rock, consisting practlc- 


___ Pumps 

I aflv enfireh ol glassy mallei, resembling a 
j vitreous froth. Us peculiar structure is due 
to the su<Men expau-hm of great quantites 
ol steam imprLoned in a molten lava when it 
reaches Lie .-urlnce and is relieved from the 
great pressure to winch il had been subjected 
within a volcano, in some ease- f3 k* expan¬ 
sion is so great and rapid that the rock is 
blown into du.-L t ids being the origin of the 
great dust clouds which circle round the 
earth, alter the eruption ol Krakatoa. Pumice 
is used as a polishing and smoothing material, 
also lor ('leaning siiruius, and in line powder 
is mixed with soaps or u-e<i lor brightening 
metals. The best quality is obtained from the 
Lipari Islands. In the United States the chief 
deposits are in Xrbrn-ka. 

Pumpelly, Raphael ( 1S47-1024), Ameri¬ 
can geologi-t, 1 ions in ( Mwgo, X. Y. [[ e or¬ 
ganized the economic geolngv department of 
the U. S. Geological Survey, and was a special 
geological agent of the tenth U. S. Census 
1870-8i. 

Pumpkin, an annual trailing plant sensitive 
to Host, and found in cultivation by the In¬ 
dians when America was discovered. As com¬ 
monly grown in the northern United States 
the fruits are yellow, w i t h a hard rind, 
gourdlike in form, and more or less hollow. 
They are extensively used for making pies 
ami for stork feeding. 

Pumps. - A simple classification of pumps 
would be as follows: (1) Lift pumps; (2) 
force pumps; {4) combined lift and force 
pumps. A lift pump is one that gives motion 
to a Hu id by lifting, without subjecting the 
fluid to pressure. A force pump, on the other 
hand, urns pressure to induce the flow of 
liquid. Any one of the foregoing types may 
be single-acting 01 double-acting. A single- 
acting pump discharges o n 1 y during the 
movement of the piston or plunger in one 
direction, whereas a double-acting pump dis¬ 
charges during the movement of the plunger 
in each direction. Pumps may he either re¬ 
ciprocating or rotary, depending on the kind 
of motion given to the moving element; and 
according to position they may he either 
vertical or horizontal Fig, r shows a double- 
acting bucket-and-phmger pump applied to 
the raising of water from a shaft of some 
depth. 

To understand the action of this type of 
pump, suppose the plunger and bucket to be 
in their knees! positions, or at the bottom of 
the stroke, and let the pumu rod move up¬ 
ward. The bucket 0, as it is pulled upward 
with its valves closed, leaves a space or part- 



Pumps 


387? 


ial vacuum beneath, which is immediately 
filled with water forced in through the snorer 
and bottom valve f, by the atmospheric pres¬ 
sure acting on the surface of the water in the 
bore-hole. When the bucket reaches the top 
of its stroke its motion is reversed, and it 



(BUCKET GOING UP) 

Pumps. 

commences to descend. The water beneath it 
attempts to get back into the bore-hole, but 
is prevented from doing so by the bottom 
valve f, which immediately closes. The water 
is thus caught between the descending bucket 
and the valve, f, and, as it is practically in¬ 
compressible, it forces the valve in the bucket 
g open. As the bucket descends, the water 
passes through it to the upper side. 

When the second double stroke commences 
there is already three ft. of water above the 
bucket, at the commencement of the third 
stroke six ft., of the fourth stroke niiie ft., 


Pumps 

and so on, until the rising main is full op to 
the level 01 the outlet at or above the sur¬ 
face of the ground, and water commences to 
be discharged—a volume of water equal to 
the stroke of the pump times the cross-sec¬ 
tional area of the working barrel being then 
delivered at each double stroke. 

As shown in Fig. i, this pump L double- 
acting— i.e. it delivers water on both the up 
and the down stroke. This is effected by the 
use of the plunger e, which is a closed cylinder 
forming part of the pump rods. As the bucket 
moves up three ft., the plunger does the 
same, and half the water lifted by the bucket 
goes into the space left by the retreating 
plunger, and half goes up the rising main to 
the discharge. As the bucket goes down, the 
plunger follows, and, as the water beneath 
cannot escape downward, forces its own bulk 
of water up the rising main to the reservoir. 
In this manner half the total quantity 
pumped per double stroke is lifted on the up¬ 
stroke, and half is forced on the downstroke. 

The pump illustrated in Fig. 2 is of similar 
description, but is single - acting. The dis¬ 
charge is effected on the upstroke of the 
bucket, so that the pump is intermittent in 
its action. 

Direct - Acting Steam Pumps .—A direct- 
acting pump is one in which the motion of 
the driving piston is transmitted direct to the 
water piston or plunger by a rod or rods. In 
its simplest form it consists of a steam end 
containing a reciprocating piston connected 
to one end of a piston rod, the other end be¬ 
ing attached to the water plunger. Such. a 
pump, known as a single pump or a simplex 
pump, is shown in section in Fig. 3. The 
pump is driven by steam which.is admitted 
alternate!}’ on opposite sides of the piston by 
a valve located above the .steam cylinder. 
When the piston nears the end of its stroke, 
it comes in contact .with the stem of a small 
poppet valve in the head of the cylinder and 
lifts the valve. The opening of this valve re¬ 
leases the steam pressure on the end of the 
slide valve, and the unbalanced condition thus 
set up causes the slide valve to move, uncov¬ 
ering the steam port and admitting steam be¬ 
hind the piston. The piston is then driven to 
the opposite end of the cylinder by the ac¬ 
tion of the steam, until it strikes the poppet- 
valve stem at that end, when the motion is 
again reversed in the same way as before. 
The piston rod at its left end is fastened to 
the water plunger which is thus given a re¬ 
ciprocating motion. The pump is doubte-ac- 
ing. When the plunger moves to the right, it 




Pumps 


3878 


Pumps 


draws water in through one set of suction 
valves and discharges through the discharge 
valves at the opposite end of the water cyl¬ 
inder. On its stroke to the left, it draws in 
water through the other set of suction valves 
and forces water out through the discharge 
valves at the other end. 

A duplex pump, one form of which is 
shown in Fig. 4, is made up of the elements 


mine shafts, filling storage tanks on the roofs 
of buildings, pumping oil, acid, or dirty or 
gritty water, and scores of other special forms 
of service. 

Power Pumps. —A power pump is one in 
which the water piston or plunger is given a 
reciprocating motion through the agency of 
a crank and a connecting-rod or its equiva¬ 
lent. It may be simple, duplex', or triplex, ac~ 



Fig. j. Simplex Direct-Acting Steam Pump. 


of two simplex pumps placed side by side and 
interconnected in such a way that, the motion 
of the piston rod of 0111“ half of the pump 
gives motion to the valve 1 gear of the other 
half. With lids construction it is impossible 
for the pump to slop at dead center. 



Fig. 4 . Fair bank v-A/ arse Duplex Direct - 
Acting Pump . 

Direct-acting steam pumps are used for a 
large number of purposes, as, for example, 
feeding steam boilers, supplying water to hy¬ 
draulic elevators, removing condensate from 
steam condensers, furnishing water at high 
pressure to fire systems, removing water from 


cording to the number of cranks used, and 
the motive power may be furnFhed by steam 
engine, gasoline engine, water wheel, electric 
motor, or belt from a countershaft ; also, the 
pump may he either horizontal or vertical. In 
Fig. 5 F shown a horizontal duplex power 
pump. A belt on the tight and loose pulleys 
gives motion to the shaft carrying the pinion 
that meshes with t he large gearwheel. The 
gear is ke\ ed to the end of the crank shaft, 
which has two cranks. To ea< b crank is at¬ 
tached a connecting-rod that leads to a cross¬ 
head fastened to the rod to which the water 
pist on is secured. The ('ranks arc go degrees 
apart and thus the discharge of the pump is 
practically continuous. 

Centrifugal Pumps.—:\ type of pump that, 
has been greatly improved in recent years, 
both in efficiency and in height of lift, is the 
centrifugal pump, so called because centri¬ 
fugal force is an important factor in its op¬ 
eration. Briefly, it consists of a disk or wheel 
having vanes and rotating inside a casing. 
Water is admitted to the center of the rotat¬ 
ing part, which is called the impeller, and un¬ 
der the effect of centrifugal force the water is 
thrown outward along the vanes, being fin- 



Pumps 


3879 


Pumps 


ally discharged from, the circumference of the displacement pump that has a rotary motion, 
impeller into the casing. During its passage One form is shown in Fig. 6 , in which one end 
through the impeller the velocity of the water , casing D removed to reveal the working parts, 
is greatly increased, and when it is discharged > There are two shafts which are carried in 
into the casing, the energy of motion due to * bearings in the end casings. On these shafts 



Fig. 5. Fairbanks-M orse Duplex Power Pump. 


this velocity is converted into pressure, and 
the water is thus forced to considerable 
heights. In addition to the services already 
mentioned, centrifugal pumps are used as 
fire pumps, deep-well pumps, mine pumps, 


are keyed two similar rotors, each having 
three lobes, and these rotate inside the pump 
casing. Outside the pump the shafts are con¬ 
nected by two gears, of equal sizes. Water is 
admitted to the space below and between the 



Fig. 6 . Gould’s Rotary Pump. 


water-works pumps, and dredge pumps. 

Rotary Pumps .—,Although the centrifugal 
pump has a rotary motion, it is not classed 
as a rotary pump. The true rotary pump is a ] 


two rotors, which mesh like gears and.turn.In 
opposite directions. As rotation continues, the 
water is carried up and around to the dis¬ 
charge of the pump, shown at the top. 







Pumps ■ 3380 Punctuation 


The Hydraulic Rtim is II in it raced diaeram- 
mutieally in Fig, 7. 1 'he water enters Hie pipe 
A 1 mm a dream m <>ther soma e, and 11 owes 
out through tin* valw is to wu.de, and upon 
attaining, a < eriain velodtv elo-.es this valve 
suddenb 'He 1 moment um loft in (he (lowing 
waiter enables it In eor.l iuue its comve, and it 
passe-’, or,, (peie’ the vah'e » , and expends it- 
energy in !ift ing a porlioii of itself to the 
point of delivery which may he u consider- 



LefC Pig, ;y Hydraulic Ram, 

Right, Pig, S, Air Lift Pump, 

able height up tin* deliver)' pipe in An the ef- 
feds subside Use valve r eloses, i; opens, and 
water begin> to (low out again to waste, until 
its velocity is a main sulVieient to rinse n and 
open c, k is an air vessel used to preserve to 
some extent a continuous flow and to pre¬ 
vent shock. These ranis are very useful for 
small supplies, and ml quite automatically. 

Another method of raising water, princi- 
pallv from bun-holes, is that known us the 
Air Uji System, shown diagnumnatically in 
Fig, ft, a is a boring; bc% u pipe used as the 
rising main, suspended in the boring, and ter¬ 
minating In an open end at r; m„ another 


and smaller pipe, passing down the bore¬ 
hole, and turned up at its lower end into the 
open pipe nr. Air b forced down this pipe, 
and cirefulh nwuiaivd u> to amount and 
pre.-Mire in such a manner as to reduce the 
specific gravit \ of the column of wader no, so 
that its \er!ical downw'ard piawsure at c is 
has than its upward vertical pressure due to 
the column of water nr, f being the level of 
waiter in the bore-hole. Under these condi¬ 
tion:, t he t oluinn of wader fc in (lie bore¬ 
hole will rather more than balance the col¬ 
umn of water t:r in the rising main, and 
wader will ronsequenth time out at o, and 
continue to do so as long as the boring, with 
it:-, waiter level a( F, continue:-, to supply the 
requisite quant it \ of water. 

Punch, or The London Charivari, a fa¬ 
mous Loudon weekly was founded in 1.841, 
at Hu 1 inspiration of Lhenexer Landells, a 
London wood engraver and draughtsman. 
I )ot!gias jerrofd, who till his death continued 
to be ecu* of the most, active members of the 
staff, wrote his immortal . 1 /r.v. Caudle av Cur¬ 
tain■ Lectures for Punch, in 1850 Tenniel 
drew his first cartoon for Punch, and from 
185c until moi he wais responsible for this 
salient leature of the paper, one of the most 
d riking conceptions being ‘Dropping the 
Pilot.’- Da BKmarek. Charles Keene, another 
artist whose wort, has helped to make Punch 
famous, joined the regular staff in i860, and 
four years later George I hi Maurier fol¬ 
lowed. Mr. Li 11 lev Sambourma who succeeded 
Sir John Tenniel as cartoonist in chief dates 
Ids staff connection with Punch from 1867 
'Tin* subject of the cartoon has, since 1854, 
been settled at the u'eekiy dinner of the staff, 
over which the edit or predder-.. When Lemon 
died in 1870, Shirley Brooks succeeded to the 
editorship, and \v;e himself succeeded in 1874 
bv Tom 'Taylor. Taylor held the position for 
sis years, when Sir F. t\ Burnand, whose 
Happy 'Phoughts had appeared in Punch in 
1806, was called to the chair. He in turn was 
• urcceded in 1006 by Owen Seaman, who 
had been assistant editor for some years. 
Gons.ull SpieimauiTs The History oj Punch , 

Punch and Judy, the principal characters 
in a well known puppeb-dmw. The puppets 
are played by putting (he hand under the 
dress, and making the middle finger and 
thumb serve for the arms, while the fore¬ 
finger works the head. 

Pundhestownt* race-course, in Rathmore 
parish, County Kildare, Ireland, hear Naas, 
well known for its April steeplechases. 

Punctuation* the art of marking off, by 






Pundit 


388! 


Puri 


means of certain conventional signs, the di¬ 
visions of a sentence in order to assist in 
bringing, out the meaning more c’early. The 
usual signs employed are the period or full 
stop (.), the colon (:s, the semi-colon Ty 
and the comma (,). In addition to these we 
have the dash (—), the mark of interroga¬ 
tion (?), the mark of exclamation or ad¬ 
miration (!), and the parentheses and brack¬ 
ets, () [].' 

Pundit, a Brahman learned in Sanskrit lore 
and language, and in Hindu science, laws, and 
religion. 

Punic Wars. See Cartilage. 

Punishment, a penalty exacted because of 
wrong doing. Reformation of the criminal 
and the prevention of crime represent the 
most modern and generally accepted meth¬ 
ods of dealing with the subject of punish¬ 
ment. To that end reformatories for youth¬ 
ful criminals have been established, the in¬ 
determinate sentence has been adopted in 
many cases, as well as a system of parole. 

Punjab, or Panjab (The land of five 
waters’), a province of British India lying 
on the northwestern frontier. The area of 
British territory is 99,846 sq. m., and 37,059 
sq. m. are under native rule. The chief agri¬ 
cultural products are cotton, sugar, wheat, 
maize, rice, and pulse; p. 20,700,000. 

Punkab, in the Orient a large, broad fan, 
swung from the ceiling, and 'worked by an 
attendant, to cool a room. 

Puntarens, town, Costa Rica. It is the 
only port of Costa Rica on the Pacific Coast, 
and is a charming old fashioned, town; p. 
7,848. 

Punts and Punting. A punt is a fiat-bot¬ 
tomed craft, without stern, keel, or stern 
post, and in racing punts having the width 
at each end at least half the greatest width. 
It is propelled by a pole thrust against the 
bottom of the lake or river. Punting is 
almost exclusively an English sport and is 
popular on the Thames River. 

Pupa, the term applied to the quiescent 
stage which, in : insects with complete", meta¬ 
morphosis, intervenes between the larval and 
the adult stages. 

Pupil, of the eye,The opening, practically 
round, at the center of the iris, through 
which light enters to act upon the retina at 
the back. 

Pupin, Michael Idvorsky (iS5S-*93S), 
American electrical engineer and physicist 
was born in Idvor, Banet, Yugoslavia. He 
was prof, of electro-mechanics, Columbia XL, 
1901-31, now prof, emeritus. In 1896 he 


invented a method of rapid x-ray photo¬ 
graphy and discovered secondary x-ray ra¬ 
diation. Probably his most famous invention 
is the electromagnetic loading employing the 
teroidal inductance coil which is universally 
employed in long-distance telephone trans¬ 
mission.. He also invented electrical timing 
and rectification of Hertzian waves, both 
universally employed. He is the author of 
From Immigrant to Inventor , an autobiog¬ 
raphy (1923) ; The Neva Reformation 
(1927); Romance of ike Machine (1930). 

Puranas, ‘ancient traditions/ 18 songs in 
praise of Hindu deities—as the Brahmapu- 
rana, Bhagavatapurana, Bhavishyapurana, 
and so on. 

Purbeck, Isle of, peninsular district, Eng¬ 
land. The district is famous for its marble 
quarries and potter’s day. 

Purcell, Henry (1658-95), famous English 
musician, was born in Westminster. He early 
began composing anthems, other Church com¬ 
positions, and songs and wrote the music for 
many plays. Purcell holds a very high place 
in English musical history. His work was 
characterized by inspirational and emotional 
qualities, by technical ingenuity, and by a 
certain austerity of melody. He is buried be¬ 
neath the organ in Westminster Abbey. 

Purdue University, a co-educatlonal State 
institution at Lafayette, Ind.. founded in 1874 
under the provision of the Morrill Act of 1862. 
and named for John Purdue, an early benefac¬ 
tor. The main purpose of the institution is 
to train students for service in the fields of 
Engineering, Agriculture and Applied Science. 

Pure .Food and Drug" Law, an Act of 
Congress, approved on June 30, 1906, and 
effective Jan. 1, 1907, which prohibits adul¬ 
teration and misbranding and use of unwhole¬ 
some preservatives in preparation of foods 
and drugs. The Bureau of Chemistry of the 
.Department of Agriculture was designated in 
the Act as the tribunal, to decide whether any 
specified food substance was deleterious. Dr. 
Harvey W. Wiley, chief chemist in the Depart¬ 
ment of Agriculture was. responsible, for the 
introduction of the act and its. enforcement. 

. Purgatives,. in medicine, drugs used to 
evacuate the bowels. 

Purgatory, in. Roman' Catholic theology, 
a place or condition of souls intermediate be¬ 
tween death and heaven. 

Puri, commonly known as Jagannath, o r 
Juggernaut, chief town, of Puri, district. 
Orissa, Bengal, India. A temple of Vishnu 
contains the famous idol called Jagannath— 
'Lord of the World/ which each year is placed 



Purification 3882 Putnam 

on a huge car and draw 31 in {iroces.Aoti t hraugh in salad and the older ones for pickling, 

the streels. This areal ear t'edival alt rads Purves, George Tybout (1852-1901) 
hosts of pilgrims even year. Ameriean clergx man, was horn in Philadel- 

Purificatson of the Blessed Virgin phia. From 1000 until his death he was pas- 


Mary, Peas! of the, a lestival ohserwd on 
February 2, and otherwise known as Candle¬ 
mas, from the ancient custom o! processioning 
with tapers. 

Purim, the Jewisli i estival, observed on the 
14th and 15th Adar, and intended to eom - 

memorate i hr deii\’era nee o t the Jens in 
Persia from the plot of flamon. 

Puritans, a part) which, 1 hough nominally 
taking its rise at the time whom Archbi.dmp 
Parker, at tin* repm-d of (hum F.li/abrth, 
formulated the con-litution. artirlr-. and rit ■ 
ual ol th.e national t’liureh oi Fnekiieh real!> 
owes its origin to the influence of \Y\u liffe j 
and tin* Lollard.-. Already in the iviuu of 
James f. ( i(>.:o) the Vilerim Father.-’ had tak¬ 
en their departure in (he .]/,/v/hover to found 
in the New World a Puritan state. They es¬ 
tablished tiit‘ colonv of Plymouth, on the 
roast, of Massaehusetts. A lew year.- later, in 
the reign of C'harle- e, a great wave of Puri * j 
tan migration built up the' rolonv of Ma— a- 
chusetts Hay, an olY.-hnnt of which was thej 
colony of ('onneet irut. The di-t im t ive (foe- | 
trines and principles of Puritani-m have been I 
set forth by ‘the Puritan divine-,’ ihh-f among j 


tor of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church 
in New York (Pity. 

Pus, in suigery, the thick creamy fluid 

which remit- from Mipnurat ion. and tills ab¬ 
scess cavities, and is found on the surfaces 
of unbralfhv ulcers. 

Pusey, Edward Bouverie (1800-82), 
English theologian, was born at Pusey blouse 
in wrkskirc. In 1835 he published his cele- 
b rated tract on Baptism. At that time Pusey 
was cenerail; reeoimi/.ed a.- hauler of the Ox- 
tord High (’iiurrh movement, and a few 
wars later (he word l Pu-(‘>isnP came into 
VO-JUC. (Mi Ma> 1 p iSy, lie preached the 
1 rlebrated 'oimhiiinoi sermon.’ whose subject 
wa- ‘' 1 ’he Unix Fmhari.d a Tom fort to the 
Penitent, 1 he Memorial Pir-ey I louse 1 at ()x~ 
Pual hold 1 - hi' library and perpetuates his 
teachings, 

Pushkin, Alexander Sergeievitch 

( 1 y100 18471, Russian poet, dramatist, novel- 
i-1. and hi-torian, wa- horn in Moscow. He 
became the 1 enter of ever\ literan eirele in 
H. Pet rr.-hurg. Hut he fed a wild and dissolute 
lift 1 , and twice within (hum years lav at 
death’.- door from fever brought on by his 


whom are Richard Sibbeg John Owen, Timm- ! recklessness. Yet in the mid-l of his dissipa- 
as Goodwin, Thomas Adams, John Howe. ■ lion lie stiil had power and energy to work at 
Stephen (‘harnoek, Rit hard Baxter, and Mat- | Rnshm and, Lyudmila f nK s 7-sod Besides 
(hew Henry, j many smaller {mem- he wrote six parts of 

Purple, a color that in white light emits: Envy nr Oneyin (utilized a-, the subject of an 
principally red and blue ra> s. the red pro- j opera by Tehaikuv- ki) and Haris GodunojJ 
dominating; thus it varies from scarlet and j ( 1825). lie completed Euyene One yin, his 
crimson on the one hand to violet on the ; masterpiece, in iSy. His Itidorv of the Pa¬ 
nther, in the latter of which the proportion of yatehed hisurrrctian ( 1X44), 7 hr Cap tain’s 
blue rays is the larger. In the ancient world I Ihntyjtier ( 1840} , and Ihd>rovdci (t 84r) are 
the most famous purple color was Tyrian pur- ! samples of Russian pro: e in its highest degree 
pie. obtained from several -pecie 1 -' oi Mure\’ : ol |wri cction, Pm -hkin po;.-e ed an original 
and Purpura. Owing to its cost, as well as I intellect, reinforced bv a quick intuition. His 
its richness, it was emphatically the imperial j humor was genfie and his wit was keen; his 


color. 

Purpura, in medicine, the appearance on 
the skin of small purple spots or patches, due 
to subcutaneous, haemorrhages. 

Purpura, a genus of carnivorous gastero- 
pods, whose members, like the species of Mu- 
rex, yield a purple dye. The Tyrian purple 
was extracted from species of both these gen- 


ephu am.- are among t hr beat produced in any 

language. 

Pustules, in mt dieine, pimples or eleva¬ 
tions of the skin containing pus, which occur, 
in many skin diseases ermna, acne, scabies, 
ecthyma, boils, He, - and wit It certain of the 
fevers smallpox, 

Putnam, city , Connecticut. The Wolf 


era, especially the genus P, pat t da of the east 


1 Dim is the scene of Chan 


rad .Putnam s as- 


era Mediterranean Sea. 
Puridaue, or Portwlaca. 


ieged exploit with the wolf. Cargill Falls was 
ymis of plants the site of the first cotton mill in Connecticut; 


belonging to the order Portulacacea*. P. ate* P* 7 > 77 S« 


racea, the common purslane, is still cultivated Putnam, Frederic Ward (1839-1:91:5), 

as a pot-herb, the young shoots being used American anthropologist, was bora in Salem, 







Putnam 


3833 


Putrefaction 


Mass From 1S74 to 1909 he was curator of j In newspaper and publicity 
tlie Peabody Museum (honorary curator, 1 He was president 
1909-13; honorary director, 1913) f from. :$r 4 ; and treasurer, 
to 1903 curator of anthropology. American ' Since 

Museum of Natural History. For Ills services , the editorial 
in American archeology he was awarded the ! Divorced in 
cross of the Legion of Honor by the French ! 1 


government in 1896. 

Putnam, George Haven (1844-1930), 
American publisher and writer, was bom in 
London. In 1866 he became a member of G. 
P* Putnam & Son, and in 1S72 its head. He 
took an active interest in the subject of in¬ 
ternational copyright; was one of the reor¬ 
ganizers (1SS7) of the American Copyright 
League, and secretary of the league since its 
foundation; and was largely instrumental in 
the adoption of the International Copyright 
Law of 1891. His writings include: Authors 
and Publishers (1883); The Question of 
Copyright (1891); Memories of a Publisher 
(191S) ; Some Memories of the Civil War 
(1924). 

Putnam, George Palmer (1814-72), 
American publisher, was bom in Brunswick, 
Me. In 1848 he established a publishing busi¬ 
ness of his own. G. P. Putnam was the close 
friend of his authors, counting 1 among them 
Poe, Irving, Cooper, Emerson, Carlyle, Bry¬ 
ant, Lowell, Bayard Taylor, and George W. 
Curtis; the last of whom assisted him in es¬ 
tablishing Putnam's Magazine . He was a 
founder and honorary secretary of the New 
York Metropolitan Museum of Art. His pub¬ 
lished works include: The World's Progress; a 
Dictionary of Dates. 



George P. Putnam. 


Putnam, George Palmer (1887- ), 

publisher, author, was born in Rye, N. Y. He 
started work with G. P. Putnam’s Sons, pub¬ 
lishers, N. Y., 1909, and was later engaged 


work in Oregon, 
lie Knickerbocker Press 
G. P. Putnam’s Sons, N. 

he has been chairman of 
board of Paramount Productions. 
19:8. he married Amelia Earhart, 
Among other works, he wrote, Andree 
i —The Record of a Tragic Adventure (1930) 
and Hide Margin < (1042}. 

Putnam, Herbert (1S61 1, American li¬ 
brarian, was born in New York City. His re- 
j organization and management of the Boston 
Public Library led to his appointment by 
President McKinley, in 1809, to be librarian 
of Congress, a position which he held until 
1939- 

Putnam, Israel (1718-90), American Rev- 
i olutionary soldier, was born on Jan. 7, 1718 
(n. s.), in what is now Danvers, then a part 
j of Salem, Mass. When Washington assumed 
! command of the army (July, 1773), Putnam 
was appointed to be one of the four major- 
generals commissioned by the Continental 
Congress; and after the evacuation of Boston 
by the British, in March, 1776, he was sent 
to New York to put that city in a condition 
for defence. He was in command at Brook¬ 
lyn Heights (Aug. 27), and the Battle of Long 
Island; and he conducted the American re¬ 
treat through New York to the Hudson. In 
1778, while in charge of the troops in West¬ 
ern Connecticut, he made his famous escape 
from Governor Tryon’s dragoons by riding 
down the stone steps at Horseneck. 

Putnam, Mary Traill Spence (Lowell) 
(1810-98), American linguist and writer, was 
born in Boston, the sister of James Russell 
Lowell. Her publications include: Records of 
an Observer (1861) ; The Tragedy, of Errors, 
and The Tragedy of Success. 

Putnam, Rufus (1738-1824), American 
Revolutionary soldier, was bom in Sutton, 
Mass. .When the Revolutionary War broke 
out he planned the defences at Roxbury and 
New York, and was appointed chief engineer 
of the American army, 'with the rank of 
colonel. With his cousin Israel Putnam he as¬ 
sisted in the construction of the fortifications 
at West Point (1779)3 and in 1783*'was made 
a brigadier-general. He led the.first body of 
settlers to. the Northwest Territory, and laic! 
out Marietta. 

Putney, a suburb of London, England. It 
is a well-known rowing place, and the start-: 
ing point of the Oxford and Cambridge boat 
races; p. 28,246. ; 

Putrefaction, the decomposition that pro-' 
tein substances of animal or vegetable origin 


rutting 3884 Pynchon 


undergo under I,he influence of the ,mi ion of 
bacteria. 

Putting 1 the Shot is an athletic sport that 
consists in casting a weight with an upward 
and forward motion of (he aim. 

Putty, a plastic mixture composed <.i imr 
dry'whiling or powdered chalk and lin.-red 
oil, improved by the addition ot white lead. 

Putty Powder is the dioxide of limSn()<. 
It is used for polishing stone and glass, for 
making while enamel, and in making ghes 
opaque. 

Putumayo, an unorganized territory of ap¬ 
proximately aoo.ooo sq.m., to the extreme >. j 
of Colombia, and adjoining Ecuadoi. : 

Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre ( 1X24-08), j 
French painter, was horn in I ,\ mis. Having' 
resolved to work out his own development 1 
and avoid all schools and cliques, !w hr.d at - ; 
traded attention by two painting-, Tr,iee and | 
War ( 1862). He decorated the B oston (Mass.) 
Library with nine fine panels, The Muses Sa- | 
luting the Spirit of EnTn'Jil racni, ami repre¬ 
sentations of the Arts and Sciences (1805-8). 

Puya, a genus of tropical South American 
herbaceous plants of the order Bromeliaeem. 
It equals the Agave in height, and greatly sur¬ 
passes it in tile thickness of its half-woody 
stem. When the plant is mature it thrusts 
forth from the crown of spiny leaves a huge 
showy panicle of yellow flowers, which may 
be from 6 to 0 ft. in height. 

Puy-de-Dome, a central department of 
France. Tins department is rich in minerals, 
coal and lead being (lie chief, ami abound- in 
mineral springs, hot am! cold, among which 
those of Mont - I >0re are most wide!)’ known. 
Capital, Clermont-Ferrand. Area, 5.000 sq.m,; 
p. 400,000, 

Puy, Le, or Le Puy-en-Velay, town and 

episcopal see, France, capita! of the depart¬ 
ment i hi ut e-Loire. The Romanesque Cathe¬ 
dral (6th-i dh century) is reached by a long 
flight of steps, and contains a minuit*-work¬ 
ing image of flu* Holy Virgin in black marble. 
Puy is a center for the manufacture of face 
and gu i| >u re; p, 22 ,000, 

Puzzle, something so devised as to require 
ingenuity and patience in properly arranging 
its parts, usually for the purpose of recreation 
or amusement. 

PWA» Public Works Administration, See 
United States History,, New Deal. 

PWEHC, Public Works Emergency Hous¬ 
ing Corporation. A United States Ww Heal 
agency. 

Pyaemia, or Pyemia* in medicine, a septic 
condition of the blood In which organisms,! 


I "iacting horn mine inlech d spot, possibly an 
| external wound, enter tin* circulation and set 
up one or more abscesses elsewhere. 

Pyat, Felix. ( iSm-Sg), a French journalist 
and < omniums!, was born in Yierzon, depart¬ 
ment ('her. He took a foremost part in the 
ile-iruction vf the Yemhmie Column. HR 
works include Letters dam Prnsrrit (1851). 

Pycmogomdoe, Pamtopoda, or Sea Spid¬ 
ers, a remarkable group of Arthropod ani¬ 
mals, perhaps intermediate between Crusta¬ 
cean and Arachnids. They are spider-like or- 
gmii.-nw, having four w eil-developr<l walking 
lew-, mtrn of civet length, 

Pye, Henry James ( 1 745-1815), English 
poet laureate, wa> born in London. His works 
are aboin a. in number, and include Alfred 
tiiSoi). 

Pyeshkoft, A. M. See Gorky, Maxim. 

Pygmalion. (r.) In ancient legend, a king 
of (A1 Hu.!:-, who fell in love with an ivory 
H at lie of a \ mine; maiden which he himseff 
made, and into which, by hi> prayers, he pre¬ 
vailed on Aphrodite to breathe life. Ife then 
married, her, and became bv her the father ol 
ikiphos. n 1.) I )idobrother, who murdered 
her hm-band S\ch;eu.s in order to possess him- 
>elf of his great wealth, Consult. AEneid j. 

Pygmies. See Dwarf. 

Pylades, in ancient Greek legend, the son 
of strophiu.-, king of PlrncR and nephew of 
Agamemnon, 

Pyte f Howard (‘1855-10) 1 ), American illu- 
d rat or and author, was horn hi Wilmington, 
Hel. He wrote book- tor children, illu,-trated 
with his own drawings. These include: The 
Merry Adventures of Rolan Hood (1885); 
The Story of the ft rail and the Passing of 
Arthur ftp jo). 

Pylorus, in anatomy, I lie annular opening 
at 1 ho lower end of tin* stomach, through 
which food passes into the bowel 

Pylos, or Pyltts, an ancient Greek town in 
Me- -emu, on a rocky promontory at the north 
uh- ot the Bax of Pyho, Ne tor in the Iliad 
in king of Bylos, 

Pym* John (13*84-1845 H English Parlia- 
nuntary leader ami statesman, was born in 
Brymurc, Somersetshire. At the meeting of 
the Long Parliament (1 640) Pym proceeded 
to impeach Strafford and Laud, and took part 
I in the drawing up of the Grand Remonstrance, 
Along with Hampden* Hollis, Haselrig, and 
Strode lie was impeached by Charles l 

Pynchon, John (tfou-iyod), American' 
colonN, was born in Springfield, Essex, Eng¬ 
land, He laid nut the towns of Northamp¬ 
ton, Hadley, Hatfield* Durfidd, NorthfieJd, 



Pyuclion 


3SS5 


and Westfield on lands purchased fro-n :h.- Jr.-’ ~ t , ,, 
dians. ! ., *' “V", " 

rynchon, William (1590-1662A American ! of the nvr^mi 
colonist, was born inSpringfield, Er-sex, Eng- i pyramid took 
land. He was one of the patentees to whom i ioo.cco m*--n ' 
the charter of Massachusetts Bay was grant- ; Other forms 
ed m 1629, and accompanied Winthroo to the ! Greece, It'd 
new colony in 1630. He founded Springfield. ; Assyria, 
after his English birthplace. In 1650, while * 
on a visit to London, he published The Meri¬ 
torious Price of Our Redemption , in which he 


Pyrettinirtt 


a passage, .me feet long, which 
1 mm the entrance at the foot 
. According to Herodotus, this 
: a Any time in construction— 
Arm employed on it for 30 years, 
of the pyramid are located in 
. Mexico. China. India, and 


opposed the Calvinistic view of the atonement 
and thereby brought on himself a charge of 
heresy in New England. An order was issued 
that the book should be burned by the hang¬ 
man, and Pynchon was cited to appear before 
che General Court; but dissatisfied with the 
treatment accorded him in the colony, he re¬ 
turned to England in 1652, settled at Wrays- 
bury, near Windsor, and conformed to the 
Anglican Church. He also published: The 
Jewes Synagogue (1652) ; How the First Sab¬ 
bath Was Ordained (1654) J The Covenant of 
Nature Made with Adam (1662). 

Pyorrhoea (Pyorrhea) or Riggs’ Dis¬ 
ease, is a disease in which there is a forma¬ 
tion of pus about the gums and sockets of the 
teeth, which results in loosening, and finally 
in the loss, of the teeth affected. It has been 
estimated that over 90 per cent, of all adults 
at some time suffer from this disease, and that 
over 50 per cent, of all teeth that are lost fall 
out through its morbid action. 

Pyramid, in geometry, is a polyhedron, one 
of whose faces is a polygon and all the other 
faces are triangles, having the sides of the 
polygon as bases and having a common vertex. 
The pyramid is triangular, square, pentagon¬ 
al, etc., according as the base is a triangle, 
square, pentagon, etc. The Pyramids of Egypt 
are quadrangular. 

Pyramids, structures in the shape of the 
geometric figure so called, erected in differ¬ 
ent parts of the Old and New Worlds, the 
most important being the Pyramids of Egypt: 
The ‘Pyramid field’ lies in the Egyptian desert 
close to Cairo. The Great Pyramid of Khufu 
or Cheops (fourth dynasty) is counted as one 
of the seven wonders of the world. This gi¬ 
gantic tomb is 755 feet 8.8 inches in mean 
length, and 481 feet 4 inches in its original 
height, and the. area of its, base Is slightly over 
13 acres. Its slope or angle was 51 0 50k It has, 
however, been much despoiled and stripped 
of its exterior blocks for the building of 
the mosques and walls of Cairo. The original 
sepulchral chamber, 46 x 27 feet and 10 feet 
6 inches high, was hewn in solid rock, and 


Pyramus, in ancient legend, was a youth 
of Babylon who loved a maid Thisbe: and 
finding her garment befouled with blood by ? 
lioness, concluded that she had been devoured., 
and slew himself under a mulberry tree, the 
fruit of which was ever afterwards red as 
blood, Thisbe. returning, saw his corpse, 
and killed herself upon it. See Shakespeare’s 
Midsummer Night's Dream.. 

Pyrenees, mountain chain forming the 
boundary between France and Spain. The 
length of the Pyrenees proper, from Cape 
Cervera on the Gulf of Lions to Irun on the 
Bay of Biscay, is 270 m. The width of the 
system varies from 90 m. to about 25 at the 
Mediterranean extremity. The passes are usu¬ 
ally from 6,000 to 7,000 ft. high, the highest 
being the Port d’Or (9,843 ft.) and Brecfae de 
Roland (9,856 ft.). The thermal springs are 
very numerous and famous, those most fre¬ 
quented on the French side being Bagneres de 
Bigorre. Luchon, Bareges, and St. Sauveur; 
and on the Spanish side Panticos, (8,500 ft.). 

Pyrenees, Hautes. See Hautes. Pyre¬ 
nees. 

Pyrenees, Peace of (November, 1639), 
formed a sort of supplement to the peace of 
Westphalia (1648), and was the second great 
diplomatic success achieved by Mazarin, 
showing the supremacy of France in Europe. 
The chief fact of the peace was that the mar¬ 
riage of Louis xxv. to Maria Theresa, the in¬ 
fanta of Spain, was arranged.—a marriage that 
was afterwards the cause or excuse of many 
wars, including the War of the Spanish. Suc¬ 
cession,. 

Pyrenees-Orientals, most south-easter¬ 
ly dep. of France. The most important prod¬ 
uct is wine; iron is mined; the coast lagoons 
produce .salt, and Amelie-les-Bains is. noted 
for its sulphur springs.. Perpignan is the capi¬ 
tal. . Area, 1,598 sq.m.; p. 229,979. . 

Pyrenomycetes, an order of ascomycetous. 
fungi with, flash-like fructifications,. open at 
the top for the discharge of the spores. Some 
are parasitic on plants, others on insect larvae, 
while several are saprophytes. 

Pyrethrum, a section of the genus Chrys - 
santhemum , herbaceous composite plants, the 
distinctive features of which are that the pap- 



Pyrheliometer 


Pyromania 


3886 


pus consists of an elevated membranous bor¬ 
der, and the achenes are angular but not 

winged. 

Pyrheliometer, an instrumen! devised by 
Pouillet to measure the heat radiated by tin* 
sun. It consisted of a thin, disc-shaped metal 
box containing water, to act as a calorimeter, 


wintergreen family, allied to the heaths, and 
usually found in >had\ woods. The flowers 
are live-parted, borne in racemes on tracted 
scapes, and the leaves are in a tuft at the base 
and are often evergreen. 

Pyromania. An insanity dependent upon 
hereditary or acquired constitutional tondi- 



77/e Pxrtnulils of Ah; xpt. 

Lcit, IA ramid ot ('heop>; Right, The Third Pyramid. 


supported by an axial tube containing a j 
thermometer. : 

Pyridine, tb.Hi.N, a basic comjtound occur- | 
ring in coal (ai and in the oil obtained b> i 
the distillation of bones, from both of which | 
substances it may he separated by distillation j 
of the basic portion. It is the parent sub- ! 
stance of a large number of derivatives, in- 
eluding some of the natural alkaloid-, such as 
nicotine and piperidine. I 

Pyrites, strictly speaking, is disulphide of j 
iron, heS ; >, and occurs very commonly as a I 
brassy mineral {sp. gr. 5), crystallising in the \ 
cubic system. Heated in air it hums, yielding I 
sulphur dioxide gas, and leaving a residue rtf j 
ferric oxide. This reaction is largely employed I 
to prepare sulphur dioxide for tin* sulphuric 
add industry. 

Pyroc&techin, is ortho-dihy- 

druxy-benzene. It is formed when catediin 
and similar bodies are distilled, and is prepar¬ 
ed from the guaiaeoh (THdOIf)fOCIb.), oc¬ 
curring in beech tar by heating with hydriodic 

add. . 

Pyrograllol, or Pyrogallic Acid, CJh 
(0H)«, is a trihydroxy-bemene obtained by 
heating gallic add. 

Pyrography is The decoration of wood by 
partially burning or charring/ producing ef¬ 
fects like those of dark-brown paint. 

Fyrola* A genus of low perennials in the 


t ion, u ith periodic maniiestat ions, it resem¬ 
bles dipsomania and kleptomania. At times 



Pyrography, 


the patient experiences an impulse, generally 
irresistible, to set fire to something, and e»- 




Pyrometer 


3887 


Pyrus 


joys a feeling of relief and satisfaction when 
watching the flames. 

Pyrometer, an instrument for measuring 
temperatures which go be} r ond the range of 
the mercurial thermometer. 

Pyrope, or Bohemian Garnet, is a dark, 
blood-red stone found in rounded, corroded 
grains in bask rocks of the serpentine and 
peridotite groups and in the soils and sands 
which result from their disintegration. It is 
used in the manufacture of cheap jewelry un¬ 
der such names as Bohemian ruby, garnet, etc. 

Pyrosis, in medicine, the vomiting or eruc¬ 
tation of a thin watery fluid, sometimes taste¬ 
less, often bitter. It Is preceded by pain or 
discomfort about the stomach; but the pre¬ 
cise cause is unknown. The terms pyrosis and 
waterbrash are used as synonymous; but py¬ 
rosis is used particularly for acid eructations. 

Pyrosoma, the phosphorescent fire-flame, 
a free-swimming, pelagic tunicate, remarkable 
for its luminosity. It is a compound form and 
is sac-shaped, the very numerous individuals 
being embedded in the wall of the sac. 



Pyrotechnics. 


Pyrotechnics, the art of making fireworks, 
which are almost exclusively used for the pur¬ 
poses of display, though to a small extent also 
in warfare, life-saving at sea, and drain-test¬ 


ing. The principle on which fireworks are 
made is simple—by urging the combustion of 
a material like charcoal and sulphur, by mix¬ 
ing it with highly oxygenated compounds such 
as nitrates or chlorates, so that the action be¬ 
comes brilliant or noisy. The mixtures em¬ 
ployed do not differ fundamentally from gun¬ 
powder, though the proportions are varied to 
alter the rapidity of combustion; the flame is 
often colored by the addition of compounds 
like those of strontium, barium, and copper, 
which have well-marked lines in their flame 
spectra, or is made to scintillate brilliantly by 
the addition of filings of magnesium or iron. 

Pyroxene. The pyroxenes are silicates with 
the general formula Ca(Mg)SiO :J , but may 
contain also isomorphous admixtures of iron 
oxide, alumina, chromium, oxide, etc. They 
range in color from white to dark green and 
black. 

Pyroxylic, or Wood Spirit, is the crude 
spirit obtained by distilling the volatile prod¬ 
uct of the dry distillation of wood, from which 
the tar has been separated and the acetic acid 
neutralized by lime. It is used as a solvent for 
making varnishes, and also to mix with ordi¬ 
nary alcohol to ‘denature’ it. 

Pyroxylin, or Collodion Cotton, is a ni¬ 
trated cellulose in which the nitration has not 
been carried so far as In gun-cotton. It is used 
for the preparation of collodion, celluloid, and 
some kinds of smokeless powders. 

Pyrrha, in Greek mythology, the wife of 
Deucalion. 

Pyrrhic Dance, the war-dance of the an¬ 
cient Greeks, especially of the Lacedaemonians. 

Pyrrho, the leader of the school of sceptical, 
philosophy in ancient Greece called Pyrrhon¬ 
ism. He was a native of Elis, and a contem¬ 
porary of Alexander the Great. -The Sceptic 
philosophy admitted the reality of nothing but 
sensations; as to the manner and cause of sen¬ 
sation, it remained in a state of doubt or sus¬ 
pense; and so, too, with regard to all judg¬ 
ments of right or wrong, and noble or base. 

, Pyrrhus (318 to 272 b.c.), king of Epirus, 
and one of the, greatest generals of the ancient 
world., He became master of a large part of 
Macedonian territory in return for aiding the 
king Alexander. 

Pyrrol, CJELNH, a compound of ‘ring’ 
structure, consisting of four CH groups con¬ 
nected by an NH group, that occurs in coal 
tar and bone oil, from the latter of which It 
can be separated. 

Pyrus. a well-known genus of Rosacese, 
with about 40 species, from northern temper¬ 
ate regions, including the pear, apple, and. 





Py to a g° ra s 388 8 

according [o Bentham mm hooker, the 

quince and medlar. 

Pythagoras, ;i ( h irk philosuphei of 1 in* nth 


century u.<\, who ua> aoparent!> a native of 


PyxidantSiera 
Pyx, a receptacle tor boldine tin* sacrament. 
If is usually a -mall !>o.\ of diver with a base 
and sUm, and id useu when (la* consecrated 


elements art* carried to flu* sick, 


Samos, and aider mtciwvc (ravel.-, self led at 
C. rotona in i-aly. uhere hr formed a society 
mainly ol arisfocrais. Hie chief dot frint* of j 
the Pvthagorean sehool relaVd to number: 
eveiything, they held, that is infelligible can | 
be expressed numerically; without numlirr al 
is chaos. The (ruth of the nth proposition j 
ot the tirst book of Fuelid is attributed to 
Pythagoras. In adronorm lie recognized tin* 
circular focus of flic earth; and hi- followers! 
realized that it and the planets revolve muiul i 
a central point, which they called a lire. 

Pythia. The Pythian festival and games 
in ancient (haver wrrr celebrated at 1 >e!phi, 
the ancient name of which was Pvt ho. Thev 
resembled tile Olympic names in being held 
every four years, in tin* third year of each 
Olympiad, and in the number and character 

of the contests. Pyx, Trial of the. This is the periodical 

Pythias, bee Damon. testing of gold am! silver coins issued by the 

Python, a genus of large, non-poisonous British Mint to ascertain whether (hey come 
snakes, ol wide distribution in the tropical j up to the hvu! damlard of weight and line- 

part.-, ol the Old World. It belongs to the tarn- ; ness. The pvx C the chest or box in which 

ily Boidap which includes the boa and ana- . t he coins for t rial are deposit ed. 
concla. As In the other members of the fam -1 Pyxidanthcra, A charmimr trailing plant 
ily, vestiges of the hind limbs are present, I native of the pine barrens of New fersev and 

appear at the surface in the form of j N. Carolina. It hioonw \er\ each' 



Python (P. 

re l icu lotus). 


whicii 


spurs near the anus. The larger Asiatic forms 
ate capable ol crushing and swallowing mam 
mats as large as a half-grown sheep. 


. in spring, 
ils slender stem-, creeping over the damp sand, 
crowded with small, evergreen leaves and 
while, waxen flowers. 





Q 


Q* ^ ie letter is found only in the earliest of 
the Greek inscriptions. In the Latin alphabet 
it came to be employed only before v. In 
English qv—qu— is employed for kw under 
French influence from the 13th century 
(‘quell’); in some words qu is pronounced k 
(‘liquor’). The form. of the letter has not 
varied very greatly. ’ () is the early Greek 
form. The 1 lebrew name qbph, in Greek kappa, 
appears to be a variation of kaph, Greek kappa 
(=^k). The letter itself may be regarded as 
having been created by differentiation from 
the early Semitic kaph. 

, Quadragesima, an early name for the 
forty days’ fast of Lent, and especially applied 

to the first Sunday in Lent—-that is, the Sun¬ 
day after Ash Wednesday. 

Quadrant, a navigating instrument used for 
measuring angles. The quadrant contains an 
arc of 45°; but owing to its double reflection it 
measures 90°, reading from right' to left. 

Quadratic Equation, in algebra, is an 
equation which involves the square of the 
variable arid generally, but not necessarily, the 
first power. The general type is 
ax* -j- bx ~\~c === o, 

where a, b , c are given constants, and % is the 
variable whose value is to be expressed in 
terms of a, b , c. The solution is 

[■™ b d= Y (b 2 — 4^)J / 

giving two values, which are real if b 2 *~~ 4 ac is 
positive, imaginary if this quantity is negative, 
and coincident if it vanishes. 

Quadrature. The finding of a square equal 
in area to the area, bounded by any given line or 
sei of lines straight or curved. The simplest 
of all curves is the circle, and consequently one 
of the most famous of old problems was to 
‘square’ or find the quadrature of the circle. 

Quadrilateral, in geometry, any four-sided 
figure of which the square, parallelogram, 
rhombus, and trapezium are particular cases. 

Quadrilateral, The, the district between 
the rivers Mincio and Adige, in Northern 
Italy, defended by the four fortresses of 
Pesehiera, Mantua, Verona, and Legnago. It 
figured prominently in the wars with Austria in 
the middle of the 10th century. During the 


World War there was a Polish quadrilateral 
comprising the fortresses of Warsaw, Ivan- 
gorod, Novogeorgievsk, and Brest-Litovsk. 

Quadrille, a figure dance executed by an un¬ 
equal number of couples drawn up in a square. 
It usually consists of five distinct parts or 
sets. The name is also given to a card game 
played by four persons with forty cards, the 
eights, nines, and tens of the ordinary pack 
being discarded. 

Quadroon. See Mulatto. 

Quadrumana, an order of four-handed 
mammals in Cuvier’s system, which included 
lemurs, monkeys, and apes, as distinct from 
man, who was placed in a special order as 
Bimana, or two-handed. 

Quadruple Alliance, a league composed of 
England, France, Holland and Austria, formed 
in 171S to counteract the schemes of Spain and 
enforce the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht 
( I 7 I 3 )* A second alliance was 'formed in 1815 
between. Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Great 
Britain to support the Bourbons in France, to 
the perpetual exclusion of Napoleon, and was 
again brought into power in 1840 to help the 
Sultan against Mehemet Ah, who had 'con¬ 
quered Syria as well as Egypt. 

Quaestor, a magistrate in ancient Rome. 

Quagga, or Couagga (Equus quagga), a 
horse-like animal of Africa, In color it forms a 
link between the zebras and the asses, but 
differs from the asses in having short ears, and 
in the arrangement of the hairs on the tail,, 
which recalls that of the horse. The general 
body color is reddish brown, 

Quai EPOrsay, a part of the left bank of the 
Seine, Paris, on which is situated the Chamber ■ 
of Deputies. Hence it has come to denote the 
French government in the same way that 
Downing Street denotes the English. 

Quail, the name of a large variety of small 
game-birds, represented all over the warmer 
parts of the world, and closely related to the 
partridges. All the American species fall into a 
group separate from those of the Old World 
whose name they have borrowed, distinguished 
m Odontophorin<B y and characterized by having 

the beak notched nr fwn-tnnfI>Arl nn ft a mavu. 



Qualu 


gins, and 
known is 

(Col in us 


t lie 

t he 

virvih 


absrtue ot spues. Hie best 
widely disiribu'ied bobwhib* 
which is found front 
* dry plains and. s. 


Main ami Ontario w. t 
to the Gulf ('oasl. 

Quain, Jones (, i 700-1805), frisli ana tomisl, 
was horn in Ratiiraiiy, C'ounly Cork. Hr pub¬ 
lished Elements of Descriptive and Practical 
A natality OS\>.Sj, a work well known to all 
medical sludinls, and a translation of Marti¬ 
net’s Manual oj Patholoyv. 

Quain, Richard (1800-87), Irish anatomist, 
and surgeon, brother of [ones, was horn ‘ 


?_______ Quarantine 

Hiss phenomenon is known as I he photoelec- 

rie effect. Lenard discovered that the speed 
rtroris is independent of the 
* widen! radiation, in other 
l light from the most power- 
tlie laboratory removes an 
;liy the same speed as the 


of the 
intensity 
words the 


Lit tied e.k 
of the 
bright ei 

ful searchlight in 

('lee! mn with exa 

weakest belli tmm flu-most distant star. Kin- 
stein using tin* quantum theory showed that 
these observations could he explained by mak¬ 
ing the assumption that the kinetic energy of 
the emitted elect mi: is equal to the quantum 
oi incident radiation minus the work necessary 


Kcrmoy, (Vanity ("ork. His published works | to remo\ 
include D/senses of lho Ixectnm 118548 and ' body. 

Anatomy <>f the . 1 rtones of the Human />W v 
(i 844.). 

Quain, Sir Richard (iSiO-qH), Irish phy¬ 
sician, was horn in Mallow, County Cork. In 
iS()i he became president of the Pritish Medi 
eal Council, and though a loading consulting 
physician, he edited the Dietionary of Medi¬ 
cine (gel cd. loo/b. 

Quakers. See Friends, Society of. 

Qualities, Primary and Secondary, in 
philosophy, signify respect ively the mat lie 
matical qualities of materia! bodies, such as 
size and shape, and their other qualities, such 
as color and smell. 

Quantum Theory. In iqoo Professor 
Max Planck of the University of Ik-rim rmb 

. laiim pun-j.iwuMM uu-aiuouni 01 /mat. wmch must he 

‘ , . a lh 1 ( ‘ orrtlra ! PM )rr vAwch is regarded as , communicated to a gramme-a torn of a body 

mark.ns the creation ol the quantum (henry, jin order that its temperature may be raised 
! » obtam agreement with experiment In- made j one decree. According t» classical rn.H-hai.iw 
. ,0 c assumption dial. Iheiv are <Mediators j tins quantity of heat should be ;l vonslant for 

m the atoms and molecules o! ho,lies whieli all monatomic bo,lies and be independent 0 f 
emit and absorb radiant energy, not of all , temperature. While this law is approximately 
magnitudes, lmt. only m whole multiples of an I true for many substances at ordinary tempera- 


■ the elect mil from the surface of the 


And her <»I flu* most slriking successes of 
the quantum theory occurs in bnhCs explana¬ 
tion oi t he 01 igi 11 ot I lie Imos in {h<- sp« vt rum of 
vases. He eiuj>k»yed PulherfonPs idea of the 
slruclure oi the atom and assumed that, the 
ehrfrons revolving about the nucleus could 
only move in certain orbits ami in each orbit 
an electron has a deiinitc amount, of energy. 
Asi elei t ron in jumping from one orbit to an¬ 
other orbit of greater or less energy then ab¬ 
sorbs or emits radiation of a frequency as 
gtycn by the quant mn hypothesis. 

The quant urn theory also offers a satisfac- 
toiy explanation of atomic heat. I he atomic 
hea.!, af com.fant volume, of a substance is 
helmed as the amount of heat which must be 


element of energy which lie assumed to Ik 
equal to a constant, (-ailed //, multiplied by the 
natural frequency, y, of the oscillator. This 


lures it is far ihorn the truth for other‘sul>- 
st.uu es and <*spe< hilly at low temperature. 
Kiustein was again the first to successfully ap- 


* „ ■ . . . , ,n wu.-» agmn 11 uj ursi io successiullv 

po tests <'.get her will, the laws ol statist i.al | ply (lu;quantum (henry this prublem and he 
mechanics gave a md.alam formula which I showed that (he elassiial value of atomic heat 
" g|' h thl ‘ <1:lta within the | is Hue only Oral,,mi, vibration;; of low values 

eirorof observation. It. may truly be said that : and at relatively |,;.,|, temperatures 
l.UH.k foi the tirst, tune atmniwd energy as; Quarantine, originally, the period during 
Dalton a century ago had atom.*,-,! matter. ; whirl, a. ship s.tspe, ted of‘having an infecUous 
he dednotion ot the radiation lormuia did ; disease on board was obliged p, wait before 
not. exhaust the possibilities oi the above revo- j having intercourse with the’ shore The usual 
iuUoiuiy hypothesis. It was observed by j period was forty days, whence the 

iasuhkd mkff r ' A'" * T a M’ ian ' hlily ! ' ,nthu:: hul “"'Wt and shorter periods wen- al- 
msu atwl and initially uncharged, acquired a j lowed, as rimmistamrequired Cnder the 

positive charge when exposed to radiations provisions of a code, adopted!,, 'Jo ashb 
containing wave-lengths smaller than a certain secures a ‘foul’ or a Vie; n’ bill on leaving \ 

W W t , ';V l, ' ,1U1Ml, . 0a °V !, r ,« the cndilion of the port, re' 

dm. to tin emission of electrons and the garding t lie presence of infectious disease It is 
maximum value of the efleotivc wave-length the duty of the oftia-rs of customs^ when they 
depends oh the material of the body exposed. I lirst board a ship on her arrival', t„ ascertain 




? Ewing Galloway, IS-. Y, Stone Quarry near Charlottesville, Virginia . 




Quarry 


______ 3892 

whether any one on band b, . ,r n: invi* dm me 
the voyage ill with an infect imcs dis< a so I'hnsc 
ships wJiich have not a clean bill are al once 
put into quarantine for vary my lengt lis of t ime 
until ail necessary fm ea u( ions have been 
taken. In (he (billed Slab's, besides (he nalion 
al there are Slab- reyiila;inns ior qtiaram ine. 


Quasi 


stnadion. m.iinb nance, and repair of buildings 
vonnei ted with : be Arni\ ; storage and issue of 
Siif)?)!ies; opt radon of utilities; Iranspm (alien 
ni ! j u ‘ ^ m l v hy hind and water; and an h other 
duties as I lie Secretary of War may' prescribe. 

Quarterstallb a strong iron Upped pole 
about eight feet long and an iiu.h and a lull' 


Tl . . . s , ; 1 ... . 1,(1 ‘"nil ;uii i an null and a ha f 

1 he health ollin-rs ol Il,e ;.oris n, 'in-seaboard j in diaim-lci, Orio.Hy much used ns n weapun 
cities aie endowed with broad ]lowers by lbe;bv Unglish [ir.isants 
State, and have nearly absolute control of in¬ 
coming vessels and ol Uieir passengers, 

Quarry and Quarrying, the removal of 
stone from its natural environment. When the 
material is to be employed in building. it is'with ilaydi 
usually ait. from the ruck as near its required | .\hmrf am 


Quartet, a piece ni music arranged for four 
mlo voices or instruments, no one of which 
’an be omitted without destroying the proper 
‘ l!iVf ut i Me composition. They originated 
and were further developed by 
tohibiy hv Meet hoven, who per- 


size a,s possible. When the stone is required i leeted the art of part wrbin 
or roa< m,.al or for tin- limekiln, I Qu.uUer Latin, nr Latin Quarter thc 

and h astcxpens!\e ini'biods ma\ he employed. student quarter of Park 


The methods used are by hand tools, by ex¬ 
plosives, and by channeling and wedging. The 
explosive' lormerly used was gunpowder; but 
now some mixture' containing guncotton or 
nitroglycerine is much in favor. Before the 
blocks leave the quarry they are nrnghiv 
dressed to the required sizes. See Mf>a.\s;; 
IWildini; Stoxk; Marui.k. 

Quart, a measure of capacity, used in Great 
Britain and the United Stab's. The U. S, 
liquid quart, the fourth part of a gallon, con' 
tains 57.750 cubic inches, while the dry quart, 
the thirty-second part of a bushel, contains 
67.2006 cubic inches. See Wmcurrs and 
Measures. 

Quarter Days, days on which, by law or 
custom, rents and other email erly payments 
fall clue. ~ ~ 

Quarter-deck, originally a smaller deck 


Quartz, a mineral compost'd of silica, SiO- 
’.see Sn.icoM, forms the prim ipal ingredient 
ol sandstone, and uceum also in elays, granites, 
porphyries, ami in most other rorlm. besides 
forming veins or re< fs whit h may be ric h in 
yold or other metals. It is very’resistant to 
weal he ring and lienee is usually smooth and 
ydassy in appearance. It occurs both in rrysf - 
ak:Uul H D tin* hardest of the emu 

mou minerals, scratches glass easily, and be™ 
n>m, ‘ s Positively eleef rical by friction. It has 
also the peculiar property of rotating the 
plane of polarized light In a direction parallel 
to the long axes of (he crystals Gee Pnr ari na¬ 
tion of bn hit). 

'Hu* varieties of quartz are numerous, and 
Hair uses varied. Pun* transparent colorless 
quartz, known as Rot k Grvsfal, is ua*d for 
spectacles and prisms, lass pure varieties, 




the mainmast or gangway amidships to the 
poop, 

Quartering, in heraldry. Sec Heraldry, 
Quartermaster, an army olficer whose 
duly is to provide quarters, provisions, storage 

f.. a ..(..e , '' ' 


luo'rion, and citrine; owe quartz; oeu'dental 
emerald and snpplme; occidental catVeye, 
etc. Lamps of fused quartz are especially valu¬ 
able in the therapeutic application of light. 
Quartzite, m quart/ ro< k, is a while,’gray 


Hof h in nr r„ t 1 * 1 * •'.t* bun ? J ^uarmto, or quartz rock, is a whit e grav 

c filing fiu.l, sl.ilioncry and transportal imi I or yellowish rock, composed t.rim nkliv of 

. 


superintend the supplies. In the na\y a qua r 
termusler is a petty officer who assists hi tin 
steering of the ship. 

Quartermaster Corps, a department of 
the U. S. Army, created by a.d of Aug. 
K)J2, by the consolidation of the former Guar* 
temiasterks Ik part meat, Subsistence Depart- 
meat, and Pay Departmmt. Im principal 
duties are the purchase and procurement for 
the Army of all supplies of standard manu¬ 
facture; the handling of all eemeterial matters; 
direction of all work pertaining to the com 


nura. rlilunti-, mm oxidvh, ami otlu-r mim-rals. 
H may I>r riroj;nm«l hy ils rival liardmus- 
Kiiioidli, wliinin;;, iustriuiw wurfatv; rt-wislanco to' 
ami to wealhcring; and Its sharp ^dml 
splmlerv friHiurn. 

Quani Contracts, a term now commonly 
I'lnphiyod to denote a claws of oldiKationw ini- 
postal by law, which arc also Kcmmdly known 
as ‘contracts implied in law.’ They differ from 
true contracts in (hat a line coiilrm 1 is based 
upon consent, either actual or implied, while a 
((tiitsi contract or contract implied in law is 



Quasimodo 


3893 


Quebec 


created or imposed independently of the as¬ 
sent of the party bound. 

Quasimodo, the first Sunday after Easter, 
so called from, the introit Quasi modo geniii in¬ 
fantes ("As new-born babes’). 

Quass, or Kvass, a (hick, muddy rye and 
oats beer made in Russia. 

Quassia, a genus oi 1 Topical American trees 
belonging to 1 lie order Simarubaceie. The 
wood is exceedingly bitter, and was formerly 
much employed in medicine. 

Quaternary, that epoch of the earth’s 
history which follows the Tertiary and em¬ 
braces the Pleistocene, or Glacial, and the 
Recent, or .Postglacial, period. 

Quaternions, a mathematical method in¬ 
vented, by Sir William Rowan Hamilton of 
Dublin. Il is essentially a method of vector 
analysis. (See Ykctou.) There are two dis¬ 
tinct ways of establishing its •principles. It 
may be considered as a system of complex 
numbers, with one ordinary unit and three ex¬ 
traordinaries or imaginaries. But the calculus 
may be established geometrically and dy¬ 
namically on quite a different basis; and it is 
this aspect which gives it value as an instru¬ 
ment of physical research. A systematic de¬ 
velopment of quaternions along either of the 
lines indicated leads to important geometrical 
and dynamical meanings which may be at¬ 
tached to the quaternion symbolism. 

Quatrain, a term usually applied to a poem 
of one stanza of four lines which rhyme alter¬ 
nately, 

Quatre-Bras, village, Brabant province, 
Belgium; 19 m. s.e. of Brussels. It was the 
scene of the British victory over the French on 
June 16, 1S15, at which the Duke of Brunswick 
was slain. 

Quatrefoil, in architecture, an. ornament 
representing a four-leaved or cruciform flower, 
a feature characteristic of the Gothic style. 

Quay, a loading and unloading dock for 
vessels, built of masonry, as distinguished from 
a wharf built of wood, bee Docks. 

Quebec, a province of the Dominion of 
Canada, lying between Ontario and Labrador. 
It; is bounded on the e. by Labrador and the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence; on the s. by New Bruns¬ 
wick, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and 
New York; and on the n. and w. by Hudson 
Strait and Hudson Bay. Quebec includes 
Anticosti Island (2,500 sq. m.), the Bird, and 
the Magdalen Islands, The extreme length of 
the province from n. to s, is about 2,000 m.; 
width, from e. to w., 1,550 m. Area, 504,534 
sq. m. 

The i ■aurentides on the n,, 50 to 60 m. n, of 


Montreal and Quebec, are part of a great an¬ 
cient range that extends continuously from 
Lake Superior to Labrador. This part of the 
province is a high plateau, densely wooded, 
except in the extreme n., and abounds in lakes 
and rivers which form a system of waterways in 
cveiy direction, I. he valley of the St. Law¬ 
rence extends from the city of Quebec, or a little 
below it, to the western boundary of the 
province. It is bounded on the n. by the Laur- 
entian plateau, and on the s. by the Notre 
Dame Mountains, a continuation of the Green 
Mountains of New Hampshire and Vermont. 
A projection of this mountainous .range forms 
the Gaspe peninsula. The St. Lawrence River 
flows the length of the province. It is navig¬ 
able 520 m. to Montreal for ocean vessels of 
1 5,000 tons, making this city the great com¬ 
mercial centre of Canada. The Ottawa River 
f 10111 Lake Iimiskaming is its largest tribu¬ 
tary. The famous Falls of Montmorency, 
near Quebec, are 250 ft. high. The Saguenay 
River, flowing from Lake St. John (area, 360 
sq. 111.), is one of the most remarkable rivers 
in the province. 

^ The .climate is bracing and very healthful. 
Hie winters are rigorous; but the air is dry. 
The soil is generally rich and well adapted to 
the growth of ordinary field crops, fruit, etc. 
This is particularly true of the Valley 
of the St. Lawrence and the Eastern 
Townships. In the latter is found some of the 
best farming and grazing land in the Dominion. 
It is unlikely that the Laurentian region will 
ever maintain a numerous population, as it is 
not adapted to successful agriculture. 

The northern part of Quebec is underlain by 
the Laurentian system, which is composed of 
pre-Cambrian gneisses, schists, granites, crys¬ 
talline dolomites, and various oilier meta- 
morphic and igneous types. This northern re¬ 
gion belongs, to a very ancient continental 
area, perhaps the oldest in the world. Farther 
south the Laurentian region is succeeded by 
sandstones. A large part of the country is 
covered with Pleistocene deposits of the Gla¬ 
cial age... 

Among the more common trees of Quebec 
indigenous in the province are the pine, spruce, 
hemlock, maple, beech, birch, and basswood" 
Moose, caribou, and deer are found in abun¬ 
dance in the thinly settled districts and in the 
backwoods. Along the St. Lawrence are lo¬ 
calities well known as the resorts of wild 
swans, geese and ducks, and sea fowl of many 
varieties; while the forests everywhere con¬ 
tain partridge. The large area of unsettled 
country will provide abundant game for many 



Quebec 


3894 


years to come. The trapper still earns a suf¬ 
ficient livelihood from I he pelfs of even I he 
ordinary fur-bearing animals. 

'The forest area is \asl and Quebec easily 
takes lirsI piare among the pr-winces of the 
Dominion in the number of pulp and paper 
mills and the value of {heir out put. No Ameri 
van region is more famous for its inland lishing. 
ft is the sportsman’s paradise. Trout, salmon, 
bass, pickerel, sturgeon, and whilelish are 
a!>undant. Along the coast are valuable her- 



{)uf'hrr, llinin’ Sports , 


ring, rod, mackerel, and lobster fisheries. Xext 
to its forests, mines, and water powers, the in¬ 
land and sea fisheries of the province rousti ■ 
lute one oi its most important natural re - 
sources. Products of the mine are not so 
numerous or valuable in Quebec as in the 
neighboring province of Ontario. The most 
important of the minerals is asbestos, and the 
production of cement is an important, industry. 

The land in the St. Lawrence Valley and the 
Last era, Townships is excellently adapted to 
the cultivation of wheat, oats, and the usual 
fodder and root imps. The Eastern Town¬ 
ships, in particular* are noted for their agri¬ 
cultural products, and for the quality and 
quantity of their butter and cheese. Apples 


Quebec 

and other fruits an* grown near Montreal and 
in the Eastern Townships. Potato growing is 
an important branch of agriculture, and to¬ 
bacco also is grown in (lie province. French- 
Canadian cattle, the original stork of which 
was imported from France in roeo, closely re¬ 
semble certain breeds slid fomd in \<u'inandy. 
Horses ami sheep are also raised. 

Tin* St, Lawrence Rivei forms a navigable 
highway as far up t be nx er as Mont read. ()t her 
important waterways are the Ottawa and 
Richelieu Rivers, which provide access !o the 
i city' of Oiiewn and l<» Lake Champlain and 
! tin* canals of ,\ev. \ or!. Stale. 'The chief 

I niamibn ! utvcl products of the province are 
1 pulp and paper, elect in light and power, rail- 
! way rolling Hoc k, coMcm, , iears ami c Faivffes, 

, butler and cheese, leady made ( [..tiling, flour. 

; and buo!< and shoes. Mont a! is t he most ini 
:portant niamifa* 1 wring centre. The thief 
! articles exported are wheat and other mains, 

| Iiiniln r, paper, pulp, fixing, anima Is a nd meats, 
i dietse, butler, and milk. 'Hie population of 
j the piwvimr is ,Wi fn/m . Ouch* c , tin- ca.pilaf 
j has a population of g.p,,4, and Aiout n al, I he 
largest city, has S1S,4y•* inhabitants. 'Hr: 
school ggiini of Qm b; c i•; .outndkd b\ a 
Superiuteudent of Education, a.^.Lp d hv a 
eoutK il which isdi\id«d into t wo committees 
J each, under a deputy he,id for I h mn nnwment 
'of Prote>taut and Roman Catholic schools, 
j respect ivd) . Higher edtu atiou is represented 
j by Laval Fnivetsdly at Quebec. Montreal ami 
j M< Dill Unix ersif ies at Mont read, and the 
| University of bishop's College at Lennox- 
> villi'. In religion the lame majority of the 1 
.‘population C Roman C.iihoia. 'The* affairs of 
. the proxime are admiwi-teicd by a lit ulenant 
: governor appointed by the Dominion govern- 
j meat, who is advised by an Executive Council 
-of 11 members re-pouAble to the Legislative 
j Assembly, llie latter is composed of eg) mem* 

| begs, clerical by what is virtually manhood suf• 
frage. 'There* is also an upper house, called the* 

1 Legislative Coiincih nanpe»sed of aq members, 
who are appointed for life by the lieutenant 
; governor in ( Liuk il. 

| The history oi (Quebec from 15g.jp wliem 
Jangles C artier sidles { up tin* St. Lawrence, to 
the* English conquest. in 175c), relates the at¬ 
tempt oi France to # fouml a £hitholir empire: in 
America. In mod Champlain founded the* 
city of Quebec, established trading posts, and 
explores! the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers 
ami the Great Lake region as far as Georgian 
Hay, 'The missionaries sent out by the RccuIIet 
and Jesuit orders, respectively, in 1015 and 
I 1O35 aided heroically in the upbuilding of (he 




Quebec 

colony; but attacks by the Iroquois and the 
grasping monopoly of trade enjoyed by the 
company of the Hundred Associates made 
progress difficult. Montreal was founded by 
Maisomieuve in 1642. The power of the Ro¬ 
man Catholic Church was established firmly 
under Monseigneur de Laval, who arrived at 
Quebec in 1050, and in 1674 became the first 
bishop of Canada. 

The career of the great Frontenac (1672-98) 
infused new life into the colony. The struggle 
bet ween France and England culminated in 
the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759; 


Quebec 

of Prance in the Neiv World; Suite and Fryer’s 
History of Quebec. 

Quebec, city, Canada, capital of the prov¬ 
ince of Quebec, is situated on the left bank of 
the St. Lawrence River, at the mouth of the 
St. Charles River, 173 m. n.e. of Montreal. 
Picturesquely situated in a region of rare 
natural beauty, once the centre of French co¬ 
lonial commerce and civilization, and long a 
leading city in the New World, Quebec is one 
of the most interesting cities in America. Cape 
Diamond, the highest part of its site, reaches 
an elevation of 333 ft. above the river, to which 


3895 



C) Publishers Photo Service. 

Old Fort at Point. Levis , Quebec , on the site of one of General Wolfe’s Batteries. 


and in 1763 Canada was ceded to England by 
the Treaty of Paris. About one fourth of the 
French population of 60,000 in 1763 was con¬ 
tained in Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers. 
By the Quebec Act of 1774 England granted 
an appointive council R govern the province; 
but this stirred up opposition among the small 
English-speaking minority, who wanted repre¬ 
sentative institutions; and the Constitutional 
Act of 1791 divided the province into Lower 
and Upper Canada. During 1841-67 Lower 
and Upper Canada were under a legislative 
union; but this ended in political deadlock on 
account, of racial antagonism. The result was 
confederation in 1867, in which Quebec was 
satisfied by the grant of control of provincial 
affairs. See Canada. 

Bihliography .—Consu 1 1 Park man’s Pioneers 


it presents a precipitous front. The Citadel of 
40 acres, with bastions and parapets, is upon 
the summit, which commands one of the finest 
views in the world. About the citadel-—the 
strongest natural fortress in America—is the 
Upper Town, with the chief residences, public 
buildings,-' churches, gardens, and retail shops. 
The Lower Town, built round the foot of 
Cape Diamond, is the commercial section. 
Warehouses and wharves line the banks of 
both rivers. Outside the walls, which enclose 
the Upper Town, and .behind the latter, are the 
Houses of Parliament and the Plains of Abra¬ 
ham, with a monument to Generals Wolfe and 
Montcalm. Quebec’s crooked streets, its 
battlements, fortresses, castles, monasteries, 
convents, and feudal gates and walls, suggest a 
mediaeval city of Europe, Laval University, 




Quebec . 3896 Queen 

chartered by Queen Victoria and Pope Pius brucho ( Loxa pterygium iornitzii) is a large tree 
ix., is the largest and most influential Catholic forming enormous forests in Brazil and Argen- 
institution of higher education in ('ana,chi, due. its heartwood contains from ao to 25 per 

Quebec is an important port, and is con- cent. of tannin, fl is one 1 of tin* hardest known 
nected by steamship with Kumpcan and ol her woods and its bark contains aspidospermine, 
seaports. All the (avail steamships to and used in as! Inna and enuip. 

from'Montreal call at Quebec; and Ini' largest Queen, the onatal and social title of die 
boats, in order to escape the dangers of riven- wife of a reigning; kin;:, in which case the title 
navigation a,hove Quebec, make this city their may be extended to 'quern consortThe 
terminus. The chief export is lumber, formerly widow of a deceased sovereign is called the 
rafted into coves along the St. Lawrence, but ‘queen dowager’; or if her son is the reigning 
now carried by rail. The city has a. Iso a largo* sovereign, she is the ‘'quern mot her. 5 
foreign trade in grain and cattle. Industrial Queen An nets Bounty, a perpetual fund 
establishments include bout, and shoe factories, established by Queen Anne of Kngkmd to in¬ 
tanneries, machine shops, boiler shops and j crease tin* scanty living,s of the clergy in the 
other steel and iron plants, printing and bind* | poorer Knglish parishes. The bounty is now 
ing plants. The Quebec bridge*, which spans j administered by a board of governors, and the 
the St. Lawrence 7 in. above tin* city, is of j fund amounts to upward of S,t*;.ooo,coo. 
the cantilever type and is notable for ha\ ing Queen Anne’s War 11702 14). In A men- 
the longest span of any bridge yet built i,.8oo can history tI k* name applied to the extension 
ft. The population of Quebec is 140,504. in America of the War of the Spanish Sue- 

The history of Quebec is not surpassed in cession. ()n the morning of March 1, 1704, a 
interest by that of any other city in America, party of breach and Indians under I L-rtel de 
Jacques Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence Ronville altat ked Ik-crl'iekl, Mass, About 90 
in 1535, and found the Indian village of St a da- persons wen* killed, 137 escaped, and 1 1 1 were 
cona. Here, in 1 OoS, Champlain founded a taken prisoners to Canada. In August, 170S, 
settlement, which he named Quebec. The Kng- j an attack was made «>n I In\vrhill. Mass., with 
lish raptured it in j 020, but it was restored to j a similar result. 

France in 1O52. In rooq it became the capital ! Meanwhile counter expedit ions made against 
of the royal province of New France. In the j Fort Royal in 170*4 and 1707 failed. In r/oq 
contest between Kngkmd and France for tin* |an extensive expedition against Cana,da was 
New World, Quebec was the scene of mem* | planned, but tin* t'xpeetial aid from Kngland. 
orable conflicts. After an unsuccessful attempt | was delayed, and the expedition failed. The 
made by Phipps to capture the city in jooo, j next year six British vessels, together with 
and die abortive expedit ion of Walker in 171 t , | thirty from New Kngland, killed with colonial 
the British under Ceneraf Wolfe were victorb ! troops, took I’or! Royal, which was renamed 
OUS (17541 in the battle on the Plains of Abra- j Annapolis. On July 40, 1 71 1, fifteen British 
ham. (See Wolfk; Moxtcalm; Abraham, , vessels and more than forty < olonial vessels 
IIiuihits oF *) j with colonial troops in all about 12,000 

In 17O3, Quebec, with the whole of Canada, ‘ men left Boston. Kighi vessels with a,bout 

was ceded to Kngland bv the Treaty of Paris, ; 1,000 men were lost in the St. Lawrence 

An attempt of the Americans lo take Quebec 1 River (Aug, .so; and in spite of entreaties, the 

ended in disastrous defeat and in the death of, commander. Sir Ib»venrien Walker, turned 
their leader General Montgomery, on Dec. 51, ; back, nece.Mtaling die retreat of the expedi- 
1775. Benedict Arnold bore a prominent, part j dou which was proceeding from New York, 
in this expedition. > I he War ol the Spanish Succesdon was 

Quebec Act, an act of the British Parka - ; ended by the Treaty of Utieeht, in r/rg; hut 
ment (1774.1 providing for the government of die border warfare continued nearly a year 
Lower Canada, which had been ceded by longer. By dm treaty the French gave up 
France as a result of the French and Indian | Acadia, the country around Hudson Bay, and 
War, fn order to prevent the inhabitants all churns to Newfoundland, though reserving 
from joining the Thirteen Colonies in their do the right to land for drying fish. Cape Breton" 
rounds for independence, the boundaries of the j was retained. 

province were extended to include all land n. Queen Charlotte f«fnnd% a group of! the 
of the. Ohio and e. of the Mississippi River, coast of British Columbia, Canada. They 
later known as the Northwest Territory, were discovered in 1778 by Captain Cook, and 
Quebracho, the name given to several trues annexed to the British empire in 1787, Timber 
indigenous to South America. Red Qtte-iis abundant, ami the fisheries are very pro- 



Queen 


3397 


ductive. Little settlement has taken place; p. 
under 700. 

Queen Charlotte Sound, on the western 
coast of British Columbia, Canada, separates 
Vancouver Island from the mainland. 

Queen Conch, the name' in Florida and the 
British West Indies for the large helmet shell 
(Cassis cameo ) which is most used for cutting 
cameos. 

Queen-Consort. In Great Britain the wife 
of the king regnant is in all respects subject 
to the ordinary laws which affect other sub¬ 
jects. 

Queen Fish, a small (ish (Scripkius politus) 
of the drimrfish family {SciankUc), numerous 
along the sandy coast of Southern California, 
and highly esteemed as a food. 

Queen of the Meadow, a populai name for 
Spiraea ulmaria. See Mkauow Swkkt. 

Queens, one of the boroughs of the city of 
New York. It includes the former Long 
Island City and the former towns of Jamaica, 
Flushing, and Newtown, with districts pre¬ 
viously included in the towns of Hempstead, 
Far Kockaway, and Rot kaway Beach. It be¬ 
came a borough on Jan. 1, 1S0S. It. covers an 
area of 117.30 sip m., and has 003 acres of 
public parks. It. is conned cal with Manhattan 
at. Fifty-ninth Street by the Qucensboro 
bridge; p. i,.297,634. See Nkw York City. 

Queensberry, Earls of. The title Karl of 
Queensberry was bestowed in 1-633 by Charles 
1. on Sir William Douglas (cl. 1640) of Drum- 
lanrig, Dumfriesshire, descended from Sir 
William Douglas, a. natural son of James, 
second Karl of Douglas, slain at Ottcrburn. 

Queensberry, John Sholto Douglas, 
Eighth Marquis of (1S44-igooj, Knglish 
sportsman, was an author!I}'' on the prize ring, 
and the author of the ‘Queensberry .Rules 9 of 
boxing. 

Queensbury, or Queenshead, urban dis¬ 
trict and town, West Riding, Yorkshire, .Eng¬ 
land; 4 m. n. of Halifax, it has stone quarries 
and coal mines, and shares in the manufactur¬ 
ing Industrie's of Halifax; p. 6,1.25. 

Queenscliff, watering place, Victoria, 
Australia, at entrance to Port Philip; 32 m. 
s.w. of Melbourne; p. 2,000. 

Quean’s Counsel* See King’s Counsel. 

Queen’s County, inland county, Leinster 
province, Ireland. There are several ancient 
remains. • Agriculture and dairying are the 
chief industries. Area, 664 sq. m.; p. 51,540. 

Queensland, the northeast state of the 
Commonwealth of Australia. Queensland is 
separated into two areas by the Dividing 
Range, which follows the coast line at from 10 


Quercia 

to 300 m. The country between the Dividing 
Range and the coast consists of alluvial areas 
and fertile river valleys. West of the Range the 
country is smooth, rolling downs, covered 
with rich pasture. Queensland is rich in min¬ 
erals. Gold, silver, lead, tin, and copper are 
found in the eastern slopes, and opal in the in¬ 
terior. The climate during the winter months 
is mild, and is likened to that of Madeira; the 
summer months are hot. The average yearly 
rainfall is about 60 inches on the southern 
seaboard. In the tropical regions of the n. the 
rainfall is heavy. The interior plains fatten 
stock; the rich soils of the coast belt grow 
sugar, coffee, and fruits; and on the Darling 
Downs cereals flourish and dairying is success¬ 
ful. The most pronounced vegetable type is 
the eucalyptus, which furnishes excellent hard 
woods. Next in importance to mining comes 
the pastoral industry—wool, frozen meat, 
tallow, butter, hides, and skins. Other indus¬ 
tries include pearl fisheries at Thursday Island, 
fruit and sugar production, distilleries, viti¬ 
culture, tanning, printing, and boat-building. 
The chief cities are Brisbane, the capital, 
Maryborough, Bundaberg, Gladstone, and 
Rockhampton. The administration consists of 
the governor, appointed by the crown, and an 
executive council. There is one House of 
Parliament, the Legislative Assembly, an 
elective body of 72 members. Equal suffrage 
prevails. The coast of Queensland was 
visited by Captain Cook in 1770, but the first 
settlement was a British penal colony in 1825. 
The territory (Moreton Bay District) was 
opened to free settlement in 1842. In 1859 it 
was set off from New South Wales as the 
Queenstown colony, and in 1901, with the 
other colonies, it. formed the new Common¬ 
wealth of Australia; p. 1,016,000. 

Queenston, village, Ontario, Canada; 
6 m. n. of Niagara Falls. The Americans occu¬ 
pied the heights during the night of Oct. 12, 
1812,. but the place was retaken by the British 
the next day. A monument 185 ft. in height 
commemorates the victory .of General Brock, 
the British leader; p. about 200. 

Queenstown, now. Cobb, seaport, Irish 
Free State, in County Cork, on the south side 
of Great Island in Cork Harbor. It is a port of 
call for United States mail steamers; p. 8,ooo. 

Quelpaert, or Tamara, island, s.w, of 
Korea, about 40; m. long, and 10 to 20 m. 
broad; p. about 100,000. 

Quercia, Jacopo della (?I374-I43S) ) Itali- 
an sculptor, was born in Quercia, near Siena, 
lie was one of the first to show that a near 
approach to nature is possible in sculpture. 




Quercitron 3898 Quietism 


His skill is best seen in the chief door of San 
Petronio, Bologna, and the marble ioimlnin in 
the piazza of Siena. 

Quercitron, a, dyestulf obtained from the 
inner bark of the black oak (Qucrcus vein- 
tina). 

Quercus, a genus o! frees and shrubs be¬ 
longing to the order Giipuliicrax See Oak. 

Queretaro, town, Mexico, capital ol the 
State of Queretaro, on an elevated plateau ; 
135 m. n.w. ol Mexico Gii\. It is a quaint 
old city, famous for its opals, (‘niton manu¬ 
facture is the leading industry. Queretam is 
one of the most historic towns of the republic. 
The movement for independence began here, 
and here also Kmperor Maximilian was be¬ 
sieged by Juarez, taken prisoner, and shot in 
1S07 ; p. 30,000. 

Quern, a stone handniill for grinding grain, 
once commonly used in the British Isles, but 
now practically obsolete. The upper stone, 
which has a hole in the centre through which 
the grain is dropped, is made to revolve 1>> 
means of a peg or handle. 



Syrian Quern , as used at- the 
Present Day. 

Quesnay, Francois (1 604-1774 J, Freneh 
physician and economist was born in Mercy. 
The founder of the economic school of the 
physiocrats, his theories are formulated in his 
articles T'crmiers' and ‘drains* in GideroPs 
Encyclopedic ('1756-7) and in Tableau Am 
nomique (175.3). 

Quetelcfc, Lambert Adolphe Jacques 

(1 */<)(>• 1.374), Belgian statistician and aMrono 
mer, was bom in Ghent. In 1'<,■(> he wn> ap 
pointed to superintend the erection of the 
Brussels Observatory, which was roust meted 
according to his plans and of which he became 
director. He is, however, best known as a 
statistician. 

Quetta, locally known as Shalkot, chief 
town of Quetta district, British Baluchistan: 
20 m. n.w. of Bolan Pass. It is over 5,000 ft. 
above sea Bevel, strongly fortified, and is the 
headquarters of the British residents of Balu¬ 
chistan ; p. 23,000. 


Quetzalcoatl, a god ol the ancient Mexi¬ 
cans, worshipped, especially at Gholula, as the 
god of the air and rain. 

Quevedo y Villegas, Francisco Gomez 
( 1580- 1 ( 3 45 ), Spanish poet and satirist, was 
born in Madrid. His picturesque talt 1 , El 
Euseon f and his fantastic philosophical essays, 
('ailed Las Visiones, art* classics known 
throughout the world. 

Quezal U'harunuicnts ni(>einno), a beauti¬ 
ful bird, member of the trogon l’amily, native 
to Guatemala. Its gorgeous plumes were* for¬ 
merly a prerogative of the chiefs, and it now 
serves as tin* national symbol of Guatemala. 

Quezaltenango, town. (Vntral America, 
in Guatemala ; 75 m. n.w. of Guatemala Gitv. 
An earthcjuake in mo.’ practically mim'd the 
city and destroyed many hue coffee planta¬ 
tions ; p. 30,125. 

Quezon, Manuel Luis (1.378-1044), Fil¬ 
ipino lawyer and political leader; a revolu¬ 
tionist under Aguinaldo, he was resident 
commissioner to the Ik S., mop m 1 !<* later 
became president ni the Philippine senate 
and supporter of the law, my.p providing for 
the so year commonwealth under Ik S. juris¬ 
diction to be followed h\ Philippine hide ■ 
pendenee. Quezon was elected President of the 
commonwcailh in m~w for a six year term. 
He made a dramatic coape from Gorregidor 
after its capture In the Japanese and came to 
the Gutted States May 6, step*. 

Quiche. See Maya-Qulche. 

Quichuas, or Quechuas, a civilized people 
of South America, formerly dominant in Peru, 
where the>' still form tin* great mujorit \ of the 
population. There were six main branches. 
Quirhuan is a highly f>«>ly>yjtt!ictir stock lan¬ 
guage, rich, 'Uimnitis and flexible, with a 
copious oral literature, 

Quicksand, sand wide h is mixed with 
water to men an extent that it forms a pulpy 
mass, unable to support the weight ot men or 
animals. It is Usually very tine, and is mixed 
with clay or calcium carbonate, which enables 
i! to retain moisture. 

Quicksilver. Set* Mercury. 

Quidor, John (1800-81), America,11 figure 
painter, was born in (Horn ester o>., X. J. 
Four of hi- large paintings, illustrating the 
Knickerbocker History of AVw York by Wash¬ 
ington Irving whose friend he was, are now in 
the art gallery of tlie Brooklyn Museum. 

Quids, in Untied States history, a title 
applied, 1805-sn, to a small faction of the Re¬ 
publican party hostile to Jefferson and Madi¬ 
son. 

Quietism, a form of mysticism which finds 




Quills 


3899 


Quinoline 


the essence oi religion in the quiet, passive 
contemplation of the Divine, The name 
Quietism seems to have been first applied to 
the tenets of the Spaniard, Molinas, whose 
Spiritual Guide influenced Francois de la 
C'ombc, the instructor of Madame Guyon, 
whoso quietisfic views gained many adherents 
in Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont. The 
Quietists were orthodox Catholics but felt no 
need for the mediation of the church after 
they had attained a perfect communion with 
God. 

Quills, in popular language, the large 
feathers from the wings of birds that were 
formerly cut into writing-pens. Strictly speak¬ 
ing, the quill is the lower hollow portion of 
such large feathers, 

Quimper, town, France, capital of the de¬ 
partment of Finistere; 33 m. s.e. of Brest. It 
is a typical Breton fishing town, with a 
Gothic cathedral. The town is famous for its 
[lottery made in Loemaria, a suburb; p. 21,- 
000. 

Quince (Cydonia vulgaris), a fruit, native 
to North Persia and Anatolia, now as widely 
grown as apples, and under like climatic con¬ 
ditions. It is a harsh acid fruit, of little value 
as an edible fruit hut excellent for canning. 

Quincy, dly, Massachusetts, Norfolk co., 
S 1 „ r in. s.e. of Boston. Quincy is one of the 
oldest towns of the State and is filled with ob¬ 
jects of historic interest. The First Congrega¬ 
tional Church is the resting place of the re¬ 
mains of John Adams and John Quincy Ad¬ 
ams, natives of Quincy, at that time included 
in Braintree. The house in which the former 
was born, built in 1681, is still standing, as 
well as the birthplace of the latter, erected 
in i 761 . A bronze tablet on Adams Academy 
marks the site of the house in which John 
Hancock was born. The industries include 
the ({Harrying and manufacturing of the 
famous Quincy granite, and ship-building at 
the Fore River Yards, 

The first settlement here was made in 1625. 
The place was known as Mount Wollaston, 
but formed part of Braintree, until incorp¬ 
orated as a town in 1792. It was named for 
Colonel John Quincy. It was the scene, in its 
early days, of the merrymaking and other 
activities of Thomas Morton, which gave 
such scandal to the people of the Massachu¬ 
setts Bay and Plymouth colonies; p. 75,810. 

Quincy, Edmund (1808-77), American 
author, a son of Josiah Quincy (1772-1864). 
He became an ardent abolitionist. Among his 
works are Wensley, a Story without a Moral 
(1854); Life of Jonah Quincy (1867). 


Quincy, Josiah (1744-75), American law¬ 
yer and patriot. He is remembered for having 
defended, with John Adams (1770), the 
British soldiers implicated in the Boston Mas¬ 
sacre. Both as an orator and as a writer, his 
influence upon his times was great. His 
Reports of the Supreme Court of Massachu¬ 
setts Bay was edited by S. M. Quincy (1865), 
and there is a Memoir by his son, Josiah (2d 
ed. 1875). 

Quincy, Josiah (1772-1864), American 
lawyer and orator, son of Josiah Quincy 
(1744-75). He was elected as a Federalist 
to the Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh and Twelfth 
sessions of Congress (1806-13). He was a 
member of the State senate, and State house 
of representatives. He was a delegate to the 
Constitutional Convention of 1820, and he 
was mayor of Boston in 1823-29, and presi¬ 
dent of Harvard College in 1829-45. He pub¬ 
lished a Memoir of Josiah Quincy, of Mass¬ 
achusetts (1825-1875), History of Harvard 
University (2 vols. 1870), Life of John Quincy 
Adams (1858), eD There is a Life (1867) by 
his son, Edmund 

Quinet, Edgar (1803-75), French man of 
letters. Among his principal works are Prom - 
ethee (1838), Les Esclaves (1853), and Mer¬ 
lin VEnchanteur (i860), poems; Les Revolu¬ 
tions d’llalie (1848-52) and La Revolution 
(1865), both historical works; and La Genie 
des Religions (1S42) and La Creation (1870). 
His CEuvres Completes appeared in 28 vols. 
in 1877-9. Consult Heath’s Edgar Quinet, his 
Early Life and Writings, 

Quinine, Ci-otla.iNnOa-hjH^O, an alkaloid 
extracted from cinchona bark, with the other 
alkaloids present, by treating a mixture of the 
powdered bark and lime with a solvent, such 
as alcohol or light petroleum. After purifica¬ 
tion by solution in weak acids and precipita¬ 
tion, the quinine is separated by conversion 
into sulphate and by crystallization, and forms 
silky, needle-like crystals with an intensely 
hitter taste. Quinine is used chiefly in malaria, 
acting upon the malarial parasites as a proto¬ 
plasmic poison' (see Malaria) . 

Quinnat ( Oncorhynchus tschawytscha ), 
the most valuable of the salmon of the Pa¬ 
cific Coast. It is the principal species of the 
Columbia and Sacramento Rivers. 

Qwmoa, a plant ( Chenopodium quinoa) 
cultivated in Peru and Chile for its edible 
seeds, which are roasted like coffee, and used 
in the preparation of a decoction known as 
carapulque. 

Quinoline,- Leukol, .or -Leukoline t 

1 C9H7N, a basic compound of double ring 




Quinone 3900 • Quoits 


structure, like* naj(hi hmcnc, i)iiI uhb one of 
the Cl I groups in the ,/ posit ion replaced b\ 
a nitrogen atom. It forms sails, and is t In* 
parent substance of a number ol dyed lift'-, it 
is also used in medicine, ha\ i nu antiseptic and 
antipyretic pmpi rt it 

Qumone, .(fdi iO s a diketone, derived 
from benzene by replacement of the two 
hydrogen atoms in ibe fmra puritimi by oxy¬ 
gen atoms, it is soluble in water, and when 
reduced forms in droc juinone, a compound 
much used as a photographic developer. 

Quinquagesima, the Sunday immediate!}' 
before the first Sunda\ in Lent. 

Qumquereme, an ancient type of ship-of- 
war, introduced In- Dinrnsius of S\racism 
about 400 mo. Tbe\ were propelled by iive 
banks of oars on each side. 

Quinsy or Peritonsillar Abscess. See 
Tonsils. 

Quintain, a mark or figure for tilting at 
with lances or poles. The pastime, common in 
the middle ages, was continued till the iXLh 
century as a wedding sport. 

Quintal, a French wight, generally of 
100 lbs., corresponding in it.- uses to the hun¬ 
dredweight of (I real Britain. 

Quintana, Manuel Jose (177 n -1S 5 7), 
Spanish man of letters. His best-known 
poems are Oda a Lad ill ti, El Laulrou dal 
Esrorial , La Invcnridn dr la /atprrula , and a, 
patriotic poem railing his countrymen to 
arms. 

Quintet, a species of mwshai t nmpn>ition 
in five parts. Indmmental quintet- ma\ he 
written for one particular claw of instrument 
or for a combination of various, kind.-. 

Quintilian (40-r. soot, ultow‘ full name , 
was Marcus Fabiu; Quintihami;-, went to 
Rome before 50 ,\.n. He gained diriim lion 
there, as a teacher of rhetoric, and was the 
first public instructor {add by the state. 
Among his pupils was Pliny the You user. . 
His chief work, still extant, was a complete ' 
treatise on rhetoric in twelve books, entitled; 
I)e Instil ulhmr Oral aria lihri ni, } or simply I 
Institutions OrutnriiV. 

Quintuplets, five children hern a! tic* i 
same time. Twin births occur once in about » 
88 births, triplet births once in about 7,700 
births, quadruplet birth- once in about Towm 
000 births. It would be expected, by flelUnb 
Law, that quintnpkt births would occur once 
in 500,000,000 births, or practically once in a 
generation. Actual occurrences are more fre- ’ 
queni, yet, until 1054 no case has been re- | 
ported where the children have lived. In that ‘ 
year, in Callender, Ontario, were born the ; 


| Dionne qHibitiipiet-, all airb. Their combined 
weight wars Icm-. tli.au .14 pound.- at birth. I)r. 
A. i\. I tabus t he heal pin, dcian, was in at - 
temlance. The Ontario government and (fu~ 
nadian Rti! Oro-,- Social\ acted a> guardians 
of t he (j,.di it up lets and eret led a ho.-pilal espe¬ 
cial!} tor thun, Late’*, the babkv were made 
ward. 1 - ni the kin a io, ;o i ol the provincial 
Leeiriaimv and hum - of a Roman Oathoiic 
order tnor. the nlaee.. o! tin Red (Vos- nurses. 
It was edimated that .(50,000 persons visited 
the 1 Dtoe Xurser\ in the i-ummer of 1046. 
From an <»b-creation eailer>. vbihug were 
aide to see and hear the shildieii without be¬ 
ing -een or heard 1 iv them. On Ma\ eS, myT 
their second birlitda}. a mini; u< enieut was 
made I hat a nn >t ion j m hue t out ract bad been 
•belief! that pro\ided !*o>v-.ssu in ea-h tor the 
eiuidivn. 1 turn m addition to other money re- 
1 e; eed. ukuIc tlieir earnings $750,000 bv the 
tun,' ;be\ were six sear.- old, ’I lie running 
f ' u -t - the Xur-ery, amounting; to about 
o ’0,500 a }ear, were {raid out ol the quintup¬ 
le!.- . .4mines'-. In nqi Dr. Datoe icported 
that die children wen* about per cent 

.learner toau the awram • luld ol thiir age. 

Qmirxnws. See Romulus. 

Quisling, Vidkun Abraham Lauritz 
(u'S.U; iogw. Nigv.o'iau man r, bead of the 
Norwegian Xa/i part}. Dn ( Arman invasion 
of Xorutty t April, m jo ) be accepted chief 
plaee in the Nazi ,-pnnsored government. 
‘Quidimd lias route to stand for traitor. At 
the close ol World War 11 he was put on 
trial in Xeiway and intulemued to die as a 
traitor, Sept, to, 1045. 

Quito, capital of Renadui , and of the: 
province ol 1'ieliiiu ha. South Ameriea, in an 
cm Inset 1 ba.-in <0 the Ande- near the oquotor. 
It ha> an elevation of 0,>50 tt, above sea 
level, with strikingh picturesque and im- 
presrive views, including some of the highest 
peaks of I he Andes. 

Quit-rent, hi Knglancl it was formerly the 
custom in n-erw a nominal rent upon mak¬ 
ing an otherwise absolute grant of land, as a 
sort of recognition of feudal tenure by the 
grantee, 'Fids was known as a quit'rent. The 
term D sometimes used in the Doited States, 
not In consideration of release of feudal serv¬ 
ices, but as pari eonbderation for t!u* property, 

Quoim, wrought stone blocks at the cor¬ 
ners of buildings, from which the}* may pro¬ 
ject slightly, with cither splayed, curved, or 
sharp edges. 

Qubits, a popular British game. The quoit 
Is a direct descendant of the Latin diseus t a 
ring of iron or stone, from 10 to 12 inches in 





Quorum 

diameter, ami thrown as an exercise of strength 
or skill. Deck quoits, for use on shipboard, 
are made from rounds of rope. 

Quorum. In mediaeval times in England a 
commission granted to the justices of the peace 
of a county ran to the effect that any two of 
the justices might try offences, one of whom 
{quorum) must be selected from certain named 
justices. By an extension of its use the term 
came to be applied to any number of persons, 
or any particular persons, whose presence at a 


Q- V. 

meeting is necessary to validate its pro¬ 
ceedings. 

Quo Warranto (LaL By wliat authority). 
A legal proceeding instituted to determine 
judicially the right of a claimant to ail office or 
franchise. This proceeding is in theory insti¬ 
tuted for the benefit of the public, but inci¬ 
dentally may help individuals. It lies where 
one unlawfully usurps an office or franchise, or 
forfeits it by non-user or bad conduct. 

Q. V. (quod vide), ‘which seed 


3901 




R 


R 


Raccoon 


R* The sound r includes a number of varie¬ 
ties which are formed in several different 
ways. It is got by trilling the top of the 
tongue, the soft palate, and other parts. In 
ordinary present day English usage r is not 
given a pronounced trill, but the older Eng¬ 
lish lingual trill is widely used— e.g., by 
Welshmen and Scotsmen. Parisian r is uvu¬ 
lar, and may be regarded as the standard 
French r; the same sound is gaining ground 
in Germany also. Generally in the United 
States and English-speaking Canada, r is 
fully sounded regardless of the position of its 
occurrence in a word. The custom of r silent 
when following a vowel, once so noticeable 
in New England and parts of the South, is 
gradually falling from use. 

Voiceless r occurs in French at the end of 
words like quatre , and in Welsh in the com¬ 
bination rh (e.g. ‘rhos’). Greek p is the early 
Semitic form, but with the loop transferred 
from the left to the right. The additional 
stroke of Latin R is found in some of the 
Greek alphabets also, r is one of many rever¬ 
sions towards Greek p. 

Rabat, fort, seapt., Morocco, on w. coast, 
opposite Saiee. Carpets and pottery are 
manufactured; wool, skins, beans, olive oil, 
and wax are the principal exports; p. 38,000. 

Rabbet, or Rebate, a rectangular groove 
along the edge of a board. See Carpentry. 

Rabbi (‘my master’), a Jewish title for 
teachers, which came into use in the first 
Christian century. The qualification for the 
office varied at different periods. It is now 
the popular designation for a Jewish min¬ 
ister. 

Rabbit. In the United States and Canada 
the name rabbit is given to any hare, and 
especially in the East to the common little 
gray wood hare (see Hare) . Properly, how¬ 
ever, it should be restricted to the European 
Lepus cuniculus, which differs from its rela¬ 
tives, the hares, in being a burrower, and in 
having its young born blind, naked and 
helpless. They are enormously prolific, and 
are excessively destructive when they obtain 
access to gardens. The rabbit is about 16 


in. in length. The color is naturally reddish 
brown, the under surface and the lower part 
of the tail being white, but domesticated 
rabbits exhibit wide color variation. Not 
only the flesh but the fur has a market value, 
as material for making felts and under the 
French word for rabbit, lapin, is very popu¬ 
lar for coats. The fur reaches its greatest 
length and fineness in the Angoras. Other 
important breeds are the Belgian rabbits, the 
chinchillas, and the white Himalayan breed. 

Rabbit-fish, a voracious, dark-brown sea 
fish (Promethichthys promethus) of the trop¬ 
ical part of the Atlantic ocean, allied to the 
mackerels, and excellent as food. 

Rabelais, Francois ( ?i483-iS53) , French 
humorist, was born at Chinon in Touraine, 
the year being variously given as 1483, 1490, 
and 1495. He took on the habit of a monk, 
and in 1519 held some position in the Fran¬ 
ciscan convent, but he later abjured the mon¬ 
astic life, and entered the faculty of medi¬ 
cine at Montpellier. In 1532 appeared The 
Great and Inestimable Chronicles of the 
Grand and Enormous Giant Gargantma , 
concerning whose attribution to Rabelais 
critics are not agreed. The earliest dated edi¬ 
tion of Pantagruel which we possess is of the 
year 1533, and of Gargantua 1535. In 1546 
he published the third book of Pantagruel. 
The fourth book of his great work appeared 
in 1552, but it was censured by the Sor- 
bonne, and for a time its sale was stopped. 
Next year Rabelais removed to Paris, where 
he is supposed to have died shortly after his 
arrival. In 1564 the fifth book was published, 
the authenticity of which is pretty generally 
acknowledged. A genius who interprets con¬ 
temporary life in the form of satire, beneath 
his exterior of burlesque and buffoonery Ra- 
belais possesses the profoundest learning and 
the boldest philosophy. Of the numerous 
French editions of his works the best in mod¬ 
ern times is that by C. Marty Laveaux (6 
vols., 1868-1903). 

Raccoon, a genus (Procyon) of small Am¬ 
erican carnivores which resemble the bears 
in structure and descent. The common rac- 




Photos by A cwman, Berkhamstead. 

Show Breeds of Rabbits . 

Upper Left, Blue Dutch; Upper Right, Blue Angora; Center, Dutch-Marked Angora; 
Lower Left, English Rabbit; Lower Right, Flemish Giant. 

zle, and furnished with small and rounded Newfoundland. It has a lighthouse whose 
ears. The head and body together measure light, 180 feet above the sea, is a beacon for 
from 22 to 26 in., the tail, which is ringed vessels on the North Atlantic route, 
with black and white, being about ten ins. Raceme, an inflorescence in which the 



Raccoon . 


long. I he body color is brownish. The fur flowers are borne on pedicels of equal length 
is long:, soft, and thick, and the pelt has com- along a central rachis, usually elongated. 

merdal value. Raccoons are diligently trap- Racemic Acid, COOH (CHOH) a COOH. 
pedin many parts of the country for the sake is that mixture of levo- and dcxtro-tartaric 














Racket 

zdcL that suniclinics occurs naturally along 
with the ordinal'} (dextro; form of tartaric 
acid, and also results when tartaric acid is ob¬ 
tained synthetically. See Tartaric Acid. 

Rachel, tv if e of the patriarch Jacob, was a 
daughter of Laban, who demanded of Jacob 
Wurtceii years service for her. She was the 
mother of Joseph and Benjamin. See Jacob. 

Rachel, Elisa (1821-58), French actress, 
was born of Jewish parents, named Felix, in 
Switzerland. In 1857 she appeared at the 
Gymnase in La Vendeenne, and next year be¬ 
gan her career at the Frangais as Camille in 
Corneille’s tragedy of Horace. Supreme in the 
classical dramas of Corneille, Racine and Vol¬ 
taire, she excelled by dint of will, intellect, 
facial expression, and beauty of tone. Her 
two greatest parts were Pheclre (1S43) and 
Adrienne Lecouvreur (1849) • 

Rachmaninov, Sergei Vasilyevitch 
( lS 73-i943), Russian composer and pianist. 
After years devoted to composition and to 
teaching in a school in Moscow, he was con¬ 
ductor of the Moscow Private Opera (1897- 
99) and of the Moscow Imperial Theatre 
(1904-06). He subsequently played and con¬ 
ducted in other European cities and in Amer¬ 
ica. In addition to Alcko, he composed the 
■ °P eras The Niggardly Knight and Francesca 
da Rimini; three symphonies; four piano¬ 
forte concertos and numerous other pieces. 

Racine, city, Wisconsin, county seat of 
Racine co., on Lake Michigan, 22 m. s.e. of 
Milwaukee; p. 67,195. 

Racine, lean (1639-99), French drama¬ 
tist. In Paris he made the acquaintance of La 
Fontaine, Moliere,.and Boileau, the four 
writers forming what is known as the ‘quar¬ 
tette of the Rue de la Colombier,’ which 
proved so influential in French letters. Mean¬ 
time his Odes to the king—in particular La 
Renomee aux Muses —had attracted the mon¬ 
arch s attention, and a pension was assigned 
him (1664). The first result of Racine’s con¬ 
nection with Moliere was the production of 
La Thebdide by the latter in June, 1664. Ra¬ 
cine’s second acted play, Alexander the Great, 
was produced by Moliere’s company in De¬ 
cember, 1665. During the next thirteen years ■ 
Racine produced his greatest work. His plays 
followed in this order: Andromaque (1667) - 
Les Plaideurs (1668), a delightful little com¬ 
edy of satire against lawyers, which Moliere 
was the first to appreciate; Britannicus 
(1669), which Voltaire styled ‘la piece des 
connaisseurs’; Berenice (1670); Bajazet 
(1672); Mithndate (1673); Iphigenie 
(1675), a masterpiece of pathos; and Phedre 


Radcliffe 

(1677), marvelous representation of a. human 
agony. In 1689 he wrote Esther, in answer to 
a request from Madame de Maintenon for a 
play suitable for her girls at Saint-Cyr. 
Athalie followed in 1691. 

Racing. See Yacht, Track and Field 
Athletics, Rowing, ^ Horseracing. 

Rack, an instrument of torture, consisting 
of a frame on which the victim was strapped, 
while his limbs were extended by a windlass 
at each end until his joints were dislocated, 
or lie succumbed from the pain. 

Rackets, or Racquets, a wall game, 
somewhat similar to Fives, except that it is 
played with a racquet and not with the 
gloved hand. The game is played with a 
racket similar to a tennis racket but with a 
longer handle, and a hard ball. 

•Rackham, Arthur (1867-1939), British 
illustrator and water color artist, was born in 
London. 

Radar (abb. of Radio detecting and rang¬ 
ing) , a locator using ultra-high frequency 
radio waves. Called the greatest secret 
weapon of W. W. II, it was announced in 
1943, although it had been in use since 1940- 
41, when it won the Battle of Britain. Radar 
sends out short radio waves (they travel 
186,000 m. a sec.), which search the air for 
many miles up and around, through fog, 
smoke, rain, or snow. When the waves strike 
a ship or airplane they bounce back and flash 
their findings on the radar plotting board. 
They tell altitude, speed, and course of ap¬ 
proaching ship or plane, thus making it pos¬ 
sible to bomb successfully unseen targets as 
well as warning of an enemy’s approach. Ra¬ 
dar was discovered in 1922 by the Am. scien¬ 
tists Dr. A. Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Young. 
Gen. Electric and Bell Telephone scientists 
assisted in its development, and much basic 
research was done by the Bureau of Stand¬ 
ards’ radio division. In Br. the radio locator, 
as the Br. call it, was developed in 1935, and 
within two years was in day-and-night secret 
production. Radar warned of the approach of 
Jap planes at Pearl Harbor, but was disre¬ 
garded. The Radiation Laboratory at Mass. 
Inst, of Tech, became world’s center of 
knowledge in radar during W. W. II; 900 
scientists and 9000 workmen worked there in 
secrecy for five yrs. Among other uses of 
radar developed was the Loran long-range 
navigation system to replace the stars as 
navigational aids. 

Radcliffe, Mrs. Ann (1764-1823), English 
novelist, was born in London. The Romance 
of the Forest (1791) established her position, 


3904 




ftacfclfffe 3905 Radiant 


which \va> enhanced by hi r higheH achitwe- 
nu*nt, The M y si cries of (ffol />//<> {1794). 
Those \uu*k>, evincing command of 1 brilling 
narrative and ran* de:*cri|*tive power, proved 
her vigormm uriginaiily and her sense of 
natural beauty. Her lad romance, 77 /e Ital¬ 
ian, with its strong character Sehedom, ap¬ 
peared in 1797- 

Radcliflfe College,, an infl itutioii of higher 
education for women in Cambridge, Mass., 
est ablished b\ the Sot iet \ lor the (\dlegiate 
Instruction of Women in i870, its present 
title beim: ae'Mirril in 1804 in recognition of 
the gifts oS Anne RadeliUe to Harvard I’ni- 
versity. The college Hand- in intimate rela¬ 
tions with Harvard, all oi its faculty being 
Harvard Sndrmtnm, while its requirements 
and courses are. with slight exceptions, iden¬ 
tical with those of Harvard, and Radcliffe 
students arc admitted to many graduate 
courses in the university. Ada Louise Com¬ 
stock has been the president since 19 jq. 

RadcgundU.s, Saint (510-87 ), the patron 
saint of Poitiers, France. She became the 
wife of Clotaire. king of the district, but 
when her husband murdered her broth¬ 
er she tied to a monastery in Noyon. fader 
she founded a monastery at Poitiers where 
she served as a sister. 

Radetzky, Johann Joseph, Count {1766- 
18381, Austrian field marshal, was bora in 
Trzebnitz Castle near Tabor in bohemia. He 
was mainly n*-.ponsiI)le for the victory of 
Kuhn against Napoleon in 1814, and for that 
at Leipzig. It was. the Italian insurrection 
of 1838, however, which gave him his chief 
prominence, when he crushed the Sardinian 
forces and captured Milan ami Venice, and 
thoroughly subjugated I lie whole of northern 
Italy. 

Radial Artery, the artery beginning just 
below the bend of the elbow on the 11 ex or 
or palm side of the forearm, forming with 
the ulnar artery the bifurcation of the brach¬ 
ial artery. 'Die radial passes down the 
front of the arm, on the thumb or radial 
side, to the wrist, where it lies superficially 
on the bone, and therefore is conveniently lo¬ 
cated for examination of the pulse. It, then 
winds to the back of the wrist, forward 
again between the* metacarpal bones into the 
palm of the ham!, which it crosses, and 
joins a branch of the ulnar to form the 
deep palmar arch. See Circulation of the 
Blood* 

Radiant, a point in the sky from which 
meteors belonging t** the same system ap¬ 


pear to diverge as they shoot across ’ the 
sphere. It is really the perspective vanishing- 
point of their parallel tracks, and its posi¬ 
tion depends upon the direction from which 
they encounter the earth. It is hence the 
most essential element for the calculation of 
meteoric orbits. 

Radiant Energy and Radiation. The 
transmission of light outward from a lumin¬ 
ous source is the most familiar of all recog¬ 
nized forms of radiant energy. We seem to 
see the rays or paths along which the energy 
passes, but we do so in virtue of the dust 
particles floating about in the air, which 
scatter and reflect in all directions part of 
the energy falling upon them. The energy 
is, strictly speaking, passed on in the form 
of wave-motion, the crests and troughs being 
perpendicular to the direction of the ray. An¬ 
other familiar form of radiant energy is 
sound, though that does not at first appeal 
to us as characteristically radiant. Inasmuch,, 
however, as sound Is transmitted outward 
from a centre of disturbance as wave-motion, 
it is fundamentally as radiant as light. Never¬ 
theless it is usual in physics to limit the 
term radiant energy to those kinds of radia¬ 
tion which are transmitted through the 
ether. These consist, in addition to light, or 
luminous radiations, of infra-red, or so-called 
heat rays; ultra-violet, or so-called actinic 
rays; X-rays and the so-called gamma rays 
of radium, both of which are merely very 
high frequency ether radiations; and or¬ 
dinary electromagnetic waves of the kind 
used ' in wireless telegraphy or telephony, 
which are merely very low frequency' ether 
radiations. 

By studying the spectrum of the glowing 
carbon of an electric arc light, we can dem¬ 
onstrate the existence of the first three of 
these types of radiation, which differ among 
themselves only in having different wave 
lengths and refrangibilities. The luminous 
spect rum is plainly visible, showing alb the 
colors from red to violet. Again, below the 
red, with longer wave-lengths, lie the so- 
called dark heat or infra-red rays. The infra¬ 
red rays are not, in a strict sense, any more 
heat rays than are all the other ether radia¬ 
tions. They merely produce larger heating 
effects upon absorption in matter than do 
most of the other radiations mentioned. They 
differ from visible light rays only in their 
longer wave-length. It is obvious that the 
rate at which a radiating substance loses 
energy by radiation depends in some way 



Radical 


3906 


Radio 


upon the temperature of the body. Both 
theoretical and experimental investigations 
have shown that through a great range of 
temperature a given rough or black surface 
will emit radiant energy at a rate propor¬ 
tional to the fourth power of the absolute 
temperature. For the more practical aspects 
of electrical radiations, see Electromagnetic 
Waves. 

Radical, a term applied to a person, party, 
or movement advocating extreme measures 
directed towards political reform. In Great 
Britain the Radicals counted among their 
numbers such notables as James Mill, Joseph 
Hume, Bentham, Grote, Ricardo, John Stuart 
Mill, Thomas Paine, Bright, and Chamber¬ 
lain. There has never been an organized 
Radical Party in the United States. 

Radicals, or Radicles, or Residues, are 
unsaturated groups of atoms that pass un¬ 
changed from compound to compound. Like 
simple elements they have no separate ex¬ 
istence. The instant of their liberation they 
become saturated compounds in either pair¬ 
ing among themselves, or uniting with other 
elements. Radicals are derived by removing 
one or more atoms from certain saturated 
compounds. For example, the —OH (hy¬ 
droxyl) radical is theoretically derived by 
removing one hydrogen atom from water 
(HOH). 

Radio. This term is decidedly general 
although there is a tendency in some locali¬ 
ties to use the word ‘radio* as meaning spe¬ 
cifically a radio receiver. ‘Radio* covers the 
entire field known as ‘wireless,’ which word 
signifies all forms of communication of au¬ 
dible and visible effects by means of electro¬ 
static-electromagnetic waves. This article 
merely classifies the fields of major import¬ 
ance as to present-day use. It does not 
consider the technical theory nor the details 
of any equipment involved. For specific in¬ 
formation covering the principles of opera¬ 
tion and description of the apparatus refer 
to articles on Wireless Telephony and 
Wireless Telegraphy. 

In a broad sense the source or the appara¬ 
tus responsible for the production of these 
electrostatic-electromagnetic waves is the 
transmitter. Similarly the receiver consists 
of the apparatus which' intercepts these 
waves and is responsible for the reproduction 
of the original audible or visible effects which 
occurred at the transmitter. The ultimate 
effect at the receiver may be converted into 
various indicative, signaling or recording re¬ 


sults. As the electrostatic-electromagnetic 
waves require no medium for their propaga¬ 
tion there is no necessity for any fixed dis¬ 
tance relationship between transmitter and 
receiver. Furthermore a transmitter may 
readily communicate with any number of 
receivers simultaneously irrespective of 
whether any individual receiver is stationary 
or is in motion as on a train, automobile, 
ship, airplane, etc. The entire long distance 
radio communication art dates back to Dec. 
12, 1901, when Marconi in Nova Scotia re¬ 
ceived the first trans-oceanic radio message 
from his station in England. Short wave 
transmission and reception has been devel¬ 
oped highly since its general adoption for 
this work in 1924. Long wave communica¬ 
tion, however, is widely used for long dis¬ 
tance international telegraphy. Frequencies 
in the band from 10,000 to 100,000 cycles 
per second are employed, as this range has 
proven to give the greatest degree of relia¬ 
bility. More power is required than for short 
waves to cover the same distance. 

Radio service reports of weather and me¬ 
teorological advices have been in regular op¬ 
eration for quite some years. Storm warnings, 
time signals, reports on menaces to navi¬ 
gation such as icebergs, derelicts, etc., have 
been of immense value to shipping and have 
also been of benefit over the land. Market 
reports together with timely advice in fields 
such as agriculture are conducted by several 
governments. There are press services for 
the rapid transmission and distribution of 
news. This applies to ships as well as shore 
service. It makes possible the printing of an 
up-to-date newspaper aboard ship, contain¬ 
ing the latest news. Photography, maps, 
charts, etc., have been reproduced over trans¬ 
oceanic distances. It is possible to reprint 
a newspaper at a distant point by photo 
radio. In television, images in motion of the 
objects focused at the transmitter are repro¬ 
duced at the receiver. Sound effects may 
be reproduced simultaneously over the regu¬ 
lar broadcast system working in conjunc¬ 
tion with the television apparatus, but they 
are two separate and distinct transmitters 
and receivers. See Television. 

Radio Circuits and radio apparatus have 
been used extensively for making various 
types of measurements and tests in the in¬ 
dustrial world. Furthermore, tubes and 
speakers developed by the use of radio have 
been commonly adapted to many other pur¬ 
poses. Radio waves have been used in locat- 



Radio 


3907 


Radio 


inti oil and niiiu-ral deposits, in detecting 
flaw." in me!al> and in developing high fever 
in human.". The development of broadcast¬ 
ing ha." nmbabl) been more extensive in the 
t'nited State; than in any other country. 
The fact that over ooo .stations are in oper¬ 
ation. about half of them simultaneously, 
has made the problem of frequency or wave 
length alignment a difficult one. Another 
interest mg development has been the estab¬ 
lishment o! short -uave stations for the trans¬ 
mission o! broa«h'asting programs to a dis¬ 
tant count ry, primarily for I he purpose of 
re-1 ram-mi11 ing the program over the regu¬ 
lar broadcast, stations of that country. Valu- 


other data that would advise of any danger¬ 
ous condition that might interfere with the 
safety of flying or landing. 

The use of radio broadcast receivers in 
automobiles is quite commonplace, and also 
some taxicabs in the large cities are thus 
equipped. Radio police service is proving 
very valuable in the running down of crime, 
special radio equipped cars receiving informa¬ 
tion from the transmitter at headquarters. 
Since 1935, two-way radio communication 
for police cars has come into general use 
and has increased the efficiency of police 
work. Passengers on air liners may now send 
radio messages while en route. The joint use 



Broadcasting: Auditorium Studio, Radio City . 


able service was first rendered b\ radio com¬ 
munication with ships in distress at sea. 
'There are many instances on record when* 
radio has been responsible for the rescue of 
human life. According to the provisions 
adopted by the International ('(invention for 
the Safety of Life at Sea, all passenger ves¬ 
sels having a tonnage of 5,000 or over must 
now carry radio direct ion finding equipment. 
The successful application of radio to airrrail 
eomnumication involves the solution ot many 
additional problems not encountered in other 
service. One of the most valuable phases 
of this service takes in the radio beacon 
enabling the airplane to approximate its po¬ 
sition and particularly to be able to easily 
ascertain and closely follow the proper 
course. Also of tremendous importance is 
the service of supplying advance knowledge* 
of weather information. This includes any 


of wire telegraph and telephone systems in 
conjunction with radio or wireless systems 
is rapidly becoming more widespread. At 
present there are about 30,000,000 telephones 
throughout the world which afford means 
of communication by the combined use of 
wire and radio telephony. Telephone service 
across the Atlantic Ocean was put on a full 
time or 24 hour basis in September, 1929. 
The service is well established for telephone 
communication between any land telephone 
subscriber and voyagers at sea on several 
large ships. In 1941 there were 52,000,000 
receiving sets in use in the U. S. Also 7,500,- 
000 cars were equipped with radio in 1941 - 
Perfection of short-wave radio and its com¬ 
mercial production at a low retail price has 
brought it into general use. The Federal 
Communications Commission was established 
j in 1934 to regulate radio, succeeding the 



»'j 9 *0S 


Radioactivity 


Radloacts vdly 

reUml A;, win CnminisUa. It also exeiJses 
refillMinn uwr wire telephone? and tele¬ 
graph. The Cumin Mi on is wslcd vain au- 
thoriiv io pr> a u the public ridits on the air. 

chit ruas id any inti actions of the rubs which 
it nromuisiii.es. It issues broadcasting li¬ 
censes and determines the power to be used 
by each broadcasting station. There are a 
number of powerful stations in the United 
States each operating with 50,000 watt 
power. A North American Regional Broad¬ 
casting Agreement was entered into in 1937, 
by the United States, Canada, Mexico, Cuba,! 
Santo Domingo and Haiti, and was ratified! 
by the U. S. Senate in 193S. It provides 
the instrument whereby service may be af¬ 
forded by stations in Abe various countries 
with the minimum of interference from other 
stations.. Without such co-ordination the 
increasing number of stations was progress¬ 
ing toward a chaotic condition in Ameri¬ 
can broadcasting. In Europe, broadcasting 
difficulties were to a considerable extent 
regulated by the Pact of Lucerne, 1933, 
under which 28 countries of Europe, Africa 
and Asia Minor signed rules concerning 
time allotments, frequency 7 and power; but 
these regulations and subsequent improve¬ 
ments became badly disrupted when war 
occurred in Europe in 1939, and naturally 
the war of propaganda on the air inten¬ 
sified, as did efforts by each nation to over¬ 
power and produce interference with its 
enemy’s radio." The voices of leading states¬ 
men, correspondents, and commentators of 
Europe are frequently heard in millions of 
American' homes. 

Radioactivity, the property, possessed by 
certain bodies of, emitting,' spontaneously, 
characteristic rays,. invisible to the eye and 
capable of penetrating substances impene¬ 
trable by ordinary light. Becquerel, in 1S96, 
while investigating various properties of 
phosphorescent bodies, discovered that com¬ 
pounds of uranium, when left in the neigh¬ 
borhood of a photographic plate in a per¬ 
fectly dark room, affected the plate, even 
though it were wrapped in black paper. In 
addition to this photographic action through 
a covering opaque to ordinary light, it was 
found that uranium compounds caused the 
air in their vicinity to become a conductor 
of electricity; so that, for example, a charged 
gold-leaf electroscope placed near a smallj 
quantity of uranium rapidly lost its charge, 
exactly 7 as if the air had been made a con¬ 
ductor by the passage of Rontgen rays. Pro- I 


' lessor and Madame Curie proved, in 1898, 
! that there are only two ordinary, well known 
elements which possess in appreciable degree 
this property of radioactivity, and these two 
are those which have the heaviest atoms, 
namely uranium and radium. The radiations 
from radioactive substances have been called 
Becquerel rays, after their discoverer. They 
consist of three types, which have been 
named the a (alpha), p (beta), and 7 (gam¬ 
ma) rays respectively. 

The p rays, which are in many respects the 
simplest, are rays similar to cathode rays of 
high velocity (see Vacuum Tubes), and con¬ 
sist of negatively charged particles (negative 
‘electrons’) whose mass is 1/ 1845th of that 
of an atom of hydrogen, travelling with stu¬ 
pendous velocities which range from 1/ 10th 
the velocity of light up to very close to that 
velocity, namely 186,000 m. per second. They 
can be deflected by a magnetic or an electro¬ 
static field in a similar manner to the cathode 
rays. The' 7 rays are about a hundred times 
more penetrating than are the (3 rays and are 
not deflected by a magnetic field, however 
strong. They are entirely distinct from the 
p rays, since, instead of being projected 
corpuscles, they are, like Rontgen rays, ether 
radiations of very high frequency, i.e., of very 
short wave length. These ether radiations ac¬ 
company the production of the p rays in 
much the same way that the Rontgen rays 
are formed in a vacuum tube by the sudden 
stoppage of cathode rays by a suitable object. 

The a rays are, however, the most import¬ 
ant, representing, in general, as much as 99 
per cent, of the total energy radiated. They 
consist of projected particles, positively 
charged, of a mass the same as that of the 
helium atom. Indeed, they are the same as 
the nucleus of the helium atom, and become 
neutral helium atoms as soon as their two 
free positive charges (positive electrons) 
have been neutralized by the attachment of 
two negative electrons or p particles. The 
most remarkable feature of radium is the way 
in which it emits energy. Its 7 radiations 
are exceedingly penetrating, one or two milli¬ 
grams of fairly pure radium enclosed in a 
leaden tube with walls J 4 inch in thickness 
discharging quite rapidly a gold-leaf electro¬ 
scope held anywhere near it. Radium prep¬ 
arations are also self-luminous, and possess 
extraordinary power of bringing about 
chemical action: thus, when dissolved or 
suspended in water, they set free oxygen and 
hydrogen; they cause elements to change 
into their allotropic forms—e.g., ordinary to 





3909 


Raeburu. 


Radiometer 

red phosplmni>; they make glass and the ; 
halicies of pola-duin and sodium become 
colored, etc. Thc\ aim ailed photographic 
plains in their nri-ddlorlmcai, and bring ahout ; 
luininrsceruv of ad M a sice-,, sin h a> harium 
platinoe\anide and zinc hlende. Added to 
tliis, their presemi* ha> worked physiological 
eilda'ts, dest m\ ini; tis-nes when the radia¬ 
tions ad upon them ton lone or too intensive¬ 
ly. Fortunately, the radiations also destroy 
disease cells of ecriain t\pes, as well as nor¬ 
mal tissue. 'I’ld' is notably tine ease in ma¬ 
lignant tumors i sr (twin) and in certain 
superficial tumors, as red lupus. Consult 
Millikan’s 77 m AAr/no/ (1017); Soddyfs The 
hitev prclatiau 0} Rdthiou (loco). 

Radiography. Thromdi this process, by 
the use of portable million-volt X-ray equip¬ 
ment, radiographs were being made in fac¬ 
tories daily in m pa These X rays detect 
buried tlaws thromdi eight inches ot steel. 
More powerful equipment is being developed. 

Radiometer, a device invented by Sir Wil¬ 
liam Crookes to exhibit the motion caused 
by the action of light. The instrument con¬ 
sists of a light horizontal vane, formed of 
four metal discs, supported by cross arms at 
right, angles on an easily moving pivot in a. 
highly exhausted glass globe. I lie discs are 
brightly polished, and blackened on alternate 
sides, and when exposed to light rotate round 
the vertical axis at a rate that depends on 
the. brightness of the light. 'This behavior is 
probably dm to the gas let! in the globe un¬ 
der the beating effect of the rays. Thus the 
black sides of the db-es become hotter, so that 
the gas molecules left in the bulb acquire a 
greater velocity when they Ily ntt alter strik¬ 
ing the black side's than the bright. This dil - 
ferenec in veined\ of the molecules causes a 
corresponding difference in the reaction on 
the vanes, so that rotation occurs. 

Radiophotography. Set* Telephotog¬ 
raphy, 

Radiotelegraphy, and Radiotelephouy. 
See Radio; Wireless. 

Radish (Raphanu\ sat tv its i, a garden vege¬ 
table belonging to the iamily Cntdjrra% cul¬ 
tivated for the sake of its thickened edible 
root, which is eaten raw. In order to attain 
the best quality, Hie plant should be grown 
quickly in a rich, light, loose soil. 

Radium, Ra (atomic weight, 226), a high¬ 
ly radio-active element discovered by M. and 
Mine. Curie in 1808. Although it is widely 
distributed in very minute quantities, its prin¬ 
cipal source was originally the pitchblende ol 
Joachimsthal, in North Bohemia, which yields 


about 1 part in 3 million. At the present 
time, however, almost the whole of the 
world’s supply comes from the carnotite 
sands of Colorado and adjacent regions of 
the United States, which contain about 2 per¬ 
cent. of uranium nitrate. Though radium is 
always obtained in practice in the form of a 
bromide or a chloride, the element itself was 
successfully isolated in 1911, by Mme. Curie 
end Debierne, who subjected the amalgam to 
distillation in an atmosphere of pure hydro¬ 
gen. After all the mercury has been expelled, 
a brilliant white metal—practically pure ra¬ 
dium—was obtained. Metallic radium, alters 
very rapidly in contact with air, decomposes 
water energetically, and is considerably more 
volatile than barium. Direct tests showed 
that the increase of activity occurs in accord¬ 
ance with the law of the production of em¬ 
anation, the limit of radio-activity of the 
metal being about normal. The primary uses 
of radium are in producing self-luminous 
paints for watch dials, etc., and in the treat¬ 
ment of certain types of diseases, as cancel 
and skin affections. In radium hospitals it is 
the first disintegration product of radium, 
namely, the so-called radium emanation, 
which is brought into proximity to the dis¬ 
eased part rather than the radium itself. A 
machine for the artificial production of ra¬ 
dium. from such common substances as table 
salt and phosphorus has been developed. The 
artificial radium differs from true radium in 
its brief life time, which is, 15 hours instead 
of 1700 years. Doctors hope that, because of 
its low.price, it may be used more.extensively 
in medical practice. See Radio-Activity. 

Radius. See Circle. 

Radius, in anatomy, the smaller of the two 
bones of the forearm. It forms the smaller 
part of the elbow joint and the greater, part 
of the wrist. 

Radorn, town, Poland, 60 m. s. of War¬ 
saw. Is of much ■ commercial importance; 
manufactures leather products and machinery. 
It suffered greatly in the Swedish war of 
1701-7, and figured prominently in the 
maneuvers of the Russian and German 
armies during the World war; p. 65,000. 

Raeburn* Sir Henry (3756-1823), Scot¬ 
tish portrait painter, sometimes called the 
Scottish Reynolds, was born in Stockbridge, 
near Edinburgh. He was elected president of 
the Society of Scottish Artists and an asso¬ 
ciate of the Royal Academy In 1812, and be¬ 
came a Royal Academician in 1815. Among 
his sitters were Sir Walter Scott and Christo¬ 
pher North. 



Raemakers 


3910 


Railroad: 


Raemakers, Louis (i.S6g~ ). cartoon¬ 

ist. born in Roermond, Holland. During 
World War I his cartoons had great influence. 
He came to the U. S. in 1940. 

R.A.F., the Royal Air Force of Great 
Britain. 

Ragtime, in music, is a strongly synco¬ 
pated melody superimposed on a regular ac¬ 
companiment. The term was first applied to 
certain southern negro melodies but it has 
been colloquially extended to any popular 
music characterized by marked syncopation. 

Ragusa (Slav, Dubrovnik ), tn., Dalmatia, 
situated at the foot of Mount San Sergio, on 
the eastern shore of the Adriatic. The chief 
points of interest are the Franciscan Church 
(14th century) ; the Rector’s Palace, a beauti¬ 
ful Renaissance building ; the Cathedral (17th 
century); the Dominican monastery; and the 
theater and museum. Ragusa was founded 
in the seventh century by refugees from Epi- 
daurus. From the fifteenth century to 1806 
it was an independent republic under the pro¬ 
tection successively of Venice, Hungary, and 
Turkey, and was famous for its maritime ac¬ 
tivity and for a remarkable literary move¬ 
ment It was annexed by Napoleon to the 
Kingdom of Illyria and was awarded to Aus¬ 
tria in 1814. Following World War I Ra¬ 
gusa passed to Jugoslavia under the terms of 
the Peace Treaty ; p. about 18,767. 

Ragweed, a name applied to any species of 
the composite genus Ambrosia . Ambrosia ar- 
temisiifolia , known also as Roman worm¬ 
wood or hogweed, is a common pest in mead¬ 
ows and pastures in all parts of the United 
States. It grows from one to five feet in 
height, with long deep green leaves, twice 
pinnatifid, and small greenish flowers. Its 
juice is bitter, and when the weed is eaten 
by cattle, imparts a bitter flavor to the milk. 
Giant ragweed. U. trifida) is a huge coarse 
plant from 4 to 10 feet high, found in fields 
and waste places from Nova Scotia to Flori¬ 
da and westward to Nebraska and Colorado. 

It is commonly accepted as the chief cause 
of hay fever, or more properly autumn fever, 
in the United States. 

Ragwort, is the popular name of any one 
of several herbs of the genus Senecio, of the 
aster family {Compositce) , with irregularly 
lobed and toothed leaves: especially the Gol¬ 
den Ragwort and Woolly Ragwort of the 
United States. 

Rahbek, Knud Lyne (1760-1830), Danish 
author, was born in Copenhagen. As a crit¬ 


ic he exercised an important influence on 
Danish literature. 

Rahu, in Hindu mythology, the demon sup¬ 
posed to cause eclipses. 

Rahway, city, Union co., New Jersey, at 
the head of navigation on the Rahway River. 
A residential suburb of New York, it is impor¬ 
tant also for its manufactures. The New Jer¬ 
sey State Reformatory is situated near here. 
Besides chemical, oil and barrel industries, 
Rahway is the seat of a large press and bind¬ 
ery which manufactures books issued by 
many New York publishers. Two miles 
away, in Linden, are the refineries of the 
Standard and other leading oil companies; 
p. 17,498. 

Raichur, town, India, 80 m. n.e. of Bellary. 
It is famous for its glazed pottery; p. 26,000. 

Raid, a hostile incursion into the territory 
of a state by an armed force acting without 
the authority or sanction of any politically 
organized society. The state whose territory 
is raided need not, and does not, extend the 
rights of belligerents to those taking part in 
such an attack upon it, but may punish them 
according to its own laws without incurring 
any responsibility to the state whose subjects 
they may be. On the other hand, if the gov¬ 
ernment of the country to which the raiders 
belong has negligently permitted the prepara¬ 
tion of such an unlawful expedition in its own 
country, it may justly be held liable for the 
damages which are the natural and probable 
consequences of its neglect, though, of course, 
such a liability, unless voluntarily admitted 
or submitted to arbitration, can only be en¬ 
forced by war. 

Rail, a general name for the birds belonging 
to the family Rallidae, which includes the 
coot, corndrake, gallinule, and other species, 
most of which frequent marsh lands. The head 
is small, the body greatly compressed, the legs 
and toes long, the wings short and rounded, 
the tail short, and the bill straight and rather 
long. The plumage is loose, and in typical 
rails is a motley of delicate browns and grays 
with transverse darker markings. Several spe¬ 
cies of rail occur in the United States. 

Railroads, a term generally used in refer¬ 
ence to a system of transportation wherein 
cars carrying persons or commodities are 
moved in trains, by mechanical traction, over 
a roadbed or structure along which the flanged 
wheels of the cars are guided by rails. The 
first really successful application of the steam 
locomotive was made on a mine railroad near 



RAILROAD I>ATHFINDKK¥ 





Railroads 


391! 


Railroads 


Newcastle-on-Tyne, with George Stephen¬ 
son’s famous ‘Puffing Billy’ in 1814. The ori¬ 
gin of railroad transportation in the United 
States is generally traced to the short line 
built at Quincy, Mass., in 1826, for the purpose 
of bringing down from the quarry the granite 
used for the Bunker Hill Monument. This line 
operated by gravity, the loaded cars moving 
down hauling the empty cars back by means 
of a cable running on a wheel at the top. The 
first line to which the term railroad in its 
modern sense can be applied was the Balti¬ 
more & Ohio, which was chartered in 1827 
and the construction of which was begun in 
1828. 

After the Civil War, construction was re¬ 
sumed, and a boom period was begun which 
lasted from 1867 to the panic of 1873. In 1869 
the first transcontinental line, the Union Pa¬ 
cific and the Central Pacific from the Mis¬ 
souri River to San Francisco, was opened, the 
two lines meeting at Salt Lake City on May 
10 of that year. The decade from 1880 to 
1S90 was the period of greatest expansion, no 
less than 70,000 miles of new lines being built. 
The interval from 1884 to the present time 
may be termed the conservative era of railroad 
building, the enterprises as a whole being 
planned to meet legitimate needs of transpor¬ 
tation as the country has developed. In this 
time, and more particularly in recent years, 
railway development has been intensive rath¬ 
er than extensive. New construction has been 
in the form of second, third, or fourth track, 
new and more modern and efficient freight 
and passenger terminals, new engine-houses 
and shops, heavier bridges, realignment proj¬ 
ects for the purpose of eliminating grades and 
curvature and installations of signals to im¬ 
prove safety of operation or to effect increase 
in trackage capacity. In locating a railroad 
line, advantage is taken of favorable water 
courses, passes, and other geological forma¬ 
tions to permit reduced grades and the mini¬ 
mum of curvature, and to avoid cutting and 
filling as much as possible. 

For a single track road a strip of 75 to 100 
ft. wide is. usual-for level country; but where 
cuts or fills are made more than 10 ft. in ver¬ 
tical dimension, this is increased by 25 ft. for 
each 2 ft, over xo ft,. Where land cannot be 
bought on fair terms, the right of eminent 
domain conferred on the railroad by its char¬ 
ter secured from the State, which carries with 
it the right of condemnation proceedings, is 
employed, and the necessary land is obtained 
at a fair valuation of the damages to the land 


owner. On the high grade railroad the width 
of the roadbed at sub-grade is set at 20 ft. 
for a single-track line. For double track, mod¬ 
ern practice is to allow 13 ft. from center to 
center of the two tracks, making a total width 
at sub-grade of 33 ft. In building a new rail¬ 
road the cross-ties are roughly laid down on 
top of the sub-grade and the rails bolted and 
spiked, forming a rough and imperfect track, 
which, however, is suitable for the passage of 
work trains at slow speed. Ballast is then dis¬ 
tributed over the sub-grade by special dump 
or ballast cars and shoveled and tamped un¬ 
der the ties. The track is then given additional 
lifts until the ballast is distributed uniformly 
and firmly with a depth of 12 inches or more 
below the bottom of the tie. 

Ties .—Timber cross-ties are universally 
used on the railroads of the United States. 
Oak and pine ties now generally predominate, 
white oak, when available, being cspeciallv 
desirable because of its hardness, elasticity and 
resistence to rot. Pine ties, because of then 
greater availability, have come into substanti¬ 
ally increased use in recent years. They are 
found quite satisfactory when properly pre¬ 
served against rotting by special treatment 
and against mechanical wear by the use of 
tie-plates. 

Rail .—The form of rail used universally 
for railroad service in the United States i? 
the T-rail, made to standard specifications of 
the American Society of Civil Engineers or 
the American Railway Association and Am¬ 
erican Railway Engineering Association, al¬ 
though some roads have sections of their own. 
Formerly rails were rolled in lengths of 33 ft., 
but in recent years 39 ft. has been adopted 
as standard on most railroads, and one trunk¬ 
line railroad is now experimenting with 66-ft. 
rail. Rail Joints .—The simplest form of joint 
is the common fish plate or angle bar, held to 
the rails by four or six bolts. Joints may be 
supported or suspended. In the supported 
joint the rail ends rest on a joint tie; in the 
suspended joint, used by most roads the rail 
ends project beyond the shoulder ties and are 
supported entirely by the splice bars. 

Gauge .—The standard gauge of railroad 
track in the United States, i.e. f the distance 
between the inside of the heads of the rails, is 
4 ft. 8 T /> in. Switches*— r Where, one line .of 
rails diverges from another, as at a turnout, 
a switch ancl its accompanying frog are pro¬ 
vided to control the direction of passing trains 
over the main line or straight track or onto 
the diverging line. Switches are railed facing- 



Railroads 


3912 


Railroads 


point switches if the train passes over the 
switch points before passing the frog, and 
trailing-point switches if the train passes the 
frog before the switch points. 

Grades .—The grade, or rate of ascent or 
descent, may be expressed in the number of 
feet of rise to the mile or, preferably, as a per 
cent. Thus, a grade rising i ft. in ioo ft. meas¬ 
ured along the track is a i per cent, grade or 
52.8 per mile. Two per cent, is considered a 
heavy grade, although some of the best rail¬ 
roads of the country, operating through the 
Alleghanies or the Rockies, have overcome 
short distances of grades of 2.5 per cent, or 
more by means of reducing the train load or 
using helper engines. Grades as high as 4 or 5 
per cent, can be operated with the usual type 
of locomotive, hauling greatly reduced loads. 
For steeper grades geared locomotives or rack 
railroads are employed. There are several such 
rack railroads in the Andes regions of Chile 
climbing grades as high as 6 per cent. 

Curves .—Changes in the direction of a rail¬ 
road line are made by joining the tangents 
with a curve. The curves are arcs of a circle 
for the greater part of their length, tapering 
off to the tangents by transition curves, as 
explained below. Curves may be simple, 
compound, or reverse. They are designated 
as to their sharpness by the number of 
circular degrees subtended at the center by 
an arc in the center line of track whose 
chord is 100 ft. long. A train in rounding a 
curve tends to lean outwards, due to centri¬ 
fugal force acting on the center of gravity of 
each car above the rails or point of support. 
To overcome this, the outer rail is elevated, 
causing the train to cant inward. A common 
rule is to elevate the outer rail ^4 in. per de¬ 
gree of curvature and add H in., the maxi¬ 
mum in any case to be 6 in. 

Tunnels .—Tunnels are principally confined 
to mountain roads, where their use may save 
many miles of detours or an appreciable sav¬ 
ing in the length and steepness of grade re¬ 
quired to cross a mountain range. An open 
cut is preferable if economically feasible. In 
hard, firm rock tunnels are not lined, but in 
soft loose rock or earth it is necessary to line 
them with some permanent structure. Brick 
or stone masonry or concrete is used. At the 
present time the longest railroad tunnel in the 
United States is the Cascade Tunnel used by 
the Great Northern in crossing the Cascade 
Range in the State of Washington. It is about 
7.78 miles long. The electrically operated and 
recently enlarged Hoosac Tunnel of the Bos¬ 


ton & Maine in Western Massachusetts, 4^4 
miles, was until recently the longest tunnel 
in the United States and is still the longest 
double-track tunnel. The longest tunnel in 
the world is the Simplon Tunnel in the Alps, 
which is 1254 miles long. 

In recent years a number of under-water 
tunnels have been built for railroad service 
The most noteworthy are those of the Penn¬ 
sylvania Railroad, built in connection with 
that company’s big passenger terminal de¬ 
velopment at New York. These are six in 
number—two under the Hudson or North 
River between New Jersey and Manhattan 
and four under the East River, connecting 
with the yards on Long Island and giving 
the Long Island Railroad, a subsidiary of 
the Pennsylvania, its entrance into the Penn¬ 
sylvania terminal. Prior to the construction 
of these tunnels the Pennsylvania carried its 
traffic into New York by means of ferry 
boats. Another tunnel of importance is that 
of the Michigan Central (now New York 
Central) at Detroit. The building of this 
tunnel overcame the necessity of using a car 
ferry. All of the trains through these sev¬ 
eral subaqueous tunnels are electrically oper¬ 
ated. (See Tunnels and Tunneling.) 

Bridges .—One of the most noteworthy 
tendencies of railroad development in the 
United States for many years has been the 
rapid replacement of timber or masonry 
bridge structures by concrete or steel in con¬ 
sequence of the use of larger locomotives and 
heavier cars. For small openings reinforced 
concrete, corrugated iron pipe or tile drains 
are put in and for brooks or small creeks 
larger openings, girder spans, cantilever or 
steel arch structures are used or possibly slab 
or arch concrete bridges, depending upon 
the conditions to be met. 

Freight Cars .—The distinguishing feature 
of the freight cars used on the railroads of 
the United States and Canada is their high 
capacity and the tendency towards the use 
of cars of still larger capacity. The ordinary 
box car has a capacity of 40 to 55 tons and 
the ordinary coal car of 50 to 55 tons. Large 
numbers of coal and ore cars of 70, 75 and 
even 100 tons capacity have been built, and 
the roads serving the West Virginia coal dis¬ 
tricts have cars of 120 tons capacity. The 
American freight car is usually mounted on 
two swivelling four-wheel trucks or bogies. 
American freight cars are divided into the 
following principal classes: box or covered 
cars; gondola cars, having sides but no 



Railroads 


3913 


Railroads 


roof; hopper cars for carrying ore or coal, 
having sloping floors with drop bottom doors 
to permit their unloading by gravity; flat 
cars; refrigerator cars; and tank cars. Re¬ 
frigerator cars are used for transporting per¬ 
ishable fruits and vegetables, meats, produce, 
etc. They resemble an ordinary box car in 
appearance, but are built with thick insu¬ 
lated sides, floor, roof, and ends to retain a 
low temperature inside, ordinarily about 40 0 
f. Ice boxes, which are filled through trap 
doors in the roof, are built in each end. A 
mixture of ice and salt is used, and par¬ 
ticular attention is given to obtaining a 
free and constant circulation of cold dry 
air throughout the interior of the car. Ex¬ 
periments are now being conducted with 
chemical or mechanical freight car refrigera¬ 
tion. 

The Safety Appliance Act, passed by Con¬ 
gress in 1S93 and subsequently revised, re¬ 
quires all cars used in interstate traffic to be 
equipped with automatic couplers, standard 
hand holds, grab irons, ladders, etc. The 
movement of cars from one road to another 
is further covered by the Code of Car Service 
Rules of the American Railway Association, 
administered by a Car Service Division with 
headquarters at Washington. 

Passenger Cars include all cars used in 
trains carrying passengers, namely, day 
coaches, parlor cars, sleeping cars, dining 
cars, baggage cars, express cars, mail cars, 
and combination cars carrying passengers 
and baggage or mail. The modern day coach 
is about 70 ft. long, and seats from 77 to 88 
passengers. Such cars were formerly mounted 
on two four-wheel trucks, but the tendency 
on most roads to-day is to mount only cars 
for suburban service on four-wheel trucks 
and to use six-wheel trucks under the cars 
for through service. The Pennsylvania Rail¬ 
road is a notable exception. Six-wheel trucks 
are almost exclusively used under parlor, 
sleeping, and dining cars. The large portion 
of passenger cars on through trains are now 
of all-steel construction and practically no 
new passenger cars of wooden construction 
are being built. The all-aluminum car was 
introduced.in 1934. , 

: Pullman Cars.-— On most American . rail¬ 
roads the parlor and sleeping cars attached 
to the important through trains are owned 
and operated not by the railroads, but by 
the Pullman Company, and are commonly 
known as Pullman cars. The only large 
North American roads that now operate their 
own parlor and sleeping car service are the 


Canadian Pacific and Canadian National. 
The Pullman Company has its own porters 
and conductors and itself takes care of all 
work inside the car, such as cleaning, disin¬ 
fection, etc. The Pullman Company is also 
obligated to furnish all the cars required, 
and this constitutes one of the chief advan¬ 
tages of the Pullman service from the rail¬ 
road’s point of view. 

The ordinary passenger cars on European 
railroads are usually much shorter than the 
American cars. They are, as a general thing, 
divided into a few compartments or coupes, 
each accommodating several passengers. 
These compartments are entered directly 
through a side door or from a corridor, 
which extends along one side of the car. Cars 
on the American plan are now coming into 
use on the European railways. 

Freight Yards and Terminals. —Freight 
yards and terminals are roughly divided into 
two classes: (1) those for classifying cars 
en route, and (2) those related to the receiv¬ 
ing and delivery of freight. A classification 
yard is defined as a machine for separating 
trains or drafts of cars in groups according 
to destinations, routes, commodities, or 
traffic requirements, so as to accomplish their 
movement to tracks for these purposes. Such 
yards are found at division points along the 
line and on the outskirts of large communi¬ 
ties, where land is not unduly expensive and 
where there is room for expansion. Terminals 
and yards for receiving and delivering freight 
include inbound and outbound freight houses, 
where the consignments are turned over to 
or received from the shipper and loaded on 
to or unloaded from the cars. Such terminals 
are found nearer the center of the industrial 
community, which adds greatly to their cost. 

Passenger Stations range from the mere 
shelter at a flag station to the enormous ter¬ 
minals in the large cities. The c city-gates,* 
as these larger terminals are often called, are 
sometimes exceedingly expensive. The ten¬ 
dency, however, is not to economize in their 
construction, and the larger proportion of 
them are models of modern architecture. 
The Grand Central and Pennsylvania Sta¬ 
tions in New York City, the Union Stations 
at Kansas City, Washington, and Chicago, 
and the new stations at Buffalo, Cleveland 
and Philadelphia may be named among 
many especially notable in this regard. 

Electric traction for railway trains, after 
having made limited progress for a long 
period of years, has recently taken a sudden 
spurt. At the present time, the New York 



Railroads 


3914 


Railroads 


Central operates with electric locomotives and 
multiple unit cars out of its Grand Central 
terminal in New York, and the New York, 
New Haven, & Hartford similarly and as far 
as New Haven, a distance of 70 m. The Penn- 



Semaphore Signal at Proceed ' 


sylvania, a pioneer in this field, operates 
many miles of its vast system by electricity, 
using both electric locomotives and multiple 
unit trains; while the Long Island, using 
the same station for its business to Long 
Island, uses multiple unit trains, operating 
over 139 miles. The Chicago, Milwaukee, 
St. Paul & Pacific is the leading example of 
trunk-line electrification, operating 682 m. of 
transcontinental line. 

In order to run a number of trains safely 
over a single piece of track, either in the 
same direction or in opposite directions, some 
method must be adopted for keeping the 
trains either a fixed distance . apart or a fixed 
time apart. The latter is at best a substitute 
for the former, yet it has been the character¬ 
istic system in use in the United States. 
It is called the train-order system in distinc¬ 
tion from the former, or block system. 

Train-order System .—At some central 
point on the road is located a train dis¬ 
patcher, who is in telegraphic communica¬ 
tion with all important stations along the 
line. A schedule of all regular trains is made 
out, giving the leaving time, time of passing 
each station along the route, and, if it be a 
single-track road with trains running in both 


directions, the fixed meeting points, which 
are arranged to give a minimum delay to 
all trains. Each employee concerned is pro¬ 
vided with a copy of this schedule or oper¬ 
ating time-table, and trains are operated in 
accordance with it. 

Automatic Block Signals .—-These are in 
more extensive use in the United States than 
elsewhere and their use is increasing rapidly. 

In the automatic signal installation, the 
two rails are insulated from each other and 
at the ends of the blocks are insulated from 
the rails of the adjoining block. An electric 
battery at the outgoing end supplies current 
which flows through one rail to the entering 
end, thence through a magnet of a relay con¬ 
trolling the movement of the signal at that 
point and back through the other rail to 
the battery. With the current flowing thus 
the signal is held in a clear or proceed posi¬ 
tion. When a train enters the block, how¬ 
ever, the current in the rails, tending to take 
the path of least resistance, which is through 
the wheels and axles of the train, is short 
circuited from the relay. This short circuit¬ 
ing de-energizes the signal relay magnet and 
allows the relay magnet to drop, causing the 
signal to fall to a horizontal or stop posi- 



Color Light Signal j 


tion behind the train. The signal arm is 
counterbalanced to assure its falling to a 
natural horizontal position, or, in other 
words, power is required to move or to hold 
it in any other position. Thus, if any ob- 







Railroads 


3915 


Railroads 


stmction is on the track or a rail is broken, 
the current is broken or ceases to flow through 
the relay magnet and the signal goes to 
‘stop’ the same as if a train was in the block. 

The ordinary type of signal used in auto¬ 
matic block signaling was formerly the 
semaphore. This gives indications by its 
position. The blade of arm is about 4 ft. 
long and 8 inches wide. It is pivoted at 
one end and is carried on a post about 20 
ft. above the rails to the right of, or on, a 
signal bridge over the track it controls. The 
pivot carries a counterweight or spectacle 
casting in which red, yellow and green 
lenses are mounted and behind which is 
placed a lamp for giving night indications. 
The arm moves in either the upper or lower 
right-hand quadrant. When the blade is in 


or in thick weather. In most cases in such 
installations colored lights are used as in 
ordinary street traffic signals. 

Interlocking signals, at junctions and cross¬ 
overs, are those which are made to work in 
connection with the shifting parts of rail¬ 
road track, such as moveable frogs and 
switches. They are so arranged that, first, no 
train shall proceed until all of the tracks 
and movable parts have been placed in their 
proper positions; second, no train shall pro¬ 
ceed until all other trains which might collide 
with it have been warned to stop; third, 
none of the shifting parts of the track can be 
moved so long as a signal gives an indication 
to proceed. Power locking, in its essential 
principles, is similar to the manual or me¬ 
chanical interlocking described above. The 



Courtesy General Railway Signal Co. 

Electric Interlocking Plant at Cleveland Union Terminal. 


the horizontal position the signal shows red 
at night and indicates stop. If moving in 
the upper quadrant when vertical or if in 
the lower quadrant, when at the lowest posi¬ 
tion the blade gives a clear indication and 
the light shows green. The middle position 
in the upper quadrant indicates caution and 
shows a yellow light. With lower quadrant 
signals a separate arm is used for the caution 
indication. The movement of the ram to the 
caution or proceed position, as controlled by 
the track circuit relay above described, is 
effected by a motor, actuated usually by cur¬ 
rent from storage .batteries sunk in a well at 
the foot of the signal post. Movement to the 
horizontal or stop-position is by gravity. 
In recent installations or replacements, the 
tendency has been to replace the semaphores 
by light signals. These use strong lights and 
reflectors of sufficient power to be visible in 
the brightest sunlight. Such signals give 
much clearer indications, especially at night 


locking features of the machine are much the 
same, but, in place of the manual levers con¬ 
nected to the signals and switches by wires 
and pipes, electric control is used, the signals 
and switches being controlled by electric cur¬ 
rent in either case but actuated by com¬ 
pressed air in the electric-pneumatic system 
and by electric motors in the all-electric sys¬ 
tem. Several interesting adaptations of inter¬ 
locking, particularly in relation to automatic 
block signals, have been introduced in recent 
years. One is the automatic interlocking sys¬ 
tem used for a crossing of one road by an¬ 
other at a point where the number of trains 
is limited. By means of crack circuits, a train 
moving to the crossing moves the signals to 
clear on its own track if the other track is 
not occupied, and moves across the crossing 
protected by the stop signals on the other 
track. Remote power switches have rapidly 
come into more general use. These are 
switches located possibly several miles from 


Railroads 


3916 


Railroads 


the tower or control point; they are elec¬ 
trically controlled and their use permits the 
tower-man to operate a switch and give 
proper signal indications-so that an engine- 
man may be instructed to enter a passing 
track and allowed to do so without stopping 
and without the necessity of train orders or 
other instruction. Two-direction signalling 
has been installed on many roads. Applied 
to a double, three or four track line, it may 
be used to permit the movement of trains on 
any track in either direction. Thus, by using 
both tracks of a double-track line for a few 
minutes for northbound traffic, a passenger 
train may be run around a slow-moving 
freight train without requiring the freight 
train to stop and wait on a siding for the 
passenger train to pass. At a busy terminal 
served by four tracks it is possible to use 
three or even four tracks for inbound trains 
in the morning and three or four for out¬ 
bound trains in the evening. Such possi¬ 
bilities have been found in many instances 
to represent vast savings in capital expendi¬ 
ture by avoiding the necessity of adding 
trackage. 

The block signal system is not an absolute 
preventive of accidents, since an engineman 
may sometimes take a chance and run by a 
stop signal or his mind may fail to register 
the signal indication. Accidents caused in 
this way have developed an agitation in favor 
of the automatic stop or of automatic train 
control. Such an arrangement has been in¬ 
stalled on the subway lines in New York, the 
elevated and subway lines in Boston, and 
other rapid transit lines, the first permanent 
installation having been made on the Boston 
Elevated in 1899. Each home signal has con¬ 
nected with it, alongside of the track, a trip¬ 
per, which is thrown up when the signal in¬ 
dicates stop and is down at all other times. 
When up, the trigger engages the projecting 
handle of a valve mounted on the car trucks, 
and if a train passes the signal at the stop 
position the valve on the train is opened, 
applying the air brakes automatically and 
bringing the train to rest in a short distance. 

Speed .—The speeds of railroad passenger 
trains have over an extended period of years 
shown relatively little change, the tendency 
having been rather to cut down excessive 
speed in the interest of safety. In recent 
years, however, in consequence of the effort 
to make railroad passenger travel more at¬ 
tractive, the time of limited trains has been 
reduced, the result having been largely 
brought ^Jbout by elimination of delay as 


much as by increased speed on the road. The 
year 1934 marked the introduction of stream¬ 
lined aluminum trains, which afforded com¬ 
fort in riding and at the same time were cap¬ 
able of attaining a speed of 120 m. an hour. 
In 1933 the speed of freight trains advanced 
to 15.7 m. an hour. 

Railroad Management .—The form of the 
various railroad organizations has become 
fairly well standardized, on the whole, on 
the same general plan. The railroad receives 
its charter from the State; inasmuch as it 
is a corporation, it has possibly a chairman 
of the board of directors and certainly a 
president. The latter reports to a board of 
directors and through them to the stock¬ 
holders. The directors, beside choosing the 
president, elect the vice-presidents, the secre¬ 
tary, treasurer, comptroller, and the general 
counsel. The operating department is charged 
with getting the trains over the road and, in 
general, of conducting the transportation 
service. On most roads it is also charged 
with providing and maintaining the roadway 
and structures and the cars and locomotives. 
It is usually under the direction of a general 
manager. To facilitate efficient operation, the 
road is divided into divisions each in charge 
of a superintendent, who is responsible for 
the operation of the 100 m. or so of main 
line and the related branches under his juris- 
! diction. The engineering or maintenance de¬ 
partment is represented on the division by the 
division engineer; its head is the chief engi¬ 
neer. This department is responsible for the 
construction of new roadbed, buildings, and 
structures, the installation of new bridges, 
signals, etc., and for their maintenance. The 
mechanical department is represented on the 
division by the master mechanic, and is 
headed by the general superintendent of 
motive power. It maintains the cars and lo¬ 
comotives and is in charge of the round¬ 
houses where the locomotives are turned, in¬ 
spected and repaired, and of the shops where 
the motive power and rolling stock are given 
more important repairs. 

Two main plans of correlating the work of 
the engineering and mechanical departments 
with that of the operating department have 
been worked out—the divisional and depart¬ 
mental. Under the former, which is the more 
common, the division superintendent has 
charge of all three branches of the work on 
his division, transportation, maintenance, 
and mechanical. In the departmental scheme 
of operation the work of each of the three 
branches of operation is divided territorially, 



Railroads 


3917 


Railroads 


a separate officer, responsible only to the 
head of his particular department, being in 
charge of the work on a division. The de¬ 
partmental plan of organization is in com¬ 
mon use in England. The New York Central 
is one of the few roads using it in America. 

The traffic department may be in charge 
of a vice-president in charge of traffic or of 
a general traffic manager. Its work is divided 
into two parts—passenger and freight. These 
respective departments may be in charge of 
freight and passenger traffic managers or of 
general freight and passenger agents. Most 
roads have also a general purchasing depart¬ 
ment. There may also be found a real estate 
department, relief department and as an ad¬ 
junct to the engineering department, a valu¬ 
ation department. 

Railroad Consolidation. —The consolida¬ 
tion ot railroads has frequently been a sub¬ 
ject of governmental or public concern. The 
Sherman Act, passed in 1890, intended to 
prevent the formation of ‘trusts’ operating 
in restraint of trade, was early made to 
apply to railroads. Indeed, one of the most 
famous cases fought under the Act was the 
Northern Securities case of 1902 in which a 
United States Supreme Court decision re¬ 
quired the severance of common control of 
the Northern Pacific by the Great Northern 
and the Union Pacific. This decision, par¬ 
ticularly as amplified by the Clayton Act of 
1914, which has elaborate provisions relating 
to railroads, proved an effective damper on 
railroad consolidations. The Transportation 
Act of 1920, however, gave voice to a more 
liberal viewpoint. Provisions were included 
in it intended to encourage the voluntary 
consolidation of railroads. The effect desired 
was a limited number of systems of approxi¬ 
mately equal earning power so arranged as 
to assure, insofar as possible the maintenance 
of former routes of traffic and competition 
of service. Under the terms of the Act, dif¬ 
ferentiation was made between consolida¬ 
tions effected by merger of corporate iden¬ 
tity on the one hand, and acquisition by 
lease, by purchase of stock, or by operating 
agreement, on the other. In December, 1929, 
the Commission . published its final plan call-. 
mg for the creation of 19'systems,'or 12,. 
including the United States mileage of the 
Canadian lines. For later history, see United 
States History. 

Railroad Rates. —Under the terms of the 
Interstate Commerce Act, as amended by the 
Transportation Act of 1920, the fixing of 
the general level of freight rates and passen¬ 


ger fares is in the hands of the Interstate 
Commerce Commission rather than of the 
traffic departments of the railroads. The 
Interstate Commerce Commission is required 
to establish a level of rates which will yield 
a fair return upon the aggregate value of the 
railway property held for and used in the 
service of transportation. The Commission, 
besides having jurisdiction over the general 
level of rates, also has the power of review¬ 
ing or prescribing rate relationships and even 
individual rates. 

Freight Traffic and Rates. —The transpor¬ 
tation of freight is much the most important 
function of American railroads. On only a 
very few roads of any importance, such as 
the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and 
the Long Island, do the receipts from pas¬ 
senger traffic even approximate the receipts 
from freight traffic. In 1939 operating rev¬ 
enues totaled $3,995,004,000, of which $3,- 
244445,000 was from freight. The adjust¬ 
ment of freight rates is far more complicated 
than that of passenger fares. Whether it 
pays better to carry a small amount of 
freight at a high rate or a larger amount at 
a low rate can be determined only through 
experimentation with each item of freight. 
Each item must yield at least enough to cover 
the additional expense to the company aris¬ 
ing from the haulage of that particular 
freight. At the same time the freight rate 
must not be so high as to handicap the pro¬ 
ducer in competition with producers served 
by other means of transportation. With 
freight of low value per unit of bulk, the 
volume will usually expand markedly under 
conditions of cheap transportation. A very 
moderate rate per ton per mile will prevent 
coal from being carried 500 m. from the pit; 
an equal rate on silk goods represents a neg¬ 
ligible increase in the value of such goods. 
High-grade goods may bear a far higher 
rate than low-grade goods without appre¬ 
ciable diminution in the amount offered for 
carriage. In American policy, accordingly, 
rates are graduated roughly in proportion 
to the value of the goods carried, the lowest- 
grade goods often barely paying the cost of 
carriage, while the high-grade goods pay in 
addition a part of the fixed charges, and pre¬ 
sumably something toward net profits. The 
policy of graduating rates according to the 
value of the commodities, and making such 
rates as will move any given traffic, has been 
one of the chief causes of the extraordinary 
development of the freight business of the 
American railroads, and of the marked re- 



Railroads 


3918 


Railroad® 


duction in average rates. When worked out 
properly, it has enabled new centers of indus¬ 
try situated at favorable points to compete 
with older centers and thus has contributed 
to extending the country’s industrial and 
agricultural development. Where a railroad 
carries goods between two points which are 
also connected by water-transportation lines, 
or by rival railroads, freight rates must be so 
adjusted as not to drive business 'into the 
hands of the competing carriers. High-grade 
goods, which might be well able to pay a 
high rate, may have to be given a rate yield¬ 
ing little above the expense of moving. In 
the earlier days, each carrier, in its zeal to 
extend business offered concessions to ship¬ 
pers, which were met by counter-concessions 
from the competing routes. While this ten¬ 
dency to reduce rates was checked to some 
extent by agreements among the competing 
carriers, the through rates between competi¬ 
tive centers are still ordinarily less, in propor¬ 
tion to distance, than the rates from either 
center to non-competitive, intermediate 
points. Such relationships in favor of the 
competitive center tended naturally to build 
up the business of such centers at the expense 
of the intermediate points, and constituted 
one of the chief sources of complaint against 
American railroad rate making. This matter 
is now in the hands of the Interstate Com¬ 
merce Commission and the charging of lower 
rates to a competitive center than to inter¬ 
mediate points en route can be done only 
with the Commission’s permission and only 
in exceptional cases. 

In former years, where an individual ship¬ 
per was so situated that he might send his 
goods over either of two competing lines, he 
may have secured from one of the roads a 
rate more favorable than that accorded to 
his competitors who enjoyed no such option, 
especially if his shipments were large. The 
agents of each road were anxious to secure 
the business, at scheduled rates if possible; 
if this was not possible, at rates slightly 
lower. Discriminations of this nature were 
exceedingly common in the United States I 
down to 1905 and were known as rebates. 
With more stringent regulation, however, 
this practice has long since come to an end. 

Under government operation of railroads, 
and to a lesser extent under government reg¬ 
ulation, there appears to be more of a dis¬ 
position to fix rates according to a cost basis, 
reckoned according to mileage and terminal 
costs. Under government ownership, also, 


there is a disposition to inject political ob¬ 
jects into railroad policy. 

Passenger Traffic and Rates. —The fares 
which a railroad may charge for the car¬ 
riage of passengers, like the rates for freight, 
are" placed by the Interstate Commerce Act 
under the jurisdiction of the Interstate Com¬ 
merce Commission. Prior to the Great War 
the average fare for ordinary local passenger 
journeys was slightly over 2 cents a mile, 
though many States had enacted laws limit¬ 
ing fares to 2 cents a mile. During the war, 
passenger fares were raised by the Director- 
General of Railroads, and in August, 1920, 
under the terms of the new Transportation 
Act they were again increased 20 per cent, 
by the Interstate Commerde Commission. 
For local journeys they came to aggregate 
about 3/ / 2 cents a mile, (since lowered). 

The general level of .passenger fares, like 
that of freight rates, is a matter of adjust¬ 
ment brought about through many years of 
competition and development. Roads having 
longer routes between competitive cities met 
the rates of the shorter lines, and in general 
there were much rate-cutting and unpleasant¬ 
ness. The disastrous effect of so much com¬ 
petition has led to the formation of agree¬ 
ments and adjustments to cover such mat¬ 
ters, and has resulted in the working out of a 
definite structure of passenger fare relation¬ 
ships. New problems have been offered to 
the railroads in recent years in consequence 
of the loss of business to the automobile. It 
has, in general, been found that the greatest 
loss in railway passenger business has been 
in the local or medium distance travel. Spe¬ 
cial attention has been devoted to attracting 
the patronage of the long-distance traveller 
through faster schedules, otherwise improved 
service or new equipment. The falling off 
in local travel has, on the contrary, resulted 
in curtailment of service and, in many in¬ 
stances, the substitution of highway buses, 
which it has been found can be operated 
much more cheaply than steam train service. 

Government Regulation .—Public service, 
public utility or railroad commissions are 
now in existence in every State of the Union. 
They vary in size from three to seven mem¬ 
bers, serving from two to ten years; they 
are elective in some States and appointive in 
others, and the utilities to which their juris¬ 
diction extends vary widely. In addition to 
exercising general powers of investigation 
and supervision over the conduct and prac^ 
txces of railroads, they are authorized to reg- 



Railroads 


3919 


Railroad* 


ulate franchises, prescribe rates, prevent dis¬ 
crimination, regulate accounts and reports, 
and in a number of States to supervise the 
issue of stocks and bonds. The commission 
may invoke judicial processes for the en¬ 
forcement of its orders, and its decisions are, 
of course, subject to review by the State 
courts in case complaint arises that rates pre¬ 
scribed are unduly low, and therefore confis¬ 
catory. The tendency in recent years has 
been for the Interstate Commerce Commis¬ 
sion to gain in power and control at the ex¬ 
pense of the State Commissions, a develop¬ 
ment which has been considerably accentu¬ 
ated by the Transportation Act of 1920. 

Other Countries .-— Railroads in Great Brit¬ 
ain are privately operated, subject to a gen¬ 
eral system of government supervision much 
less elaborate than that of Interstate Com¬ 
merce Commission control in the United 
States. The major railroad systems number 
only five in number, there having been a 
compulsory consolidation of the British rail¬ 
ways shortly after the war. These five sys¬ 
tems are permitted to earn net income 
equivalent to that earned in the year 19x3, 
which is taken as a base because it was the 
last normal year before the war and because 
it was a year of fairly good earnings. Rate 
matters are determined by the Railway Rates 
Tribunal composed of representatives of the 
railroads, the shippers and the government. 

In France both the construction and oper¬ 
ation of private railroads are under the 
strict surveillance of the Minister of Public 
Works, who has extensive powers of control 
over all matters of public safety and over 
the commercial and industrial features of 
railway development. While he may not 
himself fix rates, all rates are subject to his 
approval. The actual details of control are 
carried out by the several departments of the 
Ministry of Public Works. 

In Canada a regulative control over both 
the 22,500 miles of Dominion-owned ‘Canad¬ 
ian National Railways/ operated as a Com¬ 
pany with a Board of Directors appointed 
by the Federal Government, and the pri¬ 
vately owned railways of about equal length 
is vested in. the Canadian Railway Commis¬ 
sion, established in 1903. 

Government Ownership of railroads .has 
attracted wide-spread attention in the past 
50 years. Before the Great War, in the coun¬ 
tries of Continental Europe, it had largely 
supplanted the older policy of private own¬ 
ership and operation under governmental 
regulation and in Great Britain and the 


United States, it has been seriously agitated 
as a practical solution of the railroad prob¬ 
lem, and during the Great War government 
operation of the privately owned lines was 
undertaken as a military measure. 

The adoption of government ownership of 
railroads is due to various causes. The deter¬ 
mining factor in the case of Prussia and the 
other German states was military necessity, 
although the advantages of a unified railroad 
system and a hesitancy of private capital 
were given due weight, and similar reasons 
led to the policy of state railroads in Russia, 
Austria, and Hungary. In Italy, Belgium, 
and other of the European countries, the 
difficulty of creating private companies with 
sufficient capital to undertake the construc¬ 
tion of railroads, and indisposition on the 
part of the government to leave the field to 
foreign capitalists, played an important part 
in the introduction of the policy. The same 
lack of private capital and private enter¬ 
prise is mainly responsible for public owner¬ 
ship in Australia, South Africa, and in those 
cases where it exists in Spanish America, 
though in the case of the Australian states, 
as also in Switzerland, an important factor 
was the popular belief that under public 
ownership the roads would be made better 
to subserve public interests. 

Belgium was the pioneer country in the 
adoption of government construction and 
ownership of railroads, Leopold 1. having in¬ 
itiated the policy shortly after the country 
had won its independence of Holland. 

In Germany state railway development 
dated from the end of the Franco-Prussian 
War and the formation of the Empire. 

In Switzerland governmental regulation 
was first exercised by the cantons, and was 
later transferred to the Federal government. 
A referendum taken in 1898 provided for 
the purchase of all the lines by the state. In 
i860, when Italy became a kingdom, some 
of the railroads were publicly and some pri¬ 
vately owned. By 1875 three-fifths of the 
mileage had been taken over by the state, 
but, state operation having proved unsatis¬ 
factory, the lines were leased in 1885 to 
private companies under a plan whereby 
earnings and expenses were shared and pro¬ 
vision was made for repurchase by the state. 
After a period of serious mismanagement and 
poor service the lines were taken back by 
the government in 1905. 

The agitation in favor of government own¬ 
ership in the United States has been of long 
standing and was evident in particularly 



Railroads 


3920 


Railroads 


strong fashion during the war. The opinion 
of the country, however, was shown to be 
decidedly in favor of private ownership and 
control. A proposal to extend even the war¬ 
time government control of railways for a 
period of five years, while it was given a 
great deal of attention, hardly received seri¬ 
ous consideration. A plan for government 
ownership of the railways in the interest of 
the employees—the Plumb plan—met with 
like treatment. 

Government Control is to be distinguished 
from government regulation and from gov¬ 
ernment ownership alike. Under government 
regulation the railroads are operated by their 
owners under certain rules and regulations 
established by a governmental authority rep¬ 
resented by a commission; under govern¬ 
ment ownership they are both owned and 
operated by the state. Government control 
is primarily a special expedient for use in an 
emergency such as a war. Under it control 
of railroad operation is exercised by the 
state, which usually guarantees to the own¬ 
ers average earnings based on a determined 
preceding period. Upon the entrance of the 
United States into the Great War, the opera¬ 
tion of the railroads of the country was co¬ 
ordinated in the hands of a committee of 
executives known as the Railroads War 
Board, of which Fairfax Harrison, president 
of the Southern Railway, was the head. On 
December 26, 1917, acting under the author¬ 
ity conferred upon him by provisions of 
Army Appropriation Act of August 29, 1916, 
also known as the Federal Operation and 
Control Act, President Wilson issued a proc¬ 
lamation placing the transportation system 
of the country under government operation 
and control. 

William G. McAdoo, Secretary of the 
Treasury, was designated Director-General 
of Railroads, with authority to enter upon 
negotiations with the railway companies, 
looking to agreement for 4 just and reason¬ 
able compensation for the possession, use, 
and control of the respective properties on 
the basis of an annual guaranteed compen¬ 
sation above accruing depreciation and the 
maintenance of their properties, equivalent, 
as nearly as may be, to the average of the 
net operating income thereof for the three- 
year period ending June 30, 1917. Mr. Mc¬ 
Adoo, as Director-General of Railroads, 
promptly took steps to create an organiza¬ 
tion to coordinate and carry on the opera¬ 
tion of the roads, and through the possession 
of powers not in the hands of the Railroad 


War Board, was able to bring order out of 

the chaos of the congestion. He put the 
priority privileges on a more sensible basis 
and was able, by coordinating the operation 
of terminals, shipping over the shortest 
routes, and making various lines specialize 
on certain kinds of traffic, to help matters 
considerably. Railroad employees had been 
demanding a readjustment of wages because 
of the war-time increase in the cost of liv¬ 
ing. The Railroad Wage Commission, ap¬ 
pointed to make recommendations on this 
subject, reported in May that increases were 
necessary, and its recommendations were em¬ 
bodied in General Order No. 27 and various 
supplements thereto, giving general increases 
to employees in all classes of service. To 
provide for this general increase, a general 
advance of 25 per cent, was made in freight 
rates, and passenger fares were raised to 3 
cents a mile. 

Director-General McAdoo resigned on 
January 1, 1919, and was succeeded by 
Walker D. Hines, who had been Assistant 
Director-General. Mr. Hines was confronted 
during his term as the head of the Railroad 
Administration with constantly increasing 
costs, it having been found that the expected 
savings from coordinated operation failed to 
materialize in anything like the degree looked 
for. He essayed to compensate for this han¬ 
dicap by an appropriation from Congress, 
which he secured only after much debate and 
delay and then in reduced amount. No in¬ 
crease in rates was made, however, with the 
result that the year 1919 was a period of 
retrogression rather than of progression. Im¬ 
provement and even maintenance work was 
held to a minimum; no new equipment was 
purchased, and in twenty-six months of gov - 
ernment control only one-half as many new 
cars and locomotives were added as should 
properly be added in a single year. The re¬ 
sult was that the railroads were returned to 
their owners on March 1, 1920, in great need 
of rehabilitation. To cover the period of 
transition Congress in the Transportation 
Act permitted the railroads to accept, if 
they desired, a continuation to September 1, 
1929, of the annual compensation or standard 
return. 

Railroads and Labor .—Prior to the organ¬ 
ization of the four great railway brother¬ 
hoods there were no limitations upon the 
hours of service of railway trainmen; mile¬ 
age was the sole basis of pay; and no allow¬ 
ance was made for overtime. Through the 
efforts of these organizations, however, wage 



Railroads 


3921 


Railroads 


increases were secured from time to time, a 
twelve-hour day, later a ten-hour day, and 
eventually assisted by legislation, an eight- 
hour day was established. The eight-hour 
day was established by the Adamson Eight- 
Hour Law of 1916 which was upheld by the 
United States Supreme Court in 1917. As 
now worked out in accordance with this act 
and with the wage agreements between the 
railroads and the train-service brotherhoods 
freight train-crew wages are paid on a basis 
of a standard eight-hour day of 100 miles 
with punitive wage payments of time and 
one-half for overtime. 

Machinery for the arbitration of railroad 
labor disputes has been provided for by 
Congressional action. Laws of 1887 and 1888 
authorized the selection of three arbitrators 
by the railroad companies and their em¬ 
ployees to act in controversies arising be¬ 
tween carriers and their employees engaged 
in interstate traffic. This power was never 
utilized, and the acts were succeeded by the 
Erdmann Act of 1898, amended in 1911, and 
again in 1913, in the latter year by the New- 
lands Act, which provides for the creation 
of a permanent Board of Mediation and 
Conciliation and for arbitration, when re¬ 
quired, by arbitrators representing both 
parties to the controversy. The most ambi¬ 
tious legislation relating to arbitration, and 
in general to the relations of the railroads 
with their employees was, however, con¬ 
tained in provisions of the Transportation 
Act of 1920, providing for the creation of 
the Railroad Labor Board. This was to have 
nine members. It was intended to decide 
railroad labor matters in much the same man¬ 
ner as the Interstate Commerce Commission 
was to deal with railroad rates or other 
phases of regulation. It did assist in solving 
the railroad labor problems following the 
return of the railroads to private control in 
1920, but dissatisfaction with its activity both 
on the part of the railroads and the unions 
resulted in its abolition in May, 1926 and 
the substitution therefor of the arbitration 
methods provided in the Railway Labor Act 
passed at that time. In this act the railroads 
and employees are admonished to exert every 
reasonable effort to make and maintain 
agreements concerning rates of pay, hours of 
labor or working conditions and to settle dis¬ 
putes as expeditiously as possible to avoid 
interruptions of service. In case of disagree¬ 
ment the carrier and its employees are re¬ 
quired to confer in the effort to arrive at 
settlement of the dispute. However, should 


such conference be unavailing it is provided 
that the matters at issue shall be referred in 
detail to an adjustment board. 

In case such a board should fail to arrive 
at a decision a further means of appeal is 
provided to a board of arbitration of three 
(or six) members, one member to be chosen 
by the carrier, and one by the employees, 
these two to select the third. In case the two 
arbitrators fail to agree on the third arbi¬ 
trator, the latter may be chosen by the 
Board of Mediation. The Board of Media¬ 
tion is a permanent organization of five 
members appointed by the President of the 
United States, having permanent headquar¬ 
ters at Washington, but being empowered to 
meet elsewhere if desirable. On the whole, 
relations between the railroads and labor in 
the United States have been marked by few 
disturbances of great extent. 

Shortly after the return of the railroads 
to private control, on March 1, 1920, an 
agitation was started by the employees for 
increased wages to compensate for increased 
living costs at that time. Sporadic strikes 
occurred among various of the lesser paid 
crafts—shopmen, firemen, brakemen, etc.— 
and for a time railroad traffic practically 
ceased on many lines, resulting in unprece¬ 
dented congestion at a time of exceedingly 
great business activity. As soon as the new 
Railroad Labor Board was appointed and 
could act on the case, it granted increased 
wages, issuing its decision in May and mak¬ 
ing the increases retroactive to January 1. 
Other serious labor difficulties developed in 
1922 in the strike of the railroad shop forces. 
Service on many railroads came almost to 
a standstill for several days and there was 
much violence. An injunction against tins 
violence was granted by the Federal court. 

In 1943 U. S. railroads, still in the hands of 
their owners, were cooperating with one an¬ 
other and with the Government in the move¬ 
ment of troops and war supplies. The recent 
history of railroads and labor will be found 
under United States History. 

The most valuable collection of facts re¬ 
lating to the general management of the 
United States railroads and their relations to 
the public is found in the Annual Reports 
of the Interstate Commerce Commission and 
in its volumes giving the Decisions of that 
body and the Annual Statistics of Railways . 

Consult also the Bulletins of the Bureau 
of Railway Economics, Emory R. Johnson 
and T. W. Van Metre’s Principles of Rail¬ 
road Transportation (1921); Ripley’s Rail- 



Railroad Worm 


3922 


Railway! 


roads, Finance and Organization (1915) j 
William T. Jackman’s Economics of Trans¬ 
portation (1926); Stuart Daggett’s Princi¬ 
ples of Inland Transportation (1928) ; Ray 
Morris’ Railroad Administration (1930). 

Railroad Worm, or Apple Maggot 
(.Rhagoletis pomonetta ), a small whitish mag¬ 
got which is widely distributed throughout 
the United States but is especially Injurious 
to the apple orchards of New England, East¬ 
ern New York, and Southeastern Canada. 
The fly, which is a little smaller than the 
house fly, with the abdomen banded with 
white and the wings with black, deposits 
her eggs beneath the skin of the apple, early 
varieties being most frequently chosen. The 
eggs thus deposited—12 to 15 in a single fruit 
—hatch after four or five days, and the small 
white maggots, with their hooklike mouth 
parts, burrow their way through the pulp, 
leaving a small brown track or tunnel. After 
they have completed their growth, they bore 
their way out of the fruit and enter the 
ground, where they remain during the win¬ 
ter, the adult fly emerging in July. The only 
measure for controlling this pest Is to destroy 
the affected apples as fast as they drop to 
the ground. 

Railway Brotherhoods, a name generally 
applied to the four largest and most impor¬ 
tant unions of American railroad employees, 
namely the Brotherhood of Locomotive En¬ 
gineers, the Brotherhood of Locomotive 
Firemen and Enginemen, the Brotherhood of 
Railway Trainmen, and the Order of Rail¬ 
way Conductors. They are organized inde¬ 
pendently of the general union movement, 
as exemplified by the American Federation 
of Labor, and have certain common char¬ 
acteristics which distinguish them from other 
trade unions. Each of the orders includes 
practically all the men in its field, and each 
is countrywide In its jurisdiction; all depre¬ 
cate the sympathetic strike and advocate 
the open shop, and all emphasize fraternal 
and benevolent features as well as wage 
schedules, hours of labor, gradations and 
promotions, and other questions with which 
labor organizations commonly deal. They 
lay special stress also upon the personal 
character and conduct of their members, 
and seek, so far as may be, to cultivate amic¬ 
able relations between capital and labor. 

Though, in common with other associations 
of wage-earners, the brotherhoods seek the 
most favorable conditions of employment for 
their members and occasionally expend large 
sums for strike purposes, they devote by 


far the greater part of their revenues to the 
payment” of death and disability insurance. 

Other beneficiary features include employ¬ 
ment bureaus, pension funds, funds for the 
care of dependents of deceased members, 
and a Home for Disabled Railroad Men, 
maintained jointly by the four organizations 
at Highland Park, Ill. Affiliated with each 
of the brotherhoods is a ladies’ auxiliary. 

The oldest of the railway brotherhoods is 
the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, 
formed at Detroit, Aug. 17, 1863, and re¬ 
organized under its present name the year 
following. The Order of Railway Conduc¬ 
tors, the second oldest national association 
of railway employees in the United States, 
was instituted at Mendota, Ill., July 6, 1868, 
by representatives from local unions at Am¬ 
boy and Galesburg. The Brotherhood of 
Locomotive Firemen, next in age to the Con¬ 
ductors, was organized in 1873 at Port Jer¬ 
vis, N. Y. The Brotherhood of Railway 
Trainmen was organized in 1883, and in¬ 
cludes conductors, baggagemen, brakemen, 
flagmen, and swtichmen in train and yard 
service. 

Railways, a term frequently used inter¬ 
changeably with railroads. For the purposes 
of the present article it will be confined to 
Electric Railways, Mono-railways, Mountain 
Railways, and Military Railways. Electric 
Railways include trunk lines on which steam 
has been superseded by electricity, urban and 
interurban surface lines (see Street Rail¬ 
ways) , and elevated and underground sys¬ 
tems. 

Elevated and Underground Railways .—• 
The problem of metropolitan rapid transit 
has been largely met by means of overhead 
and underground railways. Such lines are 
intended almost wholly for the conveyance 
of passengers and, as compared with trunk 
lines, are characterized by shortness of length 
and a high initial cost per mile. 

The first elevated railway was begun in 
New York City in 1867, and in 1871 regular 
service was commenced on the Ninth Avenue 
line, a three-car train drawn by a steam loco¬ 
motive being run as far n. as 30th Street. 
The distance covered was three miles with 
no intermediate stops, there was a single 
track, the fare was ten cents, and 53,912 
passengers were carried from April 9, when 
the road was opened, to Sept. 30. The ven¬ 
ture having proved successful, the work of 
doubling the track and extending the line 
was actively carried forward, and by 1876 
there was a double track from the Battery 



Railways 


3923 


Railways 


to 61st Street with stations between. Other 
lines soon followed not only in New York 
but in. Brooklyn, Jersey City, Chicago, Bos¬ 
ton, and Philadelphia in the United States, 
and in Berlin and Liverpool. 

The first underground railway was opened 
in London in 1853. In 18S6 a tunnel s J A 
m. long was bored for the City and South 
London Railway, and in 1893 an under¬ 
ground railway was built in Budapest. In 
the United States the first underground 
railway or subway was opened in Boston 
in 1897, the first New York subway was 
opened in 1904, and the combined elevated 
and underground system of Philadelphia in 
1905. Both underground and elevated rail¬ 
roads may be divided into three classes: Those 


pended below it, and thus preserve their bal¬ 
ance entirely by gravity; (2) those in which 
the vehicles are arranged pannierwise strad¬ 
dling the monorail, and the center of gravity 
more nearly approaches the top of the run¬ 
ning rail; (3) those in which the center of 
gravity is entirely above the running rail; 
(4) those in which the center of gravity is 
above the rail and the balance is obtained by 
a gyroscope or a rapidly spinning flywheel 
on board the car. 

Of the first system, the best known ex¬ 
ample is that of the suspended railway along 
the valley of the Wupper in Rhenish Prus¬ 
sia, from Elberfeld to Barmen. The line is 
814 miles long and proceeds partly through 
the main streets of the towns it traverses and 



for trains forming p system entirely inde¬ 
pendent of the means of conveyance on the 
surface of the street, as most of the New 
York lines; those for surface cars, in order 
to relieve congestion on crowded or narrow 
thoroughfares, as some. of the Boston sub¬ 
ways ; and those for the purpose of crossing 
obstacles to continuous transit, as the tun¬ 
nels under the East River in New York. (See 
Subways; Tunnei,s). 

Monorailways differ from the usual' type 
of. railway in that a single rail is used to sup¬ 
port the weight of the car, although there 
may be additional guide rails. They have 
proved successful in mines and quarries, for 
handling material in factories, and, to a lim¬ 
ited extent, for regular passenger traffic. 

Monorailways may be roughly divided 
into four classes: (1) Those in which the 
center of gravity is entirely .below ; the, sup¬ 
porting rail, so that the vehicles hang : ,su$- 


partly suspended over the course of the river 
Wupper. In the second class of monorailways 
the vehicles are arranged in duplicate, one on 
each side of the support rail, on which the 
wheels run (tandemwise). The first railway of 
this type appears to have been laid in 1825 
at Cheshunt in Hertfordshire, England, for 
the conveyance of bricks. A monorail system 
of this type was installed in 1910 on a short 
branch line of the New Haven Railroad run¬ 
ning through Pelham Bay Park to City 
Island, in the Borough of the Bronx, New 
York City. The line was abandoned, how¬ 
ever, after a limited period of use. Mono- 
rails of the third type are used extensively 
in sugar and coffee plantations, and form a 
very cheap and effective means of haulage 
of a temporary nature. 

■: The .fourth or gyroscopic class ...of mono- 
railway depends on the tendency of a rapidly 
spinning heavy wheel to.. maintain ' the plane 



3924 


Rainfall 


Railways 

of its motion, no matter what movement 
may be impressed on its support, a principle 
which has already been successfully used in 
vessels to prevent or minimize pitching and 
rolling, and in aircraft (see Gyroscope). 
Since 1907 many experiments have been made 
on this line. Somewhat extravagant claims 
have been made for the gyroscopic type of 
monorail by those who think that it is des¬ 
tined eventually to revolutionize traffic, and 
it has been predicted by some that the rail¬ 
way train of the future may be run on a 
loosely hung cable, even across deep gorges, 
doing away with all costly systems of con¬ 
structions, embankments, bridges, and the 
like. 

Mountain Railways .—Railways passing 
through mountainous districts constitute a 
special class on account of the steep grad¬ 
ients necessitated, the considerable heights 
which often must be surmounted in a lim¬ 
ited distance, and the special dangers, such 
as avalanches, torrents, and landslips, which 
must be guarded against in construction. The 
rack railway is the commonest system where 
the gradient of the line is too steep to allow 
the load or train to be hauled up in the usual 
manner by self-propelled vehicles, such as 
steam-engines and electric motors, or to al¬ 
low of loads being lowered by means of 
ordinary brakes attached to the running 
wheels of the train. On a bed of coarse gravel 
steel rails are laid on steel sleepers with the 
rack in the center of the line. This consists 
essentially of some form of rackwork or sys¬ 
tem of teeth, running longitudinally with the 
railway, into which cog wheels on the engine 
gear, thus providing a positive grip for these 
toothed driving wheels to which power can 
be applied for hauling up the loads, and 
powerful band brakes can. be attached for 
lowering the load. On some lines, as the Gor- 
nergrat and the Jungfrau in the Alps, elec¬ 
tricity is the motive power. Cable railways 
are used up to a maximum gradient of 650 in 
i,ooo, the Beatenberg, Lugano, Stanzerhorn, 
and other Alpine lines being of this construc¬ 
tion. 

Military Railways may be classified as (1) 
those that are built and operated within the 
field of the enemy’s observation and fire— 
combat railways; and (2) those that are 
built beyond the range of hostile observation 
and fire—supply lines. 

Combat railways are practically always of 
narrow gauge and in most cases are of port¬ 
able track similar to that used in mines and 
industrial works. They must be capable of 


transporting guns, ammunition, and other 
supplies, as well as of bringing up reinforce¬ 
ments rapidly, conveying working parties to 
and from work, and removing sick and 
wounded to the rear. Supply railroads are 
constructed to convey troops and supplies 
from the base to the front in time of war, and 
to connect permanent camps with the nearest 
existing railway. They vary from a light 
portable track to a standard gauge line, the 
principal considerations in their construction 
being the amount of troops, supplies, and ani¬ 
mals to be handled, the time available for 
construction, and the amount of transporta¬ 
tion necessary to place supplies on the work. 
See also Railroads. 

Rain. See Rainfall. 

Rainbow. When the sun shines on falling 
rain, a rainbow, or arc of prismatic colors, 
is seen on the rain. The phenomenon is due 
to the combined effects of refraction and in¬ 
terference of the solar rays as they pass 
through the falling raindrops. The arc has a 
radius of from 40 0 to 42^°, and the colors 
are arranged in the order of the spectrum— 
red being outside, and then orange, yellow, 
green, blue, indigo, and violet. The purity of 
the color phenomena depends on the size 
and uniformity of the drops of rain. The 
amount of the circle visible at any moment is 
determined by the altitude of the sun. The 
ordinary or primary rainbow is caused by one 
reflection and two refractions of the rays of 
light from the inner surfaces of the raindrops 
and through them, while the secondary bow 
is occasioned by two reflections and two re¬ 
fractions. 

Rainbow Trout, a richly colored Califor¬ 
nian trout (Salmo irideus ). It has been ex¬ 
tensively acclimatized in the Eastern United 
States and elsewhere. It is also the name of 
the Rocky Mountain trout. 

Rain Crow, an American tree cuckoo (ge¬ 
nus Coccyzus), especially the Yellow Billed 
Cuckoo (C. americanus ). It is supposed to 
foretell rain by its cries, heard in lowering 
weather. 

Raines, John (1840-1909), American legis¬ 
lator, was born in Geneva, N. Y. He was a 
member of the New York assembly (1881-2 
and 18S5), a State senator (1886-9, 1S94- 
1909), and a member of Congress (1889-93). 
He was the author of the New York liquor 
legislation known as the ‘Raines Law,’ which 
stipulated that liquor could be sold on Sun- 
days in New York State only by licensed ho¬ 
tels containing at least ten bedrooms. 

Rainfall is the water that is precipitated 



Rainfall 


3925 


from the atmosphere in either the liquid or 
solid condition. The quantity of water that 
can exist in the atmosphere as a vapor varies 
with the temperature. When the maximum 
amount of vapor for any given temperature 
is present, the vapor is said to be saturated; 
and if the air is cooled below the point of 
saturation, a part of the vapor is condensed, 
and will fall as rain. Precipitation is facili¬ 
tated by the presence of nuclei on which the 
drops of water form. These nuclei of con¬ 
densation may be minute solid cr liquid par¬ 
ticles, or even the ions resulting from th<* 
dissociation of atmospheric molecules. When 
condensation takes place below the freezing 
point, snow is formed. Snow, if melted, will 
yield in water, on the average, one-tenth of 
its original depth. 

. The co °ling of air necessary for condensa¬ 
tion may take place in the following ways: 

( 1 ) ky contact of the air with colder land or 
water surfaces; (2) by the radiation of heat 
into space or to the earth; (3) by the mix¬ 
ture of comparatively warm and moist air 
with that which is colder and drier; (4) by 
the cooling of air due to its own expansion 
when^ it passes into a region of lower atmo¬ 
spheric pressure, either as an ascending cur¬ 
rent due to the displacement of heated lower 
air by colder air from above, as a part of the 
revolving and ascending winds in an area of 
low barometric pressure, or by the more di¬ 
rect ascent when forced up a mountain slope. 
The last named process is very effective in 
the formation of clouds and rain, and the re¬ 
gions of heaviest rainfall are found where 
moisture-laden winds from the ocean are de¬ 
flected upward by mountain ranges. It fol¬ 
lows that the distribution of rainfall is largely 
influenced by the direction of the prevailing 
winds, the occurrence of cyclonic storms, the 
topography of the land surface, and the re¬ 
lation of land and water areas. 

In summer the continents are hotter than 
the oceans, and the surface winds tend to 
blow from the sea to the land; in winter both 
of these conditions are reversed. The move¬ 
ment of the sun north and south of the equa¬ 
tor causes a corresponding north and south 
periodic shift of the wind belts and tempera¬ 
ture zones. All these causes combine to pro- 
/ duee seasonal ■variations in rainfall, resulting 
in some localities in wet and dry seasons. 

There is a normal increase of rainfall with 
altitude up to a certain point, above which 
it again decreases, on account of the smaller 
capacity for water vapor of the colder upper 
strata. The heaviest annual precipitation in 


Rain-in-the-Face 


the United States is found in western Wash¬ 
ington and north-western Oregon, with an 
average of 80 to 100 inches. It sometimes ex¬ 
ceeds 126 inches for a single year at Neah 
Bay, Washington, and in 1896, at Glenora, 
Oregon, situated at a moderate elevation in 
the Coast Range, it ^amounted to 169 inches. 
The coast rainfall decreases rapidly toward 
the s., falling to 22 inches at San Francisco 
and to rather less than this amount at San 
Diego. 

The great masses of the Sierra Nevada and 
Cascade Mts. extending at right angles to the 
prevailing winds, deprive the states to the 
eastward of the rain that falls abundantly on 
their western slopes, and the plateau lying 
between these ranges and the Rockies is the 
most extensive arid region of the United 
States. On the eastern slope of the Rocky 
Mts. the rainfall is at first deficient, but in¬ 
creases steadily as we go eastward, amounting 
to from 48 to 60 inches over the greater part 
of the Gulf and S. Atlantic states, with a 
maximum of 70 in limited areas of Georgia 
and the Carolinas, where moisture from the 
Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic is deposited 
on the slopes of the Appalachians. 

Rain-gauge, an instrument for measuring 
rainfall, consisting of a cylindrical, vertical 
metal vessel, whose sharp-edged top, of 
known diameter, is connected with a funnel 
that conducts the rain into an inner vessel. 

Rainer, Luise (1911- ), Austrian ac¬ 

tress. She won favor in Saint Joan, American 
Tragedy and Men in White. In 1935 she 
made her debut on the screen in Escapade. 
Her appearances as Anna Held in The Great 
Ziegfeld (1936) and O-lan in The Good 
Earth (1937) enhanced her reputation. She 
married Clifford Odets in 1936. In 1936 and 
I 937 she won the Award of the New York 
Dramatic Critics. 

Rainier, or Tacoma, Mount, a mountain 
on the w. flank of the Cascade Range, in the 
s. part of Pierce co., Wash., about 41 m. s.e. 
of Tacoma city. It is a dormant volcano. The 
imposing cone towers 14,363 ft. above sea 
level. Thick forests cover the lower region of 
the mountain, while higher up there are 14 
glaciers. Vancouver discovered Rainier in 
1792 and named it in honor of Rear-Admiral 
Rainier, of the British Navy. 

Rain-in-the-Face .(?-i9b'$)., a chief of the 
Uncpapa tribe of the Si.oux Indians, who 
came into prominence in 1876 as a leader in 
the Sioux outbreak of that year in the Yel¬ 
lowstone region, when the Indians surround¬ 
ed and killed Gen. George A. Custer and fiw 



Rains 


3926 


Raleigh 


companies of the 7th Cavalry, on the little 
Big Horn river, Montana, June 25, 1876. 

Rains, Claude (1SS9- )? English ac¬ 

tor. In 1915 he left the stage, to join Eng¬ 
land’s armed forces. After his discharge in 
1919 he appeared in numerous plays. In 1926 
he visited America again. After wavering 
between the N. Y. and London stage he 
finally went to Hollywood where his first 
film, The Invisible Man, won world-wide 
renown. Perhaps his most outstanding pic¬ 
ture is Anthony Adverse (1936). 

Rains ford, William Stephen (1850- 
1933), clergyman, was born in Ireland.- From 
1S7S to 1883 he was assistant rector at St. 


army, was kidnapped on July 2, 1907. Raisuli 
was largely responsible for the uprising of the 
tribesmen which forced French interference in 
Morocco in Aug., 1907. 

Rajah, or more correctly Raja, a Hindu 
ruler, or a Hindu title. In patriarchal times 
the rajah was the head of clans banded to¬ 
gether for mutual protection. The head of a 
confederacy of rajahs came to be distin¬ 
guished by the title of maharajahs or great 
rajah. The British have recognized these 
maharajahs as autocratic rulers. 

Rajputana, or ‘the land of the Rajputs,’ 
is the Indian territory between the Bombay 
Presidency and the United Provinces, with 



© Ewing Galloway, N. Y. 

Mt. Rainier, Washington, 


James’s Cathedral in Toronto. In the latter 
year he was called to the 'rectorship of St. 
George’s P. E. Church, New York city. He 
resigned in 1906. 

Raisins are dried grapes. They are pro¬ 
duced chiefly in warm countries and contain 
28 to 30 per cent, of sugar. California is the 
chief state of production in the United States, 
the annual pack being from 75,000,000 to 
120,000,000 pounds. Muscatels are dried in 
Europe, while still attached to the vine. In 
California the fruit is cut off the vines and 
for the most part sun-cured. 

Raisuli, Mulai ben Mohammed (c. 
1867-1914), Moroccan bandit. He captured 
Ion Perdicaris, and kept him a prisoner from 
March, 1904, until June, when he released 
him upon the payment of a heavy ransom by 
the Sultan. Raid Gen. Sir Harry A. Maclean, 
a British officer, commander of the Moroccan 


the Punjab on the n. The British province of 
Ajmer-Merwara, having an area of 2,711 sq. 
m., is enclosed by 18 native states and two 
chiefships, of which the aggregate area is 
about 130,000 sq. m. Over half of the popu¬ 
lation is engaged in agriculture, and cattle 
raising is of great importance. The Rajputs 
form the aristocracy of the country and hold 
most of the land; they are a nation of war¬ 
rior^ p. 9,844,384. 

Rakoczy March, the national air of the 
Hungarians, said to have been composed in 
the 17th century, and to have been the favor¬ 
ite of Francis 11. 

Raleigh, city, capital of North Carolina, 
and co. seat of Wake co. It is the seat of 
St. Mary’s College (Episcopal), Meredith 
College for Women (Baptist), Peace Insti¬ 
tute for Aoung Women (Presbyterian), a 
business college, and the North Carolina 



Raleigli 


3927 


Raleigli 


State College of Agriculture and Engineering. 
Raleigh is an important industrial city, with 
cotton mills, wood-working and printing es¬ 
tablishments, iron foundries, and manufac¬ 
tures of hosiery, yarns, underwear, school 
supplies, cotton oil, fertilizers, etc. In 1792 
the site of the present city was chosen by 
the legislature for the location of the State 
capital. General Sherman and his troops 
occupied Raleigh in the spring of 1865; p. 
46,897. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter (1861-1922), English 
man of letters, was educated at Cambridge. 
He occupied the chair of English language 
and literature in Glasgow University "from 
1890 to 1904, when he was appointed to the 
same chair at Oxford. In 1915 he spent sev¬ 
eral months in the United States, lecturing at 
Princeton and Brown Universities. His works 
include The English Novel (1894); Robert 
Louis Stevenson (1895) ; Style (1897) ; Mil- 
ton (1900); Wordsworth (1903); The Eng¬ 
lish Voyagers of the 16th Century (1906); 
Six Essays on Johnson (1910) ; Romance 
(1917); England and the War (1918); The 
War in the Air (1:922). 

Raleigh, Sir Walter (1552-1618), English 
courtier. He joined the ill-fated expedition 
of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, his half brother, 
in 1578; in 1580 he assisted in quelling an 
insurrection in Ireland, and later served in 



Sir Waller Raleigh. 

(From the painting in the National Por¬ 
trait Gallery f London.) 


the Netherlands. During the next few years 
he sent out expeditions to America, explored 
the seaboard from Florida to Newfoundland, 
planted a settlement on Roanoke Island, on 


the Carolina coast (1585), which proved a 
failure, and christened Virginia, to which, in 
after years, he sent other expeditions. He 
was the means through which the potato 
and tobacco plant were introduced and cul¬ 
tivated in England. His influence at court 
was often great, and he devoted all his ener- 



Statue of Raineses II. 
Found at Tanis } Now at Turin. 


gies to crippling the power of Spain. In 
1592 he prepared an expedition, which sailed 
under Frobisher, but the same year was him¬ 
self sent to the Tower as a punishment for a 
court intrigue. In 1595 he sailed up the Ori¬ 
noco, but was unable to establish any per¬ 
manent settlement. In 1596 he took part in 
an expedition against Spain. In 1600 Raleigh 
was made governor of Jersey. 

Upon the accession of James 1. Raleigh 
fell into disfavor and in 1603, being suspected 
of complicity with Cobham in a plot against 



Ralph 


3928 


Ramsay 


the king, he was sent to the Tower and tried 
for high treason. But though condemned to 
death ne was reprieved and allowed to make 
an expedition to Guiana in quest of gold. 
The expedition was a failure, and Raleigh 
was executed on Oct. 29, 1618. A poet, a 
philosopher, and a historian, as well as an 
explorer, Raleigh was the embodiment of 
the Elizabethan age. 

Ralph, Julian (1853-1903), American au¬ 
thor and journalist, born in New York city. 
At various times he was connected with thv. 
Daily Graphic, Sun, Herald, and Journal, all 
of New York, and achieved a wide reputa¬ 
tion as a correspondent. He was with the 
Turkish army in 1897, and in 1899 went to 
South Africa as the correspondent of the | 
London Daily Mail. 

Ram, the protruding and strengthened bow 
given to many men-of-war of past centuries 
*0 be used as a weapon against an enemy’s 
vessel. A beak of much the same kind, but 
usually above instead of below water, was 
anciently fitted to the galleys of the Romans 
and their successors. Modern experience 
seems to indicate that the ram is as dangerous 
to friend as to foe. 

Ramadan, the ninth month of the Moham¬ 
medan year. The fast of Ramadan was in¬ 
stituted by Mohammed, and is one of the 
cardinals points of Islam. 

Ramayana, a great epic, which shares with 
the Mahdbkdrata the veneration of all pious 
Hindus. It is the work of an inspired Brah¬ 
man named Valmiki, and describes the wan¬ 
derings of Rama, the seventh incarnation of 
/ishnu. It assumed its present form towards 
the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 3d 
century b.c. The precepts of the M^hdbhd- 
rata point the paths of duty and obedience, 
and insist upon their fulfillment, whatever 
the cost or the personal sacrifice; the Rdmd- 
yana, more sympathetic and humane, empha¬ 
sizes the joys of homely life, and lays stress 
upon filial, fraternal, and conjugal affection, 
pure, unselfish devotion to relatives and 
neighbors. 

Siameses, name of several Egyptian Phar¬ 
aohs. Rameses ii., who reigned from 1300 to 
1230 b.c., is one of the greatest of Egyptian 
kings.^ He not only defeated a powerful coal¬ 
ition in Syria and so secured the north-east¬ 
ern frontier of his dominions, but he com¬ 
pleted the conquest of Ethiopia. He is fa¬ 
mous as the builder of some of the most im¬ 
posing of ancient Egyptian edifices and public 
works. Rameses in. reigned from 1180 to 
11:50 b.c., waged successful war against the 


Nubians, and cleared Egypt of the sea-Pi- 
rates. He built the beautiful temple of Med- 
inet-Abu and other monumental works. Ow¬ 
ing to Herodotus’s story of his treasury, his 
name was famed for great wealth. 

Ramganga, Western, riv., United Prov¬ 
inces, India, rises in Himalayas, and after a 
south-easterly course joins the Ganges nearly 
opposite Kanauj. 

Ramie, or China Grass, the bast fibre ob¬ 
tained from the inner side of the bark of two 
varieties of a plant belonging to the order 
Urticaceae. These plants, Boehm eria nivea 
and B. n. tenacissima, grow largely in India 
and neighboring countries, and are of great 
economic importance. The fibres are among 
the strongest and finest of all known textile 
materials. 

RampoIIa, Mariano, Marchess del Tin- 

daro (1843-1913), cardinal and papal secre¬ 
tary of state, born at Polizzi, Sicily. In 1869, 
he entered the papal service, and in 1875 was 
appointed counsellor of the papal embassy at 
Madrid. From 1880 to 1882 he was secretary 
of ecclesiastical affairs, and in 1882 became 
papal nuncio at Madrid, where he did good 
service in the dispute between Germany and 
Spain with regard to the Caroline Islands. 
In 1887 he was created a cardinal, and in 
May of the same year became under-secre¬ 
tary of state, and shortly afterwards secre¬ 
cy of state to Leo xm. He resigned in 
1903. 

Rampur, tn., cap. of feudatory state, Unit¬ 
ed Provinces, India, 38 m. n.w. of Bareilly; 
manufactures damask, pottery, and jewelry. 
The state of the same name has an area of 
899 sq. m. of level and fertile country and a 
population of 450,000. The town has a mod¬ 
ern fort, fine government buildings, and an 
important Arabic college; p. 73,156. 
..Rampur-Beautealt, chief to., Rajshahi 
dist, Bengal, India. Industries, silk and in¬ 
digo; p. 21,589. 

Ramsay, Allan (1686-1758), Scottish 
writer. About 1719 he set up as a bookseller 
in Edinburgh. In 1725 he published the work 
which makes his name live— The Gentle 
Shepherd, a dramatic pastoral. His place in 
literature is determined by the fact that he 
revived Scottish vernacular poetry which had 
been dormant for a century, and prepared 
the way for Fergusson and Burns. 

Ramsay, Sir William (1852-1916) , Scot¬ 
tish chemist, was born in Glasgow, and was 
appointed professor of chemistry in Universi- 
ty College, Bristol, in 1880. In 1887 he was 
elected to the chair of chemistry in Univer- 



Ramsey 

sity College, London. Although Ramsay's 
first work was in organic chemistry, he soon 
turned his attention to what was then a 
new branch of the subject—physical chemis¬ 
try—and became its leading exponent in 
Great Britain. In 1893 Lord Rayleigh’s dis¬ 
covery of a difference between the density of 
the nitrogen obtained from the atmosphere 
and that from chemical compounds, led 
Ramsay to investigate the matter, which 
ended in his discovery, jointly with Ray¬ 
leigh, of the element argon, a gas of hitherto 
unknown properties. Pursuing his investiga¬ 
tions, he afterward isolated four more gase¬ 
ous elements—helium, xenon, krypton, and 
neon. Possessed of great powers as a teacher, 
and of a personality that infected with en¬ 
thusiasm, he founded a school of workers 
that produced a mass of interesting results. 
He was awarded (1904) the Nobel prize in 
chemistry. 

Ramsey, Alexander (1815-1903), Ameri¬ 
can politician, born near Harrisburg, Pa. He 
was the first territorial governor of Minn, in 
i849-S3- He became mayor of St. Paul in 
1855; was governor of Minn, during 1S59- 
63, and was U. S. Senator. In 1879 he suc¬ 
ceeded George W. McCrary as Secretary of 
War; during 1882-84 he was chairman of 
the Utah commission. 

Ranee, Armand Jean le Bouthillier de 
(1626-1700), founder of the Trappists, born 
of a noble family of Paris, was a great fa¬ 
vorite at court, but retired to the abbey of 
La Trappe, where he instituted the severe 
discipline for which that monastery is cele¬ 
brated. 

Ranch, or Range, the unenclosed area on 
which cattle and sheep are grazed in the 
Western states of the U. S., the graziers and 
their assistants being known as ranchmen, 
ranchers, rangers, and cowboys. Ordinarily 
the term ranch is used to designate privately 
owned land, with the stock-yords, buildings, 
etc., while range denotes grazing grounds in 
general. Ranching is associated with Texas, 
Kansas, New Mexico, Arizona, Wyoming, 
Colorado, Montana, Idaho, California, and 
Oregon. The enormous ranges of Argentina 
and Uruguay and the ‘stations’ of Australia 
are corresponding institutions. See T. Roose¬ 
velt’s Ranch Life and the Hunting Trail 
(1889). 

Rancidity, the change that takes place in 
the ‘non-drying’ oils and fats when they are 
exposed to air and light. The change is rec¬ 
ognized by the development of an objection- 


Randolph 

able smell and taste, due to the formation of 
free fatty adds. 

Rand, Benjamin, author (1856-1934), 
born in Canning, Nova Scotia, was educated 
at Acadia College, Harvard U., and Heidel¬ 
berg U. He is emeritus librarian of philoso¬ 
phy at Harvard U., and among other works 
has written, Bibliography of Economics, 
(1:895), Modern Classical Philosophers 
(1907), Locke’s Essay (1931), Berkeley’s Am¬ 
erican Sojourn (1932). 

Hand, The, popular name of the rich gold- 
mining district of the Witwatersrand, w. of 
Johannesburg, Transvaal Colony, British S. 
Africa. Discovered in 1884, the Rand mines 
had, when the war broke out in 1899, an out¬ 
put of 4,256,800 oz. in the year. 

Randall, Alexander Williams (1819- 
72), American politician, born in Ames, 
Montgomery co., N. Y. He moved with his 
father to Waukesha, Wis. In 1855 was ap¬ 
pointed judge of the Milwaukee circuit 
court; in 1857 and 1859 was elected gov¬ 
ernor. He was minister to Italy in 1861, first 
assistant postmaster-general in 1862, and 
postmaster-general in 1866, and held the last- 
mentioned office until the close of Johnson’s 
administration. 

Randall, James Ryder (1839-1908), Am¬ 
erican journalist and poet, born at Balti¬ 
more. The attack on the Massachusetts and 
Pennsylvania troops in Baltimore on April 
19, 1861, inspired his poem, ‘Maryland, My 
Maryland,’ which, set to music, has beer 
called “The Marseillaise of the South.’ Ran¬ 
dall wrote several other war songs. In 1865 
he joined the staff of the Augusta (Ga.) 
Constitutionalist, and in 1866 became its 
editor-in-chief. In 1905 he became editor 
of the New Orleans Morning Star . 

Randall, Samuel Jackson (1828-90), 
American politician, born in Philadelphia. He 
served in the Civil War; was elected to Con¬ 
gress as a Democrat in 1862, and served con¬ 
tinuously from 1863 until his death in 1890. 

Randolph, .Edmund ■■■ Jennings (1753- 
1813), American statesman, born in Wil¬ 
liamsburg, Va. In 1786 he succeeded Patrick 
Henry as governor of Virginia, holding that 
office until 17S8. He was a member of the 
Virginia constitutional convention of 1776 
and of the Continental Congress during 
1779-S2. He became the first attorney-gen¬ 
eral under the new government and succeed¬ 
ed Jefferson as secretary of state in 1794. 

Randolph, I sham (1848-1920), American 
engineer, was a member of the Board of the 


3929 



Randolph __ 3930 __ j^ange 

Isthmian Canal Commission. In 1880 he be- In 1807 he was foreman of the grand jury 
came chief engineer of the Chicago & Western which indicted Aaron Burr for treason. He 
Railroad and of the Belt Railway of Chi- was a member of the Virginia constitutional 
cago; in 1.SS5, the general consulting engi- convention of 1829. By his will, made in 
neer of Chicago; in 1S93, chief engineer of 1821, he emancipated his slaves, 
the sanitary district of Chicago, and brought Randolph, Peyton (1723-75), American 
to a successful conclusion the excavation and patriot, born in Williamsburg, Va. He served 
improvements of the Chicago river. in the French and Indian War; drew up the 

Randolph, John, ‘of Roanoke’ (1773- remonstrance of the Burgesses against the 
I S33), American statesman, born at Cawsons, proposed Stamp Act; became chairman of the 
Chesterfield co., Va., June 2, 1773. In 1790 committee of correspondence and was pres- 
he went to. Philadelphia, where he studied ident of the Virginia Committee of Safety 
law with his kinsman, Edmund Randolph, in 1774. He was president of the first and 
whom Washington had made attorney-gen- second Continental Congresses, 
eral of the United States. The ratification of Randolph-Macon System of Colleges 



Ranching. 

hor P ses T Rii C ht 1 ^1°“^ r , anch . (P . h ° to b y Pierce ’ Los Angeles); Left, Branding wild 
& Undwwoodf tUe r ° Und ' Up m Arlzona < from stereographs, Copyright by Underwood 


the Jay Treaty with England, in 1796, 
roused his.strong opposition, and caused him 
to side with the faction in Virginia which 
consistently opposed the Federal government, 
and whose state’s rights views were embod¬ 
ied in the Virginia resolutions of 1798. In 
the latter years, notwithstanding the power¬ 
ful opposition of Patrick Henry, he was 
elected a representative in Congress, taking 
his seat in December, 1799. Although a mem¬ 
ber of the minority, he at once took a promi- 
nent part in debate, and in December, 1801, 
was made chairman of the committee of 
ways. and means, a position which carried 
with it the leadership of the House. He sup¬ 
ported Jefferson In the purchase of Louisiana. 


and Academies. A group of educational in • 
stitutions in Virginia under Methodist con¬ 
trol. It consists of Randolph-Macon College 
for men at Ashland, chartered in 1830, with 
two academies, at Front Royal and Bedford 
City; and Randolph Macon Woman’s Col¬ 
lege, at Lynchburg, established in 1893, with 
Randolph-Macon Institute, at Danville. 

Range Finders. Modern long-range guns 
require a more accurate knowledge of the 
distance to the target than was necessary for 
the old-fashioned muzzle-loaders. A great 
many instruments of various patterns have 
been devised for the purpose of measuring 
ranges, which are generally not possible of 
direct measurement, on account of inter- 








Rangeley 


3931 


vening natural objects which are impassable, 
such as a river, or because of the proximity 
of the enemy. Of these the Barr and Stroud, 
and the Bausch and Lomb are used in the 
navy; the Lewis, in the army. 

Rangeley Lakes, a series of connected 
lakes in Franklin and Oxford cos., Maine. 
The area of the lakes is about 80 sq. m., and 
their altitudes vary between 1,200 and 1,500 
ft. They are a favorite resort for fishing 
and hunting. 

Ranger, Henry Ward (1858-1916), Am¬ 
erican landscape painter, born in New York 
city, educated at Syracuse University. His 
works, in which New England hillsides and 
autumn woods are conspicuous, rank high 
with the best contemporary American land¬ 
scape painting. Among the most noted are: 
Morning at Highbridge, The Top of the Hill 
(in the Corcoran Gallery, Washington), An 
East River Idyll (in the Carnegie Museum, 
Pittsburgh), and Bradley’s Mill Pond. 

Rangers, United States. Seventeen com¬ 
panies of infantry were organized during the 
War of 1812 under the name of Rangers and 
were made a part of the regular army of the 
United States, until mustered out of service 
in the reorganization of 1815. A large num¬ 
ber of Rangers were mustered into the service 
in the Mexican War, where they proved 
themselves of the highest efficiency. Com¬ 
panies of Rangers are maintained at present 
in some of the Southwestern states. 

Rangoon, tn., cap. of Lower Burma, on 
Rangoon R., is the chief seaport of Burma. 
The original town is surrounded by terraced 
and fortified pagodas, conspicuous among 
them being the Shway-Dagon (6th century). 
Rangoon came into British possession in 
1852, and since then it has been transformed 
into a properous modern mercantile city. 
Its principal exports are timber, petroleum, 
rice, and spices; p.400,000. 

Ran jit Singh (1780-1839), Sikh prince, 
who became monarch of the Punjab, the in¬ 
dependence ' of which he maintained against 
Afghanistan. He obtained from Shah Shuja, 
Afghan refugee, the. Koh-i-nur diamond. 

Rankin, Jeannette ,(1:880- . ) , Ameri¬ 

can public official, was born. in .Montana.; 
She studied at the School of Philanthropy in 
New York City, did social service work in 
Seattle, was active in the National Ameri¬ 
can Woman Suffrage Association, and was 
elected in 1917 to Congress, being the first 
woman ever to sit in the House of Repre¬ 


Rape 

sentatives. She became a member of the 77th. 
congress (1941-1943). 

Ransom, a sum paid as an equivalent for 
the release of a captive. In early times ran¬ 
soms were looked upon as prize money, and 
formed a substitute for pay, and even for 
war indemnities in the case of captured kings 
and great nobles. Ransoms were sometimes 
crushing, as in the case of Richard 1. of 
England and of John of France. In the 16th 
century an officer’s ransom amounted to one 
quarter of his annual pay. At the Revolution 
the custom of ransom was abolished in favor 
of exchange by equality of ranks. 

Rantoul, Robert, Jr. (1805-52), American 
lawyer and politician, born in Beverly, Mass. 
In 1843 he became collector of the port, and 
during 1845-49 was United States district 
attorney for Massachusetts. He was a de¬ 
cided opponent of slavery, and in 1851 de¬ 
fended Thomas Sims, the first slave recov¬ 
ered under the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 
in Massachusetts. 

Ranuncuiaceae, a natural order of plants 
(the crowfoot family), mostly natives of 
temperate regions. The flowers generally 
have five sepals, five petals, numerous sta¬ 
mens inserted on the receptacle, and numer¬ 
ous ovaries. Among the genera are Ranuncu¬ 
lus, Adonis, Anemone, Clematis, Thalictrum, 
Trollius, Helleborus, Caltha, Paeonia, Del¬ 
phinium, Aquilegia, and Aconitum. 

Ranunculus, a genus of herbaceous plants 
belonging to the order Ranuncuiaceae. Among 
the species are the aquatic crowfoot ( R . del- 
phinifolius) and the field-buttercups of the 
naturalized species R. acris and R. bulbosus, 

Rapallo, seapt., winter resort and place of 
pilgrimage, Genoa prov., Italy, has manufac¬ 
tures of lace and olive oil. Scene of a con¬ 
ference of Allied statesmen and generals, 
Nov., 1917, during the World War. The 
treaty of Rapallo, signed Nov. 12, 1920, was 
an agreement between Italy and Yugoslavia 
providing for the surrender of Dalmatia by 
Italy and creating Fiume as a free state con¬ 
nected with Italy by a territorial ‘corridor’ 
along the sea coast; p. 12,000. 

Rape, an important cruciferous fodder 
plant which includes varieties of Brassica 
Napus. The cultivation of rape for forage 
is similar to that of other root crops, and it 
is used for fattening sheep, and as a cover- 
crop in orchards. '■ ' 

Rape, carnal knowledge of a female against 
her will by force, threats, or fraud. 



Raphael 


3932 


Raskob 


Raphael, Santi, Of 5 3. Ill 2220 

(1483-1520), the greatest Italian painter of 
the Roman school, was born at Urbino. 
Timoteo Viti was his first master, and he en¬ 
tered Perugino’s atelier in 1499 or 1500, 
where he was also under Pinturicchio’s influ¬ 
ence. He went to Florence in 1504, and came 
under the influence of Leonardo da Vinci 
and Michael Angelo. His extraordinary tal¬ 
ents developed rapidly. His distinguishing 
qualities were mastery of workmanship, per¬ 
fection of design and of form, harmonious 
beauty and serenity of expression, balanced 
by refinement of taste and purity of color. 
In 1508 he was summoned to Rome by Pope 
Julius n. to decorate the state apartments in 
the Vatican, a task for which he collected a 
school of artists to aid him. He decorated 
the ceilings and walls of four apartments. 
Of his many Madonnas the finest are the Del 
Grandma, Del Car dolma, the Del Fcligno 
(Vatican), and the magnificent San Sisto 
(Dresden). Among his finest portraits are 
Julius 11. (Uffizi), La Donna Velata (Pitti), 
and Joanna of Aragon (Louvre). So beloved 
was he that all classes mourned his death. 
His body lay in state with his unfinished 
Transfiguration suspended above it, and he 
was buried in the Pantheon at Rome. See 
Vasari’s Life (ed. 1878), Eng. trans. by 
Blashfield and Hopkins (1896). 

Raphia, a genus of tropical palms, mostly 
natives of Africa, with elongated flowers and 
long, equally pinnatisect leaves. R. ruffia, a 
native of the Mascarene' Is., furnishes, in its 
leaves, the fibre known as raffia, which is im¬ 
ported as a ‘tie’ material for plant nurseries, 
fancy work, etc. 

Rapid Fire Girns. See Guns. 

Rapids, a part of a river in which the cur¬ 
rent flows more rapidly than usual as it 
passes over some resistant band of rock. 
Rapids are usually barriers to upward navi¬ 
gation, although not necessarily so to down¬ 
stream traffic. They are valuable as sources 
of mechanical power. 

Rapier, a long, light, edgeless, and narrow 
sword, adapted for thrusting rather than for 
cutting. The blade has a lozenge-shaped sec¬ 
tion. The rapier was introduced in England 
from Spain, and in the 16th century was the 
c avorite duelling weapon. 

Rapp, George (1770-1847). Founder of 
the Harmonists, born in Germany. He emi¬ 
grated to Pennsylvania in 1803. There in 
Butler co. he founded a society in which all 
things were held in common, and both sexes 


agreed to observe the rule of celibacy. In 
1815 the community removed to Indiana, 
and there established the town of New Har¬ 
mony. Nine years afterward, however, they 
sold out to Robert Owen, and, returning to 
Pa., established the village of Economy in 
Beaver co. 

Rappahannock River, a stream which 
rises in the Blue Ridge in Virginia, and pur¬ 
sues a general s.e. course, flowing into Chesa¬ 
peake Bay. Length, 250 m. The Rapidan is 
its chief tributary. 

Rapti, riv., United Provinces, India, rises 
in the Himalayas, runs s. and then n.w. into 
the Gogra. Length 400 m. 

Raqueite Lake, one of the numerous lakes 
of the Adirondack region, N. Y., in the n. 
part of Hamilton co. It is very irregular in 
shape and is about 10 m. long, and 1 to 2 l / 2 

m. wide. 

Rare Earths. The elements of the rare 
earths are metals that form earthy oxides 
and occur in a few minerals of complex com¬ 
position, chiefly found in Scandinavia and 
America. Orthite, cerite, gadolinite, mon- 
azite, and samarskite are among the chief. 
Although our knowledge of the rare earths 
is in some cases imperfect, several of them 
have technical applications. Thus cerium is 
used in medicine, thorium and cerium in in¬ 
candescent gas mantles, and yttrium and zir¬ 
conium in Nernst lamp ‘glowers.’ 

Raritan River, a stream of New Jersey, 
formed near Somerville by the junction of a 

n. and a s. branch, flowing e. to Raritan Bay, 
a western arm of Lower New York Bay, be¬ 
tween New Jersey and Staten Island. The 
chief cities on its banks are Perth Amboy on 
the n. side of its mouth, and New Bruns¬ 
wick, 15 m. above, where there are falls, to 
which it is navigable. At New Brunswick it 
is spanned by a stone railroad bridge. The 
river is 75 m. long. 

Rashes, the eruptions of such diseases as 
scarlet fever and measles. The term is usually 
applied only to those efflorescences which 
cover a considerable area of skin. 

Rashim, a deity of justice in the Persian 
religion of Zoroastrianism. He and Mithras 
are the judges who decide the fate of the soul 
after death. 

Raskob, John J. (1879- ),. American 
capitalist and public official, was born in 
Lockport, N. Y. He has been connected in 
many responsible positions first with the Du 
Pont de Nemours Co. and then the General 
Motors Corporation. In 1919 he was a mem- 



Raskolniki 


3933 


Ratibor 


ber of President Wilson’s Industrial Confer¬ 
ence. In 1928 he served as chairman of the 
Democratic National Committee. An active 
opponent of the prohibition laws, he polled 
the Democratic party leaders in 1931 to deter¬ 
mine their attitude toward repeal of the Eigh¬ 
teenth Amendment. Despite vigorous opposi¬ 
tion from Democrats m the south, he swung 
the party to repeal and was considered instru¬ 
mental in obtaining inclusion of a repeal plank 
in the platform upon which Franklin D. 
Roosevelt was elected President in 1932. 

Raskolniki, dissenters, members of non- 
comformist sects which have seceded from 
the Russian church. 

Rasmussen, Knud (Johann Victor) 

(1879-1933), Danish Arctic explorer, born at 
Jakobshavn, Greenland, the son of a mission¬ 
ary and his Eskimo wife. After an excursion 
to Lapland (1901) he joined Mylius Erich- 
sen’s North Greenland expedition as ethnog¬ 
rapher (1902-04). Three more Greenland ex¬ 
peditions (1905-10) were followed by the 
first expedition to Thule (1912-13), where he 
established the Kap York station, discovered 
Peary records deposited in 1892 and dis¬ 
proved the existence of the Peary Channel. 
Altogether he led five expeditions to Thule. 
His numerous books include Eskimo Folk 
Tales, Across A relic America and Reports 
of the Fifth Thule Expedition (1928-30). 

Raspberry. A bramble fruit extensively 
grown in home gardens throughout all tem¬ 
perate regions. The black raspberry, R. Occi¬ 
dent alls, is of commercial importance as it is 
easily grown, is more productive, and the 
fruit stands shipping better than the red va¬ 
rieties, R.' strigosus. Raspberries do best on j 
deep, moist, loamy soil,-and promptly respond 
to heavy fertilizing with well rotted barn¬ 
yard manure. The' black raspberry is propa¬ 
gated by rooting the tips of growing canes 
late in.the summer. The fruit of the.rasp¬ 
berry is borne upon the short fruit stalk pro¬ 
duced from the wood of the previous sea¬ 
son’s growth. After the canes have borne 
fruit once, therefore, they should be removed, 
leaving five or six new canes which come up 
from the roots to take their place. Among 
the more promising varieties of the blacks 
are Gregg, Ohio, and Kansas. Cuthbert is 
one of the best of the red varieties. 

Rasputin, Gregor Efimovich (1873“ 
1917), Russian lay monk, whose real name 
was Gregor Efimovich Novikh. He was bom 
in Tobolsk, Siberia, of peasant stock. In his 
dissolute early life he was given the sobriquet 
of Rasputin, meaning licentious, or profligate. 


His magnetic powers secured him a follow¬ 
ing even in Court circles, where he was intro¬ 
duced to the imperial family (1907), over 
whom he exercised a maleficent influence. 
The restoration to health of the young crown 
prince Alexis was attributed to his interven¬ 
tion. Stories of his infamous conduct scan¬ 
dalized all Petrograd, and attempts were 
made to take his life. Finally he was en¬ 
ticed to the palace of Prince Yussupoff (Dec. 
29, 1917), where he was poisoned and shot. 
See Yussupoff’s Rasputin (1927) ; M. V. 
Rodzianko’s Reign of Rasputin (1927); Rene 
Fiilop-Miller’s Rasputin, the Holy Devil 
(1928). 

Rastatt, tn., Baden, Germany. Principal 
industries are manufacture of lace and cigars. 
The palace is built on the model of that at 
Versailles. 

Rat, the largest species of the rodent genus 
Mus, the smaller members of which are 
known as mice. 

Ratchet and Pawl. The ratchet is usually 
a toothed wheel, into which the pawl, a sort 
of lever with a tooth, engages, and allows 
forward but prevents backward motion. It 
is used in capstans and hoisting machinery 
for safety. 



Ratchet and Pawl. 


Rathenau, Walter (1867-1922), German 
statesman, bom in Berlin. His efficient or¬ 
ganization at the outbreak of the World Wai 
enabled Germany to hold out with raw mate¬ 
rials. Foreign Minister in 1922, at the Cannes 
conference he secured a diminution of the re¬ 
parations payment of 1922, and at the Genoa 
conference concluded the treaty with Russia. 
He was assassinated at Berlin by Erwin Kern, 
a naval lieutenant, and Lt. Hermann Fischer, 
of the army. The assassins committed suicide 
a month later as their capture became im¬ 
minent, but in 1933 officials of the National 
Socialist Government dedicated a tablet to 
their memory as “martyrs.” 

Ratbenow, tn., prov. Brandenburg, Prus¬ 
sia. The principal industry is the manufacture 
of spectacles and telescopes; p. 27,565. 

Ratibor, tn., prov. Silesia-Prussia; has 
railway workshops and manufactories of 



Rating 


3934 


paper, glass, iron and steel, chemicals, and 

furniture; p. 41,210. 

Rating. The rating of an enlisted man in 
the navy is the grade or position held by 
him in the service. The rating of every en¬ 
listed man is made, primarily, by the com¬ 
manding officer of the ship to which he is 
attached and is revocable by that officer. 

Rationalism. In theology, a system by 
which religious opinions are deduced from 
reason. The term is used loosely and popu¬ 
larly in Great Britain and America, but in 
Germany technically and exactly, being ap¬ 
plied to a theological school which flourished 
in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and 
which came in as a sort of mediator between 
supernaturalism and naturalism or deism. 
Rationalism, in the modern English accepta¬ 
tion of the term, is intellectually the opposite 
of irrationality, and denotes thinking that 
aims at the proof of propositions by reason¬ 
ing alone, or as little influenced as possible 
by emotion. 

In philosophy, rationalism has two well- 
marked meanings. In epistemology it means 
the type of philosophy which makes reason 
the chief source of knowledge. Empiricism, 
on the contrary, holds that all knowledge is 
generated by experience. The modern philos¬ 
ophy of such thinkers as Descartes, Spinoza, 
and Leibnitz was strongly rationalistic; 
while the British thinkers Locke, Berkeley, 
and Hume were empiricist in tendency, Hume 
in particular being an extreme representative 
of empiricism. 

In ethics, rationalism is used as an anti¬ 
thesis to hedonism, and then means an ethical 
theory which recognizes in reason the only 
source of moral truth, and which therefore 
tends to depreciate pleasure and feeling gen¬ 
erally as incapable of yielding any objective 
moral principles, and as apt to interfere with 
the purity of moral motives and action. 

Rationing is the equal allocation of com¬ 
modities of which there is or may be a war¬ 
time shortage. It was begun in the U. S. in 
1942, its control being made a function of the 
Office of Price Administration. 

Rations. A ration is the allowance for the 
daily subsistence of one person in the armed 
forces. In the U. S. army rations are known as 
garrison, field, travel, and emergency rations. 
The garrison ration is issued, to troops in gar¬ 
risons or permanent camps; the field ration to 
troops in active campaign; the travel ration to 
troops travelling otherwise than by march¬ 
ing, or when they are separated from cooking 
facilities; and the emergency ration to troops 


Rattlesnake 

in active campaign for use on emergent occa¬ 
sions, 

Ratisbon (Ger. Regensburg ), tn., Bavaria, 
prov. Upper Palatinate, on r. bk. of Danube. 
The town is exceptionally rich in mediaeval 
remains and works of art. It manufactures 
tobacco, machinery, pencils, and soap. Six 
m. below the town, above the Danube, stands 
the Walhalla, or hall of fame for distin¬ 
guished Germans. The town was founded 
by Tiberius. It was the capital of the East¬ 
ern Franks in the 9th century. Near the 
cathedral is the hall in which the German 
Diets held their meetings from 1645 to 1806. 
Numerous ecclesiastical councils have been 
held here; the bishopric was founded in 642; 
p. 76,948. 

Ratlam, chief tn., Ratlam state, Central 
India, 65 m. n.w. of Indore. Center of opium 
and grain trade in Malwa; p. of State 85,489. 

Rattlesnake (Crotalus), a genus of pois¬ 
onous snakes confined to the New World. 
The rattlesnakes belong to the pit-vipers 
(Crotalinae), a group of viperine serpents 
characterized by the presence of a deep sen- 



Rattlesnake . 


I sory pit between the eye and the nostril at 
each side; but their special peculiarity is the 
rattle, or appendage of the tail. This con¬ 
sists of a series of hollow homy rings, or 
‘b.ells,’ loosely joined together, so that they 
are freely movable, and produce, when 
shaken, a loud rattling noise. The extremity 
of the rattle is a button-like structure, which 
is really the horny tip of the tail. The use 
of the rattle has been much discussed; the 
usual explanation is that the sound is of serv¬ 
ice in warning off enemies, but it seems 
more likely that it is used as a call during 
the breeding season. 

The common rattlesnake (CV durissus ), 
found in the Eastern United States from Ver¬ 
mont to Florida, and westward to the Great 
Plains, varies in color from yellow to brown, 
olive, or black, and is marked with wide 
wavy bands of dark brown or black. It is 
about four ft. long and an inch and a half 
in diameter, and lives preferably on moun¬ 
tain ledges and in other rocky places, large 




Ravenna: The Basilica of Sant’ Apollinaire Nuovo. 

The Basilica was erected in 5°o } by Theodoric the Great, as an Arian cathedral. 




Rauschenfousch 3c 

numbers gathering together in what is known 
as a Rattlesnake den. The Diamond Rattle¬ 
snake (C. adamanteus) of the Southern States 
is a larger and heavier species, olive green 
in color, with darker diamond-shaped mark¬ 
ings. It attains a length of six to eight ft. and 
is extremely poisonous. The Prairie Rattle¬ 
snake (C. confluentus) is greenish yellow, 
marked with large round blotches of brown. 
It is about four ft. long, vicious when wild, 
but lazy and good-natured in captivity. 

Rauschenbusch, Walter (1861-1918), 
American theologian and writer, was born in 
Rochester, N. Y. He spent some ten years 
in religious work among the German immi- 
grants in New York City; and in 1902 be¬ 
came professor of Church history in Roch¬ 
ester Theological Seminary. His published 
works include Das Leben Jesu (1895) ; Chris¬ 
tianity and the Social Crisis (1907) ; A The¬ 
ology for the Social Gospel (1917). 

Ravel, Maurice (1875-1938), impression¬ 
istic composer, most outstanding figure in 
contemporary French music, was born in Ci- 
bourne, Basses-Pyrenees, and studied at the 
Paris Conservatory, piano under de Beriot, 
composition with Faure. Ravel’s work is 
marked by several notable traits that have 
made acceptance of his unique style some¬ 
what difficult, though he is ranked by many 
critics second only to Debussy. A rare deli¬ 
cacy, a refinement at times almost too intel- 
lectual, a flair for the unexpected harmonic 
turn, restriction of subjects chosen for mu¬ 
sical development, and an emotional reserve 
that is hard to pierce have made his works 
difficult to grasp at once, but these very qual¬ 
ities have given him a high place among the 
moderns. Among his works are, for orch.es- 
tra, Scheherazade, Rap so die Espagnole, Bo¬ 
lero, the ballet Daphnis and Chloe, and for 
piano, Pavane pour une Infante Difunte and 
Jeux D’eau. 

Ravelin. See Fortification. 



Rayleig)h 

Ravenna, province, Italy, lying between 
the Adriatic Sea and Bologna. 

Ravenna, city, Italy, capital of the prov- 
ince of Ravenna. It has many points of in¬ 
terest and in the history of early Christian 
1 frt stands second only to Rome. Of special 
interest are the Baptistery of the Orthodox 
or San Giovanni, Dante’s tomb, and the 
Academy of Fine Arts. The principal trade is 
in wine, silks, musical instruments, glass, 
soap, and starch. Ravenna is one of the most 
ancient towns in Italy. The Umbrians and 
Etruscans settled here on the invasion of 
Italy by the Celts. Augustus made it the 
headquarters of his Adriatic fleet, and under 
succeeding emperors it became one of the 
chief cities of Italy. It remained subject to 
the papal see from 1509 to 1797, was subject 
to France from 1797 to 1814, when it was 
restored to papal dominion. Since 1859 it has 
formed part of the kingdom of Italy; p 
73 , 997 - 

. Ravenscroft, Thomas (1592-1640). Eng¬ 
lish musical composer, was the author of 
Melismata (1611), and of a collection of 
psalm-tunes for four voices, The Whole Book 
of Psalms (1621) by various composers. 
Some of the tunes, such as St. Davids, Can¬ 
terbury, Bangor, and many others, are by 
Ravenscroft himself. 

Rawalpindi, city and cantonment, India, 
in the Rawalpindi district, Punjab; one of 
the largest military stations in India; p. 
101,142. 

Rawitsch, or Rawicz, town, Poland. Prior 
to World War I the town belonged to Ger¬ 
many; p. 11,827. 

Rawlins, John Aaron (1831-69), Ameri¬ 
ca soldier, remained with Grant throughout 
the war, becoming chief of staff. When Grant 
became President, he appointed him secretary 
of war, but Rawlins died September of the 
same year. 

Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswiclce (1810- 
9 $), English soldier, scholar, and diplomatist, 
assisted in the organization of the Persian 
army (1833-9), spending his leisure in cunei¬ 
form research. He was made consul at Bag¬ 
dad in 1844. 

Ray, a general name for the elasmobranch 
fishes belonging to the order Selachii. They 
have a flattened body and large fleshy pec¬ 
toral fins. 


Raven . 

Raven (Corvus corax), a large member of 
the crow family, widely distributed over 
the northern parts of both hemispheres. 


Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Third 
Baron (1842-1919), British physicist, in 1887 
went as professor of natural philosophy to 
the Royal Institute, where he remained until 
1905. On the recommendation of the U. 



3937 


Read 


Raymond 

National Academy of Science?, of which Lord 
Rayleigh was a member, he was awarded the 
Barnard medal by Columbia (Allege, in 1895, 
‘for meritorious service to science. 1 In Decem¬ 
ber 1904, he was awarded (lu: Nobel prize 
for physics. 

Raymond, Andrew Van Vranken (i 854 - 

1918), American clergyman and educator, was 
born in Yisscher's berry, N. and was 
pastor of Reformed and Presbyterian 
churches in New Jersey and New York from 
1878 until i 80. |. He was president of Union 
College from 1894 to 1007, and pastor of the 
First Presbyterian Church, Buffalo, from 
1907 to 191.8. 

Raymond, Henry Jarvis (1820-69), Am¬ 
erican journalist and politician, became an 
assistant editor under Greeley when the latter 
founded the Tribune. In 1S51 he founded the 
New York 'Finn's as a strong anti-slavery or¬ 
gan. In 3854 he served in the State assembly 
and was elected lieutenant-governor of the 
State. Ho was a member and a leading spirit 
in the first national convention of the new 
Republican party, and drafted the note¬ 
worthy Address l(> tIn' People. 

Raymond, John Howard C1814-78), Am¬ 
erican educator, was born in New York City, 
became professor of belles-lettres in Roches¬ 
ter University, and in 1S56 organized the 
Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Insti¬ 
tute. He was organizer and president of Vas¬ 
sal* College from 1865 until Ids death. 

Raymond, Ro* sitter Worthington (1840- 
1918),' American mining engineer, was pres¬ 
ident of the American Institute of Mining 
Engineers (1872-4) and its secretary (1884- 
1911), U. S. commissioner to the interna¬ 
tional exhibition at Vienna ( 1874), and New 
York State commissioner of electrical sub¬ 
ways for Brooklyn (1885-8). 

Raynaud'* Disease, or Symmetrical 
Gangrene, so called from being first describ¬ 
ed by Raynaud, a French physician, in 1862. 
It is generally more or less symmetrical, af¬ 
fecting fingers or toes, or both, on both sides, 
and perhaps spreading up the arms or legs. 
It seems to be encouraged in the first instance 
by cold, exposure, or shock, acting on an un¬ 
stable nervous system. It is frequently found 
associated with other diseases of the nervous 
system,. ■ . . 

Rayner, Jbldbr (1850-1912), American 
legislator, was born in Baltimore. After serv¬ 
ing as State representative (1878-80) and 
State senator (1885-7), lw was elected to 
Congress (1886-92). He was attorney-general 
pf Maryland In x899~xoo3, and as counsel lor 


Rear Admiral Schley won a high reputation 
lor his knowledge of admiralty law. From 
1905 until his death he was United States 
Senator. 

Rayon, a synthetic fibre and the fabric 
woven from it. After the curtailment of silk 
supplies from Japan (July, 194:1), rayon be¬ 
came the textile fibre of the day. See p. 4067. 

Razorbill (Alca torda) , a marine bird of 
the auk family, found along the North Atlan¬ 
tic coasts throughout the year. 

Razors, sharp instruments used to remove 
hair from the face or other parts of the body, 
in use since early in the world’s history, as is 
evidenced by wall paintings of ancient Egypt. 
The razors of that time were probably made 
of bronze. Today razor blades are made of 
fine crucible steel. 

Razorshell, or Razorclam (Solen) , a ge¬ 
nus of bivalve mollusks, whose members 
burrow in sand,, and are widely distributed 
throughout the world, being absent only from 
Arctic seas. 

Rea, Samuel (1855-1929), American rail¬ 
road man, was born in Hollidaysburg, Pa. 
He was in charge of the construction of the 
New York tunnel extension and station of 
the Pennsylvania Railroad in New York City. 
In 1913 he became president of the Pennsyl¬ 
vania system. 

Read, George (1733-98), American pa¬ 
triot, signer of the Declaration of Indepen¬ 
dence, was born in Cecil co., Md. He was 
vice-president and for a time acting-president 
of Delaware, was one of the commissioners 
I chosen to settle the boundary dispute be¬ 
tween New York and Massachusetts; was a 
United States senator during 1789-93, and 
was chief-justice of Delaware from 1793 un¬ 
til his death. 

Read, Nathan .(1759-1849), American in¬ 
ventor, in 1788 began experiments with steam 
engines with a view to adapting them to the 
propulsion of boats and carriages. He inven¬ 
ted a successful multitubular boiler in 1789. 

Read, Opie Fercivat (1852-1939), Ameri¬ 
can author, was born in Nashville, Tenn. He 
received a public school education and in 
187S became editor of the Arkansas Gazette. 
In 1883 he established the Arkansaw Travel¬ 
ler, a humorous sheet that for ten years was 
widely quoted. After 1891 he was engaged in 
literary work in Chicago. His publications in¬ 
clude: A Kentucky Colonel (1898); A Yan¬ 
kee from the West (1899); The Wives of the 
Prophet (1900) ; The Starbucks (1902); An 
American in New York (1905); Tom and 
the Squatter's Son (1910) ; The New Mr. 




Reade 


3938 


Real 


Rower son (1914); Gold Gauze Veil (1927). 

Reade, Charles (1814-84), English novel¬ 
ist and playwright, studied at Lincoln’s Inn 
Helds, settled in London and spent most of 
his life in that city, though frequently travel¬ 
ing abroad. His first literary work, in which 
he collaborated with Tom Taylor, was Masks 
and Faces (1S52), which he later turned into 
the novel Peg Woffington. His masterpiece, 
The Cloister and the Hearth, an historical 
romance of the fifteenth century, dealing viv¬ 
idly and brilliantly with European life and 
manners of that period, was produced in 



Charles Reade 


1861. Other noteworthy works are Art, a one- 
act play which still flourishes as Nance Old¬ 
field; It is Never Too Late to Mend (1856), 
a realistic exposure of jail abuses in England 
and Australia; Hard Cash (1863), a bold 
handling of problems concerning insane asy¬ 
lums; Griffith Gaunt (1866), later drama¬ 
tized as Jealousy; and Foul Play (1869), 
written in collaboration with Dion Boucicault 
and also dramatized. He also wrote books of 
less value but containing many striking pas¬ 
sages. 

'-Reading, city, Pennsylvania. Because of 
its location within a few miles of one of the 
world’s largest coal deposits, and its accessi¬ 
bility to the seaboard, Reading is an import¬ 
ant industrial center. Industries include: 
hosiery, door knobs, fabrics, steel castings, 
children’s shoes, menthol cough drops, silk 
underwear, bricks, goggles, stone and lime¬ 
stone quarries. Albright College and the en¬ 
gineering department of the Pennsylvania 
State College are situated here; p. 110,568. 


Reading was laid out in 1748 by Thomas and 
Richard Penn, and was named for Reading, 
England, the home of their father, William 
Penn. 

Reading, municipal, parliamentary, and 
co. borough, cap. of Berkshire, England. The 
splendid Benedictine abbey, founded in 1121 
by Henry 1., who was buried here, is repre¬ 
sented by considerable ruins and a fine gate¬ 
way, restored in 1861, and surrounded by 
public gardens. The university extension col¬ 
lege, affiliated with Oxford, was opened in 
1S92. Cloth making was formerly the staple 
industry. The town is now a market for ag¬ 
ricultural produce, and has important indus¬ 
trial establishments including biscuit works, 
seed warehouses, iron foundries, engine 
works, malt works, and breweries; p. 97,153. 

Reading, Viscount Erleigh Rufus Dan¬ 
iel Isaacs, First Earl of (1860-1935), English 
jurist and public official, of Jewish extraction, 
was born in London. He was elected to the 
House of Commons in 1904, became Solicitor 
General in 1910, and Attorney-General in the 
same year. In 1913 he became Lord Chief 
Justice of England. He was the head of the 
Anglo - French Commission to the United 
States in 1915 to arrange for a Government 
loan to the Allies, and early in 1918 was ap¬ 
pointed British High Commissioner and spe¬ 
cial Ambassador to the United States. In 
January, 1921, he was appointed Viceroy and 
Governor-General of India, serving until 
1926. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs 
in first National Government, 1931. 

Readjusters, or Refunders, a political 
faction in Virginia which worked for the re¬ 
pudiation of the State debt between 1878 and 
1885. 

Reagan, John Henninger (1818-1905), 
during the last months of the Confederacy 
acted as secretary of the treasury. Captured 
with President Davis in 1865, he was con¬ 
fined at Fort Warren in Boston Harbor, 
where, foreseeing the radical legislation that 
was to come, he wrote his famous £ Fort War¬ 
ren’ letter advising the Texans to forestall 
such legislation by conferring upon the negro 
certain civil rights. This brought him for a 
time into disfavor. From 1875, however, he 
was sent continuously to the House of Rep¬ 
resentatives until 1887, when he was elected 
to the Senate. In his congressional career he 
was distinguished for his business ability, the 
‘Reagan Interstate Commerce Bill’ still form¬ 
ing the basis of such legislation. 

Real, in civil law, signifies ‘of or relating to 
property movable or immovable.’ 






Real 


3939 


Recall 


Real, a small Spanish silver coin or money 
of account, current in several Spanish-speak¬ 
ing countries, with a value, varying with ex¬ 
change, of about five cents. 

Realism in philosophy is diametrically op¬ 
posed to Nominalism as involving the belief 
that genus and species are real things, existing 
independently of our conceptions. In art and 
literature the word Realism or Naturalism is 
employed to describe a method of represen¬ 
tation without idealization. 

Reality. Psychologically, real objects are 
distinguished from illusions, hallucinations, 
and the like. Logically, an affirmation of re¬ 
ality is distinguished from an affirmation of 
mere possibility and from one of complete 
necessity. The judgment of possibility ex¬ 
presses merely the fact that the thing whose 
possibility is alleged is not inconsistent with 
known conditions. The judgment of neces-^ 
sity affirms the dependence of the thing 
whose necessity is alleged upon conditions. 
Metaphysically reality is opposed to appear¬ 
ance, and then signifies the inner being or | 
ultimate truth of things as contrasted with 
tne more superficial characteristics. 

Real Property, in English and American 
law, signifies rights in land, and other Teal’ 
right, (see Real) which are inheritable. It 
includes ‘incorporeal heriditaments,’ such as 
hereditary titles of honor, and is in general a 
rival class to that included in personal prop¬ 
erty. 

Ream, a quantity of paper, consisting of 
(i) 20 quires of 24 sheets each, or 480 sheets, 
of writing paper; (2) 472 or 500 sheets of 
drawing paper; (3) 21 J4 quires, or 516 
sheets, of printing paper. 

Reamer, a hand tool used to enlarge a hole 
in a metal place. 

Reaping of grain was formerly done with 
the sickle, but in countries where agriculture 
.has reached an advanced state it is now in a 
great measure performed by means of the 
self-binder or harvester. In 1831 Cyrus H. 
McCormick invented .his reaper. This ma¬ 
chine doubled the production of wheat per 
capita, and released more than one-half of the 
agricultural population .for. manufacturing in¬ 
dustries. In'. 1831 Obed Hussey of Ohio also 
invented a reaper. A more highly developed 
harvesting machine of the present day is the 
combined harvester and thresher, operated 
by horse, steam, or other power. Wheat and 
oats are usually harvested before they are 
fully ripe and while the straw is still tinged 
with green, as a stronger and better product 
is thus obtained. 


Rear Guard, a detachment of troops that 
protects the rear of an army on the march. It 
does all in its power to hinder the pursuit by 
defending all positions, and causing the en¬ 
emy to deploy; by destroying bridges, roads, 
and boats ; blockading defiles, deepening 
fords, removing transportation, destroying 
crops, etc. 

Reason, a term used with many different 
shades of meaning. We oppose reason, broad¬ 
ly, as the human faculty to the mere sense 
and instinct of the animal mind; and in de¬ 
fining this opposition more closely, the term 
reason is often specially used in reference to 
man’s ability to form general ideas, and so 
transcend the immediate sense experience of 
the moment. With the older English philo¬ 
sophical writers, such as Locke and Hume, it 
meant reasoning, as opposed to direct per¬ 
ception and feeling. With Kant the term pure 
reason is specially employed to denote the a 
priori principles that are inherent in the ra¬ 
tional faculty as contrasted with mere gener¬ 
alizations of empirical fact. In ethics, reason 
is opposed as the governing and directive 
faculty to the promptings of impulse, pas¬ 
sion, and desire. In theology, reason has been 
opposed to revelation as a higher truth not 
attainable by the human mind for itself, and 
to faith, as the higher or spiritual faculty by 
which such truth is received. 

Rebec, an obsolete form of stringed instru¬ 
ment, popular throughout Europe during the 
Middle Ages. It was the precursor of the 
viol. 



Rebellion is deliberate organized resistance 
by force and arms to the laws or operations 
of a government by those who owe it obedi¬ 
ence. It may afterward, if it succeeds in its 
aims, come to be called a Revolution. 

Rebus, an enigmatical representation of a 
name or thing by using pictorial devices for 
letters, syllables, or parts of words. The 
term probably originates from the device 
speaking to the beholder non verbis sed rebus. 

. Rebus, in heraldry. See Armes Parlantes. 

Recall. The Recall of an Officer is an elec¬ 
tion process by which his constituents at- 



394D 


fteci£« 


ftecamier 


tempt to retire Mm before Ms term ex¬ 
pires. A specified number of them—usually 
not less than one-fourth—sign a petition for 
a recall election, and present it to a clerk or 
secretary of state, who immediately issues an 
election notice. The petitioners present the 
name of some person whom they ask the 
officer's constituents to choose as his succes¬ 
sor. Other bodies of petitioners may present 
other names. The officer sought to be re¬ 
called is himself a candidate, unless he de¬ 
clines. If he gets more votes than any of his 
competitors, he stands vindicated and retains 
his office. Thirty or forty cities have used 
the recall against their executives and coun- 
cilmen. Los Angeles, Seattle, Tacoma, and 
Wichita afford the most prominent cases, 
Recamier, Madame (nee Jeanne Fran- 
goise Julie Adelaide Bernard) (1777- 
1849), French political and social leader, was 
born in Lyons. She grew up a girl of re¬ 
markable grace and beauty, and at fifteen 
was married to M. Jacques Recamier, a rich 
banker about thrice her own age. Her salon 
was soon filled with the brightest wits of 
the literary and political circles of the day. 
For Madame de Stael siie had a warm affec¬ 
tion that survived the exile required by the 
jealousy of Napoleon. Soon after this her hus¬ 
band was completely ruined, and Madame 
Recamier visited Madame de Stael at Copoet 
in Switzerland (1806). Here she met Prince 
August of Prussia, who alone of all her num¬ 
erous admirers is supposed to have touched 
her heart. Indeed, a marriage was arranged, 
provided M. Recamier would consent to a 
divorce. The good man did not refuse, but his 
kindness was too much for the generous heart 
of Madame Recamier, who declared she 
could not leave him in his adversity. The 
distinguished friend of her later years was 
M. de Chateaubriand. She wrote charming 
’Souvenirs et Correspondence (1559.) 

Recapitulation, in embryology, or Von 
Baer’s Law, a biological doctrine which ex¬ 
presses the view that the development of the 
individual is a repetition in brief of the his¬ 
tory of the race.. 

Receipt is a formal acknowledgment in 
writing of the payment or delivery of money 
or goods, granted by the party receiving the 
same. 

Receiver, a person or corporation appoint¬ 
ed by a court to take possession of property 
which is involved in litigation, either as the 
subject matter or incidentally, and to pre¬ 


serve, manage, and dispose of it for the bene¬ 
fit of those entitled thereto. The most fre¬ 
quent cases in which receivers are appointed 
are: (1) where members of a co-partnership 
disagree and a dissolution is necessary; (2) 
where the stockholders of a corporation dis¬ 
agree, or where the majority are wasting its 
assets or otherwise abusing their power; (3) 
where a lien on property is being foreclosed, 
and justice requires that the accruing rents 
and profits shall be applied on the indebted¬ 
ness thus secured. 

Receiving Stolen Goods, the offence of 
accepting possession of stolen goods, with the 
dishonest intention of depriving the rightful 
owner of his property. In most of the Uni¬ 
ted States it is a felony, classed under the 
head of larceny, and punishable with aboi t 
the same degree of severity. 

Recent, or Post-Glacial, a geological 
[ epoch which extends from the close of the 
Ice Age (or Pleistocene) to the present day. 
It is also called the Human, as the imple¬ 
ments and weapons of man are its most char¬ 
acteristic and important fossils. It is now in¬ 
cluded by many geologists in the Pleistocene 
epoch. The principal sources of our knowl¬ 
edge of the epoch are the peat bogs, which 
have accumulated in swamps, the calcareous 
formations and red earth of caves, the silt cf 
fresh-water lakes, the gravel terraces of exist¬ 
ing rivers, and the finer alluvial deposits, 
such as brick earth and sand. 

Rechabites, Independent Order of. A 
beneficial and fraternal order founded in 
England in 1835 and in the United States in 
1842, for the purpose of encouraging total 
abstinence through moral suasion. 

Recidivist, an habitual criminal, one who 
is apparently incapable of reformation, and 
who makes crime a profession. 

Recife, or Pernambuco, city, capital of 
the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. The city, 
called the Venice of America,’ is located at 
the mouths of the River Beberibe and Capa¬ 
ble, and occupies the island of Antonio 
Vaz, lying between them and the two farther 
shores of both rivers, the three parts of the 
city being connected by several artistic 
bridges. It is the nearest South American 
port to Europe. Recife’s export trade is 
largely in sugar, cotton, and alcohol. Recife 
was founded in 1526 by the Portuguese. In 
1630 the whole coast was seized by the 
Dutch. Following the separation of Brazil 
from Spain, the Portuguese, who had retired 



Reciprocal 


3941 


Reconstruction 


to the interior, began an irregular war upon 
the Dutch settlers, and after twelve years ex¬ 
pelled them; p. 472,000. 

Reciprocal, in mathematics, is the quotl 
ient obtained by dividing unity by a numbe.. 
The product of a quantity and its recipro¬ 
cal is thus unity; and the reciprocal of a 
fraction is obtained by interchanging numera¬ 
tor and denominator. 

Reciprocating Motion, motion to and 
fro in a straight line, like that of the piston 
of a steam-engine. 

Reciprocity, in economic history, mutual 
concessions between nations by which tar¬ 
iff rates or commercial discriminations are 
lowered, abolished, or abandoned. 

Recitative, a species of music— frequently 
written without key signature—much used 
in the declamatory passages which constitute 
an important feature in oratorios and op¬ 
eras. 

Reclamation, U. S. Bureau of, a bureau 

of the Department of the Interior at Wash¬ 
ington, organized in July, 1902, under the 
Reclamation Act of June 17, 1902. It is en¬ 
gaged in the investigation, construction, and 
operation of irrigation projects in arid and 
semi-arid States of the far West, and in the 
establishment of settlers thereon. Among its 
projects Is Boulder Dam on the Colorado. 
Under pi esent laws, soldiers and sailors of all 
wars hai e a preference right of 90 days to 
enter the public land farm unit. The Bureau’s 
library contains descriptions of all projects. 

Reclamation of Land, the process of 
making land suitable for agriculture by irri¬ 
gation or drainage. Among the most notable 
achievements in reclamation are the 'great 
works constructed by the United States gov¬ 
ernment to put water upon the arid public 
lands in the West. Holland, by its extensive 
system of dykes and sea-walls, furnishes a 
notable .example of land reclamation. ; In 
191S a bill was passed by the Dutch Parlia¬ 
ment for reclaiming a. part of the Zuider 'Zee 
by building a dyke across the northern part. 
The entire work will cover a period of some 
35 years. See Conservation Movement; 
Public Lands. 

Recluses, the name given to men and 
women who, in mediaeval limes, left the 
world to live a life of prayer and contem¬ 
plation ; dwelling in a cell, usually attached 
to a church, sometimes within the precincts 
of a monastery. In modern parlance the 
term is applied to anyone who mingles little 
in society. 


Recognizance, a bond or obligation enter¬ 
ed into before a court of record and made a 
part of the record. 

Recoil, the backward movement of a gun 
on being discharged. 

Reconnaissance, a military term to de¬ 
note information as to the theater of opera¬ 
tions—the strength, position, morale, etc., of 
the different divisions of the enemy in the 
field-obtained by troops or individuals after 
the outbreak of hostilities. 

Reconstruction, a term used in United 
States history to describe the process by 
which and the period in which the ‘states’ 
that seceded in i860 and 1S61 were brought 
back into the Union. The collapse of the 
Confederacy found the victorious North 
without a settled plan for dealing with the 
seceded ‘states.’ Since fundamental Consti¬ 
tutional laws had not been provided for 
such a contingency there were numerous con¬ 
flicting plans. The legal problems related 
mainly to the status (1) of the Southern 
‘state’ organizations, (2) of the Southern 
people, and (3) of the negroes. Were the ne¬ 
groes citizens or wards ? Should the ‘state’ 
or the federal government fix the status of the 
ex-slave ? Was the ‘Union as it was’ to be 
restored, or had a new and more perfect 
one been evolved from the war struggle ? On 
Dec. 8, 1863, Lincoln by proclamation an¬ 
nounced that he would recognize, so far as 
the executive could do so, any ‘state’ reor¬ 
ganized by as many as ten per cent, of the 
number of voters in i860 who should ask for 
pardon and take the oath of allegiance to the 
United States. Congress, however, opposed 
the President’s work by refusing in 1864 to 
receive senators from Arkansas, and by pass¬ 
ing in July, 1864, the Wade-Davis bill which 
contained an assertion of the right of Con¬ 
gress to undertake the work of reconstruc¬ 
tion. President Johnson began the work of 
restoring the seceded ‘states’ to the Union. 

As directed by the President, after the con¬ 
ventions had planned new ‘state’ govern¬ 
ments, elections were held under the new con¬ 
stitutions, the legislatures met, and, with the 
exception of Mississippi, ratified ilt proposed 
Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery. 
Senators and representatives were chosen, 
and then the officials of the provisional gov¬ 
ernment gave place to those elected by the 
people. This was done in all the ‘states’ ex¬ 
cept Texas before the close of 1865; and the 
‘restoration’ was complete if Congress would 
accept it by admitting the Southern sena- 



Reconstruction 


3942 


Reconstruction 


tors and representatives. Meanwhile, how¬ 
ever, President Johnson’s policy had aroused 
much opposition. Before Congress met in 
December two 'states,’ South Carolina and 
Mississippi, passed 'Black Codes’ to regulate 
the status of the freedom, and not unnatur¬ 
ally caused friends of the negroes to be¬ 
lieve that further guarantees must be secured. 
Congress on meeting in December refused to 
admit the Southern senators and representa¬ 
tives, and appointed a Joint Committee on 
Reconstruction to examine into and report on 
conditions in the seceded ‘states.’ After an 
extended investigation this committee brought 
in a report recommending the rejection of the 
President’s work. Many Northern people of 
moderate views hesitated before rejecting the 
work of the President and reducing the South 
to a territorial condition. With regrettable 
shortsightedness the other reconstructed leg¬ 
islatures, in the winter of 1865-66, followed 
the example of Mississippi and passed 'Black 
Codes.’ Equally effective as campaign argu¬ 
ments in influencing Northern public opinion 
were frequent outrages upon the blacks. 

The Congressional campaign of 1866, with 
reconstruction as the main issue, was most 
exciting. In Jan., 1867, by a bill passed 
over, the President’s veto, negro suffrage was 
initiated in the territories and in the District 
of Columbia. On March 2, by the Tenure of 
Office Bill, likewise passed over the Presi¬ 
dent’s veto, Congress limited the power of 
the President in the matter of the dismissal 
of officeholders and left him only the power 
of suspension. On the same day the first 
great Reconstruction Act was passed, and was 
quickly supplemented by the acts of March 
23 and July 19, passed by the Fortieth Con¬ 
gress. The late Confederate states, except 
Tennessee, were divided into five military dis¬ 
tricts, each under a general officer; a new 
electorate was to be enrolled without regard 
to color, but the upper classes of the whites 
were to be disfranchised. Delegates were then 
to be elected in each 'state’ to a constitutional 
convention, which must frame a constitution 
in harmony with the Reconstruction Acts; 
and these constitutions were then to be sent 
to Congress for approval. The army was put 
in charge of the electoral machinery. After 
the new legislatures had ratified the proposed 
Fourteenth Amendment seven 'States’ were in 
June, 1868, admitted to representation in 
Congress, The other 'States’ were not re¬ 
admitted until 1870, the ratification of the 
proposed Fifteenth Amendment being made 


a condition. Meanwhile, in order to get rid 
of the President’s opposition, several unsuc¬ 
cessful attempts had been made in 1866-7 to 
impeach him. When it seemed probable that 
the Supreme Court might rule adversely to 
the constitutionality of the Reconstruction 
Acts, Congress hastened to abolish the statute 
under which the case was brought. This and 
the Republican victory in the Presidential 
election of 1868 made safe the Congressional 
plan of reconstruction, and from 1868 to 
1876 it was fully worked out. 

Led by a few native whites (‘scalawags’) 
and a few whites from the North ('carpet¬ 
baggers’) , the negroes for a time controlled 
each 'State,’ and a vast amount of corruption 
followed. Among the white population the 
Ku Klux Klan developed into a strongly or¬ 
ganized, secret, revolutionary movement 
which assisted in intimidating negro voters. In 
some instances these societies no doubt served 
a good purpose, but served still further to 
prejudice the Northern people against the 
South, with the result that governmental in¬ 
terference continued longer than it would 
otherwise have done. Enforcement legisla¬ 
tion of 1870 and 1871 gave supervision of 
elections to Federal officials, who ordinarily 
supported the Radical local leaders. The 
whites regained control and restored more 
orderly government. The various scandals 
which involved the Washington administra¬ 
tion resulted in great gains for the Demo¬ 
crats in 1S74, so that by 1875 they controlled 
the lower house of Congress, and rendered 
further reconstruction legislation impossible. 
In 1875 and 1882 the Supreme Court declared 
portions of the Enforcement Acts unconsti¬ 
tutional, and these acts in their entirety were 
repealed. The court has held that the Four¬ 
teenth and Fifteenth amendments can be in¬ 
voked only against violations by States, not 
by individuals. Thus the whites were left 
freer to eliminate or control the negro vote. 
Results of reconstruction, however, such as 
the negro’s civil rights and the Southern pub¬ 
lic-school system, which was mainly a prod¬ 
uct of this period, still stand. 

Reconstruction, a term used to denote 
social, economic, and political change incid¬ 
ent to and following on a war period. Such 
problems are: the demobilization of the mili¬ 
tary forces ; demobilization of war industries ; 
problems of the peace settlement ; disbanding 
of emergency instruments of government es¬ 
tablished under the war power; re-education 
of disabled soldiers; replacement of soldiers 



Reconstruction 


Reconstruction 


3d43 


and civilian war workers in industry; dis¬ 
posal of war stores; cancellation of war con¬ 
tracts ; war-debt taxation; re-establishment of 
shipping on a commercial basis; deflation of 
the currency; re-establishment of credit on a 
normal foundation; normalization of the 
supply or source of raw materials. After the 
World War of 1914-1919, France was the first 
country to make provision for the study of 
after-war problems. In 1915 the Ministry of 
the Interior established a department to con¬ 
sider the needs of the invaded regions. Great 
Britain achieved, even under the handicap of 
war conditions, a wise, thoroughgoing and 
reasoned program for meeting the conditions 
of the new peace era, beyond the record of 
any of the sister states, either allied or en¬ 
emy. The inspiration, and in many cases the 
form of the reconstruction proposals of Ger¬ 
many, are to be found in the documents of 
the British Ministry of Reconstruction, and 
labor reform the world over acknowledges its 
debt to the reports and investigations of the 
same ministry. In the U. S. important recon¬ 
struction activities are apportioned to the 
Federal departments of War, Treasury, In¬ 
terior, Post Office, Agriculture, Commerce, 
Labor, and State, and to various administra¬ 
tive boards. The National War Labor Board, 
Food Administration, Fuel Administration, 
Railroad Administration, and the U. S. Hous¬ 
ing Corporation preserved for a time in the 
reconstruction period most of their war activ¬ 
ities. 

Called by the United States Chamber of 
Commerce, there assembled at Atlantic City 
on Dec. 3-6, 1918, a Reconstruction Congress 
of American Industry which, at the instance 
of T ohn D. Rockefeller, Jr., adopted an in¬ 
dustrial creed to express the general senti¬ 
ment of American business. The voice of 
labor on reconstruction is heard in the Re¬ 
construction Programs of the American Fed¬ 
eration of Labor and of a number of State 
and city federations. Of all these programs 
that of the national body is the most con¬ 
servative. In general the demands of the 
State federations of labor were more radical 
than those of the national body. The chief 
difference is in the amount or degree of. na¬ 
tionalization. of industry demanded. The ex¬ 
cess of production over consumption was 
valued at over twenty billions of dollars in 
1918 as . compared with six and one-half bil¬ 
lions in 1913. The final results of the adop¬ 
tion of a general policy of maximum produc¬ 
tion would be a decided increase in the pro¬ 
ductive capacity of the capital invested, a 


great improvement in the relations between 
employer and employed, a scientific standard¬ 
ization of production based on the reckoned 
demand and supply over long periods of time, 
beyond what the public would have thought 
of, as conceivable.’ Investigations were set on 
foot to determine the extent of profiteering, 
and such other elements in the situation as 
might be susceptible of improvement. Educa¬ 
tion was profoundly influenced by the war. 
The practical adaptation of vocational meth¬ 
ods of training to the vital needs of industry 
for skilled direction by trained executives 
and skilled labor, brought about an entire 
change of front on the part of organized labor 
towards education. It aimed to bring about 
(1) a general high level of patriotic, intelli¬ 
gent and competent citizenship; (2) Ameri¬ 
canization of the un-American, both native 
and foreign; (3) a complete abolition of il¬ 
literacy ; (4) the use of English as the uni¬ 
versal language; (5) a high degree of phys¬ 
ical and moral fitness; (6) an adequate and 
effective system of public education, both na¬ 
tional and State, as the chief agency for the 
accomplishment of the above ends; (7) a 
readjustment of elementary and secondary 
education so that adequate provision might 
be made for the four great ends of all educa¬ 
tion—health, citizenship, occupation, and 
leisure. 

Reconstruction Finance Corporation 

(RFC), a government-owned corporation 
designed to provide emergency financing 
facilities for financial institutions, to aid in 
financing agriculture and commerce, and for 
similar purposes. The keystone of his recov¬ 
ery program, President Hoover recommended 
to Congress the creation of the Corporation 
on Jan. 4, 1932. He signed the bill, which 
closely followed his recommendations, on 
January 21. This established the Corpora¬ 
tion; empowered it to issue $500,000,000 of 
capital stock, all to be taken by the Federal 
Treasury; vested its management in seven 
directors—-the Secretary of the Treasury, the 
Governor of the Federal Reserve Board, the 
Farm Loan Commissioner, and four Presi¬ 
dential appointees (term two years), not 
more than four of the entire number to be 
of one political party. The life of the Corp¬ 
oration was to be ten years, unless termina¬ 
ted earlier by statute. It was authorized to 
make loans to any bank, savings bank, trust 
company, building and loan association, in¬ 
surance company, mortgage - loan company, 
credit union, Federal Land Bank, Joint-Stock 
Land Bank, Federal Intermediate Credit 



Reconstruction 


3944 


Recorder 


Bank, agricultural credit corporation, life j 
stock corporation, organized under the laws i 
of any State or of the United States, includ¬ 
ing loans on the assets of any closed banks; 
also with the approval of the Interstate Com¬ 
merce Commission, to railroad companies and 
railroad receivers. Loans were to be ‘fully 
and adequately secured.’ Especially to facili¬ 
tate its assistance to the smaller banks, the 
Corporation soon created regional commit¬ 
tees to collaborate with it. Popular demand 
grew that the Federal Government should do 
for State and local governments, for indivi¬ 
dual distress and for unemployment relief 
what the R. F. C. was doing for the banks 
and railroads. Accordingly altered, and signed 
on July 21, the Emergency Relief act au¬ 
thorized the Corporation to increase its capi¬ 
tal by $1,800,000,000, its resources thus con¬ 
sisting of its original $500,000,000 subscrip¬ 
tion by the government and the receipts from 
sales of debentures that might total 63-5 
limes this amount, or $3,300,000,000. Of the 
idditional $1,800,000,000, $300,000,000 was to 
be lent to States, at 3 per cent, interest, for 
immediate urgent relief, with or without sec¬ 
urity. The act also provided for the removal 
from the Corporation’s directorate of the 
Governor of the Federal Reserve Board and 
die Farm Loan Commissioner. 

Loans by the Corporation to banks and 
railroads were of great, though of course in¬ 
calculable, aid in averting bankruptcies and 
receiverships. In August, following a provi¬ 
sion of the Emergency Relief act, the first 
list of borrowers from the Corporation was 
made public, and monthly thereafter. In 
May, 1933, President Roosevelt appointed 
Jesse Holman Jones of Texas as chairman of 
the board of the R. F. C. Under the Roose¬ 
velt Administration many of the powers of 
the Corporation were curbed, and it became 
the fiscal agent rather than the administrator 
for new relief measures, as under the Wagner 
Act for aid to States, the Farm Credit Ad¬ 
ministration, and the National Recovery Act. 
See U. S. History, New Deal. 

Reconstruction, Surgical. As a result of 
the World War (1914-18), there returned to 
various communities, all over the world, men 
who had received injuries in battle, resulting 
in. disabilities which might remain perma¬ 
nent or be improved by surgical interference 
and subsequent training. 

Surgical reconstruction upon soldiers and 
sailors presents few problems differing from 
the same work upon civilians, except that 


the disabilities of the former are due to 
shrapnel and gunshot wounds, and the vast 
majority of their wounds are severely in¬ 
fected, a condition which frequently influ¬ 
ences the surgeon to wait months before at¬ 
tempting to operate upon the deformed or 
disabled part because of the danger of stirring 
up the old septic condition. 

Experience with the physical treatment in 
distinction to the purely surgical or operative 
treatment of the vast numbers of wounded 
in the World War has led to the technical 
subdivision of the subject into three parts as 
follows: (a) Functional Re - education, by 
which is meant not alone the re-training of 
partially injured muscles and nerves, but the 
heightening of function in normal limbs, as 
where a man whose right arm has been shot 
off is trained to use the left arm through a 
much wider range of functions than it was 
formerly accustomed to exercise, (b) Occu¬ 
pational Therapv, by which the convalescent 
is given useful employment with his hands, 
as basket making, leather stamping, toy mak¬ 
ing, plasterine modelling, etc.; (c) Vocational 
Training, which consists in the adaptation of 
the disabled patient to a new trade or voca¬ 
tion, or in his restoration to the trade or vo¬ 
cation which he originally followed. 

It is the policy of the U S. Government 
that no member of the military service dis¬ 
abled in line of duty shall be discharged 
from 1 service until he has attained as com¬ 
plete a recovery as is possible in view of 
the nature of his disability. In order to at¬ 
tain this object certain army hospitals have 
been especially designated as reconstruction 
hospitals and have been equipped and staffed, 
either throughout or as to one or more 
; wards, for special work in cardiovascular 
diseases; tuberculosis; neurological and other 
head surgery cases, orthopedics; amputa¬ 
tion; insane cases; war neurosis (and other 
neurological cases); blind, deaf, and speech- 
defect cases; general medicine; general 
surgery; and other specialties. 

Record, in law, may be briefly defined as 
an official statement or narrative of a public 
act or proceeding, e.g. of a constitutional or 
legislative measure, a judicial suit or a trans¬ 
mission of real property. 

Recorder. In England, a judge of the 
court of quarter sessions. In the United 
States the term is applied to judges of cer¬ 
tain criminal courts and in some States to 
the public official who has custody of records 
of title and other public records, and attends 



Recorder 


3945 


Redbreast 


to the recording of instruments of title. 

Recorder, the name of an old musical in¬ 
strument somewhat like a flageolet. 

Recorder, Siphon, an instrument in¬ 
vented by Lord Kelvin to produce a perma¬ 
nent record of the variations of the extreme¬ 
ly minute currents by which the signals of 
submarine cables are effected. 

Recording Acts. Statutes providing for 
the recording in public offices of instruments 
affecting title to property and other docu¬ 
ments, for the purpose of giving notice of 
their existence and nature to the public. In 
all States of the United States there are stat¬ 
utes providing for the recording of deeds, 
mortgages, leases, wills, and other instru¬ 
ments of title, including releases or satisfac¬ 
tions of mortgages, and liens, assignments of 
leases and mortgages, etc.; also mechanic’s 
liens, Us pendens in actions affecting title to 
property, powers of attorney, and all liens 
affecting real property. Chattel mortgages 
and conditional bills of sale may be recorded 
or filed in public offices in most States. In 
other words, one who relies upon the public 
records is protected against secret convey¬ 
ances. 

Records, Public, any written or printed 
matter containing accounts or memorials of 
acts, transactions, and facts of a public na¬ 
ture, and preserved for the benefit of the 
public. All legislative acts; communications 
from the Chief Executive to Congress, or of 
the governor to a legislature; court proceed¬ 
ings; books and accounts of. public officials; 
minutes of proceedings of public officers and 
boards, of legislatures, and of Congress; of¬ 
ficial maps; weather bureau records; patent 
records; and documents filed or recorded in 
public offices, are public records. Judicial rec¬ 
ords are carefully preserved; and all instru¬ 
ments filed or recorded under the Recording 
Acts are public records. In most of the United 
States, public records are generally open to 
inspection by any one under reasonable reg¬ 
ulations, regardless of interest, and'" usually 
free of charge. Official copies may also be ob¬ 
tained on payment of certain fees. 

. Recovery of Land. Possession of real , 
estate. entitles a person to hold : it until he is 
legally ousted. Many States, have statutory./ 
‘summary proceedings’ for ousting... tenants; 
but generally an action in a superior court of 
record is necessary if a question of title Is 
involved. 

Rectangle, in mathematics, is a plane 
quadrilateral figure having all its angles right 


angles. Its area is equal to the product of 
the lengths of two adjacent sides. 

Rectification, in mathematics, is the 
process of finding a right line’ equal in length 
to an arc of a curve, or of expressing that 
length. It is effected by integration between 
limits obtained by curve tracing. The. length 
of any curved line may be found practically 
by running a wheel along it, and noting the 
number of revolutions; an instrument for do- 
ing this is called an opisometer. 

Rectification, in astronomy, is the adjust- 
ting of a celestial or terrestrial globe for the 
solution of a given problem. 

Rectifying, a process applied to alcohol, 
chloroform, or other volatile liquid, by which 
the last traces of impurities are removed by 
distillation. 

Rector. In the Episcopal Churches of the 
United States all incumbents are called rec¬ 
tors. The title is also sometimes given to 
the head of a college or school. 

Rectum, or Anus, is the potential opening 
at the lower end of the alimentary tract, 
which 73 normally closed, save during the 
voiding of excreta, by the involuntary mus¬ 
cle, the sphincter ani. (See Intestines ; Anal 
Glands.) 

Red, one of the three primary colors (see 
Color), appearing at the end of the spec¬ 
trum opposite the violet end (see Spectrum) . 
Red pigments are obtained from the mineral, 
vegetable, and animal kingdoms. 

Red Bank, town, Monmouth co., New 
Jersey, at the head of navigation on the 
Shrewsbury River, 27 m. s.w. of New York 
City, with which it has steamboat connec¬ 
tion. The town is a popular summer resort. 
Manufactures include canning factories; gold¬ 
beating works, iron foundry, carriage shops, 
clothing, cigars, and brushes; p. 10,974. 

Red-bellied Snake is the name for sev¬ 
eral varieties or harmless snakes with red 
ventral surfaces. The best known is the 
Storeria occipitomaculata, or W a m p u m 
Snake, found in the Eastern half of the Uni¬ 
ted States. 

Red Bird, a common name in various 
countries for different birds of conspicuous 
red plumage. In the Southern United 
States it is a popular name for the Cardinal 
Bird;' in the Northern United States, for the 
Scarlet Tanager.' 

Redbreast, or Robin (ErUkacus rube - 
cula ), a small, bold, and familiar European 
bird, allied to the minor thrushes, which is 
everywhere protected on account of its 



Red Bug 


3946 


Red Cross 


friendly' ways and legendary associations. 
The American robin is a namesake of this 
bird, but very different, the nearest Ameri¬ 
can ally of the English redbreast being the 
bluebird. 

Red Bug, one of various minute red harv¬ 
est mites in the Southern United States that 
burrow in the human skin, causing intense 
irritation. 

Red Cross Societies, national societies 
established primarily for the aid of the sick 
and wounded in time of war, recognized and 
authorized by the military authorities and en¬ 
joying certain privileges and immunities un- 


gestion. The Committee of Five issued an in¬ 
vitation to all the European governments as 
well as to military, medical and philanthropic 
notabilities to attend an international con¬ 
ference to be held at Geneva on October 26, 
1863. Thirty-six delegates, including repre¬ 
sentatives of fourteen nations and six charit¬ 
able and benevolent societies, responded to 
the call; a proposed code of international en¬ 
actment was discussed; and resolutions were 
adopted. The convention was revised in 1906, 
and its terms were extended to naval warfare 
by the Hague Convention (1899) . Although 
the convention which made possible the Red 



Red Cross in Action. 
Registering Earthquake Refugees. 


der the treaty known as the Geneva Conven¬ 
tion. The Red Cross movement may be said 
to have had its origin in the Battle of Sol¬ 
ferino, in the Italian War of 1859. It was first 
conceived by Henri Dunant of Geneva, who 
witnessed the battle and who, in Un Souvenir 
de Solferino, graphically described the suffer¬ 
ings of the wounded soldiers. The Souvenir 
of Solferino was read throughout the world 
and this suggestion caught the attention of a 
Genevese lawyer, Gustave Moynier. Monsieur 
Moynier appointed a committee of five from 
the SocUte d J Utilite Publique to consider 
plans and methods embodying Dunant’s sug- 


Cross movement was necessarily interna¬ 
tional, the relief societies themselves are en¬ 
tirely national and independent, each one 
governing itself and making its own' laws, 
and each central committee being charged 
with the direction and responsibility of the 
work in its own country. At Paris the League 
of Red Cross Societies maintains a permanent 
secretariat, which serves as an information 
centre for the Red Cross societies of the 
world, and from it publishes monthly a bul¬ 
letin, The World’s Health. 

In 1869 Miss Clara Barton met in Geneva, 
Switzerland, the founders of the Red Cross, 


Red Deer 


3947 


Red Men 


who urged that she try, on her return to the 
United States, to secure the adhesion of the 
U. S. Government to the Treaty, so that an 
American Red Cross society might be formed. 
In July, of the same year, ‘The American 
Association of the Red Cross,’ with Miss 
Barton as president was incorporated under 
the law T s of the District of Columbia. In 
June, 1900, the American Association was 
reincorporated by Act of Congress as the 
American National Red Cross. The old As¬ 
sociation of the Red Cross was dissolved in 
the autumn of 1904 and a new charter pro¬ 
viding for a complete change of organization 
was granted by Congress and approved on 
January 5, 1905, by President Roosevelt. The 
purposes of the American Red Cross, as de¬ 
fined by the charter of 1905, are To furnish 
volunteer aid to the sick and wounded of 
armies in time of war; to act in matters of 
voluntary relief ... as a medium of com¬ 
munication between the people of the United 
States and their Army and Navy . . . ; and 
to continue and carry on a system of national 
and international relief in time of peace and 
to apply the same in mitigating the sufferings 
caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods and 
other great national calamities and to devise 
and carry on means for preventing the same.’ 
The governing body of the American Red 
Cross is its Central Committee, which is 
composed of iS members, six of whom are 
elected by the Board of Incorporators and 
six by the representatives of Chapters. The 
other six are appointed by the President of 
the United States and include the chairman 
of the Central Committee and representa¬ 
tives each from the Departments of State, 
War, the Navy, Justice and the Treasury. 
In the United States in time of peace, the 
American Red Cross conducts public health 
nursing services, offers class instruction, 
and carries on routine service in disas¬ 
ters of various types. A traditional and out¬ 
standing duty of the society, one which con¬ 
tinues in peace and war, is to render relief to 
victims of disaster. 

Red Deer (Cervtts elaphus) } a large and 
handsome animal, formerly distributed 
throughout Europe, and extending into 
Northern Africa, and over a large, part of 
Asia. Closely related to the true red deer 
are a number of Asiatic forms; and these 
connect the species closely . with the North 
American wapiti. 

Redemption, in law, the right of a. person, 
whose property has been sold to satisfy a 


lien, to receive it back upon payment of the 
amount due, interest, and costs. It is a purely 
statutory right, and the terms vary in dif¬ 
ferent States. 

Redemptorists, Congregation of the, 
or Lsguorians, a Roman Catholic order of 
missionary priests, founded by Alphonsus Li- 
guori at Naples in 1732. On the suppression 
of the Jesuits in 1773 the Redemptorists as¬ 
sumed a large part of their labors, and by 
the early part of the 19th century the order 
had spread throughout Europe, North and 
South America, and Australia. It is devoted 
to missionary work, principally among the 
poor and ignorant, its chief instruments be¬ 
ing preaching and the education of the young. 
The order is divided into 19 provinces and 10 
vice-provinces. There are two vice-provinces 
in the United States, with headquarters in 
Baltimore and St. Louis. St. Alphonsus also 
founded the Redemptoristines, a contempla¬ 
tive order of nuns, which now has convents 
in Italy, Austria, Holland, Belgium, and 
France. 

Redfield, William C. (1780-1857), Amer¬ 
ican scientist and railway promoter, was born 
in Middletown, Conn. He was a pioneer in 
the introduction of steam ferries, railroads, 
and street railways. He took a keen interest 
in meteorology, and demonstrated that storms 
were eddies circling round regions of low 
pressure. 

Redhead Duck, a species closely resem¬ 
bling the canvasback duck. The Redhead 
abounds throughout the waters of North 
America, except on the North Atlantic Coast, 
where it is rare. 

Redlands, city, California, San Bernar¬ 
dino co., at the head of the San Bernardino 
Valley. It is situated among beautiful moun¬ 
tain scenery, and is a favorite pleasure re¬ 
sort and residential city. The city is the cen¬ 
ter of one of the finest fruit-growing districts 
in the State, noted especially for its oranges, 
and is a shipping point for citrus fruits and 
olive oil; p. 14,324. 

Red-letter Days, days specially set apart 
by the Roman Catholic Church for the more 
important festivals, so called because they 
were indicated in the calendar in red-letter 
characters. 

Red Men, ‘ Improved Order of, a frater¬ 
nal and benevolent organization, character¬ 
ized as the oldest charitable and benevolent 
secret society of American origin founded on 
aboriginal American traditions and customs, 
■pne. 'o'f. the chief ''objects of the Red' Men is 



Redmond 


3948 


the preservation of the history, customs, le¬ 
gends, and names of the aboriginal Indians. 
It has about 17,000 members. 

Redmond, John Edward (1851-1918), 
leader of the Irish Nationalist Party, was 
born in Waterford. During the Home Rule 
agitation of the eighties he became one of 
the trustiest followers of the Irish leader, C. 
S. Parnell, and as Irish whip rendered great 
service to the Irish members. When his party 
split after the Parnell scandals he became the 
chief spokesman of the Parnellites, the minor¬ 
ity who still recognized the old leader, and 
in 1891 became himself accredited leader. He 
is well known in America, having made 
several tours in the United States and Cana¬ 
da to collect funds for his party. Under Red¬ 
mond’s leadership the Home Rule Bill was 
brought to successful passage in 1915. 

Redoubt, in military science, is a work 
entirely enclosed by a parapet of earth. Re¬ 
doubts may be used as supporting points in 
a second line of defence, or as detached posts 
or posts in lines of communication, and 
should be traced to support one another, as 
they have no ditch defence. 

. Redpath, James (1833-91), American 
journalist and reformer, was born in Ber- 
wick-on-Tweed, England, and migrated with 
his family to America. In 1851 he entered on 
a journalistic career, and the next year jour¬ 
neyed through the South investigating the 
slavery question, becoming a firm Abolition¬ 
ist. He represented the New York Tribune 
in the Irish famine of 1881 and founded 
Redpath’s Weekly (1881-3) to promote the 
Irish cause. He was editor of The North 
American Review , and published John 
Brown the Hero (1862); Talks About Ire¬ 
land (1881). 

Redpoll, a small finch of the genus Acan- 
this, found in temperate and northern re¬ 
gions, allied to the linnet; so named from 
the patch of red on the head of the male 

bird. 

Red River, the most southerly of the 
great tributaries of the Mississippi River, so 
named from the muddy appearance of its 
waters, due to its load of reddish clay. It 
forms the boundary between Texas on the 
south and Oklahoma on the north, and in 
this middle course flows through wide 
stretches of fertile lands. The lower part of 
the river valley is a low flood plain, with 
levees, bayous, clogged channels, and mean¬ 
dering course, and is subject to occasional 
floods. It joins the Mississippi River oppo¬ 


Reducing 

site the southwest corner of Mississippi, 340 
m. above the Gulf of Mexico. 

Red River, Red River of the North. For 
the first 100 m. it flows southward through 
drift hills and numerous lakes; then west¬ 
ward and northward through the great level 
plain of the Red River Valley, forming the 
boundary line between Minnesota and North 
Dakota; and enters Manitoba, emptying into 
Lake Winnipeg. The Red River Valley is a 
noted wheat region. 

Redroofc, the popular name for various 
plants. (1.) The common Redroot of North 
America ( Ceanothus americanus) , which 
abounds from Canada to Florida, is a shrub 
of two to four feet high, with beautiful thyr¬ 
si of numerous small white flowers. (2.) An¬ 
other well-known American Redroot, found 
in marshy ground along the Atlantic, is Gyro- 
theca tinctoria, with sword-shaped leaves, a 
compound cyme of woolly flowers, and a 
red root. 

Red Sea, or Arabian Gulf, an extensive 
inland sea lying between Africa and Arabia. 
It is about 1,200 m. long and 100 to 200 m. 
broad in its central portion, narrowing to¬ 
ward the southern extremity. The area is 
estimated at 160,000 sq.m., and the average 
depth from 100 to 400 fathoms. The Gulf 
of Suez extends for 190 m. in a northwesterly 
direction, and communicates through the 
Suez Canal with the Mediterranean Sea. The 
coasts of the Red Sea are generally low, flat, 
and sandy, devoid of vegetation, and bound¬ 
ed in the distance alternately by low land 
and high, bald mountain ranges running pa¬ 
rallel with the coast. The Red Sea was an 
important means of intercourse between Eu¬ 
rope and Western Asia and the East in an¬ 
cient times. Its commerce declined after the 
discovery of the passage around the Cape of 
Good Hope, but has been largely restored 
since the opening of the Suez Canal (see 
Suez Canal) . Mokha, Hodeida, Loheia, Jed- 
da, and Yambo on the Arabian coast, and 
Suez, Kosseir, Suakin, and Massowah on the 
African coast, are the chief seaports. 

Redstart, a common and familiar Ameri¬ 
can warbler ( Setophaga ruticitia), conspicu¬ 
ous in a plumage of black, with deep red 
patches on wings and tail; this is the male 
—the female is brown and yellow in a simi¬ 
lar pattern. 

Reducing Agents, substances that remove 
oxygen, chlorine, and similar elements from 
compounds, sometimes introducing hydrogen 
as well. Of the elements, hydrogen, aluminum* 



Reductio 


3949 


Referendum 


and carbon are typical reducing agents. 

Reductio ad Absurdism.* an indirect 
method of disproof by showing that the 
proposition to be disproved necessarily in¬ 
volves consequences which are impossible or 
absurd, in which case the proposition itself 
must be erroneous. 

Reed, (i.) In musical instruments. Cer¬ 
tain wind instruments have their sounds pro¬ 
duced by the vibration of a reed or thin 
tongue of elastic material, fixed at one end 
in such relation to a slot that a current of 
air passing through the orifice causes the free 
end of the reed to vibrate. In organs the 
reeds are usually made of brass or some other 
metal; but those of the clarinet, oboe, and 
bassoon are invariably constructed from the 
outer layer of the Arundo sativa, a variety of 
tall grass. Organ reeds differ from all others 
in method of construction. (2.) In botany, 
the common name of several tall grasses of 
the genera Phragmites, Arundo, etc., usually 
growing in wet or marshy places, and by the 
banks of rivers and stagnant waters. (3.) In 
weaving, an instrument somewhat like a 
comb, made up of parallel slips of metal or 
reed called ‘dents,’ which are fixed into two 
parallel pieces of wood. 

Reed, Joseph (1741-85), American pa¬ 
triot, born at Trenton, N. J. In 1778, as a 
member of the Continental Congress, Reed 
signed the Articles of Confederation. He was 
one of the founders of the University of 
Pennsylvania, and an active advocate of the 
abolition of slavery. 

Reed, Thomas Brackett (1839-1902), 
American politician, born at Portland, Me. 
He was a prominent candidate for the Re¬ 
publican presidential nomination in 1896. He 
was a most efficient presiding officer, and his 
rule as to counting a quorum, although 
arousing bitter antagonism at the time, has 
since been followed by both parties when 
in control of the House. 

Reed, Walter (1851-1902), American 
bacteriologist and pathologist, discoverer of 
the method of transmission of yellow fever, 
bom in Va. After service as interne in 
Brooklyn City Hospital, .and In 'Charity Hos¬ 
pital, Blackwell’s Island, he was appointed a 
district physician in N. Y. city in 1872. In 
1898 he.became the head of a commission ap¬ 
pointed to study the cause and method of 
propagation of typhoid fever, when that dis¬ 
ease was devastating the camps of the vol¬ 
unteer armies of the U. S., at the outbreak 
of the Spanish-American War. In June, 1900, 


he began special work in Cuba, as president 
of a commission to study infectious diseases, 
especially yellow fever. By means of experi- 
ments upon soldiers who volunteered for the 
purpose, Reed demonstrated in 1901 that in¬ 
fection of yellow fever does not pass from the 
clothing, personal contact, or vomited mat¬ 
ter ; but that through the bite of the mosquito 
known as Stegomyia fas data alone is the dis¬ 
ease propagated. A slight but lasting tribute 
has been paid to Reed in naming after him 
the new Army General Hospital at Wash¬ 
ington. 

R e ed,' William Bradford (1806-76), 
American politician and journalist, was born 
in Philadelphia. In 1857 he became minister 
to China. Upon his return in i860 he be¬ 
came American correspondent of the London 
Times , and was active in New York city 
politics. 

Reeder, Andrew Horatio (1807-64), 
first governor of Kan. Territory, born at 
Easton, Pa. Pressure was brought to bear 
against him at Washington by Southern poli¬ 
ticians, and lie was removed from office after 
holding a little more than a year. In July, 
1856, he was also chosen United States sena¬ 
tor by the Topeka legislature, but as the ter¬ 
ritory was refused statehood, he did not take 
his seat. 

Reef, or Shoal, is defined by an Interna- 
tional Geographical Congress Committee as a 
submarine elevation which reaches to within 
xi fathoms of the surface, and so is danger¬ 
ous to shipping. 

Reefing, the process of reducing the area 
of a sail. 

Reel, a dance, danced by two or more 
couples. The Virginia reel, well known in 
the U. S., is a form of the Sir Roger de Cov- 
erley of Great Britain. 

Rees, John Krom (1851-1907), American 
astronomer, born in New York. In 1884 he 
became professor and director of the Colum¬ 
bia University Observatory. In 1900 he was 
U. S. juror on instruments of precision at 
the Paris Exposition, and delegate to the 
conference on photographing the atlas and to 
the congress on chronometry. 

Referendum, the political institution by 
which laws are submitted to a vote by the 
people, after they have been sanctioned by 
the legislature, and before they become part 
of the statute book. Together with the ini¬ 
tiative, the referendum secures the direct 
right of legislation to the people, and there¬ 
fore represents the most advanced stage ol 



Reflection 


3950 


Reformation 


democracy. In the' diplomatic sense of ad 
referendum the institution prevailed in the 
two Swiss confederations of the Grisons and 
of the Valais. In the United States, about 
1890, a great deal of popular interest in the 
Swiss referendum developed. The introduc¬ 
tion of this system was one of the demands 
of the Farmers’ Alliance, and later, of the 
People’s party. It was believed that in this 
way it would be possible to remove legisla¬ 
tion from the control of party politicians. 
The principle of the referendum had, how¬ 
ever, been employed at a much earlier time 
in the form of submission of constitutions, 
and amendments thereto, to popular vote. 
The first case of a referendum of this kind 
was in 1778, when the legislature of Massa¬ 
chusetts submitted a constitution to the peo¬ 
ple making a two-thirds majority necessary 
for ratification. After 1840 the adoption of 
a constitution by a new state, or of a new 
constitution by an old one, was regularly car¬ 
ded through by referendum, until 1890, when 
Mississippi framed a new constitution which 
was not submitted to the electors. The prece¬ 
dent of Mississippi has since been followed, 
and for the same reason, by several other 
states of the South. In the amendment of 
constitutions a wide field for the referendum 
has been opened. In many states a tendency 
has appeared for the legislature to refer to 
the people for popular vote under the form 
of constitutional amendments subjects on 
which the legislature is quite competent to 
enact laws. The referendum has frequently 
been employed to secure the decision of the 
people on statutes not cast in the form of 
a constitutional amendment. 

Reflection and Refraction of Light, be¬ 
cause of their intimate connection, are best 
treated together. When a ray of light falls 
upon the boundary of two transparent media, 
it is in general broken up into two rays. The 
one is turned back into the original medium, 
and is called the reflected ray. The other pro¬ 
ceeds through the second medium usually 
with a change of direction, and is called the 
refracted ray. The laws of simple reflection 
and refraction are made the basis of what 
is known as geometrical optics, which in¬ 
cludes the discussion of the properties of re¬ 
flectors, mirrors, lenses, microscopes, and 
telescopes. Newton’s great discovery that the 
refractive index of a substance is not the 
same for the differently colored constituents 
of white light is treated under Dispersion, 
Color, and Spectrum and Spectroscope. 


The simple laws of refraction hold for 
homogeneous isotropic transparent bodies 
like glass and water; but when the transpar¬ 
ent substance is not isotropic, as is the case 
with the most crystalline substances, there 
is a second refracted ray, which does not in 
general lie in the same plane with the inci¬ 
dent ray and the normal. This so-called ex¬ 
traordinary ray follows a different law of 
refraction. The result is that, when the eye 
looks through such a crystal in a suitable 
direction, two distinct images of a single ob¬ 
ject are seen. This is the phenomenon of 
double refraction, and is especially character¬ 
istic of the crystal Iceland spar. It is closely 
associated with the phenomenon of polariza¬ 
tion of light. 

Reformation, the ecclesiastical revolution 
in the 16th century by which a considerable 
number of European states severed them¬ 
selves from the Roman Catholic Church and 
adopted some form of Protestant belief and 
organization. At the beginning of the 15th 
century it might have been possible to reform 
the worst abuses of the church and yet re¬ 
tain its unity and cohesion. By the begin¬ 
ning of the 16th century this was no longer 
possible; hence the most essential character¬ 
istic of the Reformation. It was no longer 
a constitutional movement for the enforce¬ 
ment of stricter discipline or for the imposi¬ 
tion of restraints upon what in the minds of 
many had came to be looked upon as papal 
despotism; it was a series of national or quasi¬ 
national rebellions against an ecclesiastical 
system which was ill suited to altered poli¬ 
tical conditions. It was in Germany that 
the first decisive blow was struck. Martin 
Luther, the son of a miner, who had become 
a monk, startled the world by publishing in 
1517 the famous theses in which he attacked 
the so-called sale of indulgences, and the 
whole fabric of dogmatic teaching on which 
the granting of indulgences is based. The 
episode might have been of merely local 
importance but for the attempt of the pa¬ 
pacy to suppress one whose audacious views 
were so radically opposed to the received 
doctrines and practices. By 1520 the atten¬ 
tion of Western Europe was concentrated 
upon the quarrel between the papacy and 
the monk of Wittenberg. When the Diet of 
Spires sought to re-enact the edict of Worms, 
the Lutheran princes made the famous 'pro¬ 
test’ which gave them a new and lasting 
name. Their creed was enunciated in the 
Confession of Augsburg (1530), and they 



Reformation 


3951 


Reformation 


coalesced for its defence in the League uf 
Schmalkalden (1531). A new war began 
in 1551, in which the Protestants had as¬ 
sistance from France; and by the ‘Peace of 
Religion’ signed at Augsburg, in 1555, the 
principle was established that each prince 
should determine the religion of his own 
subjects. In Switzerland an independent 
movement, nearly contemporary with that 
of Luther, was headed by Ulrich Zwingli, 
who brought to the study of the Scriptures 
the independent critical spirit of the trained 
scholar. By 1525 Zwingli had gained a com¬ 
plete ascendancy in Zurich, and the munici¬ 
pal council repudiated the spiritual authority 
of the bishop of Constance. From Zurich the 


and distinct church organizations—the Luth¬ 
eran and the Calvinist or ‘Reformed’; and 
these still remain the two main branches 
from which numerous later offshoots have 
sprung. The Reformation in England is 
unique in that it began with a revolution in 
the constitution of the church without any 
change of doctrine, and ended in a compro¬ 
mise which was neither Lutheran nor Cal¬ 
vinist, and in many respects retained more 
continuous connection with the old church 
than would have been admitted by either 
of the great Continental reformers. In 1593 
the Confession of Augsburg was definitely 
adopted by a synod at Upsala as the creed 
of the Swedish Church, and under Gustavus 



Zwinglian reformation spread to Bern, Basel, 
and other Swiss cantons, and even threatened 
to supplant Lutheranism in several towns of 
Southern Germany. The importance of the 
Swiss reformation was soon overshadowed 
by the rise of a new leader, John Calvin, 
whose teaching was not unlike that of 
Zwingli, and whose work was carried on in 
Geneva. Of the Protestant Church in Geneva, 
Calvin, in spite of opposition which drove 
him into exile at Strassburg'for-three years, 
became the guide and ultimately the dic¬ 
tator. Calvin ruled the city of Geneva be¬ 
cause he was supreme in the church. Church 
and state were identical, and therefore in¬ 
tolerant. 

Thus by the middle of the 16th century 
Protestantism had produced two well-defined 


Adolphus, Sweden became the vigorous 
champion of the Protestant cause in the 
Thirty Years’ War. In Denmark the Refor¬ 
mation, though equally the work of the 
monarchy, was accompanied by more strife 
and disorder than in Sweden. The complete 
victory of Christian in 1536 brought with it 
the success of the Reformation. For thirty 
years France was distracted by a series of 
religious wars, divided by brief intervals of 
uneasy peace. The most famous incident of 
the struggle was the massacre of St. Bar¬ 
tholomew in 1572. At last peace was made 
by Henry iv. (1589-1610), the son of An¬ 
thony of Bourbon. He obtained national 
recognition of his title by abjuring the Prot¬ 
estant faith, while he gave toleration to the 
Huguenots by the Edict of Nantes (1598). 



Reformation 


3952 


Reformatories 


But the settlement was not lasting. Riche¬ 
lieu withdrew the political concessions which 
made the Huguenots too independent, and 
Louis xiv. revoked the edict altogether 
(1685). The Reformation failed in France 
because it was identified' with aristocratic 
privilege and municipal isolation, and thus 
came into collision with that passion for 
unity which has always characterized the 
French nation. In Scotland the Reformation 
gave rise to even more prolonged strife than 
in France. But fin all} 7 in 1560 Parliament 
abolished the mass and approved a Calvin¬ 
ist confession of faith. John Knox aspired 
to become the Calvin of Scotland, but in 
1561 Mary Stuart, who had been left a 
widow by the death of Francis 11., returned 
to Scotland, and strove to modify the still 
incomplete settlement of 1560. Her reaction¬ 
ary policy was, however, futile. The victory 
of Protestantism was now secured; but there 
was a long struggle as to the organization of 
the church. John Knox and Andrew Melville 
strove for Presbyterianism and spiritual in¬ 
dependence, while James vi. and his suc¬ 
cessors were resolute to maintain Episcopacy 
and secular control. The result was the Na¬ 
tional Covenant (1637), which restored Pres¬ 
byterianism in Scotland. Presbyterianism was 
finally established by law in 1690. 

Whereas in Scotland the Reformation was 
mainly a popular and an aristocratic move- 
ment, in England its origin and course were 
to a large extent determined by the mon¬ 
archy and by political considerations. The 
desire for a male heir and alienation from 
the Emperor Charles v. urged Henry vin. to 
seek a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. On 
the Pope’s refusal to grant the divorce, Hen¬ 
ry carried through Parliament a series of 
measures which severed the English Church 
from Rome, established the ecclesiastical su¬ 
premacy of the crown, and enabled the king 
to despoil the monasteries of their wealth. 
But these changes were purely constitutional, 
and did not affect the dogmas or ritual of 
the church. Under Edward vi. the govern¬ 
ment fell into the hands of nobles, who en¬ 
riched themselves with the spoils of the 
church. The result was that the royal su¬ 
premacy was employed to carry the Ref¬ 
ormation to lengths for which public opin¬ 
ion was unprepared. The old Latin services 
were superseded by an English liturgy; the 
clergy were allowed to marry; images and 
other ornaments in churches were condemned 
as idolatrous. A violent reaction followed 


under Mary, who restored the old form of 
worship and the authority of the papacy. 
Fortunately for the Protestants Mary died 
childless; and Elizabeth in 1559 again repu¬ 
diated papal authority by the Act of Su¬ 
premacy, and restored the English Prayei 
Book by the Act of Uniformity. In 1570 the 
creed of the church was determined by the 
promulgation of the Thirty-nine Articles. In 
Ireland Henry vm. had no difficulty in es¬ 
tablishing, in what was regarded as a mere 
dependent province, the ecclesiastcial revolu¬ 
tion that he had already wrought in England. 
Thus Protestantism prevailed for the most 
part among the Teutonic peoples of Northern 
Europe; whereas Roman Catholicism was re¬ 
tained by the Romance peoples of the South 
and in those parts of Germany which had 
once belonged to the old Roman Empire. 
The so-called counter-reformation was as 
much a part of the Reformation as were 
those Protestant secessions which usually 
monopolize the name. The evils and abuses 
which had incurred such merited opprobrium 
at the close of the Middle Ages were swept 
away by reforming popes and by the Council 
of Trent, which sat with intermissions from 
December 1545 to December 1563. 

Reformatories, institutions for the cor¬ 
rectional treatment of first-time offenders, 
with the object of reformation rather than 
of punishment. With respect to. the age and 
presumed criminality of the offender, the re¬ 
formatory stands between the penitentiary 
and the juvenile reform school. The reforma¬ 
tory system has had its greatest development 
in the United States and forms an interest¬ 
ing illustration of the evolution in penology. 
The first American juvenile reform school 
was opened in 1825 on Randall’s Island, New 
York City, as a private philanthropical insti¬ 
tution. The first reform school supported 
wholly by public taxation was opened in 
Westborough, Mass., in 1847. 

In 1876 the New York State Reforma¬ 
tory at Elmira was opened. Since that 
time 15 other reformatories patterned in es¬ 
sential features after the Elmira institution 
have been erected. It is estimated that in 
almost every reformatory, as at present con¬ 
ducted from 15 to 20 per cent, of the in¬ 
mates are habitual criminals, a menace and 
corrupting influence to the remaining 80 per 
cent., of whom some xo per cent, are likely 
to be feeble-minded. Reformatories for fe¬ 
male offenders are conducted on similar lines 
as those for male. 



Reformed 


3953 


Refrigeration 


Reformed Churches, those Protestant 
bodies which are, in their standards and con¬ 
fessions, markedly Calvinistic, and which, 
generally speaking, adhere to the presbyterial 
in preference to the episcopal form of church 
government. 

Reformed Church in America, The, a 
body of Protestant Christians in the United 
States, known until 1867 as the Reformed 
Protestant Dutch Church; composed origin¬ 
ally of settlers from the Netherlands. The 
first church was organized by Jonas Michaeli- 
us on Manhattan Island in 1628, and the 
first church edifice was erected in 1633. It 
is a distinctively Calvinistic body. The polity 
is Presbyterian. The government of the local 
church is under the control of a consistory, 
comprised of the elders and deacons; dea¬ 
cons and pastors from individual churches 
make up the classes for a district; Particular 
(provincial) Synods and the General Synod, 
the highest court of the church, complete 
the ecclesiastical organization. 

Reformed Church in the United 
States, The, known for many years as the 
German Reformed Church, traces its origin 
to German, Swiss, and French families who 
settled in America in the iSth century. They 
established themselves in the South, in New 
York, and in Pennsylvania, and being gener¬ 
ally religious in character, soon organized 
churches. At length, after a period of con¬ 
troversy, a number of churches withdrew to 
form the Synod of the Free German Re¬ 
formed Congregations of Pennsylvania, later 
known as the German Reformed Synod of 
Pennsylvania and Adjacent States. In doc¬ 
trine and polity the Reformed Church in 
the United States is wholly in accord with 
the Presbyterian Church. 

Reformed Episcopal. Church, a .religious 
body organized, in the city of New York, 
Dec. 2, 1873, under the leadership of Bishop 
George David Cummings, d.d., Protestant 
Episcopal bishop of Kentucky, to perpetuate 
the old evangelical or ‘low' tendency, as op¬ 
posed to ritualistic teachings, in the Protes¬ 
tant Episcopal Church. It differs from the 
present Protestant Episcopal Church funda¬ 
mentally ■ in government and doctrine.. The 
highest, governing body is a General Council 
of clerical and lay deputies meeting trien- 
nially. The bishops do not sit separately, as 
in the Protestant Episcopal Church, and are 
elected by the General Council and not as 
diocesan conventions. It does not require 
confirmation, though practising it, and al¬ 


lows open communion. The Prayer Book 
looks for its foundation to the second Prayer 
Book of Edward the Sixth, compiled prin¬ 
cipally by Archbishop Cranmer, "which was 
an evangelical or low-church revision of the 
first Edwardine Book set forth in 1549. 

Refrigerants, in medicine, are means for 
lowering the body temperature and relieving 
thirst. Baths, wet packs, and sponging are 
external refrigerants; and fluids in 'general, 
whether taken by the mouth or injected into 
the bowels, tend to cool the body. 

Refrigeration is the act of reducing the 
temperature of a substance to a point lower 
than the surrounding environment. It may 
be produced by processes either primarily 
chemical or primarily mechanical in nature. 
In the first class, melting ice, mixtures of salt 
and ice, and mixtures of various soluble salts 
and water, constitute means of producing 
cold. The second or mechanical class includes 
the compressed gas machines, compression 
machines in which the gas is condensed dur¬ 
ing the cycle, absorption machines, and 
vacuum machines. The ordinary household 
refrigerator, or ice box, constitutes the simpl- 
cst refrigeration plant. There are two principal 
methods of producing refrigeration by com¬ 
pression machines, differing primarily in that 
the refrigerating medium is simply com¬ 
pressed and expanded in one case, whereas 
in addition to this, liquefaction and vaporiza- 
tion occur in the other case. In the first or 
cold air method, the air or gas is first com¬ 
pressed in a compressor and the heat gener¬ 
ated is removed by passage through the tubes 
in water. The cold compressed air is then 
allowed to expand, working against a piston 
which absorbs heat, thus reducing the tem¬ 
perature. The chilled air or gas is then used 
as the refrigerating medium. In the second 
type of compression machine, the refrigerant, 
which has a low boiling point, passes through 
a cycle in which it is first compressed in a 
pump, then condensed by a cooling medium, 
such as air or water, and collected in a re¬ 
ceiver, then vaporized in the refrigerating 
coils after passing a regulating valve and 
finally passing into the pump for use over 
again. Ammonia, carbon dioxide, sulphur 
dioxide, methyl chloride and ethyl chloride 
are the principal substances employed in re¬ 
frigeration by this compression process. 

In the absorption system a substance is 
used which is capable of absorbing large 
quantities of the refrigerant at low pressures 
and at the temperature of the cooling medi- 



Refrigeration 


3954 


Refrigeration 


um available (cooling water temperature). 
On subsequent heating of such a substance 
it must also have the property of releasing 
the refrigerant at a pressure high enough to 
effect condensation at the temperature of the 
cooling medium. Aside from the absorption 
and liberation of the refrigerant the remaind¬ 
er of the refrigerating cycle, involving the 
condensation and expansion in refrigerating 
coils after passing a regulating valve, is es¬ 
sentially the same as used in the compres¬ 
sion system. After expansion the gas is re¬ 
absorbed in the substance and the cycle 


is considered a necessity in the household. 

Electric refrigerating units are of the com¬ 
pression or machine type, and rapid progress 
has been made in the adaptation of the ab¬ 
sorption system to the smaller sized units 
of gas machines. The simplification of the 
apparatus, freedom from moving and wear¬ 
ing parts, silent operation and availability 
of low cost fuels are inherent advantages of 
the absorption system. Ammonia is the prin¬ 
cipal refrigerant and both liquid and solid 
absorbents for ammonia are used in this 
system. Cold storage is the art of preserving 


COOUNG WATEO 
OUTLET 



repeated. The largest application of the ab¬ 
sorption system consists of the use of am¬ 
monia as a refrigerant and water as an ab¬ 
sorbent substance. The second important 
factor in refrigeration is the insulation, by 
which heat is prevented from penetrating 
the walls and entering the cold storeroom. 
The insulating material must be light, porous, 
containing minute air spaces, odorless, of 
minimum capacity for moisture, vermin 
proof, non-inflammable and elastic to pre¬ 
vent settling. Until recent years the familiar 
household ice box has been the principal 
means of preserving food in the home. The 
advent of mechanical refrigeration rather 
than causing a decrease in the number of 
ice users, has stimulated the industry and 
today, more than ever before, refrigeration 


articles of a perishable nature by keeping 
them in chambers constantly maintained at 
a low temperature. The refrigeration duty 
in cold storage may be divided into the fol¬ 
lowing classes from which the total may be 
calculated, (i) Refrigeration to cool the 
goods stored. (2) Refrigeration to absorb the 
heat transmitted through the insulation. (3) 
Refrigeration to offset ventilation, losses. (4) 
Refrigeration to absorb heat generated in 
the room. It is not uncommon to have as 
many as 100 different articles stored in a cold 
storage house, only a few of which can be 
considered. Eggs are among the most im¬ 
portant products preserved by cold storage. 
Butter is stored for periods of three to six 
months. Cold storage of fruits is designed 
to arrest the ripening process and to retard 



Refrigeration 


3955 


Refuse 


the process of disease. Cold storage plays an 
important role in the modern meat industry. 
The fresh meat from the slaughter house is 
first cooled gradually in chilling rooms, to 
the temperature of the main storehouse. It 
then goes to cold storage, to await shipment, 
is later shipped in refrigerator cars, and is 
again held in cold storage by the wholesale 
dealer and in cold boxes or refrigerated show 
counters by the retailer, until its purchase 
by the ultimate consumer. 

An interesting development of the cold 
storage industry is the storage of furs and 
woolen garments, rugs, carpets, hangings, 
etc., to protect them against injury from 
moths or other destructive insects. One of 


tained; about this same time Lavoisier made 
use of ether in a refrigerating machine. In 
the period immediately following the first 
production of ice by mechanical means, many 
scientific principles were discovered which 
aided the investigators of refrigerating proc¬ 
esses. Joseph Priestly (1774) succeeded in 
producing ammonia. Robert Boyle and Gay- 
Lussac discovered the properties of gases 
which are so important in refrigeration calcu¬ 
lations, and Count Rumford proved that 
heat was a form of energy and not a sub¬ 
stance, as formerly believed. An American 
engineer named Jacob Perkins, living in Lon¬ 
don, in 1834 designed and patented one of the 
earliest compression machines using ether 



the modern developments in refrigeration is 
the refrigerating car for the transportation 
of meat, milk, or fruit. The modern car is 
insulated with 2 to 3 in. of corkboard or 
equivalent insulation and at each end of the 
interior is an ice bunker reaching from the 
floor to the top, and containing ice or broken 
ice mixed with salt, depending on the tem¬ 
perature required. One of the earliest meth¬ 
ods of cooling bodies below the temperature 
of the atmosphere was to construct a cave 
or cellar in the ground into which perishable 
foods were placed. In this manner in many 
localities it was possible to maintain tem¬ 
peratures of 50 to 6 o °3?. Dr. William Cullen 
succeeded in forming ice artificially in 1755 
by evaporating water by means of an ex¬ 
haust pump. In this experiment the heat 
required to vaporize the water is withdrawn 
from the water remaining in the vessel with 
the result that freezing temperatures are ob- 


However, it was not until 1861 that the first 
semi-practical compression machine was built 
and in 1874 Carl Linde’s first successful com¬ 
pression machine using sulphur dioxide was 
completed. In 1858-60 F. Carre discovered 
the ammonia absorption process. The Carre 
machine was the first to obtain a foothold 
in the ice making industry in the United 
States. In 1863 the first machine was ship¬ 
ped through the blockade to Augusta by Mr. 
Bujac of New Orleans. This machine was 
not successful and it was not until 1865 that 
D. L. Holden successfully operated the ma¬ 
chine and established its practicability. From 
that time on the progress made was rapid. 
See The Principles of Mechanical Refrigera¬ 
tion (1928). 

Refuse Collection and Disposal. Muni¬ 
cipal refuse includes those wastes incident to 
city life, other than sewage, that are gen¬ 
erally held to be proper subjects for Goflec- 









Regalia 


3956 


Regina ' 


tion and disposal at public expense, or at 
least under municipal sanitary control. The 
most important classes of refuse are. those 
kitchen and table wastes known as garbage, 
market and slaughter-house wastes, ashes, old 
paper, bottles and crockery, tin cans, old 
leather and rubber, and cast-off articles of 
apparel and furniture generally. The earliest 
method of refuse disposal, after general col¬ 
lections were introduced, was by dumping 
upon land or into water, either of which 
is liable to be a nuisance, while dumping 
garbage or mixed refuse upon future building 
sites may be an ultimate menace to health. 
Earth burial of garbage alone, where land 
in rural districts is available, may be a rela¬ 
tively cheap, as it is a thoroughly sanitary, 
means of disposal. Another method of treat¬ 
ing garbage alone is by the reduction process 
practiced in New York, Philadelphia, Balti¬ 
more, Washington, and many other of the 
larger cities of the United States. The gar¬ 
bage, which must be deposited by the house¬ 
holder in separate cans, is removed by itself 
to the reduction works, where the grease is 
extracted and the remaining material is made 
into a fertilizer base. The usual alternative to 
garbage reduction is burning or cremation. 

Regalia, the ensigns of royalty, including 
more particularly the apparatus of a corona¬ 
tion. The regalia, strictly so called, of Eng¬ 
land, with the exception of the vestments, are 
now exhibited in the Jewel-room in the Tow¬ 
er of London. Their total value is estimated 
at $15,000,000. 

Regatta. See Rowing. 

Regelation. See Ice. 

Regeneration, a theological term employ¬ 
ed to denote the spiritual change involved in 
the act of becoming a Christian. It is prob¬ 
able that the theological usage of the term is 
based on the words used by Christ to Nico- 
demus, ‘Except a man be born again, he can¬ 
not see the kingdom of God/ 

Regeneration of Lost Parts, in biology, 
signifies the reproduction or renewal of por¬ 
tions of an organism which have been des¬ 
troyed from one cause or another. The first 
detailed experiments known are those per¬ 
formed in about 1740 by the Abbe Trembley, 
who used the freshwater hydra, and found 
that if it were cut into parts each part was 
-capable of developing into a new individual. 
His observations were repeated and extended 
by Reaumur, Bonnet, Spallanzani, and others. 
Among annelids, the power is well marked in 
the earthworms and their allies. Fishes re¬ 


generate their fins; amphibians, with some 
exceptions, regenerate their tails in the larva 
(tadpole) and in the adult (urodeles), and 
also in some cases (salamander, but not frog) 
their limbs. The most important application 
of the principle involved in regeneration is 
in skin grafting and in bone grafting, by 
which pieces of bone from various parts of 
the body, as well as portions of joints and 
whole joints, have been transplanted to rem¬ 
edy defects in other parts. 

Regent, in countries monarchically govern¬ 
ed, a person appointed to carry on the gov¬ 
ernment in the absence, illness, or disability 
of the sovereign. 

Reggio di Calabria, seaport town, South¬ 
ern Italy, cap. of the prov. of Reggio di Cala¬ 
bria. It is the seat of an archbishop and has 
a fine cathedral. Perfumes, silk, and terra 
cotta are manufactured; fruits, wine, and 
olives are cultivated; and there are fishing 
interests. It was partially destroyed by earth¬ 
quake in 91 b.c., in 1783 and 1894, and on 
Dec. 28, 1908, it was overwhelmed by an 
earthquake that devastated much of Sicily 
and Calabria; p. 129,294. 

Reggio nelP Emilia, walled city, Central 
Italy, cap. of the prov. of the same name, 
stands on the ancient Via Emilia. It has num¬ 
erous churches, including a fifteenth century 
cathedral and the picturesque Madonna del¬ 
la Ghiara containing some fine frescoes. Reg¬ 
gio is the birthplace of the poet Ariosto and 
of the astronomer Secchi; p. 89,611. 

Regicides, the name given to the 150 com¬ 
missioners chosen by Parliament to try 
Charles 1., of whom seventy acted, and fifty- 
nine signed the death-warrant. 

Regicides Cave, a cave situated at New 
Haven, Conn., near the top of West Rock, 
used as a place of hiding by the regicides 
Goffe and Whalley, from whom it took its 
name. 

Regiment. A military unit of. organiza¬ 
tion and administration consisting ordinarily 
of companies and battalions and commanded 
by a colonel. The number of companies in a 
battalion and battalions in a regiment, and the 
number of men in a regiment vary in the 
different armies. A regiment is a unit of a 
brigade, in which there are ordinarily two 
to three regiments. In the United States 
Army, the regiment is the administrative unit 
of cavalry, infantry, field artillery, and en¬ 
gineers. : ■ ■ ■ 

Regina, city, Canada, capital of the prov¬ 
ince of Saskatchewan. It is an important 



3957 


Regulus 


Regiomontanus 

wholesale distributing center and hasmanu- 
facturing interests including foundries and 
machine shops, oil works, flour and lumber 
mills, brick works, and manufactures of au¬ 
tomobiles and carriages; p. 53,034. 

Regiomontanus, the adopted name of 
Johann Muller (1436-76), a German astron¬ 
omer born at Konigsberg in Franconia. To¬ 
gether with 'Bernhard Walther he published 
Ephemerides ab Anno 1475~i which was 
useful to Columbus and Vasco da Gama. He 
introduced the study of algebra into Ger¬ 
many, and advanced the science of trigonom¬ 
etry. 

Register, in music, is the compass of the 
singing voice; but the term is more frequently 
employed to define particular sections of the 
voice, as chest, head, lower, upper, or mid¬ 
dle register. 

' Registration of Births, Deaths, Mar¬ 
riages. In the United States methods of reg¬ 
istration varied greatly among the several 
States until 1902, when, through the coop¬ 
eration of the American Public Health As¬ 
sociation and the Bureau of the Census, a 
model form of registration law was adopted, 
which has since been endorsed by the Am¬ 
erican Medical Association and which has 
been enacted and successfully carried out in 
many States. The essential requirements of 
this law are that there shall be standard cer¬ 
tificates of birth and death; that every death 
shall be registered, by the undertaker or 
person who disposes of the body, with the 
local registrar, who issues a permit for burial 
or removal, without which no body can be 
interred or otherwise disposed of. See Vital 
Statistics. 

Registration of Voters, the method of 
proof prescribed for ascertaining the persons 
who are qualified to cast votes at any elec- 
don. It is a necessary part of the machinery 
of elections, and is a reasonable regulation, 
intended to conduce to their orderly conduct 
and fairness, and to minimize the possibility 
of fraud. Lists of persons entitled to vote 
are made out in advance of an election for 
use at the polls. Every person who is a quali¬ 
fied elector is entitled to register upon furn¬ 
ishing proof of his qualification and comply¬ 
ing witlr such requirements as may ..have been' 
provided by statute. England. was the first . 
country td use registration. The States of 
the United States have gradually put the 
system of registration into operation, for the 
most part in the later decades of the nine¬ 
teenth century. 

Regnard, Jean Francois (1656-1709), 


French dramatist, one of Moliere’s most bril¬ 
liant disciples in comedy, was born in Paris. 
He wrote no plays until more than half-way 
through his life, and his best comedy, Le 
Legataire Universel, was written only a year 
before his death. Other plays are Le joueur 
(1696) ; Les Menechmes (1705). 

Regnault, Alexandre Georges Henri 
( I S43-71), French painter, was born in Paris. 
In 1866 he won the Prix de Rome at the 
Salon by his picture, Thetis bringing the 
Arms forged by Vidcan to Achilles. Reaching 
Rome he executed there a remarkable por¬ 
trait of Madame Duparc, and his historical 
subject of Automedon breaking the Horses 
of Achilles. Among his other pictures are the 
powerful equestrian portrait of General Prim, 
now in the Louvre, his Judith, Salome (Met¬ 
ropolitan Museum of Art), and The Execu¬ 
tion without Judgment under the Moorish 
Kings of Granada. 

Regnault, Henri Victor (1810-78), 
French chemist, was born at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
His main researches were not so much in or¬ 
ganic chemistry, in which, however, he did 
good work in establishing the theory of sub¬ 
stitution, as in the determination of physico- 
[ chemical constants, many of which still re¬ 
main as the standard. 

Regnier, Mathurin (1573-1613), French 
satirical poet, was born at Chartres. His 
works consist of satires, in imitation of Hor¬ 
ace, Juvenal, and Martial, and of elegies and 
odes, all remarkable for their facility of writ¬ 
ing. 

Regrating. In England an act was passed ■ 
against regrators, forestalled, and ingrossers 
in 1552. A regrator was one who bought vic¬ 
tuals in a market and sold them again within 
four miles of the same place. 

Regulators, The. The name applied to 
those engaging in a series of insurrections 
against royal authority (17.65-71) in the mid¬ 
dle counties of North Carolina. The principal 
grievances were excessive taxes, dishonest 
sheriffs, and extortionate court fees. Nine of 
the Regulators were killed and a large num¬ 
ber wounded. Seven were executed and the 
insurrection was totally crushed. 

Regulus, Marcus Atilius, was consul first 
in 267 b.c., when he conquered the Salientini 
and took Brundusium; and again in 256 b.c., 
during the first Carthaginian War, when with 
the other consul, Manlius Vulso, he invaded 
Africa, defeating on the way the fleet of 
Hamilcar and Hanno off Ecnomus in Sicily. 
His story has inspired Horace with one of 
his finest passages which is found in the Odes 



Regurgitation 


3958 


Reid 


Regurgitation, in medicine, the backward 
movement of blood, food, bile, etc., in the 
body; thus food may regurgitate from the 
stomach to the mouth. 

Rehan (originally, Cretan), Ada (x86o- 
1916), American actress, born in Limerick, 
Ireland. She joined Augustin Daly’s New 
Vork company in 1879 and continued under 
his management until his death. She achieved 
especial fame in Shakespearean parts and as 
Peggy in The Country Girl. 

Reich, Germany, an empire 1871-1919; a 
federated state, 1919-1933; a Fascist totali¬ 
tarian state since 1933. The Reichstag is its 
legislative assembly. 

Reichenbach, town, Silesia, Prussia. The 
Prussians defeated the Austrians here in 1762, 
and the treaty that formed the nucleus of the 
Grand Alliance against Napoleon 1. was 
signed here in 1813 ; p. 17,000. 

Reichenbach, Karl, Baron von (1788- 
1869), a German physicist. He discovered pa¬ 
raffin and creosote, and maintained the exist¬ 
ence of an imponderable agent, which he 
called Od, and which he supposed to be wide¬ 
ly diffused in nature. Among Ms chief works 
are Researches on Magnetism (1874), and 
Odisch-magnetische Briefe (1852). 

Reid, Sir George (1841-1913), Scottish 
portrait painter. The original drawings of his 
illustrations to The Tweed from its Source 
are in the Edinburgh National Gallery. In 
later years he devoted himself to portraiture. 

Reid, George Agnew (1861- ), Ca¬ 

nadian artist. At the Chicago World’s Fair of 
1893 he received a medal for ‘The Foreclosure 
of the Mortgage. 5 

Reid, John (1721-1807), British general, 
originally named Robertson. He became the 
owner of several thousand acres of land in 
Vermont, on which he erected mills and also 
improved in many other ways, but these were 
taken by New England settlers in 1774. 

Reid, Mayne, originally Thomas Mayne 
Reid (1818-83), Irish writer of books of 
sport and adventure. He produced a great 
number of books for boys which made him 
famous, including The Rifle Rangers (1S50), 
The Scalp Hunters (1851), The Headless 
Horseman (1866), and The War Trail (1857). 

Reid, Robert (1862-1929), American fig¬ 
ure and mural painter, born in Stockbridge, 
Mass. His decorative designs, which are not¬ 
able for bold drawing and rich color, are to 
be seen in the Library of Congress in Wash¬ 
ington, the Appellate Court House and Paul- 
ist Fathers’ Church in New York City, and 
the Massachusetts State House in Boston. 


Reid, Sir Robert Gillespie (1840-1908), 
Canadian capitalist, born in Pertshire, Scot¬ 
land. He went to the U. S. in 1871 to as¬ 
sume control of the building of the Interna¬ 
tional Bridge across the Niagara River. Sub¬ 
sequently he contracted for and undertook 
the erection of several other important brid¬ 
ges, including the bridge across the Colorado 
River at Austin, Texas (18S0) ; International 
Railway Bridge between Texas and Mexico, 
across the Rio Grande (1882) ; and the Lich- 
ine Bridge, three - quarters of a mile long 
(1886). He built the greater part of the Ca¬ 
nadian Pacific Railway n. of Lake Superior. 

Reid, Samuel Chester (1783-1861), Am¬ 
erican privateersman, born in Norwich, Conn. 
During the War of 1812 he commanded the 
privateer General Armstrong and harassed 
British commerce. He is said to have sug¬ 
gested the present plan of the American flag 
by which the stripes remained permanently 
thirteen instead of increasing with every new 
state. 

Reid, Thomas (1710-96), Scottish philos¬ 
opher. In 1780 he devoted himself to the 
production of his Essays on the Intellectual 
and Active Powers of Man (1785 and 1788). 
His earlier Inquiry into the Human Mind ap¬ 
peared in 1764. Reid was the foremost ex¬ 
ponent' of the Scottish philosophy, or the 
philosophy of common sense. 

Reid, Whitelaw (1837-1912), American 
journalist and diplomat, was born in Xenia, 
0 . After two years 5 experience as a cotton- 
planter, he joined the editorial staff of the 
New York Tribune, of which he became man¬ 
aging editor in 1869, and editor-in-chief and 
principal proprietor in 1872. He twice de¬ 
clined the appointment of U. S. minister to 
Germany, but was minister to France in 
1889-92, and Ambassador to Great Britain, 
1905-12. 

Reid, Mrs. Whitelaw (1858-1931), was 
born in New York City. She was Elizabeth, 
only daughter of Darius Ogden Mills, Calif¬ 
ornia pioneer and financier. She was married 
to Whitelaw Reid in 1881. A son and daugh¬ 
ter were born to them — Ogden Mills Reid, 
president of the company which publishes the 
New York Herald-Tribune, and Jean, wife 
of the Hon. Sir John H. Ward, second son 
of the first Earl of Dudley. Mrs. Reid 
achieved a world-wide renown for her muni¬ 
ficent philanthropy. She founded the Ameri¬ 
can Arts Students’ Club in Paris, and for 
more than a quarter of a century was presi¬ 
dent of the New York House and School of 
Industry. 



Reigate 


3959 


Religion 


Reigate, in., Surrey, England. The church 
is in part Norman, and in a vault lie the re¬ 
mains of Charles, Lord Howard of Effingham, 
of Armada fame; p. 30,830. 

Reign of Terror. See France; Danton; 
Robespierre. 

Reimams, Hermann Samuel (1694- 
1768), German naturalist, philologist, and 
philosopher. His most famous work was 
WoljeiibuUeler Fragmente eines Unbekannten. 

Reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus) , a deer of 
northern habitat, distinguished conspicuously 
by the fact that antlers are present in both 
sexes. The antlers are placed unusually far 
back on the head, and are very long. In gen¬ 
eral build the animal is somewhat heavy and 
clumsy, the limbs being short, and the feet 
broad and spreading, enabling the animal to 
travel well in marshy places or soft snow. At 
the present time the reindeer is confined to 
the northern parts of both hemispheres. Do¬ 
mesticated reindeer are found in parts of 
Norway, in Lapland, and in Siberia. 

Reindeer Moss, finely branched, grayish 
lichen, which covers large areas in N. Eu¬ 
rope and America. It constitutes the principal 
food of the Reindeer. 

Reinhardt, Max (1873-1943), stage di¬ 
rector, actor and producer, was born in 
Austria. He is chiefly noted outside of Eu¬ 
rope for his spectacular and lavish produc¬ 
tions which include such tremendous success¬ 
es as The Miracle , first produced in 1911; A 
Midsummer Night's Dream , produced in 
large scale outdoor settings since 1933, and 
staged for the motion pictures by Mr. Rein¬ 
hardt in 1934; and The Eternal Road (1937). 

Reinhart, Charles Stanley (1844-96), 
American painter. Some of his paintings are 
Coast of Normandy (1882), Washed Ashore 
(1887), and Rising Tide (1888). 

Reisner, George Andrew (1867-1942), 
archeologist. He is professor of Egyptology 
at Harvard, and curator of the Egyptian De¬ 
partment of Boston Museum of Fine Arts. 
He has been director of several Egyptian ex¬ 
peditions. Important discoveries during ex¬ 
cavations* in his charge include, the Pyramids 
of 68 sovereigns of Ethiopia; the Pyramids of 
5 kings of Egypt; the tomb of the mother of 
Cheops. 

Rejane, Gabrielle Rejti (1857-1920), 
French actress. She soon became famous, and 
her creations were Ma Camarade (1882), 
Clara Soleil; Germinie Lacerteux, Marpuise, 
Madame Sans Gene (1893), and Les Pas 
serelles. 

Relapsing Fever, or Famine Fever, : a. 


disease common in Ireland during the famine 
period. The disease is an acute infectious 
fever, chiefly distinguished by the micro-or¬ 
ganism which accompanies it in the blood and 
by its tendency to run for six days, remit for 
about the same number, and then to return 
for about the same number of days, perhaps 
two or three times, but each time with a 
tendency to a slighter relapse. Fatal cases are 
not common. 

Relations. A general term including all 
kindred of a person. In law, this term with¬ 
out qualification generally refers to such kin¬ 
dred as would take under the statutes of dis¬ 
tribution. 

Relativity. See Einstein Theory. 

Relativity of Knowledge, in the false 
and sceptical meaning of the phrase, suggests 
that human knowledge, because it is in one or 
other of various ways ‘relative/ is necessarily 
vitiated and devoid of ultimate truth. The 
relativity of knowledge, in the better sense of 
the phrase, denotes simply the fact that all 
knowledge is interconnected, or that all ob¬ 
jects of knowledge belong to a single coherent 
world of reality, so that no one obj ect can be 
really known except through its relations to 
other objects. Relativity, in this sense, is not 
a defect of knowledge, but the very char¬ 
acteristic which makes it possible at all. For 
it is precisely because the objects of know¬ 
ledge are mutually involved that knowledge 
can advance, and by its continual self-correc¬ 
tion progress to a more and more adequate 
apprehension of the reality. 

Relator. A person who institutes an in¬ 
formation in the nature of quo warranto, or 
other proceeding, wholly or partly for the 
benefit of the public. 

Release. The surrendering or abandoning 
of a legal claim or interest in property, or 
discharge of legal liability by the person in 
whose favor it exists. In some states a verbal 
release is sufficient, but generally it should be 
in writing. 

Relics, the remains of saintly persons held 
in veneration and used as means of obtaining 
benefits. 

Religion, a general term which lias come 
into customary use since the 16th century. 
Two things are chiefly required for a satis¬ 
factory definition: on the one hand, a state¬ 
ment which will differentiate religion from 
the allied forms of human thought, such as 
art or morality; on the other, a statement 
which is wide enough to include all the forms 
which religion has taken, both in the form of 
subjective emotion and in the form of his- 



3960 


t°ric a I reality. Since we do not yet know all 
the forms which 'it has taken, every defini¬ 
tion must be still only tentative. When man 
realizes that he forms part of a world order, 
the resultant feeling seems to be that which 
is the basis of religion. This leaves room for 
the feeble thought of the savage, and also 
includes all the forms which emotion can 
take, whether it results in moral conduct or 
in naturalistic fetichism. 

What has formed the starting-point in rel 
igious development has been variously rep¬ 
resented. The question has been further com¬ 
plicated by the fact that it has been some¬ 
times represented as though belief in a prim¬ 
itive monotheistic revelation were of the sub¬ 
stance of the faith. Fetichism (Tylor, Comte, 
Schultze), a belief in ghosts (Herbert Spen- 
eer, Caspari, Le Bon), polytheism (Voltaire, 
David Hume), pantheism (Ulrici, Caird), 
henotheism (Max - Muller, Von Hartmann, 
Schelling), monotheism (Creuzer, Professor 
Rawlinson), have all been regarded as the 
original basis from which the latter develop- 
ment arose. All theories as to the origin and 
development of religion are purely hypothe- 
ses. Religion can be taken in its simplest 
form as man’s recognition of a world order 
or a system of things in which he himself has 
been merged. This was naturism, or a recog- 
nition and worship of natural phenomena. 
But man soon distinguished himself from the 
system of which he formed a part. He realized 
not merely his community of origin, but his 
difference of nature. What so distinguished 
him was his possession of a soul. Correspond- 
ing with this stage of development is anim¬ 
ism. 

But gradually he became conscious of how 
the soul, though involved in the body and 
influenced by it, was capable of controlling 
it and was not determined by it. Hence arose 
spiritism, according to which spirit is the con¬ 
trolling factor and end of the world order. 
The spirits which animate outward things are 
conceived on the human analogy, as mani¬ 
festing themselves through these outward 
things, but also as capable of separating from 
them. It is here That Herbert Spencer sets his , 
origin of all religion, when he forms his the¬ 
ory about ghosts, and makes the first gods to 
have been ancestors, the first worship, funeral 
rites. ; 

Closely allied to animism, and springing 
from it, is the primitive form of polytheism 
which endowed certain natural phenomena 
on the analogy of men with spirits. It is ne¬ 
cessary, however, to distinguish between this 


Rembrandt 


primitive polytheism and a refined polythe- 
15 m such as appears in Brahmanism, which 
makes the many gods little more than im¬ 
personations of the attributes of the one God 
Polytheism has been finally transcended in 
the great monotheistic religions of Judaism, 
Islam, and Christianity. 

. ^ em amder, the remnant of an estate lim- 
ited to commerce after the termination of a 
preceding estate or estates granted by the 
same conveyance. Where a remainder is lim¬ 
ited to a person in being capable of taking 
it whenever and however the preceding es¬ 
tate or estates may be terminated, it is said 
to be vested. If the person to whom a re¬ 
mainder is limited is unborn at the time, or 
is uncertain for any reason, or the event upon 
which it will take effect is uncertain, it is 
said to be contingent. 

. Remafe !- Robert (1815-65), German physi- 
cian, was born in Posen. He studied in Ber¬ 
lin, where in 1859 he became a professor do¬ 
ing valuable work by his microscopical re¬ 
searches in embryology and pathology, as 
wen as by his discoveries in the employment 
01 electricity for medical purposes. 

Remarque, Erich Maria (1897- ) 

author, born in Onasbruck, Westphalia, Ger¬ 
many. His book All Quiet On the Western 
Front (1929), was translated into many lan¬ 
guages. The film version was banned in Ger¬ 
many. It was followed by a sequel, The Road 
Baok (1931). Flotsam appeared in 1941. 

Rembrandt, Harmensz van Rhyn 
(1606-69), one of the greatest of painters, 
the glory of the Dutch school, was born in 
Leyden. A realist and gifted with keen in¬ 
sight into, and intuitive sympathy with, the 
inner lives of men and women, he was ever 
an eager student of human nature, and pre¬ 
ferred for his subjects—whether of burgher 
or beggar -faces that bore the marks of life’s 
experience. Thus it was he became pre-em- 
inentiy the painter of old age. His masterly 
portrait-groups, such as the Night Watch 
(Amsterdam) and the Anatomical Lecture, 
are in Holland. One of the secrets of Rem¬ 
brandt’s skill, perhaps the fundamental sec- 
ret, is that his art is an intensification of sel- 
' e ^ d /acts, not a distortion of them. And for 
their intensification he used color and chiaro¬ 
scuro in a manner to suggest the mystery that 
. ies unc * er the surface of things seen. Accord¬ 
ing to Lord Leighton, he was ‘the supreme 
painter who revealed to the world the poetry 
of twilight and the magic mystery of gloom.’ 
_The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New 
York, contains several of his works, and his 



Remedy 


3961 


Renaissance 


Frame-maker {1640) is in a private collec¬ 
tion in that city. Among other famous works 
are: The Synddces of the Drapers, Portrait 
of Himself, Portrait of his Mother, Descent 
from the Cross, Angel Leaving Tobias, The 
Woman Taken in Adultery, Lady with a 
Fan, The Mill. H. Van Loon’s R. F. R. 
(1930) is at once a biography of Rembrandt, 
a fine historical novel, and a general history 
of the age. 

Remedy, in law, the means afforded to ob¬ 
tain redress for injuries, and to protect or 
enforce rights. The nature of the remedy 
often determines the proper court in which 
to commence an action. 

Remensnyder, Junius Benjamin (1843- 
1927), American clergyman, was born in 
Staunton, West Virginia. He was pastor of 
churches in Philadelphia and Savannah, Ga., 
from 1865 to 1S80, when he settled perma¬ 
nently in Hew Vork City, and became pastor 
of St. James’s Lutheran Church there. He 
prepared a Lutheran Manual (1892), gener¬ 
ally used by the sect, and published Doom 
Eternal (1880) ; The Problem of Life (1913). 

Remenyi, Eduard (1830-98), Hungarian 
violinist, born at Heves, Hungary. He made 
a number of tours around the world. His 
technical facility was extraordinary, and in 
his transcriptions of Hungarian airs his play¬ 
ing invariably aroused enthusiasm. 

Remington, Frederic (1861-1909), Am¬ 
erican sculptor, illustrator, and author, born 
at Canton, N. Y. While engaged as a cowboy 
on a Western ranch he began to model in 
clay, making admirable statuettes of Indians 
and cowboys, with their ponies, that attracted 
favorable notice, particularly his Broncho 
Buster and The Wounded Bunkie. Some of 
his stones illustrated with his own drawings 
are Pony Tracks (189 s) ; Crooked Trails 
(1898); The Way of an Indian (1906). 

Remington, Philo (1816-89), American 
inventor, bom in Litchfield, M. Y., and served 5 
an ' apprenticeship .in the fire- arms works 
owned by his father, Eliphalet Remington, at 
IlionfN. Y..Xn 1870.the firm supplied many 
rifles for the French Government, but the. 

■ demand . for fire-arms ■ .having" fallen ■ ; off,.. in 
rS73, James Densmore and George N. Yost 
induced Remington to undertake the manu¬ 
facture of typewriting machines. Subsequent¬ 
ly the manufacture of both typewriters and 
rifles came under the control of stock com¬ 
panies, the name Remington being retained. 

Remittent Fever, a paroxysmal malarial 
fever, in which the symptoms do not entirely 
intermit, but only diminish to some extent 


at intervals. In India it is often called jungle 
fever, and is more severe and more fatal than 
intermittent fever, approaching as it does the 
type of continued pyrexia, which endangers 
life by the prolonged high temperature it in¬ 
duces. 

Remscheid, tn., Prussian Rhine prov. It 
is the center of the German cutlery trade, 
and does an enormous export business; p. 
79,000. 

Remsen, Ira (1S46-1927), American chem¬ 
ist, was born in New York City. In 1872-76, 
he was professor of chemistry in Williams 
College, and in Johns Hopkins University, 
1876-1901, when he became its president. In 
1879 he founded the American Chemical 
Journal, and was its first editor. He is the 
author of text-books, which have been trans¬ 
lated into many foreign languages. 

Renaissance, a general term for the re¬ 
vival of ancient classical influences which 
moved Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. 
The Renaissance took its rise in Italy, in the 
desire to be able to read the masterpieces of 
Greek literature. If any approximate date can 
be assigned for the dawn of the new day, it 
was about the time of the visit of Emanuel 
Chrysoloras, who, in 1396, had come over 
from Byzantium—the home of Greek culture 
— and was lecturing in Florence on Greek 
literature. The period during which the in¬ 
fluence of the Renaissance lasted may for 
convenience’ sake be divided into four parts. 
The first was contemporaneous with the earl¬ 
ier life of Cosimo de’ Medici, before he at¬ 
tained power (1389-1433), during which By¬ 
zantine scholars were the chief humanists; 
the second period lasted until Cosimo’s death 
(1464); the third synchronized with the 
opening and ending of the public life of 
Lorenzo de’ Medici (1470-92); while the 
fourth lasted throughout the winter of the 
Medicean fortunes at Florence and the pon¬ 
tificate of Giovanni de’ Medici (Leo x.), un¬ 
til the sack of Rome (1527), during the pon¬ 
tificate of another Medicean pope (Clement 
vn.). Among the famous men of the Italian 
Renaissance are Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio 
Raphael, Michael Angelo, Andrea del Sarto. 

In Germany it took deep root, where it 
assisted in helping on the reformation. Among 
the most distinguished of its humanists were 
Erasmus, Reuchlin, Ulrich von Hutten, with 
such artists as Holbein, Diirer, and others. In 
Holland the new influence expressed itself 
rather in art than letters. The Van Eycks, 
Lucas van Leyden, revealed to their age the 
mysteries of oil painting, and paved the way 




Renal 


3962 


Rennie 


for Rubens and Van Dyck. In Spain and 
Portugal the force of the Renaissance spent 
itself in exploration, colonization, and religi- 
ous reform. In England, on the other hand, 
the movement confined itself almost wholly 
to literature and scholarship. Englishmen 
went to Italy to study under the great hu¬ 
manists of the day, and brought back with 
them the seeds of that efflorescence which 
rendered the era of Elizabeth the Golden Age 
of English literature. Grocyn, Linacre, More, 
Colet, Ascham, Cheke, Camden, and others 
diffused culture throughout England. Shake¬ 
speare, Marlowe, Bacon, Ben Jonson, and 
Milton were all in turn inspired by the Re¬ 
naissance spirit. So also in France, in litera- 
ture and art, the stimulative force of the Re¬ 
naissance was strongly felt, Clement Marot, 
Villon, Ronsard, and the Pleiade, Mellin de 
Saint Gellais in poetry, Comines, Montaigne, 
and Rabelais in prose, the Scaligers, Budseus, 
Calvin, Dolet, Salmasius, and Beza in scholar- 
ship, Fouquet, Perreal, the three Clouets, and 
Jean Cousin in painting, and Columbe and 
Goujon in sculpture being the leading ex¬ 
ponents. 

Perhaps in architecture more than in any 
other department the influence of the Re¬ 
naissance was experienced in greatest meas¬ 
ure. ‘Renaissance architecture’ proper is really 
the return to ancient Greek and Roman styles 
adapted to modern needs and requirements. 
The ‘Venetian-Renaissance’ style is the one 
most frequently seen nowadays. In it each 
story is distinguished by a separate line of 
columns or pilasters, with their entablatures, 
the windows exhibiting the rounded arch 
with columns, while figures usually fill in the 
spandrils. Extreme variety of detail and 
wealth of carving are also prominent features 
in this style. 

Renal Calculus, or Kidney Stone, is 

formed from the deposited solid constituents 
of the urine, which vary from fine sand to 
masses two or three ounces or more in weight. 
Stones may be of uric acid, calcium oxalate, 
calcium phosphate, and other rarer sub¬ 
stances, though often they are of mixed com¬ 
position. A highly acid urine favors such. 
They may be present in one or both kidneys 
at the same time. 

Renan, Ernest (1823-92), French writer. 
He was bom at Treguier, on the seaboard of 
Brittany. In i860 he traveled in Syria, and 
gathered the local information he needed for 
his Vie de Jesus. He was dominated by his 
artistic genius. The beauty and clearness of 
the French language have seldom been better 


displayed than in his crystal sentences. This 
may partly account for his popularity, but 
the bast sale of his works is no doubt mainly 
due to the fact that he dealt with sacred 
subjects with a peculiarly audacious original¬ 
ly, and in a manner within the comprehen- 
smn of the least instructed. His principal 
works are History of the Origins of Christian¬ 
ity, which includes the Life of Jesus (1863), 
The Apostles (1866), St. Paul (1867), and 
Marcus Aurelius (1880); to which appeared 
later, as a complement, History of Israel: 

Renault, Louis (1843-1918), French jur¬ 
ist, was born in Autun. He was a member of 
The Hague Tribunal and in 1907 received 
one half the Nobel peace prize. He published 
Introduction a Vetude du droit international 
(1879V 

Rene the Good (1409-80), Duke of Anjou 
and Count of Provence. By the will of Queen 
Joanna^ he became heir to the throne of 
Naples in 1435, but was driven from the city 
by Alfonso of Aragon in 1442 and retired to 
Provence where he devoted himself to art 
and poetry. 

Renfrewshire, county, Scotland. Dairy¬ 
farming is the chief industry. Agriculture 
and stock-raising are carried on and coal, 
iron, and shale are mined. The manufacture 
of thread, cotton, and chemicals, shipbuilding, 
engineering, and sugar-refining, are the other 
chief industries. Gourock is a popular water¬ 
ing place; p. 288,575. 

Renneil, James (1742-1830), English 
geographer, was born in Devonshire. He was 
the founder of the branch of geography 
known as oceanography. His publications, 
which are valuable and the result of careful 
research, include a Bengal Atlas (1779), a 
map of India (1783), a geography of Hero¬ 
dotus (1800). 

Rennes, town, and archiepiscopal see, 
France. It trades in dairy produce, and has 
manufactures of sail-cloth, table linen, leather, 
and agricultural implements. Here Boulanger 
(1837-91), was born, and here in 1899 Drey- 
fus was tried for the second time; p. 83,418. 

Rennet, a preparation made from the lin¬ 
ing membrane of the true stomach of the 
calf, which yields an enzyme, or soluble fer- 
ment, capable of causing the coagulation of 
casein. Rennet preparations are much used 
in cheese-making to produce the curd, which 
Is subsequently separated from the whey, or 
watery portion. 

Rennie, John (1761-1821), Scottish civil 
engineer, was born in Phantassie, Hadding¬ 
tonshire. Settling in London (1791) he did 



Rennie 


3963 


the engineering work of the Kennet and 
Avon Canal, the Rochdale Canal, and the 
Lancaster Canal; built Waterloo Bridge, and 
the bridges at Musselburg, Kelso, and 
Southwark; and London Bridge, though not 
completed till after his death, was designed 
by him. He constructed or improved London 
docks, East and West India docks. He also 
designed and constructed the breakwater at 
Plymouth. 

Rennie, Sir John (1794-1874), English 
civil engineer, son of John Rennie, was born 
in London. He early entered his father’s busi¬ 
ness, and was knighted on completion of 
London Bridge from his father’s designs 
( i 8 3 i )* 

Reno, city, Nevada. It is a manufacturing, 
commercial, and residential city and is the 
seat of Nevada State University. In 1927, 
the legislature of Nevada made it possible to 
establish residence in the state in three 
months, thereby increasing the number of 
divorces to 2,103 the next year. In 1931 the 
new six-weeks’ law is said to have caused the 
number of divorces to double; p. 21,3x7. 

Renoir, Auguste (1841-1919), French 
artist, one of the most important of the Im¬ 
pressionistic school, was born in Limoges. 
Renoir’s art is characteristically impression¬ 
istic. He excels in figure work, particularly 
the nude, being wonderfully successful in his 
flesh tints. Among his best known works are 
The Ball at Montmarte, the Beautiful Bather, 
Wounded Girl, Young Girls at the Piano and 
portraits of Monet and Madame Charpentier 
and her children. 

Renouvier, Charles Bernard (1818- 
1903), French philosopher, was born in 
Montpellier. After the revolution of 1848 he 
published Manuel repuhlkain de Vhomme et 
du citoyen (1848), which was charged with 
advocating extreme socialistic ideas, and as 
Carnot approved his ideas he made him 
Minister of Public Instruction. 

Rensselaer, city, New York. It is a manu¬ 
facturing and railroad center. The chief in¬ 
dustrial establishments are felt, wool shoddy, 
and. knitting mills. The village of Bath was 
annexed to it in 1902; p. 10,768. 

.Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,., a 
school of engineering and science, was estab¬ 
lished by Stephen Van Rensselaer in Troy, 
New York, in 1824. It is the oldest school of 
engineering, now in existence, to be estab¬ 
lished in any English-speaking country. In 
1930 a building for the school of architecture, 
costing $400,000, and an extension to an¬ 


Reparatiom 

other building, costing $100,000, were con¬ 
structed. 

Rent, in ordinary language, refers to the 
payment made for the occupation of land, or 
of houses or other buildings erected upon it. 
In political economy, rent is the difference 
between the price obtained for the produce of 
a given area of land and the total cost of 
production. The theory of rent is associated 
with the name of Ricardo, who expounded it 
in his Principles of Political Economy and 
Taxation (1817, 1819, and 1821), though he 
had been partly anticipated by Malthus and 
others. 

Rent, from a legal point of view, the con¬ 
sideration paid by a tenant to his landlord 
for the use and occupation of real property. 
The term is also frequently applied to desig¬ 
nate the compensation for the use of personal 
property belonging to another. 

Renwick, Jatn^c (1662-88), Scottish Cov¬ 
enanter, was bom near Moniaive, Glencairn. 
Exposed to the tyranny of the Privy Council, 
he had to lead the life of a fugitive, but suc¬ 
ceeded in 1684 in publishing the Apologetical 
Declaration. He is celebrated in church his¬ 
tory as ‘the Angel of the Covenant.’ 

Renwick, James (1790-1863), American 
physicist, was born in Liverpool, England. In 
1838 he was one of the commissioners to de¬ 
lineate the boundary line between Maine and 
New Brunswick. He translated Lallemand’s 
Treatise on Artillery, and edited several Eng¬ 
lish scientific text-books for American stud¬ 
ents. 

Renwick, James (1818-95), American 
architect, was born in New York City. His 
greatest work was St. Patrick’s Cathedral in 
New York City. Other buildings of note de¬ 
signed by him are Grace and Calvary 
churches, New York City, and the Smithson¬ 
ian Institution and Corcoran Gallery in 
Washington. His art collection he bequeathed 
to the New York Metropolitan Museum. 

Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of 
Latter-day Saints. See Mormon Church. 

Repairs, a term which as used by lawyers 
generally signifies the labor and expense ne¬ 
cessary for keeping buildings in proper condi¬ 
tion. In the absence of special stipulation the 
tenant in a lease will be held responsible for 
executing all repairs during its currency, and 
must as a rule leave the property in the same 
order as that in which he got it, except in so 
far as it has deteriorated by natural decay. 

Reparations, a legal term denoting com¬ 
pensation for injuries done or restoration of 



Reparations 


3964 


goods unlawfully taken. It has been used 
specifically since the World War to designate 
the payments levied by the Allies upon the 
defeated Central Powers in the peace treaties. 
The legal basis for the imposition of repara¬ 
tions upon Germany was provided in Article 
231 of the Versailles Treaty, which read as 
follows: c The Allied and Associated Govern¬ 
ments affirm and Germany accepts the .re¬ 
sponsibility of Germany and her allies for 
causing all the loss and damage to which the 
Allied and Associated Governments and their 
nationals have been subjected as a conse¬ 
quence of the war imposed upon them by the 
aggression of Germany and her allies.’ 

With the rejection of the Versailles Treaty 
by the United States, the Reparations Com¬ 
mission was composed of representatives of 
France, Great Britain, Italy, and Belgium, 
with Japan and Yugoslavia replacing Belgium 
in certain cases. This committee finally fixed 
the amount of reparations due and the ar¬ 
rangements for payment by Germany. A con¬ 
ference of the Allied premiers at Paris in 
January, 1923, resulted in a deadlock be¬ 
tween the British and French. On the basis 
of two decisions of the Reparations Com¬ 
mission that Germany had defaulted in her 
timber and coal deliveries, France and Bel¬ 
gium occupied the Ruhr Valley, the indus¬ 
trial center of Germany (Jan. n, 1923). 

They hoped to exploit the rich coal mines 
and other industries of the Ruhr so as to 
secure greater reparation payments than had 
been forthcoming from the German Govern- 
ment. Although they took over the railways 
and the local government and introduced 
French and Belgian technicians and engin- 
eers to run the mines and other properties, 
the occupation was not a financial success. 
The troops met with the passive resistance of 
a large part of the German population, who 
were supported in their refusal to work for 
the invaders by relief funds supplied by the 
German Government. The French and Bel¬ 
gians placed the entire region under martial 
law, evicted 3U° 00 Germans, imprisoned 
thousands of others, and executed 10. The ef¬ 
fect was to bring the entire German industrial 
system to the verge of collapse. 

The other powers, led by Great Britain, 
exerted strong pressure upon Poincare to end 
the Ruhr occupation. British trade had been 
seriously injured by the stoppage of German 
industrial activity and Italy and Belgium 
showed dissatisfaction. These considerations 
finally induced Poincare to accept the Ger- 


Reparaticms 

man offer of an impartial examination of 
Germany’s capacity to pay. 

In 1924, an advisory committee convened, 
which included Charles G. Dawes and Owen 
D. Young, unofficially representing the U. S. 
The report of the Dawes Commission, sub¬ 
mitted April 9, 1924, provided a basis for the 
temporary settlement of the reparation prob¬ 
lem. Germany made full reparation payments 
as provided by the Dawes plan for five years, 
from Sept. 1, 1924, to Sept. 1, 1929, when the 
Young plan, ratified in 1930 by the govern¬ 
ments, went provisionally into effect. 

The Dawes plan did not fix the total re¬ 
paration payments to be made by Germany. 
It did fix a definite schedule of annual pay¬ 
ments, to be continued for an indefinite per¬ 
iod. It also provided elaborate machinery and 
a detailed method of raising the payments, of 
transferring them out of Germany, and of 
settling disputes or defaults that might arise. 
The Dawes payments were based upon the 
estimated capacity of Germany to pay, rather 
than on the total of Allied claims. 

The Dawes.plan was admittedly a stop¬ 
gap affair. It was obvious that sooner or 
later the Allied governments would be obliged 
to reach a definitive agreement with Ger¬ 
many as to the total payments to be made. 
Accordingly, representatives o f Germany, 
France, Great Britain, Belgium, Italy and 
Japan met at Geneva Sept. 16, 1928, and es¬ 
tablished a new committee of experts to work 
out a ‘complete and definite settlement’ of 
the reparations problem. 

With Owen D. Young as chairman, the 
committee met at Paris from Feb. 11 to June 
7, 1929, on the latter date submitting a unan¬ 
imous report to the Reparations Commission 
and the governments concerned. The number 
of annuities payable by Germany was fixed 
at 59, commencing at 1,707,900,000 gold 
marks and progressing gradually to a maxi¬ 
mum of 2,428,800,000 marks in 1965-66. The 
average annual payment for the first 37 years 
was set at 2,050,600,000 marks. An interna¬ 
tional bank (the Bank of International Set¬ 
tlements) was to be established to receive and 
distribute the reparation annuities. The 
Young report was adopted in principle, with 
certain modifications, by official representa- 
tives of the 12 interested nations who met at 
The Hague, Aug. 6-31,1929. 

A second conference to deal with the Ger¬ 
man reparations problem and related finan¬ 
cial issues was held at The Hague Jan. 3-20, 
1930. There 14 agreements were signed by 



Reparations 


3965 


representatives of 21 governments, viz., Aus¬ 
tria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, 
France, Germany, Great Britain, Australia, 
Canada, India, New Zealand, Poland, Portu¬ 
gal, and Rumania. These agreements pro¬ 
vided for the definite settlement of Ger¬ 
many’s reparation liabilities and for the con¬ 
stitution of the Bank for International Set¬ 
tlements as proposed in the Young plan. Fol¬ 
lowing its ratification bv the governments of 
Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, 
and Italy and the enactment of requisite laws 
by Germany, the Young plan officially went 
into effect, May 17, 1930. The Bank for In¬ 
ternational Settlements ' had previously been 
established at Basle, Switzerland. After the 
official inauguration of the Young plan, 
France commenced the evacuation of the 
Third Zone of the Rhineland. 

Despite the optimism with which it was 
received, the Young plan lasted only to the 
end of the first of the 59 years of its pre¬ 
scribed life. It was wrecked by a combina¬ 
tion of the world depression, which already 
in 1930 had seriously affected German econ¬ 
omy, and the continuance of the Franco- 
German political struggle. Mr. Hoover had 
been apprised of the seriousness of the situa¬ 
tion by reports from American diplomatic 
and consular officers in Germany and other 
parts of Central Europe. The President’s con¬ 
cern was aroused primarily because of the 
large American financial interests at stake in 
the German crisis. Of the $2,272,000,000 long¬ 
term foreign debt incurred by Germany dur¬ 
ing 1924-31, 55.2 per cent, was held in the 
United States. Convinced of the necessity of 
immediate action, President Hoover on June 
20, 1931, after consultation with the leading 
members of Congress in Washington, issued 
from the White House his proposal for a 
general moratorium. The statement follows: 

‘The American Government ■ proposes . the 
postponement during, one year of all pay¬ 
ments on intergovernmental debts, repara¬ 
tions and relief debts, both principal.and in¬ 
terest, of course, not including obligations of 
■■governments held' by private parties. 'Subject 
.to confirmation by Congress, the American 
Government will postpone all payments upon 
the debts of foreign governments to the Am¬ 
erican Government payable during the fiscal 
year beginning July 1, next, conditional on a 
like postponement for one year of all pay¬ 
ments on intergovernmental debts owing the 
important creditor powers.’ 

The response to the President’s call for a 
moratorium was almost unanimously favor¬ 


Reparations 

able. Newspapers of all kinds of political 
opinions, as well as financial, industrial and 
political leaders with very few exceptions, 
supported his action. The governments of 
other nations most vitally affected also ex¬ 
pressed their agreement, with the single ex¬ 
ception of France. The French reply, received 
on June 24, however, without declining the 
President’s proposal, contained reservations 
and terms intended to safeguard the Young 
plan. The following accord was finally ap¬ 
proved and initialed in Paris on July 6, 1931: 

‘After an exchange of views the French 
Government states that it is in agreement 
with the United States on the essential prin¬ 
ciple of President Hoover’s proposal, and on 
the following propositions, which may be 
expressed thus: 

‘i. The payment of intergovernmental 
debts is postponed from July 1, 1931, to June 
30, 1932. 2. However, the Reich will pay the 
amount of unconditional annuity. The French 
Government agrees, in so far as it is con¬ 
cerned, that the payments thus made by the 
Reich shall be placed by the Bank for Inter¬ 
national Settlements in guaranteed bonds of 
the German railroads. 3. All suspended pay¬ 
ments shall be subject to interest in accord¬ 
ance with the conditions suggested by the 
American Government, payable in ten annual 
instalments beginning with July 1, 1933. 4. 
The same condition shall apply to the bonds 
to be issued by the German railroads.’ Other 
details were left to a committee to be formed 
by the governments concerned. 

In October, 1931, Premier Laval of France 
visited Washington and conferred with Pres¬ 
ident Hoover upon various Franco-American 
problems, notably that of intergovernmental 
debts. In 1932 the Lausanne Conference had 
agreed upon terms for the final settlement 0? 
the Allied reparation claims on Germany. By 
the Gentleman’s Agreement, the Allied pow¬ 
ers pledged themselves not to ratify the re¬ 
paration accord until £ a satisfactory settle¬ 
ment’ of their war debts'to the United States 
had been reached. Meanwhile the Hoover 
Moratorium was to continue on German and 
non-German reparation and on the war in¬ 
debtedness of the various European govern¬ 
ments to each other. During 1933, no ‘satis¬ 
factory settlement’ of the debts owed to the 
United States government was reached. In 
1933 Finland .was the only country owing war 
debts to the United States which paid in full. 
Finland has ever since made each payment 
falling due, and Hungary has made some 
“token” payments. See War Debts. 



3966 


Representation 


Repeal 

Repeal, the abrogation or annulment of a 
statute by another legislative act. On Decem¬ 
ber 5, 1933, the 18th (Prohibition) amend¬ 
ment to the Constitution of the United States 
was repealed, when Utah became the 36th 
state to ratify the 21st (Repeal) Amendment. 
Thus ended one of the great social experi¬ 
ments of the world, the United States being 
the eighth nation to abandon such an ex¬ 
periment. 

Repentance, the feeling of grief experi¬ 
enced by man when he is conscious that he 
has acted wrongly in word or deed. 

Repertory Theatre, a type of theatre, 
common in continental European cities, 
where plays of all kinds are produced, not 
primarily for profit, as in the case of the or¬ 
dinary theatre, but for cultural purposes and 
the encouragement of new dramatic writers. 
Notable examples are the Comedie-Fran^aise 
in Paris, the Burgtheatre in Vienna, the Na¬ 
tional Theatre in Oslo, Norway, and the Ber¬ 
lin Schauspielhaus, Germany. The Civic Rep¬ 
ertory Theatre organized by Eva Le Gal- 
lienne and others in New York City has en¬ 
joyed great success. The Theatre Guild, also 
in New York City, which has built a beauti¬ 
ful theatre for its productions, may in a 
broad sense be considered a repertory theatre, 
although strictly speaking it cannot be so 
classed since its productions have continuous 
runs of varying lengths and only one play 
is produced at a time. It also leases other 
theatres for its use. 

Repin, Ilia Yefimovitch (Elias) (1844- 
1918.), Russian portrait and genre painter, 
was born near Kharkov. He studied in St. 
Petersburg, and in 1870 was awarded a trav¬ 
eling scholarship for his Raising of Jairus 3 
Daughter. Before entering on his foreign 
study he painted and exhibited his Burlaki 
(‘Bargemen on the Towpath’), considered 
the first masterpiece of modern Russian art. 
His ^portraits are remarkable for characteris¬ 
tic insight and powerful handling, especially 
one showing Tolstoi striding behind his 
plough. Other important pictures are Ivan the 
Cruel (1885), St. Nicholas-Staying an Execu¬ 
tion (1889). 

Replevin, a common law action for the 
recovery of personal property, the first step 
of which is for an officer to take possession 
of the property and deliver it to the plaintiff 
upon receiving from him a bond of indem¬ 
nity..' . ■ . . . 

Reports, Law. Printed collections of 
complete or abridged transcripts of records of 
cases determined in courts of law. At present 


in England and in all the States of the United 
States official court reporters, or officials 
performing the same duties, are appointed 
or designated, and official reports of at least 
the important cases of the highest courts of 
record and of some of the inferior courts 
are issued in each State. 

Repousse, a term used by artists in metal 
to describe designs that are first ham¬ 
mered up from the inner side of the object 
to be decorated (vases, shields, cups), and 
then finished by chasing with a graver. In 
the 16th century Cellini was the great master 
of this art, especially in its application to the 
precious metals. This art was revived in 
France about the middle of the 19th century. 

Repplier, Agues (1858- ), American 

essayist and critic, of French extraction, was 
educated at the Sacred Heart Convent, Tor- 
resdale, Pa. Her essays are distinguished by 
dignity of treatment, a lucid style, and a 
delicate sense of humor. Her publications 
include Books of Men (1888); Points of 
View (1891) ; The Fireside Sphinx, a charm¬ 
ing and sympathetic study of cats (1901) ; 
Compromises (1904); Mere Marie, of the 
Ursulines (1931); To Think of Tea (1932). 

Representation, in politics, is the term 
applied to the system under which power is 
exercised by an individual or body in virtue 
of popular election. An early stage in the 
history of representation is to be found in 
the national assemblies of estates, of parlia¬ 
ments in the 12th and 13th centuries. The 
royal exchequers were in a continual condi¬ 
tion of bankruptcy. It became necessary to 
devise a new system of taxation, and to that 
end the different communities were bidden 
to send representatives to a central assembly. 
It was soon discovered that a petition pre¬ 
sented in Parliament, especially a petition 
presented by Parliament, was infinitely more 
likely to succeed than a petition presented to 
the king in the old private way. In the 15th 
century we find statutes regulating the fran¬ 
chise and the qualification of members, and 
providing for the frequent assembling of par¬ 
liaments. The r 6th century was a century of 
reaction against parliamentary institutions 
all over Europe. In England, Parliament 
practically became an instrument in the 
hands of the monarch. The 17th century wit¬ 
nessed a great revival of the power of Parlia¬ 
ment, which began with the opposition to 
James 1., and culminated in the revolution 
of 1688. This latter event ultimately trans¬ 
ferred the supreme control, not only in leg¬ 
islation but also in administration, both ot 



Representatives 


3967 


Reproduction 


domestic and foreign affairs, from the crown 
to the Parliament. The governments of the 
United States, Canada, Australia, and Brit¬ 
ish South Africa have almost from the very 
first adopted thoroughly representative 
schemes of government. 

United States. —Representation in some 
form was recognized in the governments of 
the English colonies in America, the first 
colony to obtain a representative legislature 
being Virginia, the General Assembly of 
which commenced to meet in 1619. The 
others obtained in course of time similar 
privileges. Yet in all but a very few cases 
the executive was entirely independent of 
the people, and responsible to the crown or 
proprietary alone. This was one of the main 
causes of the friction that prevailed during 
the rSth century. At present, in each State 
of the United States districts are marked 
out by the legislature for the election of State 
senators and representatives respectively. 

The members of the U. S. House of Repre¬ 
sentatives are apportioned among the differ¬ 
ent States after the completion of each cen¬ 
sus according to population. They are either 
chosen by the State electors at large, or, as 
is generally the case, districts are marked out 
by the State legislature. Each State is en¬ 
titled to two representatives in the U. S. 
Senate, who hold office for six years, and 
who until 1913 were chosen by the votes of 
the members of the State legislature. In that 
year the Seventeenth Amendment was added 
to the Constitution, making provision for the 
direct election of Senators. 

The President is appointed by a body of 
independent electors, each State contributing 
a number equivalent to that of the Senators 
and Representatives whom it sends to Con¬ 
gress. As these electors are chosen by the 
people, however, the President is in all but 
name elected directly by the popular vote. 

Proportional Representation is an elec¬ 
toral system devised for the rectification of 
a manifest injustice in the ordinary methods 
of political election. In countries where 
these-, methods prevail a substantial minority 
of voters may obtain only a small minority 
of members, and may have practically little 
or no representation. A number of plans 
have been suggested for remedying this evil. 

See Elections; Electorate; Local .Gov¬ 
ernment; Party Government. Consult 
Commons 7 Proportional Representation; 
Curtis 7 Proportional Representation; King 
and Raffety’s Our Electoral System. 

Representative*. U. S. House of, the 


Lower House of Congress. See United 
States, Government. 

Reprieve is an act of the executive or of 
a criminal court by which the carrying out 
of a capital sentence is temporality delayed. 
When granted by the executive the object 
generally is to allow time in order that the 
advisability of a pardon may be considered. 

Reprisal. Formerly when an individual 
suffered injury from, a foreign state, he was 
given a letter of reprisal, in virtue of which 
he could seize or confiscate the property be¬ 
longing to that state or its subjects by way 
of securing compensation. The idea of re¬ 
prisals is that they should be a means of 
redress short of war, and they are only to 
be used when compensation cannot be got 
by amicable methods. The following acts 
of reprisal without the declaration or exist¬ 
ence of war are recognized by the sanction of 
usage and authority: (1) the sequestration 
of property belonging to the offending state; 
(2) the sequestration of the property of its 
citizens; (3) the partial or complete suspen¬ 
sion of commercial and other intercourse be¬ 
tween the two nations; (4) suspension or 
annulment of treaties in part or in whole; (5) 
withdrawal of all privileges and rights to 
domiciled citizens of the offending state; (6) 
a pacific blockade. 

Reproduction is the term applied to the 
whole process whereby life is continued from 
generation to generation. Reproduction is 
one of the prime functions of protoplasm, and 
is intimately related to growth, of which 


Reproduction by Fission: Four 
Stages in the Reproduction of 
Amoebae. 

it may indeed be regarded as a special case. 
The phenomenon occurs in its simplest form 
in many Protozoa, as in amoeba, for example, 
which grows until it reaches the limit of ad¬ 
vantageous size, and then reproduces by di¬ 
viding into two parts (fission). Comparing 
multicellular forms with the Protozoa, we 
find that, generally speaking, these, in place 
of simply dividing, give off two kinds of spe- 





Reproduction 3968 

dally modified cells, known respectively as I number where 


ova and spermatozoa , which after * sexual j 


_ Republic 

chances of an individual 


w - . ' —- ™ surviving are small, because the agents of 

union has occurred become capable of de~ elimination which act in the earlier stages are 
veoprng into new organisms. This is the largely non-selective in their mode of action 

ordinary process of sexual reproduction, as If it is possible to protect the young through 
known alike m the higher plants and the their early stages, as is done by the parents 
higher animals. Another type of reproduction in more specialized forms, then, by leavine 
consists m the liberation of clusters of the the more fit to breed, the standard of the 
ordinary body cells, which are capable of species is always being raised; hence the bio- 



Reproduction by Budding. 


A, Ovary, with ovum; B, fully 
formed bud, with mouth and 
tentacles. 

growing into a new organism. In plants, 
vegetative reproduction is very frequent— 
the tubers of the potato, the subsidiary bulbs 
produced by most bulbous plants, the r un -, 
ners of the strawberry, and so forth. 

Sexual reproduction by the union of male 
and female cells is practically universal in 
multicellular plants and animals. In some 
cases, however, female cells are produced 
which without sexual union are capable of 
development. Such ova are described as par- 
thenogenetic (See Parthenogenesis) , and oc¬ 
cur, for example, in some insects. All meth¬ 
ods of reproduction are costly to the indi¬ 
vidual; wherefore reproduction does not nor¬ 
mally occur until growth has almost ceased— 
that, is, until the individual has reached its 
maximum, development. It is also a common¬ 
place of biology that the rate of reproduction 
is highest in unspecialized organisms, and 
tends to diminish with progressive specializa- 
tion. The.reason for the progressive diminu¬ 
tion in higher forms in the number of off¬ 
spring produced is not far to seek. It is j 
better for the species that relatively few 
should, be produced, with increased chance of 
surviving to maturity, than an enormous 


logical justification of the parental care 
shown by birds and mammals. See Biology; 
Embryology; Heredity; Cell. 

Reptiles ( Reptilia ), a very large class of 
vertebrate animals, including Tortoises and 
I urtles, Lizards of many kinds, the divergent 
New Zealand lizard’ Sphenodon, Snakes, and 
Crocodilians—five distinct orders with living 
representatives, but including also many or * 
ders of wholly extinct types, such as Ichthyo¬ 
saurs, Plesiosaurs, and Dinosaurs. 

Reptiles occupy a central position in the 
! Vertebrate series: beneath them are Amphi¬ 
bians and Irishes, above them are Birds and 
Mammals. They begin the series of higher 
Vertebrates. Reptiles are cold blooded, the 
temperature of the body not greatly exceed* 
ing that of the surrounding medium; the 
heart is three-chambered, except in Croco¬ 
dilians, where four chambers first occur; the 
body is covered with scales, with which’sub¬ 
jacent bony plates or scutes are sometimes 
associated; the great majority are oviparous, 
while in some the eggs are hatched within 
the mother. A general classification of liv¬ 
ing reptiles is as follows: (i) Rhynchoce- 
phalia, including only Sphenodon; (2) Lacer- 
tilia, or lizards; (3) Ophidia, or snakes; (4) 
Chelonia, or tortoises and turtles; (5) Croco- 
dilia, or crocodiles and alligators. See Tor¬ 
toises and Turtles; Lizards; Snakes; 
Crocodiles; Alligator. 

Republic, a form of government in which 
the sovereign power is vested, not in a hered¬ 
itary ruler or in a ruler elected for life, but 
in. the body of citizens, or in a more or less 
privileged section of them. According to the 
constitution of the governing body, republics 
have varied from the most exclusive oli¬ 
garchy to a pure democracy. The several 
republics of Greece and that of Rome were, 
at the outset at least, aristocratic communi¬ 
ties. The mediaeval republics of Venice, 
Genoa, and the other Italian towns were also 
more or less aristocratic. The most important 
of modern republics is that of the United 
States of America, where pure democracy has 
been fried on a scale unknown elsewhere. Ex¬ 
cept during the short-lived empire of 1863-7, 



Republican 


3969 


Republican 


Mexico has been a republic since 1S24. Since 
the revolution in Brazil in 1890, all the South 
American states (omitting the three Guiana 
dependencies) are republics. Since the World 
War, the following European countries have 
become and continue to be republics: Rus¬ 
sia, Esthonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, 
Turkey, Spain. 

Republican Party, in American history, 
the name applied to three political parties. 

• (1) The official name, in the early period 
under the Constitution, of the party opposed 
to Federalist policies, which later became 
known as the Democratic Party. (See Demo¬ 
cratic Party.) 

(2) The party founded by the followers 
of John Quincy Adams, during the latter 
part of his administration (1825-9), which 
was ultimately absorbed in the New Whig 
Party (1834-6). (See National Republican 
Party.) 

(3) By far the most powerful and the 
best known of the Republican Parties is the 
one organized in 1854-6, after the dissolution 
of the Whig Party, to oppose the extension 
of slavery, and to assert national supremacy 
as against the States’ Rights tendencies of 
the Democratic Party, In 1854, at Ripon, 
Wis., before the Kansas-Nebraska Bill was 
signed by the President, a group of Whigs, 
Democrats, and Free Sobers threatened to 
form a new party if the bill should pass; and 
on July 6 the name Republican was adopted 
by a convention at Jackson, Mich. Other 
State conventions followed, and the new 
party spread rapidly, especially in, the West. 

In 1854 the new party carried 15 out of 31 
States. On June 17, 1856, the first Republican 
National Convention was held in Philadel¬ 
phia, at which John C. Fremont was nomin¬ 
ated for the Presidency, Although Fremont 
was defeated, in the ensuing election, the 
patty succeeded in electing most of its . can¬ 
didates for Congress in the Northern States. 

In 1857 the .Republican Party opposed the 
Dred Scott Decision of the Supreme Court, 
claiming that this was the .result of a corrupt 
; bargain,. and thus alienated the South, In 
i860 . the Republicans' held .. their National 
. Convention at, Chicago, and adopted a, plat¬ 
form which, among other things, declared 
that The normal condition of all the Terri-, 
tories of the United States is that of freedom, 
which Congress is bound to demand and 
defend. 7 On the third ballot Abraham Lin¬ 
coln was nominated for President. In the 
ensuing election, Lincoln received 180 out of 
303 electoral votes. Immediately before and 


after the inauguration of Lincoln occurred 
the secession of the Southern States, which 
formed the Confederate States of America, 
and thus provoked the Civil War. The with¬ 
drawal from Congress of the Democratic 
members from the seceding States left the 
Republican Party in control of the govern¬ 
ment, and of the conduct of the war. In the 
National Convention of 1864 slavery was 
made the keynote of the platform, and its 
complete extirpation was decreed. The assas¬ 
sination of Lincoln (April 14, 1S65) brought 
to the Presidency Andrew Johnson of Tenne- 
see. In 1868 and 1872 Gen. U. S. Grant 
was elected - President by the Republicans, 
while the supremacy of the party remained 
unchallenged in Congress until 1874. The 
Republican platform in 1876 advocated civil 
service reform and a resumption of specie 
payment. In the following election the Re¬ 
publican candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes, re¬ 
ceived a majority of only one electoral vote 
over Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic can¬ 
didate. During the administration of Presi¬ 
dent Hayes the character of the party grad¬ 
ually changed; new leaders arose, and the 
emphasis of party policy shifted from the 
coercion of the South to such economic prob¬ 
lems as the tariff, the currency, and commer¬ 
cial relations. The National Convention of 
1880 advocated civil service reform, a pro¬ 
tective tariff, government aid to education, 
and The protection of the honest voter in 
the South.’ A bitter struggle between the old 
and new leaders resulted in a victory for the 
latter, who placed James A. Garfield in nom¬ 
ination. Upon the death of Garfield, in 1881, 
Chester A. Arthur, the Vice-President, suc¬ 
ceeded to the Presidency. The Republican 
platform of 1884 called for a high protective 
tariff, international bimetallism, the regula¬ 
tion of interstate commerce, and the upbuild¬ 
ing of the navy. A large section of the party, 
popularly called ‘Mugwumps’ refused to sup¬ 
port James G. Blaine for President, and 
Grover Cleveland, a Democrat, was elected— 
the first defeat for a Republican Presidential 
candidate since Lincoln’s time. In 1888 the 
tariff was the principal issue, the Republican 
Party being uncompromisingly in favor of a 
high protective system. The party was re¬ 
turned to power by the election of Benjamin 
Harrison. In the election of 1892 the Re¬ 
publican candidate, Harrison, was decisively 
defeated by Cleveland. 

In its platform of 1896 the Republican 
Party upheld the gold standard; William Mc¬ 
Kinley was chosen President to succeed 





Republican 


3970 


Cleveland. The assassination of McKinley 
in July, 1901, and the succession of Vice- 
President Theodore Roosevelt, involved no 
notable change of policy. The campaign of 
1904 was based on the party’s past achieve¬ 
ments and the general national prosperity. 

By 1908, however, the demand for tariff 
reform, became so insistent that the chief 
plank in the Republican platform for that 
year declared 'unequivocally for a revision of 
the tariff immediately following the inaugu¬ 
ration of the next President.’ William H. 
Taft, the Republican candidate, was elected 
President by a large majority. Early in 1911 
a large and active part of the Republican 
electorate prevailed on former President 
Roosevelt to enter the campaign for the Re¬ 
publican nomination. His candidacy widened 
the breach in the Republican ranks; and af¬ 
ter a bitter struggle for supremacy in the 
National Convention, which resulted in the 
victory of the Taft following, the Roosevelt 
forces withdrew from the Convention and 
organized the Progressive Party. In the na¬ 
tional election of 1912 the Republicans were 
overwhelmed. W. H. Taft ran third to 
Woodrow Wilson, the Democratic nominee, 
and to Roosevelt, the Progressive candidate. 

In 1916, chiefly on the issue of Wilson’s 
peace platform, the Republicans again met 
defeat in the Presidency, though winning 
the House. During 1917 party lines were 
wiped out in support of the war program; 
but in 1918 the elections resulted in control 
of both Houses by the Republicans. This 
was followed by a Republican victory with 
the election in 1920 of Warren G. Harding, 
of Ohio, as President, and Calvin Coolidge, 
of Mass., as Vice-President. The death of 
Harding in Aug. 1923 brought Coolidge to 
the Presidency, to which he was elected in his 
own right in 1924, with Charles G. Dawes, of 
Illinois, as Vice-President. Herbert Hoover, 
Secretary of Commerce in the Coolidge ad¬ 
ministration, was elected President in 1928 
to succeed President Coolidge, who Mid not 
choose to run,’ with Charles Curtis, of Kan¬ 
sas, as Vice-President. The economic depres¬ 
sion, which began to attain considerable 
proportions in 1929 and 1930, was the strong- 
est contributing factor in the defeat of 
Hoover for re-election in 1932, with an over¬ 
whelming victory by his Democratic oppon¬ 
ent, Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Republican 
Presidential candidate, Alfred M. Landon, 
was decisively defeated by Roosevelt in 1936. 

In 1940 Roosevelt was again reelected over 


Requiem 


Republican Wendell Willkie. See United 
States, History, 

Republican River, rises in the eastern 
part of Colorado, and flows in a northeaster¬ 
ly direction to the border of the State, cross¬ 
ing the n.w. corner of Cheyenne co., Kansas. 
It then enters Nebraska, and flowing e. near 
the border re-enters Kansas. It joins the 
Kansas River at Junction City, after a course 
of about 525 miles. 

Repudiation. When a state repudiates its 
financial obligations, or makes default in 
paying the interest or capital of loans made 
to it, it is a question of international law 
whether and to what extent another state 
will interfere for the protection of its sub¬ 
jects who suffer loss. In this particular case, 
although the right of interference exists, gov¬ 
ernments generally refuse to take any steps 
in favor of the sufferers, partly because of 
the responsibility which a state would as¬ 
sume, partly because loans to states are usu¬ 
ally made with sufficient knowledge of the 
attendant risks, and partly because of the 
difficulty which a defaulting state may really 
have in meeting its obligations at the time. 
A modern instance of repudiation is that 
which was announced by the Soviet govern- 
ment of Russia immediately on its accession 
to power, when it disclaimed all connection 
with or responsibility for the foreign debts of 
the former . Imperial State which it replaced. 

Repudiation, in American history, means 
State legislative action reducing or wiping out 
the State debt. This has usually occurred in 
the newer States or in States of new indus- 
trial importance in the second third of the 
19th century, when there was throughout the 
country a craze for internal improvements, 
especially railroads, built with governmental 
aid, and for banks assisted by the State. 

After the Civil War repudiation was com¬ 
mon, because heavy interest had accrued, 
because the war had greatly impoverished 
the Southern States, and because State debts 
were recklessly, extravagantly, and corruptly 
increased, in many cases, during the period 
of negro domination. It has been estimated 
that by repudiation, Southern States reduced 
their debts from $235,000,000 to $108,000,000. 

The Federal Constitution, as interpreted 
by the U. S. Supreme Court, furnishes no re¬ 
dress to a creditor of a State. A few State 
constitutions have provided, or have empow¬ 
ered the Legislature to provide, how suits 

may be ^brought against the State. 

Requiem, the mass .. for; the : repose of the 



Requisitions ___ 3971 Reservations 

dead in use in the Roman Catholic Church, pression (save the Brenner) in the Alpine 
The term is also applied to musical settings chain. 

for the mass of the dead, as those of Mozart, Rescripts, in Roman law, were answers 
Cherubini, Berlioz, and Verdi. returned by the emperor when consulted on 

Requisitions, Military, the demands questions of law, either by the parties in 
made by the authorities of an invading army some controversy, or, more commonly, by 
upon the people of the occupied territory officers charged with the administration of 
for provisions, forage, labor, and transporta- justice. 

tion. It is the rule of most civilized nations Rescue, the offense of freeing another by 
that such supplies shall be paid for at the force from lawful custody. By the common 
conclusion of the conflict. law it is an offense punishable as a felony, 



Baldwin Reservoir, Cleveland, Ohio . 


Reredos, in church architecture the wall 
or.screen at the back of the altar.'..Its use 
dates from the nth century, prior to which 
the episcopal seats and choir stalls were in 
line' with the altar wall. In, course'of. time, 
the reredos came to be-richly adorned with 
carvings,, paintings, or Tapestries.' The. ma¬ 
terials employed'.'are. wood, .stone, and ala¬ 
baster. 

Reschen Sdbteideck, Alpine pass (4,902 
feet), in the Tyrol, leading from Landeck 
(above Innsbruck) in the Inn valley to Mer- 
an in the Adige valley. It has been known 
since pre-Roman days, and is the lowest de- 


a treason, or a misdemeanor, according to 
the character of the criminal rescued. In the 
United States it is generally a felony, and is 
not classed as the same degree of crime as 
that of which the, rescued prisoner was guilty. 
If the prisoner was guilty only of a mis¬ 
demeanor, rescue is generally only a misde¬ 
meanor."' ' 

Reservations, Indian. The policy of set¬ 
ting aside definite portions of land in the 
United States for the use of the various In¬ 
dian tribes was inaugurated in 1786, being 
made necessary by the increase of white 
population and the consequent desirability of 











Reserves 


3972 


Reservoirs 


confining the aboriginal population to nar¬ 
rower limits. At first the reservations were 
formed chiefly as a result of the cession of 
land to the government, the Indian tribe re¬ 
taining a specified part of such land for its 
own use, such cessions being governed by 
treaty. In 1871 this practice was terminated, 
and transactions with the Indians were 
brought under the immediate control of Con¬ 
gress. The Indian Reservations are admin¬ 
istered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. They 
are subject to the jurisdiction of the United 
States, but as far as possible the regulation of 
their own domestic affairs is left to the In¬ 
dians. The U. S. Government endeavors to 
protect them from unscrupulous whites and 
from their own ignorance as well; educational 
work is stressed; and a constant endeavor is 
made to make of the Indian wards good and 
useful citizens. There are Indian reservations 
in Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, 
Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Nevada, New Mexico, 
New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, 
Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, 
Utah, Washington, Wisconsin and Wyoming. 

Reserves, in military usage, forces and 
materials held for future use. In actual battle, 
the reserves are troops not in action but kept 
back and held ready to act at a critical mo¬ 
ment in order to insure victory or turn aside 
defeat. Reserve supplies of materials, such as 
ammunition, provisions, and other necessi¬ 
ty are always established near the scene of 
action to be available without delay when 
needed. The term reserves is also applied to 
those men who have received some military 
training and can be called upon In time of 
national emergency, but who ordinarily fol¬ 
low the pursuits of civil life. Their organiza¬ 
tion varies in different countries. The United 
States Army Reserve Corps numbers 113,- 
177 officers and 2,998 enlisted men; the Naval 
Reserve 12,578 officers and 40,012 men; the 
Marine Corps Reserve 14,945 officers, most 
of whom were called up in 1940-41. 

Reservoirs are receptacles for the storage 
of supplies held in reserve. The term Is gen¬ 
erally limited to structures for storing fluids, 
particularly water, but, broadly "speaking, it 
includes any container of stored materials or 
energy. .The object of the reservoir may be 
to equalize supplies which vary in production 
or consumption, or to maintain a uniform 
level, head, or pressure. Kitchen, or cooking 
stoves, or ranges, for use in houses without 
running water or plumbing fixtures were often 
provided^ with reservoirs (water backs) for 
maintaining a supply of hot water. Generally 


speaking, however, a reservoir is a relatively 
large structure, built wholly or partly in the 
earth, for the storage of water for domestic 
and industrial uses, fire protection, irrigation, 
water power, navigation, or flood protection. 

Water Reservoirs in General. —These fail 
into three main classes: (1) receiving or im¬ 
pounding, which are generally located at the 
source of supply, and are designed to make 
good the deficiencies in yield in times of 
drought; (2) distributing or supply, located 
near the point or area of water consumption, 
to meet interruptions in the supply due to 
breaks in the conduits, or to meet fluctua* 
tions in the consumption or use of water 
from hour to hour or day to day; (3) equal¬ 
izing, to maintain a uniform flow of water, 
or to give a constant level or head, either for 
pumps to work against or to afford a fairly 
uniform pressure, as in a water-works dis¬ 
tributing system. Either distributing or 
equalizing reservoirs may afford considerable 
storage against the falling off in the yield of 
the source of supply. Impounding reservoirs 
are located on perennial or on intermittent 
streams, and are filled by gravity. Other 
reservoirs may be located wherever conditions 
are favorable, and may be filled either by the 
natural flow of streams, by gravity conduits, 
or by pumping through force mains. 

There are many important reservoirs with 
a capacity of 50 billion gallons and more In 
the United States, as, for example, those 
which form a part of the water supply sys¬ 
tem of New York City (see Cats kill Aque¬ 
duct). See Dams, Aqueducts, Irrigation. 
Large reservoirs include the one formed by the 
Assuan, across the River Nile, which supplies 
water for irrigation in Egypt and the Gatun 
reservoir, connected with the Panama Canal, 
which is reported as having a capacity of 
1,370 billion gallons. 

Reservoirs, Use in Flood Prevention. 
The floods in New England and Pennsylvania 
in 1936 served to focus attention on the 
necessity for prevention. Among the methods 
used were the dredging.of river beds and the 
erection of dams and reservoirs to hold the 
surplus water. Work then done was insuffi¬ 
cient to prevent, although it did check, the 
disastrous floods in the Mississippi Valley in 
* 937 - With the completion of the system of 
reservoirs in the near future it is hoped that 
the danger from floods will be entirely 
eliminated. ' . ■■■ ■ . ■ 

Most of the dams in the system are for the 
purpose of irrigation and power as well as 
flood control. The Tygart Dam in West 



Resht 


3973 


Restaurant 


Virginia is intended, however, purely for 
flood control. It has a capacity of 106.600 
million gallons. 

By far the largest project is the Boulder 
13 am, completed in 1936 at a cost of $70,600,- 
000. It has a capacity of 10,000,000 million 
gallons and a height of 727 feet. It is intended 
to supply irrigation and power as well as 
flood control to the states in the southwest. 
Lake Mead, the reservoir formed by Boulder 
Dam, is the largest artificial lake in the world. 

Other large projects for flood control are 
the Fort Peck Dam on the Missouri River and 
the Grand Coulee on the Columbia River. 
The cost of the latter is $113,675,000. 

Resht, town, Persia, capital of the prov¬ 
ince of Gilan. Enzeli, its port, is 14 m. n.w. 
on the Caspian Sea. Resht is the center of 
the silk industry and exports large quantities 
of that product and also of rice, cotton, fruits, 
and tobacco; p. about 35,000. 

Resiczabanya, town, Roumania. It is the 
center of a mining district, and has iron 
works and railway shops; p. 12,578. 

Residence. See Domicile. 

Residuary Legatee, the person to whom 
a testator gives the residue of his property— 
that is to say, all that remains after debts and 
specified legacies have been paid. 

Resina, town, Italy, in the province of 
Naples, on the western slope of Vesuvius. It 
is on the site of ancient Herculaneum. Since 
1903 the ascent of Mount Vesuvius can be 
made from here by means of an electric rail¬ 
way, 4P2 miles in length; p. 20,152. 

Resins, compounds of carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen that occur as natural or induced 
(through incisipns) exudations from plants. 
True resins are amorphous solids with a 
vitreous fracture, soften on heating, burn 
with sooty flame, are soluble in alcohol, ether, 
chloroform, carbon disulphide, fixed oils, and 
volatile oils. Examples are Common Rosin 
(Colophony), Benzoin. Oleo-resins .and 
balsams are mixtures .of resins , and volatile 
oils; among the former class are the turpen¬ 
tines, gummy exudations of various'-species 
of the .pine family,, as American,. Russian, 
.Strassburg. and. French turpentines.. The bal¬ 
sams are liquid or soft products, as Canada 
Balsam. Gum resins are milky exudations 
from plants containing gum, wholly or partly 
soluble in water, resin soluble in alcohol, and 
some volatile oil. Among these are Asafoetida, 
Ammoniac, Mvrrh, Gamboge, and Scam- 
mony, all of which are used in medicine. 

Res Judicata (Lat. ‘matter has been de¬ 
cided’) , a term denoting a prevailing rule ot 


law to the effect that after a cause of action 
has once been finally determined upon its 
merits by the courts, either in a court of last 
resort, or in' an inferior court without appeal 
it cannot be again litigated bv any of the 
parties thereto in any other court. 

Resolution, in music, a term applied to 
the process of change from a dissonant chord 
to one which is consonant. 

Resonance. See Sound. 

Resorcin, meta-dihvdroxy-benzene, CoH.i 
(OH) 2, is obtained by the fusion of different 
gum resins with caustic potash, but is best 
prepared by melting benzene metadisulphonic 
acid with caustic soda. Resorcin is used as an 
antiseptic in the treatment of skin diseases 
and as a hair wash, and its amido-derivative 
as a photographic developer. 

Resources, Natural, Conservation of. 
See Conservation Movement. 

Respiration. See Lungs. 

Respirator, an instrument worn over the 
mouth and nose to prevent dust or cold from 
penetrating to the lungs. Respirators are also 
employed in entering mines filled with gas, 
and are useful to workmen dealing with fly¬ 
ing dust or iron filings. 

Respite, in the civil law, a composition 
with creditors upon obtaining additional time 
for payment. In criminal law the term de¬ 
notes a reprieve or temporary postponement 
of the execution of sentence. 

Respondent, a party in an equity action 
corresponding to a defendant in a suit at law; 
the party who answers a bill in equity. 

Respondentia, a term .employed in mari¬ 
time law to denote a contract under which 
money is loaned on goods constituting the 
whole or a portion of the cargo of a ship, 
upon condition that if the goods are lost 
through any of the perils set forth in the 
contract, the borrower shall be discharged 
from payment. See Bottomry. 

Restaurant, : a public eating place. .Restau¬ 
rants, probably originated in France, and 
Paris still remains the city in which the res¬ 
taurant, as a separate institution, rather than 
as an annex to a hotel, is to be seen at its 
greatest excellence. In London, restaurant? 
were established gradually during the latter 
half of the 19th century, and by 1900 every 
hotel of the first order had attached to it a 
restaurant open to the public. New York is 
well supplied with restaurants of all kinds, 
from the high-priced establishments of Fifth 
and Park Avenues to the ‘automats,’ where 
wholesome food can be obtained for a nickel 
I and its multiples. All of the large hotels have 




Rest-karrow 


m4 


restaurants. The cafeteria, of Western origin, 
has gained great popularity in the last decade, 
and is to be found throughout the United 
States. 

Rest-harrow {Ononis arvensis ), a peren¬ 
nial leguminous plant of Europe, most fre¬ 
quently found on sandy ground near the sea. 

Restigouche, river (200 m. long) between 
New Brunswick and Quebec, Canada, form¬ 
ing for some 50 miles the boundary between 
these provinces. The name, Restigouche, 
meaning ‘the river that divides like the hand,’ 
was given with reference to its five main 
branches. 

Restoration, the process of renovating a 
building so that it shall wholly or in part re¬ 
gain its original character. Such work was 
first undertaken in the 19th century when an 
interest in ancient buildings, particularly the 
old cathedrals and monastic buildings, began 
to take a strong hold on the discriminating 
public. Among the most important examples 
of restoration are many of the English and 
French cathedrals. 

Restoration, a term applied, in English 
history, to the accession of Charles n. (1660) 
and, in French history, to the accession of 
Louis xvhi., first in 1814, and secondly on 
Tune 28, 1815. 

Restorationists, generally, those who hold 
the doctrine that all men, even the unbeliev¬ 
ing and unrepentant, after and by means of 
due punishment, shall be restored to the di¬ 
vine favor and saved. The term is applied 
specifically to a small body in the United 
States known as Universal Restorationists, 
who as followers of Rev. Hosea Ballou, a 
(Jniversalist clergyman of Boston, maintained 
an organization for a short time (1830-41) 
in Mendon, Mass. 

Restoration of Pictures. See Picture- 
Restoring. 

Restraint of Marriage. The marriage re¬ 
lation is favored and protected by law, and 
provisions in a contract, will, or deed having 
for their object the restraint of marriage are 
invalid. However, the law does not prohibit 
a person from providing for another while 
he or she continues in an unmarried state. 

Restraint of Trade. A covenant in re¬ 
straint of trade is one made by an employee 
on joining a business, or a trader on selling 
a business, not to carry on the same trade 
within a certain area or for a certain term. 
See Monopolies; Trusts. 

Resurrection, the rising again of the body 
from the grave, and its reunion with the soul. 
Anticipations of the belief are found among 


Retaining Walls 

the Zoroastrians and the Egyptians; the 
Greek conception of the immortality of the 
soul, however, as developed in Plato’s Phcedo, 
was independent of the notion of bodily re¬ 
vival. It is not till comparatively late in the 
development of the Hebrew religion that the 
doctrine of resurrection appears. The words 
of Jesus do not necessarily imply a belief in 
a bodily or universal resurrection, but the 
apostles, regarding His resurrection as the 
crowning proof, proclaimed it as universal. 

Resurrectionists, or Resurrection-men, 
otherwise Body-lifters or Body-snatchers, 
terms popularly applied in England to a class 
of men who (c. 1760-c. 1835) used to disinter 
newly buried corpses and sell them to the 
medical schools for dissection. 

Resuscitation. In apparent death both 
the circulation and the respiration are at a 
low ebb, and may even be suspended. When 
failure of the respiratory function is the cause 
of apparent death, the patient is said to be 
asphyxiated. Should the circulatory appara¬ 
tus be primarily at fault, syncope results. The 
most important causes of asphyxia are drown¬ 
ing and inhalation of noxious fumes or gases. 
There are several manual methods of restor¬ 
ing respiration, and insufflation and electrical 
stimulation are also used. The pulmotor is 
widely used in cases of drowning and as¬ 
phyxia and a recently developed ‘artificial 
lung’ can prolong respiration when the re¬ 
spiratory system has been paralyzed. 

Reszke, Jean de (1853-1925), Polish op¬ 
eratic singer, was born at Warsaw. He made 
his debut as a baritone at Venice in 1874, 
but a few years later became one of the 
greatest dramatic tenors. He and his brother 
Edouard, a bass singer, were favorite mem¬ 
bers of the Metropolitan Opera House Com- 
pany in New York for many years. 

Retainer. A fee paid to an attorney and 
counsellor at law to engage his professional 
services in a particular action or in all legal 
matters in which the client may be involved 
during a certain period. The term is also 
applied to a written authorization given by 
a client to an attorney to represent him in 
one or more legal matters. 

Retaining Walls are walls built for the 
purpose of confining water or earth, and form 
important parts in the construction of reser¬ 
voirs, docks, fortifications, railways, and 
roads. The ways in which a retaining wall 
may fail are by revolving about the front of 
any horizontal joint; by sliding on the plane 
of any horizontal joint ; or by the bulging of 
the body of the masonry. The first is ' the 



Retbberg 


397S 


Revel 


much more frequent, while the second is least 
frequent. 

Rethberg, Elizabeth (1898- ), Oper¬ 

atic soprano born in Germany, debut made 
in Dresden, 1915. In 1922 she first appeared 
in N. Y. By invitation of Benito Mussolini 
she sang the leading role in Respighi’s The 
Sunken Bell at Rome in 1929. At the request 
of the composer she sang the title role in 
Strauss’s The Egyptian Helen at its world 
premiere in 1928. After overwhelming ova¬ 
tions in 1930-31 at La Scala, Milan and the 
Royal Opera, Budapest and later in N. Y., the 
New York Guild of Vocal Teachers pre¬ 
sented her with a gold medal inscribed “The 
Most Perfect Singer in the World.” 

Retirement. The transfer of an officer of 
the army or navy from the status of active 
service to the retired list, which operates to 
remove him from command and promotion. 
In the U. S. Army and Navy, all officers are 
compulsorily retired at the age of sixty-four 
in the army, and sixtv-two in the navy. 

Retort, a vessel to contain a substance 
from which volatile products are to be ex¬ 
tracted by heating. Iron retorts are employed 
with amalgams; while glass, porcelain, or 
metal retorts are used for laboratory pro¬ 
cesses. See Distillation ; Gas Manufacture. 

Retreat, in military strategy, to retire be¬ 
fore the enemy, is one of the most important 
manoeuvres of warfare (see Rear Guard; 
Strategy and Tactics). The retreat is also 
a military signal to mark the close of day, 
sounded by bugle or trumpet, after which 
the band plays the national air, the sunset 
gun is fired, and the flag is hauled down. 

Retreat, a period of retirement for spirit¬ 
ual contemplation and the exercise of devo- 
tion, practised both in the Roman Catholic 
and the Anglican Church. 

Retrenchment, in military fortification. 
See Fortification ; Redoubt. 

Retriever. As the name implies, the re¬ 
triever is a breed of dog trained to find out 
and bring back any killed or wounded game. 
One variety, known as wavy coated, was 
probably the result of a cross with the setter ; 
the other, known as curly coated, is from the 
water spaniel or poodle. 

Retroactive Laws, or Retrospective ' 
Laws, the statutes or laws that have an effect 
upon proceedings or facts that are past. 

. . Retrograde, as. applied'to the motions of 
bodies in the solar system, signifies a direc¬ 
tion contrary to the order of the signs. See 
Conjunction. 

Retz, Jean’ Francois Paul de Gondi■■■ 


(1614-79), French cardinal. In the civil war 
of the Fronde he opposed Conde and Mazar- 
in, ^ and was created a cardinal in 1651. His 
Memoires obtained high praise from Voltaire 
and Hallam. 

Reunion (formerly Bourbon), French is¬ 
land in the Mascarene group, Indian Ocean, 
420 m. e. of Madagascar. It has an area of 
965 sq. m., and is divided by a chain of vol¬ 
canic mountains and a plateau into two dis¬ 
tinct east and west parts. Sugar, rum, cof¬ 
fee, vanilla, perfumes, geranium essence, aloe- 
fibre, tapioca, starch, dried manioc are ex¬ 
ported. The chief port is Pointe-des Galets. 
cm the northwest coast; p. 186,637. 

Reuter, Fritz (1810-74), German humor¬ 
ist. In 1859, he issued the first part of OUe 
Kamellen ( Old-Time Stories) , a series of 
prose tales, including his best work, Ut de 
Franzosentid (1859; Eng. trans.) ; Ut Mine 
Festimgstid (My Prison Life, 1862) ; Ut Mine 
Stromtid (1862-4; Eng. trans. as An Old 
Story of My Farming Days) ; Dorchlaucht- 
ing (His Highness, 1865). The life of his 
counttymen he was able to reproduce almost 
perfectly, and his characters are so true that 
they seem almost alive, especially the incom¬ 
parable Uncle Brasig in Ut Mine Stromtid 
and Governor Weber in Ut de Franzosentid. 

Reuter, Paul Julius, Baron von (1821- 
99 ), founder of Reuter’s News Agency, born 
at Cassel, Germany. His first news gathering 
operations were in Germany and France. He 
removed his headquarters to London in 1851, 
after which the business expanded rapidly, 
special telegraphic cables were laid and the 
agency’s sphere of operations extended all 
over the world. 

Reuterdahl, Henry (1871-1925), artisi 
and writer on naval subjects, bom at Malmo, 
Sweden, settled in the United States. His 
article Needs of the Navy published in 1908 
caused government investigation of naval 
conditions. He was on the cruise of the 
United States fleet around South America 
1907. During the World war he became an 
officer in the United States Naval Reserve. 
His paintings hang in the Naval Academy at 
Annapolis and the National Museum at 
Washington. He also painted a naval scene 
in the Missouri State Capitol at Carson City. 

Reveille, the signal given by bugle or 
drum about break of day to give notice to 
soldiers and sailors that it is rime to get up. 
See Bugle Calls. 

Revel,' now •' Tallinn or Tallfap-Reval, 
fortified seaport town of Estonia, 249 m py 
rail s.w. oi St. Petersburg, on the south coas r 




Revelation 


3976 


Revenue 


9'f the Gulf of Finland. The upper town or 
Domberg still possesses a mediaeval aspect 
with its thirteenth-century Danish Castle, 
long the governor’s residence and the Cathe¬ 
dral, founded in the thirteenth century. Rev¬ 
el was founded in 1219-28 as a Danish town, 
and from 1238 it was a Hanseatic trade cen¬ 
tre. In 1346 it was sold by Denmark to the 
Teutonic Knights; in 1651 it became Swed¬ 
ish; in 1710 it was captured by Peter the 
Great, and definitely became Russian in 1721. 
When Estonia became a republic in 1920, the 
harbor of Tallinn was greatly improved. Dur¬ 
ing the World War the town was attacked by 
Germans; p. 130,000. 

Revelation is a familiar theological ex¬ 
pression, commonly applied to the knowledge 
of Himself which God has given to man in 
Holy Scripture. In itself, however, the word 
is properly used not merely of the divine 
knowledge communicated to us in Scripture, 
but of all divine knowledge communicated 
through whatever source. 

Revelation, Book of, or The Apoca¬ 
lypse, purports to have been written by 
John, presumably the Apostle, and is a rec¬ 
ord of the visions seen by him in Patmos. It 
belongs to the order of prophetic writings 
known as apocalyptic. The book has been 
the subject of many vigorous controversies, 
not yet closed, principally in regard to its 
authorship, its integrity, and its interpreta¬ 
tion. 

Revels, Master of the, a former English 
state official whose chief function was that of 
censor and licenser of plays and kindred rep¬ 
resentations. See Censorship of the Drama. 

Revenue, Public. The revenues of the 
modern state may be classified according to 
the government by which they are raised. In 
the United States, public revenues fall into 
three classes—National, State, and local—and 
this is true, in general, of all federal states. 
In centralized states like France, only two 
forms, national and local, are of significance. 
On the basis of their economic character, the 
public revenues may be classified as gratui¬ 
tous, contractual, and compulsory. Of the 
compulsory revenues, taxes are by far the 
most important. In the United States, the 
Federal tax revenue consists of customs rev¬ 
enue, excise taxes, and taxes on incomes and 
inheritances. The State and local revenues 
of the United States are based upon the gen¬ 
eral property tax. In some States, income, 
inheritance and business taxes are also em¬ 
ployed. 

In the most recent Revenue Acts, additions 


were made to rates of taxation and exemp¬ 
tions were greatly lessened, thus broadening 
the tax base so that those in the lower 
brackets should bear a share of the tax bur¬ 
den while the rates in the higher brackets 
were enormously increased. The principle of 
progression was applied; in other words, the 
rate increased as the amount of income in¬ 
creased. Exemptions were made in order that 
the tax might not encroach upon the income 
necessary for support. 

While it is comparatively simple to deter¬ 
mine the tax to be paid when income is, for 
example, received from one source, the han¬ 
dling of income tax returns for large corpora¬ 
tions and wealthy individuals has become a 
difficult matter involving careful training 
and a detailed knowledge not only of the pro¬ 
visions of the Act but various administrative 
rulings interpreting the Act. ‘Gross income’ 
includes gains, profits, and income derived 
from salaries, wages, or compensation for 
personal service, also from interest, rent, divi¬ 
dends or the transaction of any business car¬ 
ried on for gain or profit. Certain items 
such as life insurance paid by reason of the 
death of the insured, annuities and so forth 
need not be included in gross income. The 
Federal Revenue Act of 1938 effected consid¬ 
erable changes in income taxes as applied 
to capital gains and losses. The normal tax 
on individuals is 4% with a surtax of from 
4% to 75%, applied to incomes exceeding 
$4,000, after allowing > certain credits and 
exemptions. The law provides for personal 
exemptions, as to both normal and surtaxes, 
of $1,000 for a single person, $2,500 for a 
married person and $400 for each dependent. 
There is also an earned income credit which 
applies at rate of 10% against normal tax 
on earned incomes up to $14,000. A mini¬ 
mum credit of $3,000 earned income is al¬ 
lowed in all cases. The 1939 Act contains 
noted changes from the previous Act in the 
income tax of corporations, especially with 
relation to tax on undistributed profits. A 
corporation having income not exceeding 
$25,000 is subject to a rate ranging progres¬ 
sively from 12to 16%. A corporation 
having income exceeding $25,000 is subject 
to a rate of 19% and the tax is reduced bv 
2 j A% of all dividends paid from taxable 
income. The Act also continues the capital 
stock tax and provides whereby corporations 
may redeclare capital stock value every 3 
years. This Act requires a great deal of 
study if the details are to be thoroughly un¬ 
derstood. Also complicated are rides about 



Revere 


3977 


Revolution 


the Gift and Estate Taxes. See Finance, 
Public; and for the principal sources of 
public revenue Tariff; Taxation; Excise 
Taxes; United States; reports of the United 
States Treasury; Social Security; publica¬ 
tions of the United States Chamber of Com¬ 
merce. 

Revere, Paul (1735-1818), American pa¬ 
triot, was born in Boston, Mass. He was 
one of the party that destroyed the tea in 
Boston Harbor, and he was at the head of a 
volunteer committee consisting of thirty 
young mechanics, who formed a secret so¬ 
ciety to watch the British. When it was 
known that the latter intended to move, Re¬ 
vere crossed over to Charlestown, and on 
April 18, 1775, the : ight before Lexington 
and Concord, at a signal rode on to Lexing¬ 
ton and to Lincoln, rousing the minute 
men as he went; at Lincoln he was stopped, 
but a companion succeeded in reaching Con¬ 
cord. During the war he rose to lieutenant- 
colonel of artillery; afterward he returned to 
his goldsmith’s work; and in 1801 founded 
the Revere Copper Company at Canton, 
Mass. 

Reverend (Latin reverendus, to be re¬ 
spected) , a title given generally to the cler¬ 
gy of all denominations. In the Anglican 
Church deans are ‘Very Reverend,’ bishops 
‘Right Reverend,’ and archbishops ‘Most 
Reverend.’ 

Reversing Layer, a stratum of incande¬ 
scent vapors enveloping the sun, by the ab¬ 
sorptive action of which the Fraunhofer lines 
are produced. 

Reversion, in law, denotes the residuary 
interest held by one who has granted a limited 
estate in certain property to another. A re¬ 
version is a proper legal estate which may be 
alienated by deed or will and descends to 
heirs. (See Estates.) 

Reversion, in heredity, a manifestation, in 
which the characteristics of remote ancestors 
are more prominent than those of the im¬ 
mediate progenitors. See Heredity, 

Revetment is a .sheathing,, facing, or re¬ 
taining wall, as of masonry or other materi¬ 
al's, for protecting a mass or bank of earth, 
etc., as'in fortifications and river banks.. 

Review, as a.military term,'signifies a for¬ 
mal or official inspection of troops or war 
vessels. 

'Revised'Statutes.''See'Statutes. 

Revival of Learning. See Renaissance. 

Revival of Religion, or Religious Re¬ 
vival, a name given to an emergence of spir¬ 


itual fervor and activity in a community or 
district, speedily becoming epidemic, and re¬ 
claiming the indifferent and the immoral to 
divine grace and consecration. Such out¬ 
breaks of religious zeal as took place during 
the Middle Ages in connection with Montan- 
ism and the Crusades are fitly enough called 
revivals; while the Protestant Reformation of 
the sixteenth century, the greatest revival 
since the apostolic age, gave rise to the coun¬ 
ter-revival of the Jesuits in the Roman Catho¬ 
lic Church. The term ‘revival,’ however, was 
not commonly employed until after the wide¬ 
spread movement in the first half of the 
eighteenth century from which the Metho¬ 
dist churches originated. The.revival which 
took place in New England and extended 
throughout the Atlantic Coast States, from 
about 1734 to 1750, under Jonathan Ed¬ 
wards, Bellamy, and the Tennents, was gen¬ 
erally designated the Great Awakening. In 
America there was a revival beginning in 
1796 and culminating in 1800 in the Scotch- 
Irish revival of Kentucky. The great Ameri¬ 
can revival of 1857-61 began in New Eng¬ 
land, particularly in Connecticut and Massa¬ 
chusetts, and became so widespread as to at¬ 
tain a national character. Another remark¬ 
able revival in 1874-77 originated in the la¬ 
bors of two American evangelists, Moody 
and Sankey. liie Salvation Army carries 
on its work largely by metuods known as re- 
vivalistic. Contemporary revivals in Ameri¬ 
ca have been organized under the leadership 
of such evangelists as J. Wilbur Chapman, 
‘Gypsy Smith,’ and the late William A. 
Sunday. The Oxford Group Movement un¬ 
der the leadership of Frank Buchman has 
spread with great rapidity during the last 
decade not only. in the United States and 
England but in many other countries. 

Revolution, a fundamental change in gov¬ 
ernment, or in the political constitution of a 
country, effected suddenly and violently, and 
mainly brought about by internal causes. 

Revolution, American, or the American 
War of Independence, the struggle (1775- 
1 783) by which the thirteen English colonies 
in America separated from Great Britain and 
became the United States of America. The 
fundamental causes of the Revolution were 
of two kinds, political and economic. There 
were three great differences: (1) a differing 
theory and practice of representation; (2) 
different ideas of the rights of the individual, 
or a disagreement as vO the extent of govern¬ 
mental power over individuals: (3) conflict- 




Revolution 


3978 


Revolution 


ing ideas as to the extent and character of a | 
local self-government. To these opposing j 
political beliefs was added a long nurtured re¬ 
sentment on the part of the colonies against 
England’s economic policy with her subjects 
across the seas. Accepting the mercantile 
theory of colonial regulation—the dominant 
theory in Europe of that age—England had 
adopted a restrictive system which found ex¬ 
pression in three kinds of laws: (i) Acts of 
Navigation, which protected English ship¬ 
ping agents against foreign competitors; (2) 
Acts of Trade, to secure monopoly for Eng¬ 
lish merchants of the colonial commerce; (3) 
Acts giving to English manufacturers a mon¬ 
opoly of the colonial markets. As these laws 
were administered, they do not seem to have 
been actually disadvantageous to the colonies, 
but they necessarily established a real oppo¬ 
sition of interest between America and Eng¬ 
land. 

The ministry proposed to rid the colonial 
governors of dictation by the colonial as¬ 
semblies, to enforce the trade laws, and to 
establish an effective defensive system for the 
colonies, supporting this system by taxes 
raised in America. The Stamp Act of 1765, 
enacted for this purpose, aroused the colon¬ 
ists to wrath. Colonial delegates assembled in 
a Stamp Act Congress, which asserted the 
right of Americans to tax themselves, and 
the episode ended with the repeal of the ob¬ 
noxious act in 1766. The series of measures 
known as the Townshend Acts, passed by 
Parliament in 1767, and similar in their pur¬ 
pose to the Stamp Act, also aroused a storm 
of indignation in America, which resulted in 
the repeal of all their provisions but the tax 
on tea. Following these errors of statesman¬ 
ship came the Boston Massacre of 1770, the 
Boston Tea Party of 1773, the Boston Port 
Bill of 1774, and the attempted punishment 
of Boston by British soldiers under General 
Gage—resulting in the flame of rebellion 
which, after the Battles of Concord and 
Lexington (April 19, 1775), spread along the 
whole Atlantic seaboard. At last, on July 2, 
1776, after fierce debate in the Continental 
Congress, a resolution of independence was 
agreed upon; and on July 4 the Declaration 
of Independence, substantially as draughted 
by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted. 

The American fundamental idea was that 
the power is the people’s, and that the mag¬ 
istrates invested with legislative, executive, 
and judicial functions are trustees and ser¬ 
vants, and accountable always. The state did 


not, as the great English charters presumed, 
give or yield rights to the individual, but by 
his own nature he had them. In America, 
therefore, ‘bills of rights’ summed up the 
rights which the sovereign people withheld 
from their agents, the government. With the 
desire for independence came a proposition 
for articles of confederation. For eighteen 
months Congress labored with that difficult 
problem; and even after it had devised and 
adopted such articles (November, 1777), near¬ 
ly four years passed before all the States 
could be gotten to adhere to what at best was 
a league of friendship. On June 15 the sec¬ 
ond Continental Congress appointed, as com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the American forces, 
George Washington. Before his arrival in 
Massachusetts occurred (June 17) the Battle 
of Bunker Hill, in which the British after ter¬ 
rible losses, dislodged the Americans from 
their fortifications on Charlestown peninsula, 
immediately north of Boston. By Washing¬ 
ton’s sudden occupation (March 4, 1776) and 
fortification of Dorchester Heights (on a pen¬ 
insula south of Boston), General Howe was 
outmanoeuvred, and on March 17 he evacu¬ 
ated the city. 

Washington hurried part of his army to 
New York, since that was the most likely 
point of the British attack. The city of 
New York was the key to the Hudson valley, 
which, if the British could control it, would 
separate rebellious New England from the 
less radical middle colonies, and enable Howe 
to crush the head of the rebellion. New York 
was very hard to defend with Washington’s 
meagre resources, and when Howe came, as 
expected, he easily drove the American army 
from Long Island (August, 1776), and later 
from the city, compelling Washington to re¬ 
treat up the Hudson and then across New 
Jersey. For the next year (1777) the British 
plan of campaign again centered about the 
Hudson valley. Gen. Burgoyne was to come 
down from Canada by way of Lake Cham¬ 
plain, and was to be met by Howe coming 
up the Hudson, while St. Leger was to leave 
from another point in Canada, come down 
the Mohawk valley, and join the other two. 
Burgoyne fought desperate engagements 
which failed, and at last, baffled and beset, 
and with no word from Howe, he surrendered 
(Oct., 1777) at Saratoga. The effect of Bur- 
goyne’s surrender, together with the influ¬ 
ence of Benjamin Franklin, the American 
representative at Paris, was to decide the 
king of France to enter into an open alliance 



Revolution 


3979 


Revue 


with the American states. Washington spent 

the winter of 1777-8 at Valley Forge in the 
vicinity of Philadelphia, where his men suf¬ 
fered terrible hardships. In the spring Sir 
Henry Clinton, who had succeeded Howe, 
evacuated Philadelphia. Late in 1778 the 
British turned their attention to the South. 
Savannah was captured, but Charleston could 
not be taken until the spring of 1780. 

The opportunity had come for Washington, 
who was in the North, to deal a decisive blow 
to the British. Strengthened by a French 
army under Rochambeau, he swooped down 
from New York, and penned the British army 
up at Yorktown. Now came the great service 
that had been hoped of the French alliance. 
The French fleet held off a rescuing British 
fleet until Cornwallis, despairing of aid, sur- 

r- Q — - f=mS &fW 


Colt Revolver. 
Single Action. 



rendered (Oct, 19, 1781). The loss of Corn¬ 
wallis’s army, together with the terrible 
drain on England’s resources because of her 
struggles with other enemies in various parts 
of the world, led to proposals for peace, which 
ended in the signing of a treaty at Paris (Sept. 
3, 1783) in which England acknowledged 
American independence. 

Revolution, Daughters of the. An or¬ 
ganization founded in 1891, in New York, to 
perpetuate the patriotic spirit of the Revolu¬ 
tion, to publish and preserve Revolutionary 
records and to encourage the study of Am¬ 
erican history. 

Revolution, Daughters of the Ameri¬ 
can. A national society organized in Wash¬ 
ington in 1890. It has 690 chapters, and 
chapter regents have been appointed for Can¬ 
ada, England, the Philippines and South Af¬ 
rica. The membership is over 160,000. 


Revolution, Sons of the, a patriotic so¬ 
ciety founded in New York in 1876 and in¬ 
corporated in 1884 to keep alive the memory 
of the patriotism of those who served the 
country during the war for independence and 
to preserve records of the period. Male de¬ 
scendants of soldiers, sailors, marines, offi¬ 
cers and civil officials, who served between 
April 19, 1775, and April 19, 1783. The 
society has 31 state societies, with a total 
membership of 7,650. The general society 
meets triennially. 

Revolution, Sons of the American. A 

national patriotic society established in New 
York in 1889. Its purposes are identical with 
those of the Sons of the Revolution. It has 
about 18,000 members. 

Revolvers. A pistol is a small rifle with a 



Hammerless Revolver. 



Revolvers and Pistols. 

short barrel, which may be aimed and fired 
with one hand. A revolver is a pistol hav¬ 
ing a revolving cylinder or revolving barrels. 
The revolving chamber appeared at about 
the same time as the revolving barrels. Num¬ 
berless patterns of this device have appeared, 
probably the first being that patended by the 
Marquis of Worcester in 1661. An improved 
method of causing the revolution was pat¬ 
ented in England and the United States by 
E. H. Collier, an American, in 1818. After 
many years of experiments, Samuel Colt, of 
Hartford, Conn., patented his world-re¬ 
nowned Colt’s Revolver, which is still in use, 
and probably has no superior in the world. 
Many improvements have been introduced, 
from time to time, principally in the direc¬ 
tion of greater rapidity of fire. 

Revue des. Deux Mottdes, the greatest of 
French reviews, was founded in 1829 by Seg- 



Reward 


3980 


Rhea 


ur-Dupeyron. Published twice a month, this 
review has, in the highest sense of the word, 
been cosmopolitan in scope. 

Reward. A recompense offered or paid by 
a governmental authority or private in¬ 
dividual for the performance by one or more 
persons of some particular act. 

Reyhaud, Marie Roch Louis (1 799 ~ 
1879), French author, was bom at Marseilles. 
In 1850 he -was elected a member of the 
Academy. His best work is a satire, Jerome 
Paturot a la Recherche d’une Position So - 
dale (1843), followed by Jerome Paturot d 
la Recherche de la Meilleure des Re pub - 
Uques (1848). 

Reyer, Ernest (1823-1909), French op¬ 
eratic composer, bom at Marseilles. His best- 
known operas are Le Selam (1850) and Sal- 
ammbo (1890). Reyer has also published 
Notes de Musique (1875). 

Reykjavik, or Reikjavik, tn., cap. of 
Iceland, at s.w. corner; contains cathedral, 
governor’s house, observatory, parliament 
house (with valuable historical library), col¬ 
lege, hospital, free library, and banks; p. 
26,428. 

Reynard the Fox, the English name of a 
famous mediaeval apologue or ‘beast-fable,’ 
of which the earliest known variant (which 
may indeed be the original poem) is the Lat¬ 
in Reinardus et Isengrimus, believed to have 
been written in the 10th century. From 
Goethe back to the mediaeval minnesinger, 
Heinrich der Glichesaere, this epic has been 
in great favor among the Germans. 

Reymont, Ladisias Stanislas (1S67- 
1925), Polish author, wrote The Peasants, for 
which he was awarded the Nobel Prize 
(1924); Vampire; The Revolt, 

Reynolds, John Fulton (1820-63), Am¬ 
erican soldier, born at Lancaster, Pa. In 
November, 1862, he was given command of 
the First Corps. He participated, as a major- 
general, in the battle of Fredericksburg, and 
was with the reserve at Chancellorsville. On 
July 1, 1863, he was in command of the 
Union troops then present on the field of Get¬ 
tysburg, and was struck by a bullet that 
caused almost instant death. 

• Reynolds, Sir Joshua (1723-92), English 
portrait painter, first president of the Royal 
Academy (founded 1768), knighted in 1769, 
and appointed painter-in-ordinary to George 
m. in 1784. Born at Plympton, Devonshire, 
he was pupil of Hudson, the chief portrait 
painter of the day. He settled in London, 
where his portraits of the Misses Gunning 


and of Admiral Keppel secured his position as 
the leading portrait painter of the day. In 
1784 he painted one of his finest portraits, 
Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse; but in 1789 
he had to lay down his 'brushes owing to fail¬ 
ure of eyesight. 

RFC, Reconstruction Finance Corporation. 
A U. S. New Deal agency. 

Rhadamanthus, in ancient Greek myth¬ 
ology, a son of Zeus and Europa, and a 
brother of Minos, king of Crete. He lived 
so just a life that after his death he was 
made a judge of the dead. 

Rhsetia, or Rsetia, a province of the Ro¬ 
man empire, lay s. of the Danube. 

Rhaetian Alps, a chain of the Alps in 
Grison canton, Switzerland. The main group 
is Bernina, in which the highest peak is Piz 
Bernina, 13,295 ft. high. 

Rhamnaceae, a natural order of trees and 
shrubs, of which representative genera are 
Rhamnus and Zizyphus. Z. spina Christi is 
one of the prickly shrubs said to hhve fur¬ 
nished the material for Christ’s crown of 
thorns. 

Rhamnus, a genus of shrubs and trees be¬ 
longing to the order Rhamnaceae. They bear 
cymes or racemes of flowers, followed by 
berry-like drupes. Some of the species are 
cultivated. 

Rhampsinitus, the classical name of the 
Egyptian monarch Rameses in., who reigned 
during the first half of the 12th century b.c. 

Rhapsodists, in ancient Greece, profes¬ 
sional reciters of epic poems, who bore a 
laurel branch in addition to their splendid 
dress. ■ 

Rhatany, or Rattany, a name given to 
various plants of the genus Krameria, native 
to Peru and Bolivia, the roots or which are 
used in pharmacy. 

Rhazes, Mohammed Abukekr Ibn- 
Zacheria (c. 860-932), Arabian physician, 
was born in Persia. He is reputed to have 
written two hundred and twenty-six medi¬ 
cal treatises, among which were ten books 
dedicated to his patron Almanzor, comprising 
a general study of medicine, tie gave the 
earliest account extant of smallpox and wrote 
the first treatise concerning the diseases of 
children.. 1 

Rhea, or American. Ostrich, a genus of 
running birds, confined to the unforested 
parts of South America. They are smaller 
than the African ostrich and have three toes, 
instead of two. The smallest of the rheas, 
known as Darwin’s Rhea, a Patagonian spe- 




Rhea 


3981 


Rhett 


cies, is only about 36 inches long. It was for¬ 
merly abundant but has been captured so 
extensively for its fluffy wing feathers that it 
is in danger of being exterminated. 



Rhea, or American Ostrich . 


Rhea, in ancient Greek mythology, the 
daughter of Uranus and G$a, and the wife 
of Cronus, her brother, by whom she was 
the mother of Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, 
Poseidon, and Zeus. The worship of Rhea 
appears to have originated in Crete, where 
she seems to have been one of the various 
forms of the earth-goddess. 

Rhea Sylvia, in ancient Roman legend, the 
daughter of Numitor, a descendant of /Eneas, 
and by Mars the mother of Romulus and 
Remus. 

Rheims, town, department of Marne, 
Prance, which suffered serious havoc during 
the Great War (1914-19). Formerly a flour¬ 
ishing town, renowned throughout France 
and the world for the beauty of its great 
Cathedral, it was reduced practically to a 
mass of ruins by the German bombardment. 
The Cathedral of Notre Dame at Rheims, be¬ 
gun in 1212 and completed in the fourteenth 
century, was one of the finest specimens of 
Gothic architecture in Europe. Industrially 
Rheims was an important center for the 
manufacture of woollens (especially merino) 
and mixed silk and wool fabrics, and as an 
entrepot for the wines of Champagne. In 
the early days of the Great War (1914-19) 
Rheims. was in German possession from Sept, 
4 to Sept, 12, 1914. During the rest of the 
war German efforts to enter it were fruitless, 
but it was almost continually under bom¬ 
bardment from Sept. 17-28, 1914, when the 1 
shelling of its great cathedral scandalized 
the civilized world. After four years of war i 
all that remained of that magnificent edifice 
were the walls and the series of statues with¬ 
in the west wall After the cessation of hos¬ 


tilities the Knights of Columbus in the Uni¬ 
ted States raised a large sum for general re¬ 
storation work, and in 1924 John D. Rocke¬ 
feller, Jr. gave 18,500,000 francs for recon¬ 
structing the Cathedral roof. The work of 
restoring the Cathedral was finally completed 
in 1938. 

Rheinberger, Joseph Gabriel (1839- 
1:901), German musical composer, was a na¬ 
tive of Vaduz, Lichtenstein, Among his 
compositions are the operas Die sieben Raben 
(1869), Turmer’s Tochterlein (1873), the 
Wallenstein and Florentine Symphonies, and 
the oratorio Christ oj or us. 

Rheostat, a control device consisting of 
resistances and contacts, for changing the 
value of resistance between given limits. In 
use there are two types, the series type and 
the parallel type. 

Rhesus, a small brown monkey distributed 
throughout Northern India. It is partly mi¬ 
gratory and is found in troops at Simla. In 
the natural condition the monkeys quickly 
learn to come at a call for food, and are fre¬ 
quently attached to temples in Kashmir in a 
semi-domestic state. 

Rhetoric, the art of public speaking. Its 
origin was due to the Sicilian Greeks, Corax 
and Tisias, who lived at Syracuse c. 460 bc. 
Isocrates had a school attended by most of 
the leading men of Greece from 400-350 b.c. 
His own style is the model of nearly all the 
best European prose. About 300 b.c. the At¬ 
tic school of rhetoric was superseded by the 
Asiatic, marked by its artificiality; in the 2d 
century b.c. Rhodes was famous for a rhetor¬ 
ical school which aimed at greater natural¬ 
ness. By the 1st century b.c. the importance 
of rhetoric as a living study passed to Rome. 
From the time of Cicero onward rhetoric sig¬ 
nified the more advanced study of language, 
such as would now form part of a university 
education. In the middle ages and in more 
recent times the study of rhetoric has usually 
meant that of literature in general; as a prac¬ 
tical aid to oratory, rhetoric has been disused. 

Rbefcfc, Robert Barnwell (1.800-76), Am¬ 
erican politician, was born in Beaufort, S. C. 
He was a member of Congress during 1837- 
49, and succeeded John C. Calhoun in the 
Senate in January, 1851. He advocated the 
secession of S. C. because of dissatisfaction 
over the Compromise of 1850, but, as his 
party was defeated, resigned from the Sen¬ 
ate in disgust. For several years he was the 
editor of the Charleston Mercury, the most 
heated of the ‘fire-eater’ organs, 



Rheims Cathedral. 




















Rheumatism 


3983 


Rhine 


Rheumatism, Acute and Chronic, and 
Rheumatoid Arthritis. Having certain 
characteristics in common, these three dis¬ 
eases are best considered together. Acute 
articular rheumatism is generally character¬ 
ized by a moderate degree of fever, by coated 
tongue, by profuse sweating, and by consid¬ 
erable pain in one or more joints. There 
may be slight redness over the inflamed joint. 
The larger joints are most frequently affected, 
and the inflammation may persist for weeks, 
but there is a form of the disease in which 
day by day the inflammatory process passes 


and a generous diet sometimes keep it in 
check, or even ameliorate its symptoms. 

Rhydt, tn., Prussian Rhine province, 19 m. 
by rail w. by s. of Diisseldorf. It manu¬ 
factures silks and velvets, cotton goods ma¬ 
chinery, and colored paper; p. 46,000. 

Rhinanthus, a genus of plants belonging 
to the order Schrophulariaceae. The com¬ 
mon European cockscomb, or yellow-rattle, is 
a. rather tall, single-stemmed plant, with a 
loose spike of yellow flowers in June. 

Rhine, riv. of Germany, 760 m. in length, 
and draining an area of 75,770 sq. m. It 



Views on the Rhine. 

Upper Left, The ‘Mouse Tower’ and Ehrenfels, Bingen; Upper Right, Roiandseck; Center, 
Bacharach; Lower Left, The Lorelei Rock; Lower Right, Stolzenfels. 


from one joint to another. Chronic rheuma¬ 
tism may follow an acute attack. It is mani¬ 
fested by subacute symptoms, the pain be¬ 
ing less severe, the temperature lower, and 
the cardiac complications less frequent. But 
while less alarming, it is often more lingering 
than the acute variety of the disease. In old 
people the hip joint is the chief seat of chron¬ 
ic rheumatism. Rheumatoid arthritis is char¬ 
acterized by great wasting of the joint sur¬ 
faces, by extreme thickening of the parts 
around the joint, and by distortions due to 
muscular contractions. Rheumatoid arthritis 
is incurable; but cod-liver oil, iron, iodides, 


rises in the Swiss canton of Graubundten 
(Grisons). The most picturesque portion is 
between Bingen and Koblenz, where the riv¬ 
er winds between mountains on either side. 
From Cologne to its mouth it passes through 
flat country. Its most important tributaries 
are (r. bk.) the Elz, Kinzxg, Murg, Neckar, 
Main, Lahn, and Sieg; ( 1 . bk.) Ill, Queich, 
Nahe, Mosel, and Ahr. The left or southern 
arm, which falls into the North Sea at the 
Hook of Holland, is alternately known as 
the Waal and the Maas. The right or north¬ 
ern arm splits up into the Yssel and the 
Rijn,; 



Rhine 


3984 


Rhizopod; 


Rhine and Rhone Canal, constructed be¬ 
tween 1783 and 1834, connects the river Ill 
(which in turn is connected with the Rhine 
by canal) with the Saone in France. Length, 
217 m., of which 117 m. are in French ter¬ 
ritory. There are 87 locks, and it is navi¬ 
gable throughout for vessels drawing up to 
ty* ft. 

Rhineland, or Rhine Province, or Rhen¬ 
ish Prussia, prov. of Prussia, between Bel¬ 
gium and Luxemburg on the w. and Hesse- 
Nassau and Westphalia on the e. It is 
drained by the Rhine and its tributaries, and 
diversified by the Hochw r ald, Idarwald, Huns- 
ruck, Westerwald, Siebengebirge, and Sauer- 
land Mountains. On the left border are the 
volcanic mass of the Eifel and the Hoher 
Venn. The n.w. is flat and low. The high¬ 
er districts are nearly all forest, and the low¬ 
er given up to mining. Wine is extensively 
produced in the valleys of the Rhine, Moselle, 
and Saar. Sugar, hops, and flax are grown, 
and fruit is abundant. By far the most im¬ 
portant ocupations are mining and manu¬ 
facturing. The principal mineral is coal, ex¬ 
tracted around Saarbriicken and Aachen. The 
output amounts to nearly 30 million tons an¬ 
nually. Over a million tons of iron are mined. 
Industrially, Rhineland stands at the head of 
all the provinces of both Prussia and the em¬ 
pire. The iron works are concentrated in Es¬ 
sen (Krupp’scannon foundry),Duisburg, Diis- 
seldorf, Cologne, Neunkirchen, and Aachen. 
Solingen and Remscheid are famous for their 
cutlery; Aachen and Burtscheid for their 
needles and cloth and woolens; Crefeld for 
silk, velvet, and woolens; Elberfeld-Barmen 
for cottons, Turkey-red dyeing, and silks; Co¬ 
logne for scent; Duisburg for cottons and 
chemicals; Treves for stone-dressing for build¬ 
ing churches ; Diiren and Juliers for paper; 
Koblenz for wines. Sugar, beer, spirits, brass, 
linen, leather, glass, pottery, and mosaics also 
are produced on a large scale. The capital is 
Koblenz; area, 10,323 sq. m.; p. 7,120,519. 
The industrial parts of the province were 
heavily bombed in World War II. j 

Rhine, Rhenish, or German Wines, 
names given to the products of the vine¬ 
yards bordering on the Rhine, Moselle, and 
Main. Still and sparkling white and red 
wines are produced. Moselle wines are in 
general lighter and more acid than those 
from the Rhines. Rhine wines are also made 
from the grapes of California vineyards. See 
Hock; Moselle* 


Rhinoceros, a genus of perissodactyle un¬ 
gulates. Living species are confined to Africa 
and Asia, but the extinct species lived in Eu¬ 
rope and North America as well as in Asia. 
From their allies, the tapirs, the rhinoceroses 
differ in having only three toes on each foot, 
in the character of their cheek teeth, and 
usually in the presence of one or two median 
horns on the front of the head. The rhino¬ 
ceros is a bulky animal, taller than the hippo¬ 
potamus, though not quite so long in the 
body. All the species are purely herbivorous. 
There are three living Asiatic species, of 
w r hich the largest is R. unicornis, the one¬ 
horned Indian rhinoceros, not infrequently 
seen in captivity. The smaller R. sondaicus 
is found through Burma and the Malay Pen¬ 
insula to Sumatra, Java, and Borneo; while 
the third species ( R . sumatrensis) occurs 
throughout almost the same region, but is 
absent from Java. 

Rhinoceros Beetle, a large grayish, scara- 
beid bettle (Dynastes tityus) of the South¬ 
eastern United States, the male of which has 
a tall, curved horn upon the head and an¬ 
other projecting forward from the throat. 

Rhinoplastic Operations are performed 
with a view to remedying the unsightliness 
caused by entire or partial loss of the nose. 
The Indian operation was introduced into 
Great Britain in 1814. By this method a 
leaf-shaped flap is dissected from the fore¬ 
head, and is twisted downward so as to occu¬ 
py the site of the missing nose. The space on 
the forehead may be partially closed by 
sutures. At a later date the edges are pared 
and sutured to the nasal stump; and still 
later the columna nasi is formed by dissecting 
a narrow perpendicular flap from the upper 
lip and by sliding it upward to meet the tip 
of the nose, where it is secured by stitches. 

Rhinoscopy, in medicine, the examination 
of the interior of the nose. 

Rhizome, a root-stock or thick, procumb- 
bent, rootlike stem, which lies partly or en¬ 
tirely below the surface of the soil, and emits 
roots or rootlets from its under side, and 
herbaceous stems or leaves from its upper 
side. 

Rhizopoda, a class of Protozoa, consisting 
of minute naked or testaceous protoplasmic 
forms of rudimentary structure, which move 
by means of pseudopodia of defined types. 
The rhizopoda have been subdivided into the 
orders Amcebina and Conchulina, the form¬ 
er being naked and the latter testaceous; and 



Rhode 


3985 


Rhode 


each order has been further subdivided ac¬ 
cording to observed types of pseudopodia 
and of tests. 

Rhode Island^ one of the 13 original 
States of the United States, and one of the 
New England group of States. It is bounded 
on the north and east by Massachusetts; on 
the south by the Atlantic Ocean; and on the 
west by Connecticut. It has a total area of 
1,248 sq. m., of which 181 are water. It is 
the smallest State in the Union. Rhode Island 
lies almost wholly in the Piedmont Plain; and 
the surface is generally rough and hilly. The 
State is divided into two unequal portions 
by Narragansett Bay, an arm of the ,sea 
which varies in width from 3 to 12 m. A 
striking feature of the surface is the great, 
number of lakes, called ponds or reservoirs. 
The principal rivers are the Blackstone in the 
northeast, the Pawtuxet in the middle, and 
the Pawcatuck in the southwest. The cli¬ 
mate is fairly equable, but the extremes be¬ 
come greater as one leaves the coast. The 
geological formations of the State belong to 
the Archaean and Palaeozoic eras. The Arch¬ 
aean rocks are the granites and gneisses of the 
western part. The leading mineral industry 
is stone quarrying, which includes produc¬ 
tion of lime. Much sand and gravel are 
shipped. Clay products, coke, mineral wa¬ 
ters and trap rock are also produced. The 
shell fish industry is very extensive; oysters, 
clams, quahaugs and scallops are shipped as 
far as Canada and California. 

Rhode Island, originally forest clad, has 
been long cleared and largely reduced to 
cultivation. The total farm land in 1935 
was 307,725 acres, of which one-third ‘was 
improved, and one-third was woodland. The 
total value of farm property was $35,237,660. 
The principal crops are: hay and forage, 
white potatoes, corn and oats. Apples, peach¬ 
es, pears, plums, prunes and cherries are also 
grown. Milk dairying is the chief agricultur¬ 
al industry, Rhode Island is pre-eminently a 
manufacturing community, and the growth 
and concentration of population in the State 
have been closely related to the increase in 
its manufacturing industries. The transporta¬ 
tion facilities are excellent. Providence, .the 
largest city, is one of the; .most important 
seaports in.New England, while the State is 
traversed by the main line of the most im¬ 
portant railway system in New England, giv¬ 
ing it direct connection with other parts of 
the country. The textile industries of the 
State—consisting of the manufacture of wool¬ 


en and worsted goods, cotton goods, silk and 
rayon and knit goods—are by far the most 

important. In Providence practically all the 
jewelry of the State is manufactured. Paw¬ 
tucket. Woonsocket, Central Falls, Cranston, 
Bristol, West Warwick, East Providence and 
North Providence are important manufac¬ 
turing centers. According to the Federal Cen¬ 
sus for 1940, the population of Rhode Island 
was 713,346. The population of the prin¬ 
cipal cities in 1930 was: Providence, 253,504; 
Pawtucket, 75,797; Woonsocket, 49,303; 
Cranston, 47,085. Institutions of higher learn¬ 
ing include Brown University and Providence 
College, both at Providence; and the Rhode 
Island State College, at Kingston. The pres¬ 
ent constitution of Rhode Island is that 
drawn up in 1842, as since amended. The 
legislature, or General Assembly, consists of 
a Senate of 39 members, besides the lieuten¬ 
ant-governor, who is ex officio president, and 
a House of Representatives of 100 members, 
all elected biennially. There is one Senator 
from each town or city. Representatives are 
elected by towns and cities according to 
population. Under the Reapportionment Act, 
Rhode Island has 2 Representatives in the 
National Congress. Providence is the State 
Capital. 

Narragansett Bay was explored in 1524 by 
Verrazano, and in 1616 by Adrian Block. In 
1636 Roger Williams, a fugitive from Massa¬ 
chusetts intolerance, settled with five com¬ 
panions at Providence. Two years later he 
obtained an extensive grant of land from the 
Narragansett Indians, and founded a com¬ 
munity based upon the principles of equality, 
freedom of conscience, and separation of 
church and state. The same year he per¬ 
suaded the followers of Anne Hutchinson to 
settle on Aquidneck Island, which he ob¬ 
tained for them from Miantonomoh, a Nar¬ 
ragansett Indian chief. This band, at whose 
head was William Coddington, settled at 
Portsmouth, but frequent quarrels led to the 
founding of Newport in 1639. A fourth 
settlement in Rhode Island was made at War¬ 
wick in 1634 by Samuel Gorton. The forma¬ 
tion of the New England Confederation in 
1643 threatened the independence of the col¬ 
ony, and Williams went to England to secure 
protection. In October, 1652, the charter 
and union of all the settlements in Rhode 
Island was confirmed; but it was not until 
1657 that they were actually reunited. On 
July 8, 1663, Clarke, who had been left in 
England as agent of the colony, obtained 



Rhode 


3986 


Rhodes 


from Charles n. a charter granting practically 
complete self-government. During the Col¬ 
onial period Rhode Island was the refuge of 
all the oppressed, whether Catholics or Qua¬ 
kers. It was one of the first Colonies to resist 
English oppression. In 1787 the Anti Federal¬ 
ists were in control of the State, and refused to 
send delegates to the Constitutional Conven¬ 
tion at Philadelphia. The Constitution was 
finally submitted to the several town meet¬ 
ings of Rhode Island, and was rejected. Later, 
in 1790, when Congress threatened to cut off 
all trade—Rhode Island ratified the Consti¬ 
tution by a majority of two votes in the con¬ 
vention. 


ing America (1923); Carroll’s Outline of 
Government in Rhode Island (1924). 

Rhode Island State College, a co-educa- 
tionai institution of higher learning at Kings¬ 
ton, Rhode Island, under Federal and State 
auspices. See Taule under the heading Uni¬ 
versity College. 

Rhodes, or Rhodos, island, 12 m. distant 
from the coast of Asia Minor, in the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea. It came under Italian sovereignty 
in 1923. The interior is mountainous, reach¬ 
ing an elevation of 4,000 ft. in Mount Attay- 
aro. The climate is good, but earthquakes 
are not infrequent. The valleys and coastal 
belt are fertile, yielding figs, oranges, lem- 



Rhinoceros. 


After the Revolution, Rhode Island recov¬ 
ered some of its maritime importance, but 
this was ruined by the War of 1812. The 
State then turned to manufacturing. In 1793 
the first successful cotton factory had been 
set up at Pawtucket. With the rapid growth 
of cities, the old charter of 1663 became ob¬ 
solete. By 1840 the condition had become un¬ 
endurable. Though ‘Dorr’s Rebellion’ failed, it 
nevertheless brought about the framing of a 
new constitution, in virtue of which repre¬ 
sentation was reapportioned, the franchise 
extended, and an independent judiciary estab¬ 
lished. The constitution was amended a 
number of times between 1854 and 1903. In 
1930 Mount Hope Bridge was completed at 
a cost of $4,000,000, uniting Rhode Island 
proper and the original Providence Planta¬ 
tion. In national polfics Rhode Island was 
Republican from 1856 to 1912, in which 
year the State supported Woodrow Wilson. 
In 1916, 1920 and 1924 it was Republican, 
and in 1928, 1932, 1936, 1940, Democratic. 
Consult Adams’ Rhode Island’s Part in Mak~ 


ons, pomegranates, grapes, and vegetables. 
Wine, silk, oil, and leather are the chief man¬ 
ufactured products. Fresh fruits and vege¬ 
tables, olive oil, hides and leather, onions and 
potatoes, figs, wine, sponges, and soap are 
exported. The capital is Rhodes, founded 
408 b.c., on the n.e. coast. Area of the island 
550 sq. m.; p. 31,000. In the second millen¬ 
nium b.c. the population of Rhodes was 
possessed of the Mycenaen civilization. From 
early days Rhodes was a place of commercial 
prosperity. In 334 b.c. they became subject 
to Alexander; but after his death, in 323, 
they reasserted their independence. A sub¬ 
sequent alliance with Ptolemy of Egypt led to 
the famous siege of their chief city, Rhodes, by 
Demetrius Poliorcetes. In 304 he abandoned 
the siege, and the Rhodians erected their 
famous Colossus from the proceeds of the en¬ 
gines of war which he left behind. During 
the third century b.c. the Rhodians enjoyed 
independence, and about 200 b.c. allied them¬ 
selves with Rome. The last blow to the pros¬ 
perity of Rhodes was an earthquake, which 



Rhodes 


3987 


mined the city, in 157 ad. Rhodes became 
the capital of the insular province under the 
Roman emperors, and suffered invasions from 
the Saracens under the Byzantine Empire. It 
was besieged by the Turks in 1480, and again 
in 1522, when they captured it. After re¬ 
maining under Turkish rule for nearly four 
hundred years, the island was seized by an 
Italian force on May 4, 1912, in the course of 
the war between Turkey and Italy. It was 
ceded to Italy in 1924 and renamed Rodi. 

Rhodes, Cecil John (1853-1902), British 
colonial statesman, and for nearly a quarter 
of a century the dominating personality on 
the imperial side in South African politics, 
was born in Bishop Stortford, Hertfordshire. 
He went to Natal in 1870; and on the discov¬ 
ery of diamonds proceeded to Kimberly, where 
he laid the foundations of his great wealth. 
The territory which ultimately came under 
the control of the company, of which Rhodes 
was one of the directors, is now known as 
Rhodesia. One of the projects promoted by 
him was the Cape-to-Cairo Railway. From 
1890-6, Rhodes filled the office of premier of 
Cape Colony. He resigned after the Jame¬ 
son Raid, for which he held himself ‘morally 
culpable.’ When the South African War 
broke out (1899), he took part in the de¬ 
fence of Kimberley. By his will Rhodes be¬ 
queathed practically the whole of his fortune 
and possessions, valued at about $30,000,000 
to the public service. To his old college, Oriel, 
at Oxford, he bequeathed $500,000 for a sys¬ 
tem of free scholarships (see Rhodes Schol¬ 
arships). Consult Hensman’s Cecil Rhodes 
(1902); Fuller’s Cecil Rhodes (1910); Fort’s 
Alfred Beit (1932). 

Rhodes, James Ford (1848-1927), Amer¬ 
ican historian, was born in Cleveland, Ohio. 
He entered business in his native town in 
1870, and retired in 1885, thereafter devoting 
himself to the task of writing a History of 
the United States from the Compromise of 
1850. This work, in seven volumes, gives an 
account of political, economic, social, and in¬ 
tellectual conditions during the period of 
1850-77. He was president of the American 
Historical Association in 1899. 

Rhodes, Colossus of. See Colossus. 

Rhodesia, territory, British South Africa, 
having an area of 436,950 sq. m. The :oun- ' 
try Is divided by the Zambezi River into 
Northern (area, 287,950 sq. m.) and South¬ 
ern (area 149,000 sq. m.) Rhodesia. In 
Southern Rhodesia is a plateau 3,500 to 6,000 I 
ft. in height. In Northern Rhodesia are the I 


Rhodesia 

table lands of the Matoka and Tanganyika 
plateaus, the latter of which forms the water- 
shed between the Congo and Zambezi Rivers; 
and the Muchinga Highlands (4,000 to 5,000 
feet). The climate on the plateau is bracing 
and suitable for European settlement. Indige- 
nous vegetation includes a wide variety of 
tropical flowers and grass, palms, mimosa, 
and banana, rubber, Rhodesian teak, cedar, 
fig, and Kaffir plum trees. Among the fauna 
are the elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, 
lion, leopard, several species of antelopes, 
mongoose, wolf, ant-eater, python and cobra, 
crocodile, ostrich, crane, and numerous other 
varieties of birds. Gold, silver, copper, dia¬ 
monds, coal, led, zinc, tin, chromite, tung- 
sten, wolfram, scheelite, and asbestos are 
found. Great deposits of rich copper ore 
have recently been discovered in Northern 
Rhodesia and working has commenced. The 
acreage under crops is small, but is being ex¬ 
tended. Maize, wheat and oats, sweet pota¬ 
toes, cassava, ground-nuts, castor seed, rice, 
and fruits are grown; while the cultivation 
of tobacco and cotton has made considerable 
progress. Ranching on a large scale is being 
extended and, encouraged by a Government 
bounty. The population of Rhodesia in 1941 
was 69,013 Europeans and 1,379,382 natives, 
in Southern Rhodesia, and 15,188 Europeans 



Copyright De La Mare 


Rhododendron Delicatissima. 

and 1,372,235 natives, in Northern Rhodesia. 

Until 1923 the country was administered 
by the British South Africa Company (char¬ 
tered in 1889), as prescribed by the Orders in 
Council of the British Government, but in 


Rhodes Scholarships 


3988 


Rhyme 


that year a new form of government was es¬ 
tablished consisting of a governor, assisted by 
a legislature and an executive council. The 
legislature consists of a single legislative as¬ 
sembly, but that body may constitute a legis¬ 
lative council in addition, if it so desires. The 
Crown reserves the right to disallow laws. In 
Southern Rhodesia the seat of government is 
Salisbury; in Northern Rhodesia, Living¬ 
stone. The numerous ruins of so-called 
temples, walls, conical towers, and the like, 
have been thought to be of mediaeval origin, 
built by negroes nearly related to the Ban¬ 
tus. (See Zimbabwe.) Authentic history be¬ 
gins with this mediaeval Bantu race, who, hav¬ 
ing partially emerged from savagery, traded 
with the Arab settlers of the eastern coast. 
Rhodesia was explored by David Living¬ 
stone, who died at a place called ‘Old Chi- 
tambo,’ south of Lake Bangweolo. The 
country was brought under British influence 
largely through the activities of Cecil Rhodes. 
A long-drawn-out struggle with the Matabili 
was concluded in 1907. The country re¬ 
mained under the rule of the British South 
Africa Company until 1923, during which 
time its resources were developed and it 
showed a slow but steady increase in ma¬ 
terial prosperity. In 1923 Southern Rhodesia 
was annexed to the British Empire. Northern 
Rhodesia was taken over by the British Gov¬ 
ernment in 1924 and is administered by a 
governor and an executive and legislative 
council. Consult Maciver’s Mediceval Rhod¬ 
esia (1906); Jollie’s The Real Rhodesia 
(1924); Hole’s The Making of Rhodesia 
(1926). 

Rhodes Scholarships, an educational 
foundation, established by the will of Cecil 
Rhodes, which created a fund for free schol¬ 
arships at Oxford University. Of these 
scholarships, one hundred and two are as¬ 
signed to the British Empire and ninety-six 
to the United States, each State being en¬ 
titled to two. The selection is made by rep¬ 
resentatives of the colleges. 

Rhodium, Rh, at. w. 102.91, an element 
of the platinum family that occurs associa¬ 
ted with platinum and other metals of the 
platinum group in the native platinum min¬ 
erals. 

Rhododendron, a genus of ornamental 
shrubs belonging to the order Ericaceae . The 
flowers, varying in color from pale pink to 
deep rose, are generally borne in racemose 
corymbs, the individual flowers being gen¬ 
erally large and more or less campanuiate in 


form while the leaves are usually evergreen. 

Rhodopis, courtesan of ancient Greece, 
who lived about 600 b.c. was by birth a 
Thracian. There was a legend current among 
the Greeks that she built the third pyramid. 

Rhondda, river, Wales, in Glamorganshire. 
The upper valley is noted for its scenery; the 
lower valley, known as the Rhondda valley, 
is a densely populated coal-mining district. 

Rhone, department, France, on the right 
bank of the middle Rhone and lower Saone; 
area, 1,104 sq. m - It is mountainous except 
for the valley of the Saone and the narrow 
plain east and south of Lyons. Corn, wine, 
and potatoes are the chief agricultural pro¬ 
ducts. It is an important industrial region, 
especially for textiles; Lyons, the capital, is 
the chief center; p. 956,566. 

Rhone, one of the principal rivers of 
France, rises on the western slopes of Mount 
St. Gothard in Swiss Alps, and discharges 
into Gulf of Lyons. Its length is about 500 
m. The chief tributaries are—on the right, 
the Ain and Saone, and on the left, the Arve, 
Isere, Drome, and Durance. Near Arles it 
branches into the Grand and the Petit 
Rhone, which enclose the fan-shaped delta 
of the Camargue. Canals provide means of 
communication between the main channels 
of the Rhone and the Mediterranean. 

Rhubarb, or Pie Plant, a perennial plant 
(Rheum rhaponticum ), cultivated for its 
juicy, acid leaf-stalks, which are used in the 
making of pastry, sauce and wine. The medi¬ 
cinal rhubarb (Rheum officinale) much re¬ 
sembles the garden rhubarb in appearance, 
but is of larger growth. 

Rhus, a genus of trees and shrubs belong¬ 
ing to the order Anacardiacese. They are 
mostly poisonous plants. 

Rhyme, or more properly Rime, a word 
meaning the recurrence of the same sound 
in a verse or verses. It is probable that 
rhyme, as employed in modern European lit¬ 
erature, first made its appearance in Latin 
hymns and songs at the period of the de¬ 
cadence of the old strict prosody, and of the 
change from a quantitative to an accentual 
scheme of scansion. It is certainly a mode of 
emphasis which comes naturally to human 
beings everywhere, and it is found in litera¬ 
tures which owe nothing to Western influ¬ 
ences—as, for example, that of China. In 
English, to constitute a perfect rhyme, the 
accented vowels and all that follows them 
(whether consonants or vowels) must be ex¬ 
actly alike in the rhyming words, but tb f 



Rhyolite 


3989 


Ricardo 


consonantal sounds preceding the accented 
vowels must differ. The charm of the son¬ 
net lies almost wholly in its arrangement of 
rhymes. Consult Saintsbury’s History of 
English Prosody from the Twelfth Century 
to the Present (3 vols.). 

Rhyolite, a variety of felsitic or porphyri- 
tic igneous rocks distinguished by the pres¬ 
ence of quartz and orthoclase as essential 
mineral constituents. 

Rhys, Ernest (1S59- ), English author, 

was born in London. He practised as a min¬ 
ing engineer from 1877 to 1885, when he 
adopted literature as a profession. He has 
written among other works, A London Rose 
(1894) , The Man at Odds (1904), Gwene- 
vere, a Lyric Play (1905), The Leaf Burners 
(1918), Modern English Essays (1922), 
Black Horse Pit (1925), Everyman Remem¬ 
bers (an autobiography, 1931), Rhymes for 
Everyman (1933). Editor of Everyman’s Li¬ 
brary. 

Rhythm, a combination of sounds produc¬ 
ing a certain harmony or cadence at recurring 
intervals, applied especially to verse, wherein 
it is definite and anticipated, but existing less 
definitely in prose. With melody and har¬ 
mony it forms one of the three great elements 
of music. In the best prose and in oratory 
it is a strongly marked characteristic. 

Rhytina, the genus to which belongs Steil- 
er’s sea-cow (R, stelleri) , an extinct member 
of the order Sirenia, which formerly inhabited 
the shores of Bering and Cooper Islands in the 
North Pacific. It was discovered by Bering 
in 1741, and by 1768 had been virtually ex¬ 
terminated. 

Ribbentrop, Joachim von (1893- ), 

German statesman. He was for years a wine 
merchant. Pie helped to form the Nazi party, 
becoming (1936-38) Germany’s ambassador to 
Great Britain and, in 1938, foreign minister. 



Ribbon Fish. 


Ribbon Fish, deep-sea fish, characterized 
by a very long narrow body which may 
reach a length of from fifteen to twenty feet, 


a depth of from ten to twelve inches, and a 
breadth of only an inch or two at the thick¬ 
est part. 

Ribbon Snake, a species of slender and 
swift garter snake ( Eutcenia saurita ), com¬ 
mon in the Eastern states where it lives on 
the borders of bogs or ponds. 

Ribes, a genus of hardy, deciduous shrubs 
belonging to the order Saxifragaceae. See 
Currant ; Gooseberry. 

Ribot, Alexandre Felix Joseph (1842- 
1923)5 French statesman, was born in St. 
Omer. He was premier in 1S93 and again in 
1895. In the Dreyfus affair he successfully 
opposed the prosecution of Mercier, although 
he had previously urged all possible publicity. 
In 1906 he was elected to the French Acad¬ 
emy 



a, a, True ribs; b, b, false ribs; 
c, vertebral column; d, sternum; 
di, manubrium sterni; D 2 , ensi- 
form process; e, e, cartilages; 
f, f, clavicles. 

Ribs, flat curved bones which, together 
with the vertebrae behind and the sternum 
or breastbone in front, make the framework 
of the thorax or chest. In man there are 
twelve ribs on either side. There are on each 
side seven True’ ribs, connected with the 
breastbone in front and the spinal column 
behind, and five ‘false’ or ‘floating’ ribs, the 
upper three being connected in front with 
the cartilages of the ribs above them. The 
lowest two have free extremities in front. 

' Ricardo, David (1772-1823), English po¬ 
litical economist, of Jewish origin, was born 
in London. Although he has given his name 
to a system and method known as Ricardian 
economics, his writings were at best mere oc¬ 
casional pieces, and his views often find better 
exposition in the writings of J. B. Say, Mai- 



3990 


Rice 


Rice 


thus, and M’Culloch. His chief work is en¬ 
titled Principles of Political Economy and 
Taxation (1817). Ricardo is the chief repre¬ 
sentative of the purely deductive method in 
the science. His treatment of rent, profits, 
and wages amounted to a revolution in po¬ 
litical economy. 

Rice ( Oryza saiiva) , a cereal grass indigen¬ 
ous to Asia, forming the staple food of more 
than half the inhabitants of the globe. In 
China nearly 5,000 years ago the sowing of 
rice was an important religious ceremonial. 

There are several members of the Oryza 
family but the only one of any importance is 
0 . sativa, the common rice of commerce. The 
Spaniards probably introduced it into South 
America and it is said that it was cultivated 
in Virginia as early as 1647. The rice plant 



1, Bearded; % flower; 3, pistol; 4, caryopsis. 

is an annual varying in height from one to 
5 or 6 ft., one variety, known as ‘giant rice’ 
attaining a height of 12 or 15 ft. There are 
at least 5,000 varieties, nearly 1,000 of which 
have been grown in the United States. It has 
long tapering leaves and the flowers appear 
as single-flowered spikelets in panicles 8 to 
12 inches long. The grain consists of four 
parts ; the outer husk, usually golden in color, 
the cuticle or inner skin, varying from a 
creamy white to a mahogany red and con¬ 
sisting of nitrogenous cells, the kernel or 
actual rice grain, consisting of minute starch 
cells, and the germ. Rice cultivation may be 
broadly divided into two classes, upland or 
dry cultivation, and lowland or wet cultiva¬ 


tion. Both methods require a fairly high 
temperature and a good supply of moisture. 
The upland or dry method is similar to that 
of other grains. By far the greater propor¬ 
tion of rice is produced by the lowland 
method. The varieties most abundantly cul¬ 
tivated require a high summer temperature 
and must be grown in fields capable of being 
flooded at certain stages of their growth. 
In the world’s greatest rice-producing coun¬ 
tries the harvesting is done by hand and by 
native labor. 

After the grain is dried sufficiently it is 
threshed and stored ready for the mill. After 
coming from the thresher it is known as 
‘paddy,’ consisting of the grain proper, the 
cuticle and the husk, which two last-named 
are removed by milling. Finally it is polished 
by friction and is then graded, barrelled and 
ready for market. 

Insect Pests and Diseases .—Chief among 
the insect pests are the rice bug (Leptocorisa 
acuta) , which feeds on the rice panicles, or 
heads, when formed; the stink bug ( (Ebalus 
pugnax) , which punctures the kernel in the 
early stages so that it shrivels and becomes 
valueless; the rice water weevil (Lissorhop- 
trus simplex) , which attacks the roots and 
leaves of the growing plant; and the moth 
(Chilo Plejadellus) , whose larvae feed on the 
stem of the rice. The disease or fungoid 
growths to which rice is most liable are ‘blast,’ 
which attacks it at the juncture of leaf blade 
and sheath causing the plant to dry up and 
a failure of the grains to fill; ‘green smut’ and 
‘black smut,’ which attack the actual grains. 
As a food rice is nutritious and easily digest¬ 
ed. One hundred pounds of cleaned rice con¬ 
tains 87.7 pounds of nutrients, consisting of 
8 pounds of protein, 0.3 pounds fat, 79 
pounds carbohydrates, and 0.4 pounds of ash. 
The removal of the cuticle of rice in order 
to procure the pure white article as we 
usually see it, also removes part of the pro¬ 
tein, fat and mineral matter and a large part 
of the vitamin B., but, even so, polished rice 
still remains valuable and nutritious. Brown 
or unpolished rice can be obtained at the 
better stores. Japanese beer (sake) and 
Chinese ‘shemshu’ are distilled from rice and 
in Japan the straw is made into hats, mats, 
sandals, and screens. 

Rice, Alexander Hamilton (1875- ), 

American geographer and explorer, born in 
Boston. He has devoted much time to scien¬ 
tific exploration in tropical South America 
and has mapped over 500,000 sq. m. of that 





Rice 


3992 


Richard ia 


country in addition to collecting geological 
and biological data. He is now professor of 
geographical exploration and director of the 
Institute of Geographical Exploration found¬ 
ed by him at Harvard. He has received 
numerous awards from both American and 
foreign societies. 

Rice, Alice Caldwell (Hegan) (1870- 
1942), American author, was bom in Shelby- 
ville, Ky. Her first book Mrs. Wiggs of the 
Cabbage Patch (1901), was at once accepted, 
and is known in every place where English 
is spoken. In 1902 she was married to Cale 
Young Rice, poet and dramatist. Her other 
publications include Lovey Mary (1903), 
Mr. Opp (1909), Quin (1921), and Mr. Pete 
& Co. (1933)- 

Rice, Cale Young (1872-1943), American 
poet and dramatist, born at Dixon, Ky. He 
is the husband of Alice Hegan Rice. His 
works include Sea Poems (1921), Yolanda 
of Cyprus, grand opera (1929), and The 
Sivamp Bird, play (1931). 

Rice, Elmer (1892- ), American play¬ 

wright born in New York City. His play 
The Adding Machine, was first produced by 
the Theatre Guild in New York in 1923. In 
1929 his Street Scene was awarded the 
Pulitzer prize. His more recent plays include 
Counsellor-at Law (1931) ; We, the People 
(1933) ; Plight to the West (1941). 

Rice, George Samuel (1866- ) , min¬ 

ing engineer born at Claremont, N. H. He 
has been chief mining engineer of the U. S. 
Bureau of Mines since its formation in 1910 
and in charge of a series of investigations in 
which coal dust explosions are produced in a 
government experimental mine in order to 
study underlying causes of such accidents. 

Rice, Joseph Mayer (1870-1934) , author, 
born at Philadelphia. He founded the Society 
of Educational Research in 1903 and was 
editor of the Forum from 1897-1907. His 
works include, Scientific Management in Edu¬ 
cation (1913) ; The People’s Government 
(1915). 

Rice-bird, a name given both to the bobo¬ 
link and to the Java sparrow or paddy-bird 
( Munia oryzivora), an East Indian finch, fre¬ 
quently kept as a cage bird in Europe. Both 
birds commit great ravages in the rice fields. 

Rice-paper is not made from rice, but 
from the pith of a tree ( Fatsia Aralia papyrt- 
fera ) grown in Formosa. 

Richard I., Coeur de Lion (1157-99), 
king of England. On his accession (1189) he 
devoted all his efforts to raising money to 


enable him to go on a crusade. He sailed for 
the East, December, 1190. In June, 1191, he 
arrived at Acre, where he met Philip of 
France. Richard’s energy and prowess con¬ 
tributed to the capture of Acre, and having 
defeated the Saracens at Arsuf, he arrived 
within a few miles of Jerusalem. But in Janu¬ 
ary, 1192, he was forced to retreat. On his 
way home he was made prisoner by Leopold, 
Duke of Austria, who handed him over to 
the Emperor Henry vi., and it was not till 
1x94 that he was released on payment of a 
ransom. After Richard’s arrival in England 
(1194) John was easily reduced to submis¬ 
sion. Richard was killed while attacking 
Chaluz. See Archer’s The Crusade of Richard 
1 . (1889). 

• Richard II. (1367-1400), king of England, 
was the son of the Black Prince, and ascend¬ 
ed the throne (1377). In 1381 Wat Tyler’s 
rebellion took place, and Richard showed 
great presence of mind when he met the 
rebels. Thomas of Gloucester, the king’s 
uncle, took the lead in attacking the king; 
and when Richard asserted his rights, he and 
others seized London, and overthrew the 
king’s friends. In 1389, however, Richard 
resumed the government. At Shrewsbury, in 
1398, Parliament handed over its authority 
to a standing committee. In February, 1399, 
Richard seized the estates of John of Gaunt, 
who had just died, and in May he sailed to 
Ireland. During his absence Bolingbroke re¬ 
turned, and capturing Richard at Flint, de¬ 
posed him, and became king. It is supposed 
that Richard was murdered in Pontefract 
Castle. 

Richard III. (1452-85), king of England, 
was a son of Richard, Duke of York, who was 
killed at the battle of Wakefield, and a 
younger brother of Edward iv. On July 6, 
1483, he was crowned king, and about a 
month later the two princes, Edward v. and 
his brother, were murdered in the Tower of 
London. Buckingham invited Henry, Earl 
of Richmond, to come over to England and 
receive the crown. The conspiracy failed. 
However, Buckingham was executed, and his 
chief associate, Morton, bishop of Ely, fled 
to Flanders. Richard protected English trade 
abroad, organzied the naval and postal 
systems and improved the administration of 
justice. On August 22, Richard was defeated 
and killed at Bosworth Field. See Gairdner’s 
Life and Reign of Richard III. (1878). 

Richardia, a genus of S. African marsh 
plants belonging to the order Araceoe. Much 



Richards 


3993 


the best know n and most frequently crown 
species is R. africana, the calia-lily, or lily 0 f 
the Nile. 

Richards, Ellen Henrietta (1842-1911) 
American educator, born in Dunstable, Mass.’ 
She was an instructor in the women’s chemi¬ 
cal laboratory in the Institute of Technology, 
and chemist to the Manufacturers’ Fire In¬ 
surance Co., and assistant chemist to the 
State Board of Health. She specialized in 
oil and water analysis, and in the chemistry 
of foods. Her publications are: Chemistry of 
Cooking and Cleaning (1882) ; Food Materi¬ 
als and their Adulterations (18S6) ; Home 
Sanitation (in conjunction with Dr. Talbot, 
1887) ; The Cost of Living (1899) ; Air, 
Water, and Food (1900) ; The Cost of Food 
(1900); First Lessons in Food (1905); The 
Art of Right Living (1905). 

Richards, Theodore William (1S6S- 
1928), American chemist, bom in German¬ 
town, Pa. In 1894 he was appointed assistant 
professor of chemistry in Harvard, and in 
1901 . became professor and head of the 
chemical department. He assisted in revising 
the atomic weights of oxygen, zinc, iron, and 
other elements. In 1914 he became president 
of the American Chemical Association. 

Richards, William Trost (1833-1905), 
American marine painter, bom in Philadel¬ 
phia and a pupil of Paul Weber. He excelled 
in the Painting of surf scenes, of which there 
are examples in the Metropolitan Museum of 
New York, the Philadelphia Academy, the 
Corcoran Gallery in Washington. 

Richardson, Henry Hobson (1838-66), 
American architect, bom in St. James Parish, 
La. In 1875 he settled in Boston, where his 
most important work was done, notably 
Trinity. church, the most imposing church 
edifice in New England. Other impressive 
buildings of his designing are the New York 
State Capitol at Albany. 

^ Richardson, Samuel (1689-1761), Eng¬ 
lish novelist, was born in Derbyshire. His 
gift of letter-writing led to the publication of 
Pamela (1740). In Clarissa Richardson took 
a higher flight. Sir Charles Grandison (1753) 
is. a contrast and counterpart to Clarissa, the 
pattern of masculine as Clarissa is of feminine 
excellence. An edition .of ..his -'Work's in 19 
vols. appeared ■ / 1905 (Pickering Club 
Classics). 

Richardson, William Adams (1821-96), 
American jurist born in Tyngsborough, Mass. 
In 1869 Bre. .ent Grant appointed him assist¬ 
ant secretary of the treasury. His manage¬ 
ment of the Treasury during the financial 


Richelieu 

troubles in America in 1873 was highly suc¬ 
cessful. In 1874 he left the Treasury to be¬ 
come a judge of the Court of Claims, and m 
!885 was promoted by President Arthur to 
be chief justice of that court. 

Richberg, Donald Randall (1881- ), 

lawyer, was born in Knoxville, Tenn. He was 
chief counsel for the railway unions in the 
government injunction suit, 1922; general 
counsel for the National Conference on Valu¬ 
ation of Railroads, 1923-33, and for the Rail¬ 
way Labor Executives Association, 1926-33. 
He was co-author of the Railway Labor Act 
passed by Congress in 1926, and the National 
Industrial Recovery Act in the Franklin D. 
Roosevelt administration, 1933. He was gen¬ 
eral counsel for the NRA from 1933 until 
August, 1934, when he succeeded Gen. Hugh 
Johnson as administrator. 

He also became executive director of the 
National Emergency Council, the general 
co-ordinating agency of the New Deal. The 
President gave Richberg practically dicta¬ 
torial powers over New Deal legislation in 
the 1935 Congressional session, allowing him 
to serve as the clearing house through 
which all suggestions for new emergency 
measures should pass. Later, Frank C. 
Walker of Montana was reappointed head 
of the Emergency Council, the White House 
explaining this was done to allow Rich¬ 
berg to devote his energies to the NRA. 
After the Supreme Court declared NRA 
illegal, Richberg suspended the business 
codes. 

Richelieu, Armand Jean Duplessis de 
(1585-1642), French statesman, was born in 
Paris, and consecrated bishop of Lugon in 
1607. In 1622 he received the cardinal’s hat 
from Pope Gregory xv., and in 1624 he was 
recalled to office by Louis xin. From this 
time till his death he ruled France. He had 
summed up his own achievements in the 
words: T employed all my energy to ruin 
the Huguenot faction, to humble the pride of 
the nobles, to reduce all subjects to their 
duty, and to exalt France to its proper posi¬ 
tion among foreign nations.’ He put an end 
to .the. internal disorders- which the war of 
religion had bequeathed to France and gave 
despotic power to ..ie monarchy. But his 
greatest achievements were in foreign po..- 
tics. He is also famous as the founder, of the 
French-Academy." 

Richelieu, Chambly, or St* John, river, 
Quebec, Canada. It has its source at L, 
Champlain and flows in a straight course n. 
by e. for about 80 m v discharging into the 



Richepin 


3994 


Richmond 


s.w. end of L. St. Peter on the St. Lawrence 
R. The Richelieu connects the navigation of 
the Hudson and St. Lawrence Rivers. 

Richepin, Jean (1849-1926), French poet, 
novelist, and dramatist, born at Medea 
(Algiers). A tendency to brutality and mor¬ 
bidity marked Ms earlier writings, such as his 



Cardinal Richelieu . 


poems, Chanson des Gueux (1876), whose 
publication resulted in his imprisonment and 
fine for its immorality: Les Caresses (1877), 
Les Blasphemes (1884), and such novels as 
Les Morts Bizarres (1876), La Glu (1881), 
and Le Pave (1S83). Some of his later novels 
however, are clever examples of psychological 
analysis, as for example, Sophie Monnier 
(1884), Grandes Amour euses (1896). His 
best work is contained in his plays. Nana 
Sahib (1883), Le Flibustier (1888), Par le 
Glaive (1892 ), Les Truands (1889), LaReine 
de Tyr (1900), and La Cavaliere (1901). 

Richmond, borough of New York City, 
coextensive with Staten Island, (q.v.) 

Richmond, city, Virginia, capital and larg¬ 
est city of the State, and county seat of Hen¬ 
rico co., is situated on the James River; 100 
m. s. of Washington. Within a few miles of 
the city are the battle grounds of Seven Pines, 
Fair Oaks, Yellow Tavern, Cold Harbor, 
Frazier’s Farm, Malvern Hill, Drewry’s Bluff, 
The Crater, Gaines’ Mill. 

Shockoe Hill, in the center of the city, is 
the site of Capitol Square, which covers 12 
acres. On the highest point, surrounded by 
fine shade trees, stands the capitol building, 
erected in 17S5. It was designed by Thomas 
Jefferson, partly after the Maison Carree at 


Nimes. Of historic interest are the house 
occupied by Jefferson Davis while President 
of the Confederacy, containing Confederate 
relics; the Valentine Museum, containing a 
fine collection of archaeological specimens; 
St. John’s church, built in 1740, where 
Patrick Henry uttered his famous ‘Give me 
Liberty or Give me Death,’ during the Vir¬ 
ginia convention; the home of General Lee, 
now occupied by the Virginia Historical So¬ 
ciety ; and the home of John Marshall, first 
chief justice of the United States. 

Educational institutions include Richmond 
University and Richmond Woman’s College, 
and the University of Virginia College of 
Medicine. The leading industries are the 
manufacture of tobacco, iron and steel, loco¬ 
motives, woodwork, ana paper; p. 193,042. 

History. —Richmond was settled in 1737 
and incorporated in 1742, and in 1779 became 
the capital of the State. In the Revolution 
the place was taken by a British force under 
Benedict Arnold, Jan. 5, 1781, and the ware¬ 
houses and public buildings were burned. 
The following year the city was chartered. 
Richmond, as the capital of the Confederacy, 
was the main objective of Federal operations 
during the Civil War. It was evacuated April 
2, 1865. 

Richmond, town, in Surrey, England, for¬ 
merly known as Sheen, is situated on the 
slope of a hill rising from the right bank of 
the Thames; 9 m. southwest of London. 
Among the places of interest are the palace 



Donald R. Richberg. 


erected by Edward in., and White Lodge, 
the birthplace (1894) of Edward, Prince of 
Wales. Richmond Park of over 2,000 acres, 
lies to the south, while on the north is the 


Richmond 


3995 


Ridge 


Old Deer Park, in which stands Kew Ob¬ 
servatory; p. 37,791. . 

Richmond, University of, an institution 
for higher learning located in Richmond, Va., 
was founded in 1832 as the Virginia Baptist 
Seminary, chartered in 1840 as Richmond 
College, and in 1920 as the University of 
Richmond. It was closed during the Civil 
War, but was reopened in 1866, when a new 
endowment was obtained. 

Richter, Johann Paul Friedrich (1763- 
1825), generally known as Jean Paul, Ger¬ 
man humorist, was born in Wunsiedel, near 
Bayreuth. Among Jean Paul’s earlier writ¬ 
ings are Die unsichtbare Loge (1793) ; Schul- 
meisterlein Wus (1793), probably his master- 


order Euphorbiaceae. R. communis, the castor 
oil plant, an African native, is much cultivat¬ 
ed as an annual garden plant, on account of 
its large, palmate leaves, and tropical aspect. 

Rickets, or Rachitis, an acquired disease 
of infancy and early childhood chiefly show¬ 
ing itself in deformities of bone, particulary 
of shafts of the long bones. It usually begins 
between the ages of six months and two years. 
The legs, particulary the shin-bones, are apt 
to become bowed, and the arms bent. The 
spine also may become distorted, and the 
bones of the skull thicken, producing a mark- 
ed squareness of head. The ribs are soft and 
readily bent, and tend to form a ‘pigeon 
breast.’ The essential cause of rickets is due 



Richmond. 

Left, Washington Monument and City Hall; Right, State Capitol. 


piece; Quintus Fixlein (1796), which contains 
many reminiscences of his own life. Other 
works are Hesperus (1795), Titan (1800-3), 
and Flegeljakre (1804-5), in which he at¬ 
tempts, in his own way, what Goethe at¬ 
tempted in his Wilhelm Meister, to evolve 
the ideal man; Das Kampanerthal (1797), a 
fantastic conversation on the immortality of 
the soul; Vorschule der Aesthetik (1804) 5 
and '.Levana oder Erziehungslehre (1807), in 
which last he shows a loving devotion to 
childhood, Jean Paul’s naivete, Ms simplic¬ 
ity, and his kindly humor must account for 
his enormous . popularity . His intimate and 
reverential love of nature is obvious in all 
his : work, and. is. especially conspicuous in 
certain descriptive passages of great beauty. 
Jean Paul’s complete works have been pub¬ 
lished in 60 vols. (1826-38), and in 13 vols., 
with biography by Gottschall (1868-78). 

Ricinu*, a genus of plants belonging to the 


to faulty nutrition. Recovery is the rule, 
though severe skeletal deformities may per¬ 
sist. The chief treatment is dietetic, though 
sunlight and fresh air are exceedingly valu¬ 
able. Medicinal treatment is confined almost 
wholly to cod liver oil and phosphorus. 

Riddle, an obscure metaphorical descrip¬ 
tion akin to parable or proverb, and depend¬ 
ing on analogy. Enigma (‘sense-riddle’)—the 
oldest form—rebus, charade (word syllabical- 
ly described), and acrostic are varieties. The 
riddling of oracles and bards has degenerated 
into the conundrum-puns. 

Rideau Canal, Ont., Canada, connecting 
Kingston, on L. Ontario, with Ottawa by 
way of the Rideau R. From Kingston to L. 
Rideau, the canal is formed by the Cataraqui 
R. L. Rideau is the summit level of the 
canal, which joins the Rideau R. below the 
Chaudiere'".Falls.'■ 

.. Ridge,; in geography, is used for any land 






Ridgeway 


3996 


Riding 


form which rises to a maximum line or crest. 
It should be employed in the singular for a 
single land form, and distinguished from a 
range, which may consist of more than one 
ridge. 

Ridgeway, Robert (1850-1929), Ameri¬ 
can 'ornithologist, born in Mt. Carmel, Ill. 
In 1883 he was one of the principal founders 
of the American Ornithologist Union. In 
1880 he became curator of the ornithological 
department of the U. S. Natural History 
Museum, Washington, D. C. He has pub¬ 
lished: A History of North American Birds 
(3_ vols. 1874) ; The Birds of North and 
Middle America (1901, sqq .), etc. 

Riding, properly thnding—i.e, the 'third 
part’—the name of the three divisions of 
Yorkshire, England. 

Riding. There are probably as many dif¬ 
ferent 'correct’ ways of riding as there are 
teachers. All agree, however, that the first 
thing to learn is the mount. The rider may, 
standing on the near side of the horse, either 
take the reins in his right hand and with it 
clasp the pommel of the saddle, insert the 
left foot in the stirrup, spring from the ball 
of the right foot, and, seizing a lock of the 
mane, steady himself until he carries his right 
leg over the croup and so sink into the saddle; 
or, facing to the rear, he may take the reins 
in his left hand and with it seize a lock of the 
mane; then, inserting his left foot in the stir¬ 
rup, spring from the right foot and as he rises 
take hold of the pommel of the saddle, carry 
his right leg over the back of the horse, and 
when he has found his seat, transfer the reins 
to his right hand. In dismounting with the 
stirrup the rider should first release his right 
foot; then transferring the reins to his right 
hand he should with it seize the pommel, and 
with his left hand take a lock of the mane; 
then, taking his weight upon his left foot, 
supported by his hands he should carry his 
right leg over the croup, face the horse and 
come gently to the ground on Ms right foot, 
finally releasing his left foot and his holds 
upon the mane and pommel. Then comes the 
acquirement of a stable seat, and the man 
may find Ms own best seat in the following 
manner: Mounting the horse he should sit 
down in the saddle, taking his weight upon 
his buttocks while be holds his body erect, 
the shoulders held back squarely. He should 
then, raise his legs upward and inward until 
the points of his knees meet above the crest 
of the horse. From this position he will drop 
his legs slowly until the inner sides of his 
thighs and the flat inner surfaces of his bent 


knees take every possible point of contact 
with the saddle, the lower parts of the legs 
hanging without stiffness. The length of the 
stirrup leathers will be right when the tread 
of the iron strikes the heels. The rider having 
learned the proper seat, he will take his posi- 




Correct Positions in Riding. 

Top, Mounting; Center, Reins 
in one hand; Lower, Reins in 
both hands. 

tion upon the horse with a snaffle rein in each 
hand, the loose ends toward the thumbs and 
held by them, the reins passing through the 
breadth of his hands, which are held knuckles 
up, close together, to assist each other, and 
take a gentle feeling upon the mouth of the 
horse. 



Ridley 


3997 


Rietschel 


On the trot the rider must get into the 
swing of the horse, and learn to rise grace¬ 
fully in the saddle to meet the rise of the 
horse’s back, without bumping or permitting 
too much daylight between himself and the 
saddle. The army seat in the troths without 
rising, and the horse and the rider are one. 
The stirrups must be longer for this. In the 
gallop, give the horse perfect freedom with 
his head, or he may stumble. In jumping, give 
him a long rein, for on landing he needs his 
head to recover himself. See Fox Hunt¬ 
ing; Bridle; Saddle. 

Ridley, Nicholas (?i$oo-5s), English re¬ 
former, bishop of London, and martyr, son 
of a Northumberland squire. He received 
the vicarage of Soham, Cambridgeshire, and 
was created bishop of Rochester (1547). A 
leader of the reformed faith, Ridley assisted 
in compiling the English Prayer Book (1548) 
and reforming the ecclesiastical law; and on 
Bonner’s deprivation succeeded him as bishop 
of London (1550). On the accession of Mary 
he was arrested (March, 1554); was sent to 
Oxford, with Latimer and Cranmer, to be 
tried; and was condemned to suffer at the 
stake. He lav in Bocardo jail at Oxford for 
eighteen months; and after the formality of a 
second trial he was burned at the stake 
(1555), along with Latimer. Consult G. Rid¬ 
ley’s Life . 

Riel, Louis (1844-85), Canadian insurg¬ 
ent, was educated at the Jesuit College, 
Montreal and then worked for two years in 
Minnesota. His father, a Metis or French- 
Indian half-breed, in 1849 headed their re¬ 
volt against the Hudson’s Bay Company, 
which owned the Northwest. In 1869 the 
Company sold its political rights to the Do¬ 
minion of Canada, which sent a host of sur¬ 
veyors and officials to take possession, with¬ 
out guarantee or explanation to the old resi¬ 
dents. The Metis rose, ordered the party not 
to enter, armed several hundred men,' and 
barricaded the road. Riel took the lead, as 
secretary of a ‘Comite National des Metis’; 
moved his force, into the heavily armed and 
stocked Fort Garry; and thence terrorized the 
non-French settlers who refused to join. He 
styled 'himself ‘president" of'.the Republic" of 
the Northwest,’ and had a Bill of Rights 
drawn up, claiming for the M6tis a share of 
the payment made to the company. 

The Dominion Parliament, though victori¬ 
ous, embodied this in its Manitoba Act, but 
Riel outlawed his part in it by the judicial 
murder of an Ontario Orangeman, Thomas 
Scott, who stood out. When, the next summer, 


Col. Garnet Wolseley led an expedition against 
Riel, the latter’s force had all deserted. In 
1884 he was invited back to lead a fresh 
Metis agitation. The claims being refused, he 
again set up a provisional government 
(March, 1885), which was soon crushed; and 
he was taken to Regina, tried, and executed. 

Riemann, Georg Friedrich Bernhard 
(1826-66), German mathematician, was born 
in Breselenz. He contributed to mathematics 
a non-Euclidean system of geometry, and in¬ 
troduced new and valuable theories in con¬ 
nection with the study of functions and 
surfaces. His works include: Grundlagen 
fur Allgemeine Theorie der Funktionen einer 
V er Underlie ken Complexen Grosse (1851); 
Ueber die Hypothesen, Welche der Geometrie 
zu Grunde Liegen (posthumously, 1867). 
Consult Schering’s Life, in German. 

Rienzi, Cola di (i.e., Nicholas son of 
Lorenzo) ( c . 1313-54), Roman popular lead¬ 
er, was the son of a tavern keeper. Growing 
famed for eloquence and patriotic dreams, 
in 1343 he was made spokesman of a depu¬ 
tation to Clement vi., urging his return to 
Rome, and the grant of a jubilee to bring 
crowds and money. The latter was secured, 
and Rienzi was appointed city notary. As 
the magistrates would reform nothing, he 
with the Pope’s vicar organized a revolution, 
proclaiming a set of new laws, making him¬ 
self supreme ruler as Tribune, and ordering 
the barons to put down brigandage. Resist¬ 
ing him, the latter were either driven out or 
forced to obey, thus giving Central Italy its 
only good government for ages before and 
after. Then a mad vision for his city, a fool¬ 
ish attempt to crush his foes, and family am¬ 
bition combined to ruin him. He lost heart 
and resigned, after seven months’ rule. 

Innocent vi., on his accession, sent Rienzi 
back to Rome to help restore order. He was 
asked by the chief men to retake power, but 
the populace rose in sudden insurrection, 
stormed the palace, and in fleeing he was 
caught and slain. Rienzi’s story rests chiefly 
on one anonymous but sound and charming 
contemporary chronicle, and on Petrarch’s 
letters. He is the subject of a novel by Lord 
Lytton, and of an opera by Wagner. 

RiesengeBirge, the highest range of the 
Sudetic Mountains, Germany, separating Bo¬ 
hemia from Prussian Silesia, and stretching 
n.w. to s.e. for 23 m., and from 13 to 16 m. 
wide. The highest point is Schneekoppe 
(5,265 ft.). 

Rietschel, Ernst (1804-61), German 
sculptor, was born in Pulsnitz, Saxony. From 



Rievauix 


3998 


Rifle 


1832 until his death he was professor of 
sculpture at the Dresden Academy. Among his 
works are Pieta (Potsdam, c. 1847) ; Em¬ 
blematic Sculptures (Dresden, 1S52 et seq .); 
Goethe-Schiller Monument (Weimar, 1857)1 
Rauch (1857), and Weber (Dresden, i860). 

Rievauix Abbey, or Rivaulx, in North 
Riding, Yorkshire, England; 22 m. n. of York. 
It was founded in 1131 for the Cistercians. It 
now consists of ruins of the choir, transepts, 
refectory, and dormitory. 

Rif, Riff, or Er Rif, a coast range of hills 
in Northern Morocco, near the Mediterra¬ 
nean, 180 m. in length. The general elevation 
is about 2,000 ft., and the greatest altitude 
about 7,000 ft. The name is given also to 
the district. The inhabitants are Berbers, who 
were formerly much addicted to piracy. 

Rifle, a firearm the barrel of which has 
spiral grooves throughout its inner surface or 
bore. As commonly used, the word refers to 
rifled small arms fired from the hand, but it 
is applied sometimes to direct fire cannon of 
all calibres. The projectile, forced along the 
barrel by the explosion of the powder charge, 
follows the grooves of the rifling, and ac¬ 
quires a motion of rotation about its long 
axis, which rotation it retains during flight 
through the air. At the time of its invention, 
the only successful small arms were muzzle 
loaders, so naturally the first successful rifle 
was a muzzle loader. The date of the dis¬ 
covery of the principe of rifling is not known 
to a certainty. Some authorities state that it 
was between 1470 and 1500. 

In Europe little important improvement 
was made until the beginning of the 19th cen¬ 
tury. In America, development was more 
rapid, and the improvements were more 
practical; so that even before the Revolu¬ 
tionary War the rifle was in general use by 
frontiersmen. Meanwhile the Brunswick rifle, 
having two grooves, and firing a spherical 
bullet with a projecting ring around it to 
take the rifling, made its appearance. The 
Lancaster rifle was introduced into the British 
service at about the same time as the Enfield. 
Instead of grooves it had a smooth, spiral, 
elliptical bore of increasing twist. The next 
great change in military rifles was the adop¬ 
tion of the breech loader. In 1812 Pauly, a 
Frenchman, evolved a breech-loading rifle 
with a swinging block; and Dreyse, working 
under him, developed the first needle-gun 
bolt action in 1839. Dreyse’s bolt action was 
modified and adopted by the Prussians ; and 
the success of the Prussians in the Danish 
and Austrian wars caused all nations to adopt 


breech loaders. The U. S. in 1873 adopted the 
Springfield. A few years before World War 
II it adopted the Garand (M-i), a .30-caliber 
semi-automatic shoulder rifle. 

The next great departure in the military 
rifle was the introduction of the magazine. 
The repeating firearm was brought out in 
America by Colt in 1840, followed in i860 
by the Henry and Spencer rifles. In 1867 the 
Henry was improved and re-named the Win¬ 
chester. Magazines may be grouped in two 
general classes: the tubular, in which the 
cartridges are contained in a tube under the 
barrel; and the box, in which the cartridges 
lie above or alongside one another in a small 
metal box under the breech mechanism. 

Rifles that have tubular magazines are 
generally called repeating rifles, and those 
that have box type magazines, magazine rifles. 
In the United States, after an exhaustive test, 
the Krag-Jorgensen rifle was adopted in 
1892, superseding the Springfield single load¬ 
er; and in 1902 the Krag-Jorgensen was su¬ 
perseded by the Springfield magazine rifle, 
which was modified in 1903. This is a bolt 
action rifle with a vertical box magazine 
filled by means of a clip holding five cart¬ 
ridges. The natural successors of the repeat¬ 
ing and magazine rifle are the automatic and 
semi-automatic rifles. The term ‘automatic 5 
means that the weapon continues to fire as 
long as the trigger is pressed, until the maga¬ 
zine or the belt of ammunition is empty. 
The term ‘semi-automatic’ means that the 
firer must press the trigger for each shot. 
Automatic and semi-automatic rifles fall in¬ 
to three classes: gas-operated, recoil-oper¬ 
ated, and blow-back. 

Machine guns are classified as water-cooled 
and air-cooled. The air-cooled type of ma¬ 
chine gun has a heavier barrel than the 
water-cooled type, and the entire weapon is 
lighter, but its period of sustained fire is 
materially shorter on account of over-heating 
of the barrel. Only air-cooled types of ma¬ 
chine guns are used on aircraft. The ma¬ 
chine rifle is a modified automatic rifle. It 
has a heavier barrel than the automatic, 
which gives it a longer period of sustained 
fire. It is usually supported by a light bi¬ 
pod, somewhat heavier than the automatic 
rifle, and, in the same manner as the lat¬ 
ter, is provided with means for obtaining 
either automatic or semi-automatic fire. Am¬ 
munition for use in automatic and machine 
rifles is packed in magazines of from 20 to 
40 rounds capacity. 

The production of the rifle is a complicated 



Riflebird 


3999 


Rigel 


process. In the manufacture of firearms, es¬ 
pecially if they are of a military type, it is 
absolutely essential that every one of each 
part shall be as nearly identical as possi¬ 
ble with the others of the same kind. This 
provides for interchangeable parts, pre¬ 
vents waste, and permits greater and more 
economical production. See Firearms; 
Guns ; Shooting ; Ammunition ; Bullet ; 
Target. 

Riflebird, or Rifleman (Ptilhoris para- 
discus) y a bird of paradise found in North- 


lias many manufacturing establishments. The 
chief exports are flax, hemp, timber, butter, 
eggs, grain, hides and skins. Industries in¬ 
clude machine works, breweries, distilleries, 
saw mills, and oil mills. 

Riga was founded in 1201 by Bishop Al¬ 
bert I. of Livonia, and was settled largely 
by Germans. It was taken by Sigismund 11. 
of Poland, in 1547, by Gustavus Adolphus of 
Sweden in 1621, and by Peter the Great of 
Russia in 1710. During the Great War of 
Europe, Riga became the objective of a 



0 igiSj by International Film Service , Inc . 

Browning Automatic Rifle. 

(It may also be fired from the shoulder.) 


ern Australia and New Guinea. It is a hand¬ 
some bird, between 11 and 12 in. in length, 
with a long, curved beak. 

Riga, capital and chief town of the republic 
of Latvia, situated on the Dvina River, 9 m. 
from its mouth in the Gulf of Riga, In the 
old town, which still preserves the aspect of 
a 'mediaeval city, are the Town Hall, dating 
from .1750; the house of the Black Heads of 
Riga, founded in 1330 as a club of foreign 
merchants; the Domkirche, or St. Mary’s 
Cathedral, originally built in 1215, rebuilt in 
the 16th century, and restored since 1880. 
Educational institutions include Latvian Uni¬ 
versity, and City College. 

Riga is the industrial center of Latvia and 


number of attacks by the German land and 
sea forces. In 1917 the Russians evacuated 
the town and German warships entered the 
Gulf of Riga. Latvian independence lasted 
•from 1918 to 1940; p. 393,000. 

Rigadoon, a lively dance with a jumping 
step, danced to music written in % or com¬ 
mon time. It was popular in France during 
the 17th century, and was subsequently in¬ 
troduced into England. 

Riga, Gulf of, or Gulf of'Livonia, an 
inlet on the e. side of the Baltic Sea, which 
washes the shores of Livonia and Estonia. It 
is 100 m. in length from n. to s., and about 
80 m. in breadth. 

Rigel (B Orionis), a helium star of 0.3 






Rigging 


4000 


Riker 


magnitude, the lucida of the constellation 
Orion. It has no measurable parallax, and 
must give at least S,ooo times the light of 
the sun. 

Rigging, in current use, the cordage which 
supports and manages the sails of a vessel, 
and correctly so if used of a mast or yard; 
but more accurately, the entire body of ap¬ 
paratus accessory to the hull—masts, yards, 
sails, cordage, and even davits. See Sails and 
Rigging. 

Riggs, Stephen Return .(1812-83) » Amer¬ 
ican missionary, was born in Steubenville, 0. 
From 1837 until his death he was a Presby¬ 
terian missionary among the Dakotas, Sioux, 
and other Indidan tribes. His publications 
include Dakota Vocabulary (1852) ; The 
Bible in Dakota (with John P. Williamson, 
1879) ; Forty Years among the Sioux (1880). 

Riggs’ Disease. See Pyorrhoea. 

Right Ascension, in astronomy, the name 
given to one of the arcs which determine the 
position, relatively to the Equator, of a 
heavenly body on the celestial sphere, the 
other being the declination. It meant orig¬ 
inally the difference of time of rising of the 
first point of Aries. Its value for any heaven¬ 
ly body is ascertained by means of the tran¬ 
sit instrument and clock, and is usually meas¬ 
ured in hours, minutes, and seconds. 

Right-handedness, or the ability to use 
the right hand more easily than the left, is ex¬ 
plained as due both to gradually acquired 
habit, and to certain structural and function¬ 
al peculiarities of the human body. Left- 
handedness is largely hereditary, and exists 
in varying degrees. Ambidexterity, or the 
ability to use both hands with equal facility, 
is sometimes cultivated, especially in children 
with a slight tendency to left-handedness. 

Right of Search. See Search, Right of. 

Right of Way, the nbme given to an ease¬ 
ment or privilege enjoyed by individuals or 
classes of individuals, or by the public at 
large, of passing over the private property 
of another without being guilty of trespass. 
See Easement; Highway. 

Rights, Bill; of. See Bill of Rights. 

Rights of Man, Declaration of the, a 
famous statement of the constitution and 
principles of civil society and government 
adopted by the French National Assembly In 
August, 1789. In historical importance it may 
fairly be ranked with the English Bill of 
Rights and the American Declaration of In¬ 
dependence. 

Right Whale, either of two species of 
rbale belonging to the genus Balsena, whose 


whalebone is especially long and fine, and 

the oil abundant and of excellent quality. 
The right whales are further characteried by 
absence of the dorsal fin and of furrows at 
the side of the throat and by the great size 
of the head and mouth. 

Rigs, or Righi, an isolated mountain mass 
which rises east of the Swiss town of Lu¬ 
cerne, between the Lakes of Lucerne and 
Zug. The highest point, the Rig! Kulm 
(5,906 ft.) is crowned by a hotel. The view 
from the Rigi is one of the most famous in 
the world. 

. Rigidity, is one of the properties of matter 
which sharply differentiate solids from fluids. 
In abstract dynamics a rigid system is a col¬ 
location of particles which never alter their 
mutual relative positions. Of ordinary sub¬ 
stances, steel possesses the highest rigidity. 
See Elasticity; Strengh of Materials. 

Rigor, in medicine, the shivering or chill 
which commonly ushers in certain feverish 
conditions that attend such diseases as small¬ 
pox, pnuemonia, and pyaemia. 

Rigorists, in theology, those who advocate 
strict adherence to the letter of any moral law. 
Kant used it to mean champions of moral 
asceticism. 

Rigor Mortis, the rigidity which appears 
in a dead body, and which is due to the co¬ 
agulation of muscle plasma— i.e the contents 
of muscle fibres. Generally, rigor mortis af¬ 
fects the whole body in from 12 to 18 hours 
after death, and passes off in about 36 hours. 

Rigsdag, the parliament of Denmark. See 
Denmark. 

Rig-Veda, the oldest and most important 
of the Vedas, consists of a collection of hymns 
addressed to the powers and phenomena of 
nature. It dates between 1500 and 1000 b.c. 
See Vedas. 

Riis, Jacob August (1849-1914), Ameri¬ 
can author and social reformer, was born in 
Ribe, Denmark. He came to America in 1870, . 
and in 1877 joined the staff of the New York 
Tribune, and later that of the New York Sun. 
He became active in philanthropic move¬ 
ments in New York City, especially the im¬ 
provement of the condition of the poor, tene¬ 
ment-house reform, the provision of play¬ 
grounds and small parks, and the suppression 
of the sweatshop system. His publications in¬ 
clude: How the Other Half Lives (1890); 
The Making of an American (1901); The 
Battle with the Slum (1902); Children of the 
Tenements (1903); Theodore Roosevelt, the 
Citizen (1904); Neighbors (1914). 

Riker, Andrew L. (1868-1930), American 



4001 


Ring 


Riley 

engineer, was born in New York City, and 
was graduated from Columbia Law School. 
He produced one of the first electrically pro¬ 
pelled vehicles in the United States, and was 
a successful designer of gas engines, dynamos, 
motors, electric systems, transformers, and 
automobile parts. 

Riley, James Whitcomb (1853-1916), 
American poet, born in Greenfield, Ind., son 
of a leading attorney of that place. In 1S73 
he began contributing verse to the Indiana 
papers. He made a study of the ‘Hoosier’ 
dialect; his poems in that vernacular were 
widely popular, and obtained him entrance 
to the magazines. His first collection, The 
Old Swim min’ Hole, and ’Leven More Pieces 
(1883), was published over the pen name of 
‘Benj. F. Johnson, of Boone—a little book 
much valued by collectors. 

The combination of humor, pathos, and 
sentiment in James W. Riley’s verse appealed 
to high and low alike. He became known as 
The Hoosier Poet’'; but many of his most 
poetic pieces are written in ordinary English, 
such as ‘When She Comes Home,’ ‘Ike Wal¬ 
ton’s Prayer,’ and ‘Dwainie.’ Of late years it 
has been increasingly recognized that he is of 
high permanent significance in American lit¬ 
erature, not only for individual pieces, but as 
a creator of types. James W. Riley’s works 
include: The Boss Girl, and Other Sketches 
(1886); Rhymes of Childhood (1890); A 
Child World (1896) ; Raggedy Man (1907); 
The Little Orphant Annie Book (1908) ; Old 
School Day Romances (1909) When the 
Frost Is On the Punkin, and Other Poems 
(1911); The Riley Baby Book (1913). The 
Biographical Edition of his Complete Works 
was published in 1913. 

Rime. See Hoarfrost; Rhyme. 

Rimini, town, Italy, in the province of 
Forli, near the Adriatic coast, 31 m. s.e. of 
Ravenna. It has a good harbor on the canal¬ 
ized river Marecchia and is a favorite seaside 
resort. Features of interest are the church of 
St. Francesco, now the cathedral, which was 
built in the 14th century, and the municipal 
buildings, containing a famous collection of 
paintings. Among Roman antiquities is the 
Porta Romana, a triumphal arch, and a well 
preserved marble bridge across, the Marecchia. 
The,. Palazzo Ruffo was the scene of the mur¬ 
der (1285) of Francesca da Rimini, immor¬ 
talized by Dante. The principal trade is in 
silks and sulphur. Rimini, the ancient Ari- 
minum, was made a bishopric in 260, and a 
celebrated council of Arians and Athanasians 


was held here in 359. It was ceded to Venice 
(1503) ; p. 29,545. 

Rimini, Francesca da. See Francesca. 

Rimmer, William (1816-79), American 
sculptor and teacher, was born in Liverpool, 
England, and educated in London. He lec¬ 
tured at Harvard University on art anatomy, 
upon which he was an acknowledged author¬ 
ity. For several years (1866-70) he was direc¬ 
tor of the art school of the Cooper Union in 
New York City. His work includes The Fall¬ 
ing Gladiator, now in Boston, of which ?• 
replica has been made for the New York,, 
Metropolitan Museum, a colossal head of St. 
Stephen, and a statue of Alexander Hamilton. 
He published The Elements of Design. 

Rimsky-Korsakoff, Nicolas Andrei- 
vitcli (1844-1908), Russian composer, was 
born in Tekhvin. His first symphony was 
written in 1865 and his first opera in 1872. 
He was professor of instrumentation in the 
Petrograd Conservatory (1871), head of the 
Free School of Music (1872-81), and con¬ 
ductor of the Balaief Symphony Concerts 
(1886-1900). His influence was widely felt, 
especially among Russian musicians. His 
published works include The Maid of Pskof 
(1872) ; The Snow Maiden (1881) ; Sadko 
(1896) ; The Tsar's Bride (1898) ; The Golden 
Cockerel (1907), besides many songs, three 
symphonies, and a small amount of chamber 
music. 

Rinehart, Mary Roberts (1876- ), 

American author and playwright, was born in 
Pittsburgh. Her publications which have en¬ 
joyed great popularity, include The Circular 
Staircase (1908); Tish (1916) ; The Amaz¬ 
ing Interlude (1917); Lost Ecstasy (1927), 
The State versus Elinor Norton (1934), and 
several plays, in some of which she has col¬ 
laborated with Avery Hopwood. 

Rin g, a band of metal used to adorn the 
finger. From the earliest times great import¬ 
ance and even sanctity has attached to the 
ring or circle. The wearing of a ring has been 
held to prevent the entrance of evil spirits in¬ 
to the body of the wearer. Or, again, the ring 
may be held to symbolize eternity, without 
beginning or end. In traditional lore, rings 
are frequently endowed with supernatural 
power. At the present day the efficacy of the 
finger-ring is still greatly believed in, and 
many civilized people would not regard them¬ 
selves as married if a ring did not figure in 
the wedding ceremony. The duplex jimmal 
ring was a symbol of true love, being con¬ 
structed of twin or double hoops, which 



4002 


Ring 

fitted into each other and formed one. Con¬ 
sult Jones y Finger-ring Lore. 

Ring Dove, Wood Pigeon, or Cushat 
(Columbia palumbus ), a wild pigeon of 
Western Europe, so called on account of the 
white feathers which partly encircle the neck; 
there is also a white band on the wings, and 
the tail feathers are nearly black. 

Ringed Plover, or Ringneck (JE hiati- 
cula ), the popular name for any member of 
the genus AEgialitis, one of whose distinguish¬ 
ing marks is a dark line or band around the 
neck. See Plover. 



James Whitcomb Riley. 


Ring Money, a medium of exchange used 
in early commerce, before the invention of 
coinage, but after the inconveniences of di¬ 
rect barter became evident. Precious metals 
were made into the form of rings and were 
used as currency in this form among the 
early Egyptians. Caesar mentions that in Gaul 
and Britain gold and silver rings were used 
as money. 

Ring-Ouzel (Turdus torquatus ), a thrush 
which breeds in mountainous regions through¬ 
out Europe, eastward as far as the Urals. 

Ring Snake, a popular name in different 
countries for several distinct species of snake. 
In the United States it is a small harmless 
snake of the Southern States, bluish black in 
color, with a whitish collar band. 

Ringworm, a parasitic skin disease, highly 
contagious, and due to either of two para¬ 
sitic fungi, Microsporon andouini ox a va¬ 
riety of Trichophyton. It affects cattle, horses, 
sheep, dogs, guinea-pigs, and cats, and may be 
communicated to man from any of these. 
When found on the surface of the body the 
fungus grows in the epidermis; but on the 
scalp, where it is most common * it is chiefly 
seated in the interior of the hair roots. The, 


Rio 

term Porrigo is often used for this disease, 
although it designates also other diseases of 
the scalp. 

Riobamba, or Cajabamba, town, Ecua¬ 
dor, capital of Chimborazo province, near 
the Riobamba River; 85 m. n.e. of Guaya¬ 
quil, at an altitude of 9,000 ft. It is the resi¬ 
dence of a bishop, and contains a cathedral, 
a seminary, and a national college; p. 20,000. 

Rio Colorado, a river of the Argentine 
Republic, rises in the Andes, under the name 
of Rio Grande, and after a generally s.e. 
course for about 500 m. as the Rio Colorado, 
enters the Atlantic Ocean through Bahia 
Blanca. 

Rio Cuarto, town, Argentine Republic, in 
Cordoba province; 170 m. s. of Cordoba. It 
is a place of strategical importance. The lead¬ 
ing industries are flour milling, breweries and 
tanneries; p. 18,000. 

Rio de Janeiro, state, Brazil, on the east 
coast, bounded by the states of Esperito San¬ 
tos, Minas Geraes, and Sao Paulo, and by the 
Atlantic Ocean; area, 26,634 sq. m. The cli¬ 
mate is delightful and the soil generally fertile. 
The inland portion is mountainous, while the 
land along the coast is low. The principal 
river is the Parahyba do Sul. The chief min¬ 
erals are iron, kaolin, and marble and the 
chief agricultural products are coffee, cot¬ 
ton, rice, sugar, tobacco, fruit, rubber, and 
cattle. The capital is Nictheroy (p. 108,000); 
p. 2,000,000. 

Rio de Janeiro, city, capital of Brazil, 
and second largest city of South America, is 
situated in a Federal District (area, 431 sq. 
m.), bounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the 
state of Rio de Janeiro, and the bay of the 
same name. The bay gradually widens from 

m. at the entrance to 15 m. at the head, 
16 m. inland. The city is defended by forts 
on either side of the harbor entrance. The 
climate is healthy, though hot for about two 
months of the year. Rio de Janeiro is di¬ 
vided into sections by many ridges, the most 
famous heights being Sugar Loaf (Pao de 
Azucar, 1,260 ft.) and Corcovado (2,300 ft.); 
but the sections are connected by broad 
avenues. The commercial section and the 
poorer quarters are built on the flat land. 
The capital has several fine parks and squares, 
as well as Botanical and Zoological Gardens. 

The educational institutions of the city in¬ 
clude the National Library con taming many 
valuable collections, the University formed 
in 1920 by the consolidation of the Medical, 
Polytechnic, and Law Schools, Municipal Li¬ 
brary, Observatory, Botanical Garden, His- 


4003 


Rio 


Rio 

torical and Geographical Institute, National' 
School of Music, National School of Fine 
Arts, Superior School of Agriculture, and 
Military Aviation School. The industrial es¬ 
tablishments include flour mills, foundries, 
breweries, sugar refineries, shoe, textile, and 
printing works. 

Commerce .—Rio de Janeiro is the first 
commercial city of Brazil, and the second of 
South America. The principal exports are 
coffee, rubber, sugar, hides, ores, and dia¬ 
monds. 

Population .—In 1940 the population of Rio 
de Janeiro was 1,711,000. The bay of Rio de 
Janeiro is said to have been discovered on 


America, rises in the San Juan Mountains, 
in Southwestern Colorado, out of which it 
flows to the San Luis Valley, thence, hemmed 
in between canyon walls, s. across New Mex¬ 
ico. Below El Paso, Texas, it becomes the 
boundary line between the United States and 
Mexico, pursuing a general southeasterly 
course of about 2,000 m. to the Gulf of Mex¬ 
ico. During part of the year it is nearly if 
not quite dry when it enters Texas. The chief 
towns on its banks are Brownsville, Mata- 
moros (Mex.), Laredo, Eagle Pass, Presidio, 
and El Paso. The Pecos is its principal trib¬ 
utary. 

Rio Grande, river of Brazil, one of the 



Rio de Janeiro: Municipal Theatre. 


Jan. 1, 1502, by Gonzalo Coelho. In 1531 
one Martim Affonso de Sousa sailed into the 
harbor and thinking it an estuary, called it 
the River of January. From 1531 to 1567 
the French made several attempts to settle, 
but were driven out by the Portuguese, who 
made a permanent settlement in 1567. The 
city became the capital of Brazil in 1762. 
Upon the overthrow of the monarchy, in 
1889, the city was made the capital of the 
Republic. 

Rio de Oro and Adrar, Spanish colony in 
West Africa, extending from Cape Bojador, 
in Southwest Morocco, 400 m. along the At¬ 
lantic Coast, to Cape Blanco in the s.; area, 
about 109,000 sq. m. Fishing is the leading 
industry; p. 100,000, mostly Berbers. 

Rio Grande (Rio Grande del Norte, 
Rio Bravo del Norte), a large river of 


chief affluents of the Parana. It flows west¬ 
ward in a course of about 450 m., joining 
the Paranahyba to form the Parana. 

Rio Grande, town and seaport, Brazil, in 
the province Rio Grande do Sul, at the en¬ 
trance to Lagoa dos Patos. It is the second 
port in the state; p.47,600. 

Rio Grande de Cagayan, the largest riv¬ 
er of Luzon, Philippine Islands, rises in the 
center of the island, and flows for 250 m. 
to the Pacific at Linso. 

Rio Grande de Mindanao, or Pulangui, 
the longest and largest river of the Philippine 
Archipelago. It rises in the n. of Mindanao, 
and flows s. and then w. for 200 m. to Illana 
Bay at Cotabato. 

Rio Grande do Norte, state,, Brazil, on 
the n.e. coast, bounded by Ceara, Parahyba, 
and the Atlantic Ocean; area, 20,236 sq. m 
















4004 


Ripley 


Rio 

The chief products are sugar cane, cotton, ce¬ 
reals, salt, and cattle. Cattle raising is the 
leading industry. Natal is the capital and 
chief city; p. 738,000. 

Rio Grande do Sul, state, Brazil, on the 
s.e. coast, bounded by Santa Catharina, Ar¬ 
gentine, Uruguay, and the Atlantic Ocean; 
area, 106,289 sq. m. It lies wholly within the 
temperate zone and has a maritime temper¬ 
ate climate. The Serra Geral range divides 
the state into two unequal portions. The 
agricultural products include coffee, sugar, 
fruits, corn, rice, tobacco, wheat, and cotton. 
Cattle and horse raising is also profitable. 
Meat packing is the most important industry. 
There are many German and Italian colo¬ 
nists. Porto Alegre (p. 273,376) is the cap¬ 
ital; p. 3,000,000. 

Rio Negro, a territory of the Argentine 
Republic, forming part of Patagonia; area, 
77,000 sq. m. The climate is good and the 
soil generally fertile. Stock raising is the lead¬ 
ing industry and corn, wheat, alfalfa and bar¬ 
ley are grown. The capital is Yiedma; p. 
about 50,000. 

Rio Negro, a western department of Uru¬ 
guay; area, 3,270 sq. m. The capital is Fray 
Bentos (Mercedes), 160 m. n.w. of Monte¬ 
video ; p. 20,000. 

Rios, or Los Rios, an inland province of 
Ecuador. It is flat and crossed by many riv¬ 
ers, and the industries are cattle raising and 
the production of cacao. The capital is Baba- 
hoy o, 45 m. n.e. of Guayaquil; p. 42,000. 

Riot, a tumultuous disturbance of the pub¬ 
lic peace by three or more persons assembled 
for some purpose, with the common intention 
of carrying out their designs in a violent 
and turbulent manner if necessary. By stat¬ 
ute in some States riot is more severely pun¬ 
ished if the intention is to resist the enforce¬ 
ment of a statute of the State or of the 
United States, or if the offender carries arms; 
if the act is directed against the government, 
ft is known as treason. 

; ..Rio Tint©,, town, Spain, in the province of. 
Huelva, 50 m. n.e. of its port, Huelva. Cop¬ 
per mines, which were worked in Phoenician 
and Roman times, still yield a large supply 
of the metal; p. 14,000. , 

Riottw-Lxngga, two. archipelagoes, Dutch 
East Indies, lying s. and s.e. of Singapore, the 
Lmgga group on the equator. With the 
smaller archipelagoes between Borneo and j 
the Malay Peninsula, they have an area of j 
17,231 so. m., and a population of 225,000, 
more than one-fifth Chinese. The natives of 
Lingga collect trepang and the seaweed agar- 


agar. Pepper, gambler, and tin are exported. 
The island of Riouw was formerly known 

as Bintang. 

R.I.P. ( Requiescat in pace) , ‘May he (01 
she) rest in peace.’ 

Riparian Owners. See River. 

Riparian Rights, the rights of owners of 
land immediately adjoining or bounded by 
a river or stream, or through wdiich one 
flows, to its bed, banks, and waters. These 
rights are incidental to the ownership of the 
land. A riparian owner is entitled to make 
reasonable use of the water for agricultural, 
domestic, and manufacturing purposes. What 
is a reasonable use must be determined in 
view of the rule that all riparian proprietors 
on the stream have corresponding rights, and 
can object if the flow of water is seriously 
diminished, or its quality impaired by pollu¬ 
tion. A riparian owner cannot divert the 
course of a stream, nor change the current so 
as to wear away his neighbor’s land, but may 
protect his land from the action of the water. 
See Accretion; River. 

Ripley, George (1802-80), American 
scholar, was born in Greenfield, Mass. He 
was an ardent disciple of the principles of 
Unitarianism, which was then at the height 
of its influence in New England. In 1840, 
with Emerson and Margaret Fuller, he 
founded The Dial , in Boston, and was its resi¬ 
dent editor until the next year, when he re¬ 
linquished that position to found Brook Farm. 
For this community he edited The Harbinger , 
which became the leading organ of Fourier¬ 
ism in the United States. In 1849 he became 
connected with the New York Tribune as 
literary critic, and in this position and as 
general contributor, he remained for 31 
years. For nearly the same period he was 
also reader for Harper's Magazine. He ex¬ 
erted a wide and wholesome influence on the 
literary men of his day. 

Ripley, James Wolfe (1794-1870), Am¬ 
erican soldier, was born in Windsor, Conn. 

Ripley, William Zebina (1867-1941), 
American economist, was born in Medford, 
Mass. He was professor of economics in the 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 
1895-1901, when he accepted a similar posi¬ 
tion at Harvard University. In 191S he was 
appointed administrator of labor standards 
for the War Department and in 1920-23 was 
special examiner for the consolidation of rail¬ 
roads for the Interstate Commerce Commis¬ 
sion. He is the author of Trusts , Pools, and 
Corporations (1905) ; Main Street and Wall 
Street (1927), etc. 



Ripon 


4005 


River 


Ripojiy cathedral city, England, in West 
Riding, Yorkshire; 26 m. n. of Leeds. The 
cathedral, chiefly 12th and 13th centuries, re¬ 
placed a 7th-century church, the crypt of 
which still remains. The celebrated ruins of 
Fountains Abbey are in the vicinity; p. 8,576. 

Ripon, George Frederick Samuel Rob¬ 
inson, First Marquis of (1827-1909), British 
statesman, was bom in London. In Glad¬ 
stone’s first government (1868-74) he filled 
the office of Lord President of the Council, 
and was chairman of the British Commission 
appointed in 1871 to settle with the United 
States regarding the Alabama and similar 
claims, which resulted in the Treaty of Wash¬ 
ington. For this he was created Marquis of 
Ripon. He became viceroy of India (1880) 
being the first Roman Catholic to hold vice¬ 
regal office. In Gladstone’s third adminis¬ 
tration (January to July, 18S6) the Marquis 
of Ripon filled the post of First' Lord of the 
Admiralty, that of Secretary of State for the 
Colonies (1892-5), and in Sir Henry Camp¬ 
bell-Bannerman’s ministry (1905-8) that of 
Lord Privy Seal. 

Rip Van Winkle, the title character of a 
story in Irving’s Sketch Book (1819). The 
character was made famous by the actor 
Joseph Jefferson. 

Rise, the term for a submarine elevation 
which rises gradually with an angle of only 
a few minutes of arc, irrespective of whether 
it is wide or narrow, or of its vertical devel¬ 
opment. 

Rishis, the seven (sometimes given as ten) 
sons of Brahma, to whom the Vedas were 
first communicated, and who became the mis¬ 
sionaries to mankind. 

Ritornello, in music, a short instrumental 
composition which is sometimes introduced 
to fill the interval between the scenes of an 
opera. The name is also given to the instru¬ 
mental symphonies performed between the 
verses or phrases of songs or anthems. 

Ritsthl, Albrecht (1822-89), German 
theologian, was bom in Berlin. In 1846 he 
became a lecturer at Bonn, full professor in 
1859, and was transferred in 1864 to Gottin¬ 
gen, where he worked till his death. In 1870 
he. published Die Christliche Lehre der Rechi- 
fertigung und Versdhmmg. In this work, 
really a system, of theology, Ritschl develops 
the now famous distinction between theoretic 
judgments and value judgments, and main¬ 
tains that theology has erred in building 
upon the former, which, while all-important 
in science, are inadequate to the expression 
of spiritual truth. 


Ritteniiouse, David ( 1732-96Ji American 

astronomer, born in Roxboroughy «j|?a. In 
1769 he surveyed the boundary between 'N- 
Y. and N. J. and a portion of Mason and 
Dixon’s line. In the same year he made ob¬ 
servations on the transit of Venus from 
which the first approximate measurements 
of the spheres were calculated. President 
Washington appointed him director of the 
U. S. Mint in 1792-5. He invented several 
astronomical instruments, and acquired great 
skill in clock-making. 

Ritter, Frederic Louis (1834-91), Amer¬ 
ican composer, teacher, and author, born in 
Strassburg. In 1856 he settled in Cincinnati, 
O., where he organized the Cecilia Society 
and the Philharmonic Society. In 1861 he 
became conductor of the Arion (New York) 
Society’s music, and in 1S74 was appointed 
professor of music at Vassar College. He 
composed five symphonies and more than one 
hundred songs. 

Ritual, or Rituale, an ecclesiastical man¬ 
ual in which are to be found the order and 
rites of divine service. The ritual of the 
Church of England is contained in the Book 
of Common Prayer with its rubrics. The 
Roman ritual is divided into the breviary, 
the missal, the ritual, and the pontifical. The 
ritual contains those offices which may be 
administered by a priest, while the pontifical 
deals with those which can only be per¬ 
formed by a bishop. 

Ritualists, a name adopted by those who, 
at the commencement of the Oxford Move¬ 
ment, devoted themselves to the task of pro¬ 
curing an exact and intelligent following of 
the rubrics of the Book of Common Prayer. 
They were then led to study the whole ritual 
system of the Catholic Church, and many of 
them adopted rites and ceremonies for which 
no direct authority could be found in the 
Anglican prayer-book, and some of which 
have been forbidden by decisions of ecclesi¬ 
astical courts. In 1874 the General Conven¬ 
tion of the Protestant Episcopal Church at¬ 
tempted to legislate against alleged ritualistic 
practices. 

River, a mass of water moving down a def¬ 
inite channel from a higher to a lower ele¬ 
vation. The speed of a river increases with 
its slope and volume. The average descent of 
most great rivers is small—the Volga and the 
lower Mississippi, 3 in. per m. (about one in 
20,000). The Missouri has a comparatively 
rapid descent for such a large river—about 
28 in. per m. (about one in 2,250). 

Some parts of a river’s course are areas of 



Rifera 


4006 


Rizal 


erosion, others of deposition, and many are 
alternately the one and the other, with flood¬ 
ing and shrinking. In law, a river is con¬ 
sidered to be a stream of water larger in vol¬ 
ume than a creek or brook, flowing in one 
direction constantly, or up and down with 
the tide, and discharging into a larger body 
of water. In general, the public possesses 
the right to navigate rivers capable of navi¬ 
gation. But in the U. S. legislation affecting 
navigation, as well as the improvement of 
navigable rivers, is vested in Congress, or, in 
Heu of Congressional action, in the state 
legislatures. 

Rivera, Diego (1886- ), artist, was 

born in Guanajuato, Mexico, of an intellec¬ 
tual family of liberal views. He studied art 
in Mexico, Spain, and France where he came 
under the influence of the political teachings 
of Russian exiles. He was highly affected by 
the work of Cezanne, and became the friend 
and student of Picasso. After a trip to Italy 
in 1920, he began to think and plan in terms 
of murals. Rivera and the Mexican painter 
Orozco are now painting the true fresco, a 
difficult art. Rivera’s work commissioned 
for Rockefeller Center was destroyed, owing 
to his refusal to . substitute another .for the 
likeness of Lenin, but examples of his work 
may be seen in New York City, Detroit, San.. 
Francisco, and government buildings in Mex¬ 
ico. His frescoes, by their radical subjects, 
have provoked bitter criticism, as well as the 
highest praise for their excellence as works 
of art. 

River Brethren originated among some 
Swiss settlers in Pennsylvania, supposed to 
have been Mennonites. In consequence of a 
revival about 1770 a number of churches 
were organized, the first members receiving 
baptism in the Susquehanna, whence their 
name. About half of the total membership 
is in Pennsylvania. They practise trine im¬ 
mersion, washing of feet, non-resistance, and 
non-conformity to worldly practices. 

Riverside, city, California. It is a resi¬ 
dential city and is known for its beautiful 
tree-lined drives. Riverside is a shipping 
point for citrus and deciduous fruits, grain, 
dairy products, and poultry. An extensive 
trade is carried on in Portland cement which 
is manufactured here; p.34,696. 

Rives, Alfred Land on (1830-1903), Am¬ 
erican engineer, was born in Paris, France. 
He was one of the assistant engineers in 
charge of the construction of the Capitol at 
Washington, the Washington aqueduct, Poto¬ 
mac River improvements, and other Govern¬ 


ment works. He was chief engineer of the 
Cape Cod Canal. 

Rives, Amelie (Princess Troubetz- 
koy) (1863- ), American author and 

poet, was born in Richmond, Va. In 1888 
appeared The Quick or the Dead? a novel 
which, because of its fervid style, attracted 
much attention and invited some ridicule. 
This was followed by Virginia of Virginia 
(1888); and other works including ds the 
Wind Blew, poems (1920); The Sea Woman’s 
Cloak (1923); The Prince and the Pauper 
(1920); Love 4 n-a-Mist (1926) ; Firedamp 

(1930)* 

Rives, William Cabell (1793-1868), Am¬ 
erican politician, was born in Nelson co., 
Va. Appointed minister to France by Jack- 
son in 1829, he negotiated the indemnity 
treaty, signed July 4, 1831, and returned to 
America in 1832 to enter the U. S. Senate. 
He was again minister to France in 1849-53. 

Riviera, a narrow strip of coast on the 
Gulf of Genoa, Italy, extending into France. 
Owing to its sheltered climate and the natural 
beauty of its scenery, the different towns 
along the coast—such as Pegli, San Remo, 
Ospedaletti, Bordighera, Mentone, Monte 
Carlo, Monaco, and Nice—are favorite health 
and pleasure resorts. Parallel with the coast 
runs La Comiche, a picturesque road built 
by the Romans, and widened by Napoleon 1. 
in 1800. 

Riviere, Briton (1840-1920), English ani¬ 
mal painter of Huguenot descent, born in 
London. Six of his pictures are in the Tate 
Gallery, London; his Sympathy (1877) is in 
Holloway College. His masterpiece is Per - 
sepolis (1878). 

Rivington, James ( c . 1724-1802), Amer¬ 
ican Loyalist journalist, born in London. 
From 1773 until his press was destroyed by 
a party of Connecticut militia in 1775, he 
published the New York Gazetteer in the 
Tory interest. Toward the close of the war, 
when American success seemed likely, Riv¬ 
ington began to furnish secret information 
to Washington, and on the British evacuation 
endeavored to continue his paper under the 
name of Rivington’s New York Gazette and 
Universal Advertiser, but he was unpopular 
and his paper soon ceased publication. 

Rix, Julian Walbridge (1850-1903), 
American landscape painter, born at Feacn- 
am, Vt. St. John’s Harbor (1903) is one of 
his best pictures. 

Rixey, Presley Marion (1852-1928), Am¬ 
erican naval surgeon, born in Culpeper, Va. 

Rizal, Jose (1861-96) , Filipino author and 



Rizzio 


4007 


Roanoke 


physician; born at Calamba, Luzon. He 
wrote Noli me Tangere (1886), a protest 
against the abuses he had observed in the 
rule of the civil government and friars over 
his countrymen. Its exposures gained him 
the ill will of the authorities, and he was 
obliged to fly to Japan in 1887. He passed 
some time in cities of the Continent, writing 
meanwhile a sequel to his first novel, entitled 
El filibusterismo (1891). 

Rizzio, or Riccio, David (?i533-66), sec¬ 
retary to Mary, Queen of Scots, born at Pan- 
calieri, near Turin, Italy. His haughty de¬ 
meanor incensed the Scottish nobles, and a 
band of armed conspirators burst into the 
supper chamber at Holyrood Palace, Edin¬ 
burgh, and dragging Rizzio from the queen’s 
presence, stabbed him to death (1566). 

R.N., Royal (British) Navy. 

Roach, a small fresh-water fish, common 
in Europe n. of the Alps, and related to the 
dace, with which it is often found. 

Roadrunner, a ground-cuckoo found in 
the Southwestern U. S.; also called ‘chapar¬ 
ral-cock/ £ snake-killer,’ and ‘paisano.’ From 
tip to tail it measures nearly two feet. 

Roads, a way of communication by land 
between various points. Most roads are 
designed chiefly for the use of vehicles. The 
earliest roads of history were the great high¬ 
ways for war and commerce, extending to 
districts not readily accessible by water. The 
Appian Way, which dates from 312 b.c., and 
extended 360 m. from Rome to Brundisium, 
was provided with deep and durable pave¬ 
ment. A notable example of Roman road in 
England is Watling Street. France seems to 
have been the first nation after the Romans 
to build roads on which excessive mud and 
dust did not alternate, according to the 
weather, and ruts prevailed the greater part 
of the time. About i 77 S> Tresaguet, in 
France, and about 1820 and 1825, Macadam 
and Telford, in England, introduced the sys¬ 
tem of surfacing carefully prepared earth 
road beds with broken stone. Both Tresa¬ 
guet and Telford used a foundation course of 
large stones on edge, with small stones above, 
packed together to form a relatively firm 
surface to wheels and hoofs, but Macadam 
used small stone from top to bottom. About 
1830 France adopted Macadam’s plan, and 
since then it has developed a magnificent sys¬ 
tem of national roads. The use of broken 
stone for roads has since spread to all civil¬ 
ized countries, or to their thickly populated 
sections. As a rule, macadam or macadam¬ 
ized is the term used to designate these 


roads, even when they have the large stone 
base ©f Telford. Road materials now include 
dirt, gravel, broken stone, and various ce¬ 
menting materials, which serve as binders and 
dust preventives. In the United States, the 
need for improved highways from the sea¬ 
board to the great interior, which was then 
being opened up, finally resulted in the be¬ 
ginning of the construction of the National 
Road, or Cumberland Road, from Cumber¬ 
land, Md., on the Potomac, toward the Ohio 
River in 1806. In thirty years this road 
reached Vandalia, Ill. The railways did not 
stop road or highway building; rather they 
helped to settle the whole country, East and 
West, so rapidly that it soon became covered 
with an ever increasing network of roads; 
but numerous as these roads were, it was 
not until well toward the close of the 19th 
century that their condition was much better 
than at the time of the Revolution. Funds 
for roads being limited in the early days, 
many roads were constructed at private ex¬ 
pense on which a toll was collected. 

Systematic road improvement in the United 
States began with the adoption of the State 
Aid plan in New Jersey in 1891-2. Massa¬ 
chusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and 
New York followed, the last named in 1898; 
other states have since adopted the same gen¬ 
eral system. The fundamental idea of the 
State Aid plan is the contribution by the 
state of a part of the cost of improving 
roads, the balance being met by the towns, 
the county or both. Federal aid in State- 
road construction began with $5,000,000 in 
1917. In the fiscal year of 1941-42 the sum of 
$154,359,87! of Federal money was allotted 
for the improvement of roads, highways, 
streets, etc. 

Roan Antelope, one of the largest, finest 
and best know of South African antelopes. 
It is a near relative of the sable antelope. 

Roanne, town, France. The church of St. 
Pierre, the remains of a 14th to 16th century 
castle, and the Hotel de Ville, with its fine 
collection of antiquities, are interesting; p. 
38,469. 

Roanoke, city, Virginia. In the vicinity 
are many features of scenic interest, including 
the Roanoke river, natural stone bridge, 
Mountain Lake, Mill Mountain, Robert Lee’s 
tomb, Grottoes Cavern, the Peaks of Otter, 
Luray Cavern, and fine mountain views. 
There are many widely known mineral 
springs in the region. Virginia College for 
girls is situated about a m. from the city, 
and Hollins College, also for girls, is seven 



Roanoke 


4003 


Roberts 


rci. to the n. The leading industrial estab¬ 
lishments are large railroad shops, pyrites 
plants, bridges and structural iron works, 
iron furnaces; p. 69,287. 

Roanoke Island, an island off the coast 
of North Carolina. It was the scene of an 
unsuccessful attempt at colonization by Sir 
Walter Raleigh in 1585-87. 

Roaring, a disease of the horse. j 

Roaring Forties, a sailor’s term for the 
regions of the Southern Ocean, s. of lat. 40 0 
s., where the prevailing winds are from the 
n.w. and often stormy. 

Robber Flies, powerful predatory insects 
of the family Asilidae, particularly destruc¬ 
tive to honey bees. 

- Robbery, the unlawful taking of personal 
property from the person or in the presence 
of another, against his will, by means of 
force or violence, or fear. of injury, imme¬ 
diate or future, to his person or property. 
Robbery is a felony, and in all States is 
punished by a long term of imprisonment, 
twenty years being the average maximum 
penalty. 

Robbia, Andrea della (1437-1528), Flor¬ 
entine sculptor. A fine specimen of his work 
is a retable of the Assumption in the Metro¬ 
politan Museum, New York. 

Robbia, Luca della (1399-1482), Floren¬ 
tine sculptor, was brought up as a goldsmith. 
In sculpture he executed ten fine panels for 
the choir gallery of the cathedral at Florence 
(1431-40) ; reliefs for the campanile (1437) 5 
a remarkably fine bronze door for the sac¬ 
risty of the cathedral (1446-67) ; and the 
tomb of the bishop of Fiesole (1457-8). In 
the latter part of his life he worked prin¬ 
cipally at terra-cotta reliefs, covered with 
enamel in polychrome. For this work (Della 
Robbia ware) he indeed founded a school. 

Robbins, Wilford . Lash (1859-1927) > 
American Protestant Episcopal clergyman, 
was bom in Boston. In 1903 he was chosen 
dean of the General Theological Seminary 
in New York City. His publications include 
An Essay Toward Faith (1900) and A Chris¬ 
tian Apologetic (1902). 

Robert I. (of Scotland). See Bruce, 
Robert. ■ 

Robert II. (1316-90), king of Scotland 
from 1371 to bis death. He became the 
founder of the Stewart dynasty. The most 
notable incidents of Robert’s reign were the 
invasions of Scotland by an English military 
and naval force under the command of the 
Duke of Lancaster in 1384, and again by 
King Richard n. in 1385, which wasted the 


land as far as Edinburgh and Fife, and the 
grand retaliatory expedition of the Scotch 
in 1388. 

Robert III. (c . 1340-1406), king of Scot¬ 
land from 1390 to 1406, son of Robert 11. 
The principal events in Robert’s reign were 
the invasion of Scotland in 1400 by Henry iv. 
of England, who penetrated as far as Edin¬ 
burgh, and the retaliatory expedition of the 
Scotch, two years after, under Archibald 
Douglas, which resulted in tlie terrible dis¬ 
aster at Homildon Hill. 

Robert !., surnamed le Diable (d. 1035), 
Duke of Normandy. In 1035 he made a pil¬ 
grimage to the Holy Land, on the way 
home from which he died at Nicsea. His son 
was William the Conqueror of England. 

Robert, Christopher Rhinelander (1802- 
78), an American manufacturer and philan¬ 
thropist, was born in Brookhaven, N. Y, 
Having become interested in Turkish educa¬ 
tion while visiting Constantinople during the 
Crimean War, he established Robert College 
in Constantinople. 

Robert College, an institution of higher 
learning for men at Constantinople, founded 
by Christopher R. Robert, of New York, 
and opened in 1863. The college is situated 
on the shores of the Bosporus. Preparatory, 
Collegiate, and Engineering Departments, 
with courses leading to the degrees of b.a. 
and b.s., furnish instruction in the usual 
branches, and in the vernacular of the stu¬ 
dents, who include Greeks, Armenians, 
Turks, Bulgarians, Albanians, Hebrews, and 
Persians. The instruction is non-sectarian. 

Robert of Gloucester (fl. 1260-1300), 
British chronicler, born during the reign of 
Henry m. He is the author of a rhymed 
Chronicle of English history, from the Trojan 
War until the close of the reign of Henry m. 
It is chiefly valuable for its linguistic interest. 

Roberts, Benjamin Stone (1811-75), 
American soldier, was born in Manchester, 
Vt. In the Civil War he served in the opera¬ 
tions in New Mexico and in the second Bull 
Run campaign; commanded an expedition 
against the Chippewa Indians; and partici¬ 
pated in numerous other campaigns. He was 
the inventor of the Roberts breech-loading 
rifle. ■ ■ 

Roberts, Benjamin Titus (1823-93), 
American clergyman, was born in Leon, N. 
Y. In i860, with other ministers in sym¬ 
pathy with his opinions, he founded the Free 
Methodist Church. 

Roberts, Brigham Henry (1857-1933) ; 
American Mormon, was born in Warring- 



Roberts- 


4000 


Robeson 


ton, Lancashire, England. 

Roberts, diaries George Douglas 
(i860- ), Canadian poet and writer, was 

born in Douglas, New Brunswick. Roberts 
is one of the leading poets of Canada, and 
his work largely interprets characteristic 
Canadian scenery and natural history. His 
sympathetic interpretation of animal life has 
won him the title ‘Poet Laureate of the Ani¬ 
mal World.’ He has written in verse: Orion 
(1880); In Divers Tones (1887) ; New Poems 
(1919) ; The Sweet o' the Year (1925). His 
prose includes A History of Canada (1897) ; 
A Sister to Evangeline (1898). 

Roberts, Elizabeth Madox (1S85- ), 

Am. novelist, born in Springfield, Ry.; wrote 
The Time of Man (1926) ; My Heart and 
My Flesh (1927); He Sent Forth a Raven 
(i 935 ). 

Roberts, Ellis Henry (1827-1918), Amer¬ 
ican public official, was born in Utica, N. Y. 
He was assistant treasurer of the United 
States at New York (1889-93), and treasurer 
of the United States (1897-1905). 

Roberts, Kenneth Lewis (1885- ), 

Am. writer, born Kennebunk, Maine; ed. 
Cornell. His works include Arundel (1930) ; 
Northwest Passage (1937) ; Rabble in Arms 
(1933) ; Oliver Wiswell (1940). 

Roberts, Morley (1857- ), English 

novelist, was born in London. His writings, 
many of them drawing upon the incidents 
of his adventurous life, include The Western 
Avernus (1887); King Billy of Ballarat 
(1891); Immortal Youth (1902); Midsum¬ 
mer Madness (1909); Gloomy Fanny 
(i9 I 3); On the Earthquake Line (1924); 
Farewell to Letters (1933). 

Roberts, Owen Josephus (iS75- ), 

American jurist, was born in Germantown, 
Pa. In 1924 he was appointed by President 
Coolidge to prosecute the Teapot Dome oil 
cases, and in 1930 was appointed by Presi¬ 
dent Hoover to the United States Supreme 
Court to fill the place of Justice Sanford, 
deceased. 

Roberts, William Milnor (1810-81), 
American civil engineer, was born in Phila¬ 
delphia. He constructed the bridge across 
the Susquehanna River at Harrisburg, the 
first combined railroad and passenger bridge 
in the United States. 

. Roberts of Kandahar, Sir Frederick 
Sleigh Roberts, .Earl (1832-1914), British 
field marshal, was born in Cawnpur, India. 
While at Kabul he was informed of the total 
defeat of General Burrows at Maiwand by 


an Afghan force, which had then laid siege 
to Kandahar (July, 1880). Roberts at once 
organized a force of some 10,000 men, and 
set off for Kandahar on August 9. On the 
morning of August 31 he entered that town, 
having covered a distance of 300 m. through 
difficult mountainous country; attacked the 
Afghans, and completely routed them. In 
1885 Roberts was made commander-in-chief 
of India, and in 1886 he commanded the 
army in Burma. After the defeat of General 
Buller at Colenso, on Dec. 15, 1899, in the 
Boer War, Lord Roberts was appointed com¬ 
mander-in-chief in South Africa. On his re¬ 
turn to England he was appointed command¬ 
er-in-chief of the British army. 

Robertson, Howard Morley (1S88- ), 

Registered Architect of the State of New 
York, was born in Salt Lake City, Utah; 
Chairman of Public Relationships Committee 
of Building Industries National Council, 
1 93 2 -33- Among his publications are Prin¬ 
ciples of Architectural Composition (1924) ; 
Modern Architectural Design (1932). 

Robertson, James (1725-SS), British sol¬ 
dier, was born in Fifeshire, Scotland. He 
served in the defence of Boston (1775-6), 
and commanded a brigade at Long Island. In 

1777 he went to England; but returned as 
major-general and civil governor of New 
York in 1780, where his corrupt and harsh 
rule alienated many of the Loyalists. 

Robertson, James (1742-1814), Ameri¬ 
can pioneer, was born in Brunswick co., Va. 
In 1770 he accompanied Daniel Boone across 
the mountains, and in 1771 led a body of 
settlers to the Watauga Valley. He defeated 
an attack by the Cherokees in 1776; and in 

1778 he explored the Cumberland region and 
founded a settlement at what is now Nash¬ 
ville, Tenn. 

Robertson, Thomas William (1829-71), 
English actor and dramatist. His first suc¬ 
cess was made in 1864 with a play founded on 
his novel of David Garrick. It was followed 
by Society (1865) and .-Ours (1866). Caste, 
Robertson’s best work, was produced in 
1867, Play in 1868, School in 1869, and M. P, 
in 1870. 

Robeson, Paul Bus till (1898- ), Ne¬ 

gro bass singer and actor, was born in Prince¬ 
ton, N. J., and educated at Rutgers College 
and Columbia U. His first stage appear¬ 
ance was in New York City, 1921. In 1923 
he acted the part of Jones in O’Neill’s The 
Emperor Jones. In 1928 he sang ‘Ole Man 
River’ in the Show Boat. He has played 



Robespierre 


4010 


Robinson 


Othello in England, and has made concert 
tours throughout Europe and America. He 
was received with enthusiasm in Moscow in 
1934, but the broadcasting of one of his spiri¬ 
tuals caused the dismissal of six Soviet wire¬ 
less officials. 

Robespierre, Maximilien Marie Isidore 
(175S-94), French revolutionist, was a law¬ 
yer of Irish origin, born at Arras, who early 
accepted the views of Rousseau. During 1790 
Robespierre gained great popularity and in¬ 
fluence in the Jacobin Club, and on the death 
of Mirabeau (April 2, 1791) he was recog¬ 
nized as a revolutionary leader. On May 10, 
1791, he carried his famous but fatal motion 
that no member of the Constituent Assembly 
should be elected to the forthcoming Legisla¬ 
tive Assembly. He urged the execution of 
Louis xvi. as a matter of policy, and on Dec. 
3) 1792, spoke against granting the king a 



Lord Roberts of Kandahar. 


trial. On the triumph of the Mountain he 
became the leading man in France, and on 
July 27, 1793, was elected a member of the 
Great Committee of Public Safety. The next 
scenes in the great drama of Revolution were 
the dark intrigues and desperate struggles that 
sent Hebert and his friends to the scaffold on 
March 2.4,-1794, and Danton and Robespi¬ 
erre’s schoolfellow, Camille Desmoulins, on 
April 5.. The next three months Robespierre 
reigned supreme, but his supremacy prepared 
the way for his inevitable fall. On July 26 


| (8th Thermidor), after about a month’s ab¬ 
sence, the Dictator delivered a long harangue 
complaining that he was being accused of 
j crimes unjustly. Next day, neither he nor 
Saint-Just could be heard, and an unknown 
deputy named Louchet proposed that Robes¬ 
pierre should be arrested. At the fatal words 
his power crumbled into ruins, and he was 
put under arrest. Next day (July 28; 10th 
Thermidor, 1794), the miserable, trembling 
wretch died with Saint-Just, Couthon, and 
nineteen others by the guillotine. 

Robin, American, the most common and 
familiar of North American thrushes, more 
or less resident throughout the United States. 
It is named for its ruddy breast, which re¬ 
sembles that of the English robin, and is 
noted for its boldness and gayety, its attrac¬ 
tive plumage, and its virile song. 

Robin Goodfellow. See Puck. 

Robin Hood, the predominant figure in 
a series of English ballads, plays, and tales, 
popularly regarded as the leader of a band of 
outlaws who ranged through the forest of 
Sherwood in Nottinghamshire and South 
Yorkshire. He was reputed an excellent arch¬ 
er and skilful with the quarter-staff; while 
his characteristic of plundering the rich only, 
and giving of his surplus to the poor, has 
endeared him to the popular imagination. 

Robinia, a genus of North American hardy 
trees and shrubs belonging to the order Legu- 
minosae. R. pseudacacia is the common locust, 
bearing fragrant, drooping racemes of white 
flowers. 

Robins, Benjamin (1707-51), English 
mathematician, was born in Bath. He in¬ 
vented the ballistic pendulum. 

Robinson, Charles (1818-94), American 
legislator, was born in Hardwick, Mass. In 
1854 he went to Kansas as confidential agent 
of the New England Emigrants’ Aid Society, 
and settled in Lawrence. He became the 
leader of the Free-State party, and in 1855 
was a member of the Topeka Convention, 
which drew up a constitution prohibiting 
slavery for the projected State. In the elec¬ 
tion that followed he was chosen governor, 

Robinson, Edward (1858-1931) , Ameri¬ 
can archeologist, was born in Boston, Mass. 
In 1906 he became assistant director, and in 
1910 director, of the Metropolitan Museum 
of Art in New York City. He was an author¬ 
ity on classical art and antiquities, and has 
contributed archaeological articles to various 
periodicals. 

'Robinson, yEdwin Arlington (1869- 




Robinson 


4011 


Robson 


1935), American poet, was born in Head 
Tide, Me. In 1922, 1925, 1928, he received the 
Pulitzer prize for poetry. His works include 
The Children of the Night (1897) 5 The Town 
down the River (1910) ; Tristram (1927) ; 
Nicodemus (1932); Amaranth (1934). 

Robinson, Frederick B. (1883-1941), 
college president, was born in Brooklyn, New 
York. Since 1927 he has been president of 
the College of the City of New York. In 1930 
he was president of the Association of Col¬ 
leges and Universities of the State of New 
York, and in 1933, chairman of the American 
League for Human Rights. In 1934-35, there 
were student demonstrations at City College 
in which Robinson was criticized, but the 
faculty stood by him. His writings include 
Effective Public Speaking (1914); Business 
Costs (1921). 

Robinson, James Harvey (1863-1936), 
American historian, was born in Blooming¬ 
ton, Ill. He was professor of history in Co¬ 
lumbia University from 1895 to 1919, when 
he resigned to help organize the New School 
for Social Reseach. His published works in¬ 
clude Introduction to the History of Western 
Europe (1903); Readings in European His¬ 
tory (2 vols., 1904-5); The Mind in the Mak¬ 
ing (1921); The Humanizing of Knowledge 
(1923); The Ordeal of Civilization (1926). 

Robinson, Joseph Taylor (1872-1937), 
politician, served successively as Congress¬ 
man, Governor of Arkansas and U. S. Sen¬ 
ator (1913-37). As Democratic leader of the 
Senate, Robinson challenged Huey Long’s 
Share-the-Wealth campaign in 1935 and led 
the futile effort for ratification of the World 
Court protocol. 

Robinson, Lennox (1886- ), Irish 

dramatist, director of Abbey Theatre, Dub¬ 
lin. His plays include The Dreamers (1915); 
The White-Headed Boy (1920); The Round 
Table (1924); Is Life Worth Living? (1933). 

Robinson, Theodore (1852-96), Amer¬ 
ican landscape painter, was born in Irasburg, 
Vt. He delighted in robust masses of color 
and a glowing palette so far from academic 
precedent that one of his best pictures, Hud¬ 
son River Canal, was rejected when offered 
to the New York Metropolitan Museum, an 
act which aroused a storm of protest. 

Robinson Crusoe. See Selkirk, Alexan¬ 
der. 

Robot. —A machine that makes it possible 
to control vast energy sources obtained in 
nature; an automaton that performs all hard 
work; hence one who works mechanically. 


The word is derived from robota (Russian, 
work). Interest centers in the first definition. 
In some robots photo-electric cells operate in 
relays at any change of light intensity, thus 
controlling powerful machinery. In others 
the principles of the telephone, with the ther¬ 
mionic vacuum tube, operate in response to 
sound and perform various kinds of motion 
at a distance. Robots do such work as chem¬ 
ical testing, difficult mathematical calcula¬ 
tions, the accurate steering of ships and air¬ 
planes ; tide prediction; traffic control. As 
processing machines in factories they control 
temperature, humidity, starting, stopping, 
give danger signals, etc. on a time schedule. 

Rob Roy (1671-1734), the sobriquet (de¬ 
rived from his thick red hair) of Robert Mac- 
gregor, Scottish outlaw, who, on the renewal 



Eastman Building, Rochester, N. F. 


of the penal acts against the Clan Macgregor 
in 1693, adopted Campbell as his surname. 
His feats, adventures, and escapes from cus¬ 
tody bordered on the marvellous. 

Robson, Eleanor Elsie- (1880), American! 
actress, was born in England and made her 
professional debut in San Francisco (1897). 
In 1903-5 she starred in Merely Mary Ann*. 




Roc 


4012 


Rochester 


both in the United States and England; and 
in 1905 headed an all-star production of 
Goldsmith’s She Stoops to Conquer, She 
scored her greatest successes in Salomy Jane 
(1:907) and The Dawn of a To-Morrow 
(1910). In 1910 she married August Belmont 
and retired from the stage. 

Roc, or Rukh, a fabuolus bird that in the 
Arabian Nights carried Sindbad the Sailor 
out of the Valley of Diamonds and was able 
to lift an elephant. 

Rocambole, a perennial plant, occasionally 
cultivated for its bulbs, which are used much 
as garlic, but possess a milder flavor. 

Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien 
de Vimeur, Comte de (1725-1807), French 
soldier, was born in Vendome. In 1769 he be¬ 
came inspector-general in the French army, 
and in 1780 lieutenant-general. In the lat¬ 
ter year he was sent to America, with 6,000 
regulars, to aid in the expulsion of the Brit¬ 
ish. In the siege of Yorktown, Rochambeau 
and Count de Saint-Simon led two assaults 
on the British defences. On Oct. 19, Corn¬ 
wallis surrendered. For his services Rocham¬ 
beau received the thanks of Congress. He re¬ 
turned to France in 1783. In 1791 he was 
made a field-marshal, and for a time com¬ 
manded the Army of the North; but the ex¬ 
cesses of the revolutionary leaders led to his 
resignation in May, 1792. In 1804 Napoleon 
made him a grand officer of the Legion of 
Honor and granted him a pension. A statue 
of Rochambeau was unveiled in Washington, 
D. C., in 1902. 

Rochdale, borough, Lancashire, England. 
The Church of St. Chad (12th century) re¬ 
tains portions of ancient architecture. It is 
an important manufacturing center (wool, 
cotton, etc., textiles). The first cooperative 
society was established here in 1844. Lord 
Byron’s family were barons of Rochdale for 
more than 200 years; p. (1931) 90,278. 

Roche, Sir Boyle (1743-1807), Irish legis¬ 
lator, was born in county Galway. He was 
present at the siege of Quebec and served in 
the American Revolution. He was noted for 
his wit, being called the ‘father of bulls.’ 

Rochefort-Liigay, Victor Henri,.- Mar¬ 
quis de (1830-1913), French journalist and 
politician, was on the staff of the Figaro from 
1863 to 1865; then started the Lanterne 
(1868); and for violent attacks on the imperi¬ 
al family was sentenced to two years’ impris¬ 
onment and his paper suppressed. He escaped 
to Brussels, where he remained till 1869, 


when he was elected to the Chamber of Depu¬ 
ties, returned to Paris, and founded the Mar¬ 
seillaise. After a period of exile, he started 
UIntransigeant, which he edited until 1907, 
and attacked all governments in turn. 

Rochefort, capital of Rochefort Arron- 
dissement, department Charente-Inferieure, 
France. It has a naval harbor surrounded by 
forts. It dates its importance from 1665 when 
it was designated a repairing port by Colbert. 
Here Napoleon surrendered to Captain Mait¬ 
land, July, 1815; p. 26,452. 

Rochefoucauld. See La Rochefou¬ 
cauld. 

Rochelle, La, seaport town, capital of the 
department of Charente-Inferieure, France. 
The most interesting building is the Hotel de 
Ville, erected in 1486-1607. Important indus¬ 
tries are agriculture, fishing, shipbuilding. It 
was a Huguenot stronghold in the 16th cen¬ 
tury and in 1572 withstood a six-months’ 
siege. In 1627-8 it was besieged for fourteen 
months before Richelieu could force its sur¬ 
render; p. 45,043. 

Rochelle Salt, a mild laxative salt, con¬ 
sisting of the double tartrate of potassium 
and sodium and having the formula KNaC* 
H1O0-I-4H2O. 

Rochester, city, Minnesota. It is the seat 
of the famous Mayo Clinic founded by 
Charles and William Mayo; p. 26,312. 

Rochester, city, New York. The Erie Ca¬ 
nal (completed in 1825) played a conspicuous 
part in building up the commerce of Roches¬ 
ter. The old Erie Canal has been abandoned 
in favor of the New Barge Canal, s. of the 
city. Advantages for higher education are of¬ 
fered through the University of Rochester, 
Rochester Athenaeum and Mechanics Insti¬ 
tute, Colgate-Rochester Divinity School, 
Nazareth College, St. Andrew’s and St. Ber¬ 
nard’s Seminary. In 1922, the Eastman Thea¬ 
tre, the third in size in the United States, was 
built, through the generosity of George East¬ 
man, who also founded the Eastman School 
of.Music. 

Rochester is best known for the manufac¬ 
ture of photographic film, cameras, mail 
chutes, optical goods, check protectors, ther¬ 
mometers, office systems, enameled steel tanks 
and horticultural products. It is a distribut¬ 
ing center for the agricultural products of a 
large section, and has a heavy lake traffic. 
The combined factors of railroad, hydro-elec¬ 
tric power, motor truck and bus, canal, 
steamship lines on Lake Ontario, and air 



Rochester 


4013 


Rockefeller 


transport have made Rochester one of the 
outstanding cities in the country in trans¬ 
portation facilities; p. 324,975. 

The first settler came to this locality in 1788, 
but the first frame house was not erected un¬ 
til 1812, on the site of the present Powers 
Building. The first proprietors of the land 
were three Maryland men, Nathaniel Roch¬ 
ester, William Fitzhugh, and Charles Carroll. 
In 1817 the village was incorporated as Roch¬ 
ester ville, and five years later the name was 
changed to Rochester. An era of rapid prog¬ 
ress began with the opening of the Erie Canal 
in 1825. Noteworthy political activity center¬ 
ed in Rochester in connection with the Anti- 
Masonic party and the anti-slavery move¬ 
ment. William Morgan, the Mason, was a 
resident of Rochester, as were also Myron 
Holley and Frederick Douglass, the aboli¬ 
tionist leaders. 

Rochester, municipal and parliamentary 
borough, city and seaport, Kent, England. 
The cathedral, which dates chiefly from the 
nth and 12th centuries, is especially notable 
for its Norman doorway and its fine 13th 
century frescoes. Other buildings of interest 
are the Guildhall (17th century) and Watt’s 
Charity House (1579). Remains exist of the 
walls (13th century) which once surrounded 
the city. Charles Dickens’ home at Gadshill 
is only 4 m. distant; p. 31,196. 

Rochester, John Wilraot, Second Earl of 
(1647-80), English poet and courtier. His wit 
and social habits gained him great favor with 
Charles 11. He posed as a patron of letters— 
Dry den, Nat Lee, Otway, and others enjoying 
his favor. 

Rochester, Nathaniel (1752-1831), Am¬ 
erican pioneer, was born in Westmoreland co., 
Va. In 1802 with Charles Carroll and Wil¬ 
liam Fitzhugh, he bought the land on which 
Rochester, N. ¥., now stands, and in 1812 a 
settlement was made there, called Rochester- 
ville. Rochester went to Western New York 
in 1810, but did not settle in Rochester until 
1818. He was active in the movement for the 
construction of the Erie Canal. 

Rochester Athenaeum and - Mechanics ; 
Institute, a non-sectarian training school 
for both sexes in Rochester, N. Y., founded | 
in 1885, and supported almost entirely by 
tuition fees and contributions from citizens 
of, Rochester.' ■. ■ ■ 

" ;Rochester . Theological Seminary, a di¬ 
vinity school in Rochester, N. Y., founded in 
1850 by the New York Baptist Onion for 


Ministerial Education, and open to students 
of all denominations holding a college degree. 

Rochester, University of, a coeducational 
institution for higher education at Rochester, 
N. Y., was founded in 1850 and incorporated 
in 1851. It was Baptist in origin, but is now 
non-sectarian. Women were first admitted 
in 1900; in 1912 it was decided to provide co- 
odinate instruction in separate classes for 
men and women, .and in 1914 the separation 
into a College for Men and a College for 
Women was completed. In 1919 the Eastman 
School of Music was instituted, for which Mr. 
George Eastman contributed $4,500,000. The 
School of Medicine and Dentistry was found¬ 
ed in 1920 with gifts from Mr. George East¬ 
man ($4,000,000) and from the General Edu¬ 
cation Board ($5,000,000), affiliated with the 
Rochester Dental Dispensary ($3,500,000). 

Rochet, a close-fitting linen garment worn 
by bishops of the Anglican Church under the 
chimere, or black satin robe to which the 
lawn sleeves are usually attached. Roman 
Catholic bishops and abbots usually wear the 
rochet under a manteletta. 

Rockaway Beach, seaside resort of Long 
Island, New York. 

Rock Basins are surface hollows, usually 
occupied by lakes or marshes, everywhere 
surrounded by barriers of rock. One school 
of geologists teaches that during the Ice Age 
these valleys were filled with glaciers many 
hundreds of feet thick, and that where the 
ice accumulated to greatest depth, and when 
it was in most rapid motion, it ground out 
the rocky floor on which it rested, thus pro¬ 
ducing hollows. 

Rock Bass, also known as Redeye or Gog¬ 
gle-eye, is one of the commonest of the 
basses. 

Rockefeller, John Davison, Sr. (1839- 
1937), American capitalist, was born in Rich- 
ford, Tioga co., N. Y. In 1858 he entered 
business independently with a partner.named 
Clark; and in 1862, with another partner by 
the name of Andrews, he embarked in the 
business of refining petroleum. Two years 
later his brother William was received into 
partnership, and in 1865 a new refinery, 
called the Standard Oil Refinery, was estab¬ 
lished by them. Five years later the various 
branches were combined under the name of 
the Standard Oil Company, with John D. 
Rockefeller as president and leading spirit. 
He became one of the richest men in the 
world. He retired from business in 1911, and 



Rockefeller 


4044 


Rockefeller 


turned his attention to the philanthropic en¬ 
terprises which he had been developing. He 
founded the University of Chicago in 1890. 
Many educational institutions have benefited 
by his gifts through the General Education 
Board, which he founded in 1903. Besides 
this, many institutions have received contri¬ 
butions from his personal funds. He founded 
the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Re¬ 
search in 1901, the Rockefeller Foundation in 
1913, and the Laura Spelman Rockefeller 
Memorial in 1918 (consolidated with the 
Rockefeller Foundation in 1929). Altogether 
he contributed more than $500,000,000 to 
educational and public welfare organizations, 
of which nearly four-fifths went to the four 
charitable corporations which he created. 

Rockefeller, John Davison, Jr. (1874- 
), American capitalist was born in Cleve¬ 
land, 0 . He became associated with his fa¬ 
ther, John D. Rockefeller, Sr., in various en¬ 
terprises. He became a director of the Colora¬ 
do Fuel and Iron Company, and as such was 
an important witness before the Federal In¬ 
dustrial Relations Commissions following the 
Colorado Miners’ Strike, beginning in 1913. 
He organized the Bureau of Social Hygiene, 
and is a member of the Rockefeller Founda¬ 
tion, General Education Board and Rocke¬ 
feller Institute for Medical Research. He 
aided the Byrd expeditions to the North and 
South Poles. He is the author of The Per¬ 
sonal Relation in Industry (1917). 

Rockefeller, Nelson A., (1909), son of 
John D. Rockefeller, Jr. In 1942 he became 
U. S. Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs. 
He is president of Rockefeller Center. 

After stating, in 1945, that Argentina was 
still the 'black sheep’ of the Western hem¬ 
isphere he resigned as Asst. Secy, of State 
in charge of Latin American affairs. 

Rockefeller, William (1841-1922), 
American capitalist, brother of John D. 
Rockefeller, Sr., was born in Richford, Tioga 
co., N. Y. He was president of the Standard Oil 
Company of New York (1865-1911), and 
vice-president of the Standard Oil Company 
of New Jersey (1865-1911) and was con¬ 
nected with numerous business enterprises. 

Rockefeller Center, a district in New 
York City, developed by John D. Rockefeller 
Jr., as a musical and radio center. It com¬ 
prises three large city blocks, from 48th to 
51st Streets, between Fifth and Sixth Ave¬ 
nues. The Radio City section of the de¬ 
velopment is the 70-story RCA building, the 
RKO office building, the Radio City 


Music Hall and the Center Theater. The 
Fifth Avenue approach is by way of a Prom¬ 
enade, 60 ft. wide and 200 ft. long, between 
49th and 50th Streets. This thoroughfare 
slopes down to a sunken plaza, with a sculp¬ 
tural fountain by Paul Manship. The RCA 
Building is the world’s largest office building 
in floor space. La Maison Franc;aise, a 7-story 
office building, has a frontage of 70 ft. on 
Fifth Avenue and on Rockefeller Plaza. The 
British Empire Building is tenanted by Brit¬ 
ish and Anglo-American shops. The Palazzo 
d’ltalia has 6 stories. The Radio City Mu¬ 
sic Hall is the world’s largest theater, and 
has one of the largest pipe organs ever built. 

Rockefeller Foundation, a corporation 
proposed by John D. Rockefeller, Sr., in 
1910, chartered by the New York State leg¬ 
islature in 1913, and endorsed by Mr. Rocke¬ 
feller, for the object of 'promoting the well¬ 
being of mankind throughout the world,’ was 
consolidated with the Laura Spelman Rocke¬ 
feller Memorial in 1929 (net capital about 
$168,000,000). The work of the Foundation 
deals primarily with the advancement of 
knowledge and is administered under a presi¬ 
dent through the International Health Divi¬ 
sion and four directors, one each for the 
Natural Sciences, Medical Sciences, Social 
Sciences, and the Humanities. After pro¬ 
viding for buildings and endowments of 
medical schools, the department of Medical 
Sciences shifted its support to specific re¬ 
search programs and specialized in psychia¬ 
tric problems. The department of Natural 
Sciences centered its interest on research in 
paleontology, meteorology, astronomy, phys¬ 
ics, chemistry, and biology. The department 
of Humanities aided foreign scholars, groups 
and institutions in humanistic research. For 
public health research money distribution 
was practically world-wide and was con¬ 
tributed for the study of yellow fever, ma¬ 
laria, tuberculosis, hookworm disease, com¬ 
mon colds, undulant fever, yaws, schistoso¬ 
miasis and typhoid fever. Funds were pro¬ 
vided for the support of international fellow¬ 
ships in public health and for the aid of the 
central health administration of governments 
and counties. Appropriations in 1938 amount¬ 
ed to about $17,000,000. 

Rockefeller Institute for Medical" Re-: 
search, an institution founded by John D. 
Rockefeller, Sr., in 1901, which announced as 
its purpose 'the investigation of such prob¬ 
lems in medicine and hygiene as have a prac¬ 
tical bearing on the prevention and cure of 



Rocket 


4015 


Rockford 


disease.’ With the initial gift of $200,000, 
scholarships and fellowships were distributed 
among existing laboratories throughout the 

country; but the need of greater concentra¬ 
tion in the work was met by the further do¬ 
nation of $1,000,000 for land and building 
purposes. Mr. Rockefeller gave $2,600,000 
for endowment purposes in 1907. The Insti¬ 
tute has three departments: the department 
of laboratories, department of the hospital, 
and the department of animal and plant 
pathology. 

Rocket Flight denotes a method, as yet 
unachieved, of flying and conveying by pow¬ 
er-driven ‘rockets’ or projectiles instead of 
the familiar airplane, airship or balloon. In 


have all contributed to the aspiration of a 
human expedition to the moon—and a safe 
return. Already in 1930 Robert Esnault- 
Pelterie of France, an expert on the rocket 
system of propulsion, had published a work 
on interstellar navigation and outlined plans 
for a moon flight, with the confident predic¬ 
tion that this would be accomplished within 
the next 15 years. Radio and television would 
be employed to describe the flight while in 
progress. Important experiments with rock¬ 
ets have been recentlv conducted in the U. S. 
by Prof. R. H. Goddard. ■ 

Rockets, in warfare, are used for making 
signals, for setting fire to buildings or ship¬ 
ping, or as projectiles. Signal rockets gener- 



Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York City. 


1865 the ingenious French novelist Jules 
Verne published a fantastic but fascinating 
story, From the Earth to the Moon. In this 
imaginary voyage, made by three adventur¬ 
ous scientists, the aerial vehicle was an elabo¬ 
rately constructed projectile, fired from a 
huge cannon deeply rooted in the earth, and 
aimed towards the moon. Grotesque and im¬ 
possible as the story seemed for more than 
half a century, modern scientists have been 
taking the matter very seriously, for Verne 
had woven fiction around airplanes, airships, 
submarines and television long before any 
one of those marvels existed. The remarkable 
stratosphere ascents of Piccard (1931 and 
1932), and of the Russian Goltzman in 
1933; the development of motors and pro- 
pellors, the experimental rocket engine 
of Paul Heylandt (Germany, 1931), and 
a rocket turbine for airplanes patented 
by R. H. 1 Goddard . (U. S. ; A., . 1931), 


ally have a tubular case and head of stout 
paper. The head contains a composition 
which when ignited bursts into stars of vari¬ 
ous colors; the bottom is choked until it 
forms a single vent in the center, where the 
rocket is lighted. They are fired from a rocket 
trough, by which the required elevation may 
be given. 

Rockfish, the name of many fishes notable 
for haunting rocky parts of the coast or bot¬ 
tom. The term is most distinctively applied 
to the numerous species of the family Scorpse- 
nidse, found chiefly on the Pacific Coast of the 
United States and in Japan. The group is 
composed of gaily colored, viviparous, ma¬ 
rine shore fishes, varying in length from 10 in. 
to 3 ft. ■ 

Rockford, city, Illinois. The finest grades 
of furniture are produced and more walnut is 
consumed than by any other furniture cen¬ 
ter in the country. Other leading manufac- 


















Rockford 


4016 


Rock Wren 


tured products are knit goods, agricultural 
implements, machine tools, foundry prod¬ 
ucts, gas stoves, pianos. Rockford is the seat 
of Rockford College; p.84,637. 

Rockford College, a non-sectarian insti¬ 
tution for the higher education of women, 
organized at Rockford, Ill., in 1S49. A col¬ 
legiate course was added to the seminary 
course in 1882, and in 1892 the latter was 
discontinued, and the name of the institution 
was changed to Rockford College for Women. 

Rockhill, William Woodville (1854- 
1914), American diplomat, was born in Phil¬ 
adelphia. In 1897-9 he was minister to 
Greece, Roumania, and Serbia. He was ap¬ 
pointed special commissioner to China in 
1900, and in 1901 represented the United 
States in the Congress at Peking for the set¬ 
tlement of the Boxer troubles. He was direc¬ 
tor of the International Bureau of American 
Republics from 1899 to 1905. In 1905 he 
was appointed minister to China; in 1909, 
Ambassador to Russia; and in 1911, Ambas¬ 
sador to Turkey. 

Rockingham, Charles Watson-Went- 

worth. Second Marquis of (1730-82), British 
prime minister. He became premier (1765), 
but court influence and the repeal of the 
Stamp Act, which won him favor with the 
American colonies, caused his dismissal in 
favor of Pitt (1766). He vigorously opposed 
Lord North’s disastrous policy with regard 
to the American colonies, and on the latter’s 
overthrow (1782) formed his second min¬ 
istry. 

Rocking Stones, masses of rock poised 
on a projecting corner so delicately that a 
slight force is sufficient to set them rocking. 
They are numerous in Yorkshire, Derby¬ 
shire, Cornwall and Wales. The famous Logan 
Rock near Land’s End in Cornwall is com¬ 
puted to weigh over 70 tons. The largest 
rocking stone in the world is one at Tandil 
in Argentina,, which weighs over 700 tons. 

Rock Island, city, Illinois, on the Missis¬ 
sippi River. A dam constructed by the Fed¬ 
eral Government affords abundant water 
power for manufacturing and for the exten¬ 
sive shops of the United States Arsenal, the 
largest manufacturing arsenal in the country, 
which occupies an island in the river; p. 
42 , 775 .-.. 

Rockling (Motella), a genus of North At¬ 
lantic fish belonging to the cod family. 

Rockne, Knute' (1888-1931), famous Am¬ 
erican football coach, was born in Voss, Nor¬ 
way. After working as a railroad brakeman 
and mail clerk, he saved. enough to enter 


Notre Dame University, where he became in¬ 
structor in chemistry and was graduated in 
1914 with b.s. degree. The same year he was 
appointed assistant football coach, and head 
coach in 1918, succeeding Jesse C. Harper, re¬ 
signed. Rockne’s genius in perfecting foot¬ 
ball strategy made athletic history. From 
1918 to 1930 inclusive, his teams won 105. 
games, lost 12, and tied in five. He was 
killed in an airplane crash with seven others 
near Bazaar, Kansas, March 31. 

Rock Plants, plants which thrive best 
when planted among stones or rocks, so that 
their roots are able to tap the subjacent water 
in tiihes of drought. 

Rockport, town, Massachusetts. It is 
beautifully situated at the end of Cape Ann, 
and is a popular summer resort. The leading 
industries are fishing and quarrying; p. 3,550. 

Rock Rose, a genus (Cistus) of beautiful 
flowering shrubs, natives of Southwest Eu¬ 
rope, North Africa, and Asia Minor. 

Rocks, a geological term which includes all 
those masses of which the earth’s crust con¬ 
sists, whether they be in a hard and com¬ 
pact state or occur as unconsolidated sands, 
gravels, clays, and soils. All rocks consist of 
minerals, and most are aggregates of sev¬ 
eral minerals, such as quartz, feldspar, mica, 
augite, hornblende, caldte, siderate, olivine, 
and the oxides of iron. The three main groups 
of rocks are: the sedimentary sandstone; the 
igneous granite; the metamorphic gneiss. The 
sedimentary rocks alone contain fossils or 
remains of animals and plants which lived ar 
the time these rocks were being laid down, 
and in some of them such fragments are the 
principal components. 

Rock Salt. See Salt. 

Rock Shaft, a machine shaft which does 
not make a complete revolution. 

Rock Soap, a soft dark-blue or black sub¬ 
stance, consisting of impure hydrous alumin¬ 
ium silicate, which is used in making crayons 
and pencils. 

Rock Temples. .Temples in rocks were 
numerous in ancient Egypt and Nubia. They 
are of two classes—the true rock temple, or 
speos, and the hemi-speos, the exterior half 
of the latter being an open-air building. Of 
these may be cited the speos at Abu Simbel, 
which penetrates 180 ft. into the rock, and is 
guarded in front by four seated colossi, 66 ft. 
high; and the hemi-speos, constructed by 
Queen Hatshepsu at Deir-el-Bahari. 

Rock Wreu, a wren (Salpinctes ohsoletus) 
numerous in the arid, southwestern part of 
the United States, frequenting rocky ravines 



Rocky 


4017 


Rocky 


and singing with surprising force and beauty. 
Rocky Mountain Goat (Haploceros men- 
tanus ), one of the few hollow-horned rumin¬ 
ants found in America, and combining the 
characteristics of goats and antelopes. It is 
about the size of a large sheep, and is remark¬ 
able for its* coat of long white, very soft and 
warm hair. The head bears a pair of jet-black 
horns, about six inches long, and the limbs 



Rocky Mountain Goat, 


are short and strong. The animal is distri¬ 
buted over the Rocky Mts. from northwest¬ 
ern Montana to central Alaska, but every¬ 
where keeps to the tops of the mountains, 
not descending below the edge of the forest 
growth. It moves about in small family par¬ 
ties, scaling and descending cliffs and declivi¬ 
ties with wonderful skill. 

Rocky Mountains, a great system of 
mountain ranges in North America extending 
from Alaska to Mexico. The original name, 
‘Stony Mountains, 5 refers to their rugged bare 
rock character, and was applied specifically 
to the ranges forming the eastern front within 
the borders of the U. S. The more popular 
name, Rocky Mountains, includes all of the 
complex series of mountain ranges lying to 
the e. of the Sierra Nevada and Cascades. In 
a broader usage the term includes all ranges 
between the Great Plains and the Pacific 
Ocean. 

The greatest width of this very complex 
belt is between latitude 38° and 42 0 n., 
where it reaches 1,000 m. The total area oc¬ 
cupied by these mountains within the borders 
of the U. S. is 980,000 sq. m. The whole sys¬ 
tem is also known as the North American 
Cordilleras. The Rocky Mountain system, in 
its broadest sense, is continuous with the 
Sierra Madre and related ranges.to Mexico. 
The main range of the Rocky Mountains 
proper in the United States terminates near 
Santa Fe, in New Mexico. 

About Yellowstone Park are peaks reaching 
12,000 ft., while in the Wind river and Teton 
ranges, s. of t the Park, are summits reaching 
nearly 14,000 ft., such as Fremont Peak (13,- 
790 ft.) .and Grand Teton (13,747 ft) . South 


of the central Wyoming depression the first 
great mountain range is the Colorado, or 
Front Range, which contains peaks exceeding 
14,000 ft. in height. Among these are Long’s 
Peak (14,271), Gray’s Peak (14,341), Tor- 
rey’s Peak (14,336), and Pike’s Peak (14,- 
ro8). This range rises almost abruptly from 
the margin of the Great Plains, which in 
their western parts average 5,000 to 6,000 ft. 
in elevation. It is therefore one of the most 
impressive portions of the Rockies. 

The Desert or Basin Ranges occupy the 
most arid region of Western Utah and Neva¬ 
da. The easternmost of this group, the Wa¬ 
satch Range, rises with extreme abruptness 
from the plain of Salt Lake, 5,000 to 6,000 ft., 
giving a most beautiful and picturesque back¬ 
ground to this rich agricultural valley. Still w. 
of this lies the Sierra Nevada of California, a 
single great range terminating in the n. with 
extinct volcanoes, among 'which stands Mount 
Shasta, 14,000 ft. The culminating point of 
the Sierra Nevada is Mount Whitney, about 
14,500 ft., the loftiest non-volcanic summit 
of the United States outside of the district 
of Alaska. The continuation of this range 
northward into Oregon, Washington, and 
Canada is known as the Cascades, named 
from the many beautiful falls and rapids 
formed by the rivers in crossing this barrier. 

The highest peaks are in Alaska. Mt. Mc¬ 
Kinley, about 20,500 ft. above sea level, is 
the highest summit in North America. Mt. 
St. Elias, 18,100 ft., was for a long time sup¬ 
posed to be the highest. A neighboring peak 
to this, in Canada, is Mt. Logan, whose al¬ 
titude is variously put at 18,000 and 19,500 
ft. There are a great number of very high 
peaks throughout the system. Forty peaks in 
Colorado . alone exceed 14,000 ft., and 200 
exceed 13,000 ft. elevation. Pike’s Peak in the 
Front Range is the most famous mountain of 
the Great Plains border. 

Several of the most striking single moun¬ 
tains are extinct volcanoes. Mt. Hood, 11,255 
ft, and Mt. Rainier, 14,526 ft., are especially 
good examples. Structurally the ranges differ 
widely. The Basin Ranges are chiefly great 
fault blocks. The eastern ranges, such as the 
Rocky Mountain Front' Range, - exhibit a 
granite core representing an upward folding. 
The Uintas are broad folded and faulted sedi¬ 
ments much dissected by erosion, The Sierra 
Nevada are closely-folded schists and have 
also volcanics. And the Coast Range re¬ 
sembles the Appalachian type of folding, 
Rocks of all ages are involved, but the chief 
mountain-making movements date back only 




Rocky 


4018 


Rocky 


to the Tertiary period of geologic time. 

Rocks of almost all types occur including 
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic clas¬ 
ses. The chief mineral resources are gold, 
silver, lead, copper, and coal, and many others 
are produced. The immense metallic wealth 
discovered in these ranges has been one of 


leys are called parks, especially in Colorado, 
and the bounding mountains are known as 
the Park ranges. The Yellowstone National 
Park in N. W. Wyoming has been made a 
reservation (see Yellowstone National 
Park). 

Many of the valleys are heavily glaciated, 



Rock Temples. 

Left, Small temple at Abu Simbel, Nubia; Right, Deir-el-Bahari, Egypt. 


the large factors in the development and 
prosperity of the United States for the past 
fifty years. This mountainous region is the 
source of almost all the large river systems 
of N. America. Erosion is everywhere a 
prominent feature. Great canons are cut across 
the outer barriers by the main streams, and 


and many glaciers, chiefly in Canada and 
Alaska, still exist. Many peaks have perpetual 
snow. Agriculture is profitable only in the 
Valleys capable of irrigation, as a rule. But 
when governed in this way the soil is ex¬ 
tremely fertile. The higher valleys and moun¬ 
tain slopes are grazing lands of great value. 



The Canadian Rockies. 

Left, Valley of the Peaks, Laggan, Alberta ; Right, Yoho Glacier near Field, B C. 


some of these are among the most noted in 
the world. Such is the Grand Canon of the 
Colorado, in Arizona and Utah, where al¬ 
most horizontal strata are cut to a mile in 
depth by erosion. Picturesque gorges with 
falls of great height occur, such as the Yose- 
mite in California and the Yellowstone in the 
National Park. The high inter-mountain val- 


Mining, grazing, lumbering, and farming are 
the industries. Lumbering is confined largely 
to the Cascade and Coast Ranges. The great¬ 
est forest reserves in the U. S. remain in that 
region. The giant sequoias, among the largest 
trees in the world, are a product of the Sierra 
Nevada and Coast Ranges. 

The first formal exploration of the Rockies 






Rocky 


4019 


Rodgers 


was by Lewis and Clark in 1804. Other early 
explorers were Harman, Long, Schoolcraft, 
Nicollet, Bonneville, Pike, and especially Fre¬ 
mont. Since 1840, numerous expeditions have 
been sent to this work, and at the present 
time the U. S. Geological Survey has parties 
in this field each year. 

Rocky Mountain Sheep. See Bighorn; 
Sheep. 

Rod, or Pole, or Perch, a unit of lineal 
measure, used in land-surveying, and equival¬ 
ent to yards, or 16*4 ft. 


command of the army, he revolted in 708, 
and deprived him of the crown. Tarik, a 
Moorish chief, gave his aid to the sons of the 
deposed king, invaded Spain, and decided the 
fate of the Gothic monarchy by defeating 
Roderic in the battle of Guadalete, Roderic 
himself being among the slain. 

Rodez, chief tn. of French dep. Aveyron, 
stands high on a river bluff, crowned by a 
noble Gothic cathedral (1274-1535). It is 
rich in houses of the 15th and 16th centuries. 
There are manufactures of woolens, serge, 



The American Rockies. 

Left, Marshall Pass, Mount Ouray; Right, Long Lake and Snowy Range, Near Ward, Col. 


Rodbertus, Johann Karl (1805-75), Ger¬ 
man economist, the founder of scientific so¬ 
cialism, was born at Greifswald in Pomerania. 
Starting with the postulate that labor is the 
source of all wealth, Rodbertus believed that 
the natural effects of the operation of the ex¬ 
isting economic laws will be to bring about 
eventually the realization of the ideal of 
state socialism, when land, capital, and the 
products of labor shall be national property. 
His views are laid down in Zur Erkldrung 
und Abhilfe der heutigen Kreditnot des 
Grundbesitzes (1868), and other works. 

Rodentia, or Gnawing Mammals, the 
order which includes rats and mice, hares and 
rabbits, the squirrels, porcupines, beavers, and 
a number of other mostly small forms. 

Rodeo, Spanish, literally a fair or market. 
In this country applied to the “wild west” 
show featuring exhibitions of riding, roping 
and steer-wrestling. 

Roderic (d. 711), the last of the Visigothic 
kings on the throne of Spain. Having been 
entrusted by his sovereign, Witiza, with the 


and straw hats. A Roman aqueduct (restored) 
still brings water to the town. It has been 
the seat of a bishopric since the 4th century; 
p.16,105. 

Rodgers, John (1771-1838), American 



I, Incisors; P, premolars; M, molars. 

naval officer, born in Hartford co., Md. After 
serving in the Mediterranean squadron in 
1803 and 1804 he succeeded to the command 
of the squadron in 1805, and finally dictated 









4020 


Roger II 


Rodin 


terms of peace to Tripoli and Tunis. Imme¬ 
diately on the declaration of war in 1812, 
Rodgers put to sea with a squadron captur¬ 
ing some valuable prizes, and in 1814 assisted 
in erecting batteries for the defence of Balti¬ 
more. He was acting secretary of the navy in 
1823, and was in command of the Mediter¬ 
ranean squadron in 1824-27. 

Rodin, Auguste (1840-1917), French 
sculptor and painter, was born in Paris. An 
impressionist in method, he was so keen a 
realist in execution that he was accused of 
having cast his L’Age d’Airain (in the Lux¬ 
embourg, Paris) upon a living model. His re¬ 
markable and daring studies of the human 
figure developed his fine modelling of con¬ 
tours, the production of exquisite sincerity of 
line, the expression of rhythmic movement of 
the human form. His chief characteristic is his 
extraordinary power in the synthesis of psy¬ 
chic expression. His much-abused Balzac is 
not so much a statue of the man as an em¬ 
bodiment of the Co me die Humaine. His 
Victor Hugo is a presentment of the genius 
of the poet; and his Kiss is less the embrace 
of two people than the psychology of passion 
in the kiss. His intense belief that beauty is 
life, in whatsoever form, raises the most an¬ 
imalistic of his statues above the charge of 
coarseness. Each work produced was hotly 
discussed and abused—more than once the 
commission was withdrawn. Among his best 
known works are The Thinker; Gate of Hell 
and The Pillar of Work. Several of his works 
are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and 
a Rodin Museum was opened in Philadelphia 
in 1929. 

Rodney, George Brydges , Rodney, 

Lord (1719-92), British admiral, was born at 
Walton-on-Thames. In 1780, having relieved 
Gibraltar, he proceeded to the W. Indies, and 
engaged the French under De Guichen; off 
Martinique. After capturing St. Eustatia in 
1781, Rodney fought a great battle off the 
Saintes, and crushingly defeated the French 
under De Grasse in 1782. For this he was 
created a peer. In 1781 he had been appointed 
vice-admiral of Great Britain. 

Rodosto, or Bisanthe (Turk. Tekir-dagh), 
tn. } on Sea of Marmora, Turkey in Europe. 

Roeblhgg, John Augustus (1806-69), 
German - American civil engineer. He was 
born in Miihlhausen, Prussia, and in 1851 he 
designed the famous old Niagara Suspension 
Bridge, the first of the kind to carry railroad 
trains, which was completed in 1S55. In 1867 
he was appointed chief engineer of construc¬ 
tion of the East River or Brooklyn suspen¬ 


sion bridge, which was to eclipse entirely 
every work of its kind. He was author of 
Long and Short Span Railway Bridges 
(1869). 

Roeblmg, Washington Augustus (1837- 
1926), American civil engineer, son of John 
A. Roebling. He constructed a suspension 
bridge over the Rappahannock river, and 
one over the Shenandoah river at Harper’s 
Ferry. In 1869 he assumed his father’s posi¬ 
tion as supervising engineer of the Brooklyn 
bridge, and successfully completed it in 1883. 

Roedeer (Cervus capreolus ), a small spe¬ 
cies of deer which is widely distributed 
throughout Europe and extends into W. 
Asia. It is indigenous in the British Isles, but 
as a wild animal is now very rare. The roe is 
essentially a forest animal, whereas the open 
I hillsides are the natural haunt of the red deer. 
Roerich, Nicholas Constantinovick 
(1874- ) 3 Russian painter, formerly a lead¬ 
er in the Moscow Art Theatre and the Diag- 
ilev Ballet, came to America in 4920 and 
resided for a time in New York City. He 
is well known for his works for the theatre 
which include the scenery for Prince Igor, 
and the libretto for Stravinsky’s The Rite of 
Spring, for which Roerich also designed the 
scenery and the costumes. He spent 5 years 
painting in Central Asia, and has painted a 
total of over 3,000 pictures. The Roerich Mu¬ 
seum, 310 Riverside Drive, New York City, 
contains 1,006 of his works. He has published 
several books including Himalaya (1926); 
Maitreya (1932). 

Roeskilde, or Roskilde, tn., isl. Zealand, 
Denmark, at head of fjord of same name; 
has a fine nth-century cathedral, containing 
tombs of Danish sovereigns. It was often the 
capital of Denmark before 1443. By the 
treaty of Roeskilde, 1658, Denmark trans¬ 
ferred to Sweden her possessions beyond the 
Sound; p. 13,540. 

.'Rogation Days, the Monday, Tuesday, 
and Wednesday before Ascension Day, which 
are appointed for prayer and abstinence. The 
Sunday before -is called Rogation Sunday. 
The rogation days are now observed to seek 
God’s blessing: upon the land and its fruits. 

. Roger. !. .(1031-1101)., count of Sicily, was / 
a native of Normandy. In 1072 he succeeded 
in wresting Sicily from the Saracens, when 
he was invested by his brother, Robert Guis- 
card, with the sovereignty of Sicily, under 
the title of count. On the death of Robert 
(1085) he succeeded to his possessions in S. 
Italy. ;: :',' -L: 

Roger II. (1098-1154), king of Sicily, was 



Roger 


4021 


Rolfe 


the son and successor of Roger x., count of 
Sicily. He took arms against Pope Innocent 
ii., whom he made prisoner in 1139; but the 
latter, by recognizing Roger as king of Sicily, 
obtained his liberty. Roger made conquests in 
Africa and Greece, and from the latter coun¬ 
try introduced into Sicily the silkworm and 
the mulberry tree. 

Roger de Coverley, Sir, one of the mem¬ 
bers of the imaginary club under whose di¬ 
rection the Spectator was professedly edited. 
The conception and first sketch of Sir Roger 
were due to Steele, although Addison gained 
immortal glory in filling up the character. 

Rogers, Robert (1727-c. 84), American 
soldier, frontier fighter, and Loyalist, born at 
Londonderry, N. H. During the French and 
Indian War he raised and commanded a body 
of men called ‘Rogers Rangers,’ which proved 
invaluable to the English commanders in all 
the campaigns of the war, acting independ¬ 
ently most of the time. He was with Wolfe 
at Quebec in 1759, and later in the year 
destroyed the Abenaki stronghold in Maine. 
In 1760 he assisted Amherst in the Montreal 
campaign, and after its capitulation was sent 
up the lakes to secure the surrender of the 
western posts. 

Rogers, Will (1879-1935), humorist and 
cowboy actor, was killed in an airplane acci¬ 
dent which also took the life of his holiday 
companion, Wiley Post, round-the-world 
flyer, on August 15, 1935, near Point Bar- 
row, Alaska. Rogers was born in the old 
Indian Territory (now the state of Okla¬ 
homa) and attended a military academy in 
Missouri. He rode the range in his youth, 
traveled widely and he began a stage career 
at Hammerstein’s Roof Garden, New York, 
in 1925. His quaint humor made him na¬ 
tionally famous and at his death he was 
ranked with Twain and Artemus Ward. 
He wrote a column which appeared in 
more than 200 newspapers every day, and 
after successes in the Ziegfeld Follies ap¬ 
peared in moving pictures and gave weekly 
radio talks. 

Rogers, William Barton (1804-82), Am¬ 
erican scientist. He was born in Philadelphia, 
and graduated at William and Mary College, 
Jamestown, Va., 1822. In the following year 
he was appointed professor of mathematics in 
the college and retained the position un¬ 
til 1825, In i860 he submitted plans to 
a Committee of Associated Institutions of 
Science that was considering the advance¬ 
ment of scientific instruction, and these plans 
in the following year became the basis . 


of the famous Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology. In 1862 he was elected first pres- 
ident of the institute, which, however, was 
not opened for instruction until 1865. From 
1:865 to 1S6S Professor Rogers filled the chairs 
of physics and geology in the institute. He 
was founder of the American Association for 
the Promotion of Social Science, and presi- 
dent of the National Academy of Science 
(1878). His Life and Letters, edited by his 
wife, was published in 2 vols., 1896. 

> Rogier, Charles Latour (1800-S5), Bel¬ 
gian statesman, was born at St.' Quentin, 
France. From 1861 to 1868 he was president 
and foreign minister. 

Roget, Peter Mark (1779-1869), English 
physician and lexicographer, was the com¬ 
piler of a Thesaurus of English Words and 
Phrases, on which he spent nearly fifty years. 

Rohan, an ancient Breton family, descend- 
ed from the Dukes of Brittany. The most im¬ 
portant members were Rene, Vicomte de 
Rohan (1550-86), one of the most valient 
captains of his time, and Henri, Due de Ro¬ 
han (1579-1638), leader of the Huguenot 
party in France during the reign of Louis 
xni. He wrote admirable Memoires. 

Rohillas, a race of Pathan horsemen, who 
came from Afghanistan and conquered the 
rich province to which they gave the name of 
Rohilkhand. In 1774 they were driven from 
Rohilkhand by the East India Company and 
the nawab wazir. 

Ronlfs, Anna Katharine (Green) 
(1846-1935), American author, bom in 
Brooklyn, N. Y., the daughter of James 
Wilson Green of that place. Her family early 
removed to Buffalo, N. Y. Her first pub¬ 
lished book, The Leavenworth Case, attracted 
wide attention for the ingenuity of the plot. 
Among many other novels, all detective 
stories, were The Mystery of the Hasty Ar¬ 
row, 1917; The Step on the Stair, 1922. 

Roland, paladin of Charlemagne, fell Aug. 
* 5 > 778 at Roncesvalles in the Pyrenees after 
conquering Spain n. of Ebro, except Sara¬ 
gossa. He became the hero of the national 
epic of France, comparable to the Mart 
D’Arthur, Cid, and Nibelungenlied. The 
Chanson de Roland was the poem chanted 
by Taillefer at Hastings (Wace, Roman de 
Ron).; 

Rolfe, John (1585-1622), English colon¬ 
ist, husband of Pocahontas, b. in Norfolk. He 
came to Virginia in May, 1610, having sailed 
in the ship with Sir George Somers, June 8, 
1609, and having spent a year at Bermuda; 
where they were shipwrecked. He became a 



Roller 


4022 


Roman 


leading planter, is said to have been the first 
colonist to begin the cultivation of tobacco, 
and in April, 1613, was married to Pocahon¬ 
tas, whom he took to England in 1616. He 
returned to the colony in 1617 as secretary, 
Pocahontas having died in England. He was 
a member of the council in 1619. 

Roller ( Coracias garrulus) , a bright-plum- 
aged bird, in which the sexes are alike in 
plumage, which is chiefly shades of blue, ex¬ 
cept for the brown back. The bird reaches a 
length of twelve inches, and is remarkable 


Rolls, Hon. Charles Stewart (1877- 
1910), English pioneer aviator, was bom in 
London. He competed in many motor car 
races, but he is best remembered by his 
achievements as an aviator. 

Rolvaag, Ole Edvart (1876-1931), Nor- 
wegian-American waiter, emigrated to Amer¬ 
ica at the age of 16 and became professor at 
St. Olaf’s College, Minnesota. His novels of 
pioneer life include Giants of the Earth, Peder 
Victorious, His Father's Son. He was deco¬ 
rated by the Norwegian king, 1926. 



Statue by Rodin—‘The Thinker\ 


for the curious antics performed by the male 
in the breeding season. 

Rolland, Romain (1866- ), French 

author and dramatist; wrote Jean Christ ophe 
and UArne Enchantee; also a biography of 
Beethoven. Awarded Nobel Prize, 1915. He 
introduced history of music at the Sorbonne. 
^ Rolling Mills, machines for reducing the 
ingots of steel or 'piles’ of wrought iron into 
sheets, plates, bars, rails, angles or other sec¬ 
tions. These machines were invented in 1783 
by Henry Cort, an Englishman, who also in¬ 
vented a process of 'puddling’ iron. There are 
special forms of mills for rolling tires, rods, 
and tubes. 


Romagna, district, Italy. Known in the 
middle ages as Romania or Romandiola, it 
formed a part of the exarchate of Ravenna. 
It was annexed to Italy in i860. 

Romaic, a term for the popular Greek 
dialect developed before the fall of the By¬ 
zantine empire, essentially similar to the 
modern Greek tongue as now spoken. 

Roman Architecture, Of the early archi¬ 
tecture of Rome and the other Latin cities 
comparatively little is known; the remains of 
early Italian architecture consist of a few 
arches and sepulchral monuments. With the 
conquest of Carthage, Greece, and Egypt, the 
Romans became acquainted with the arts of 


Roman 


4023 


Roman 


those countries, and by degrees endeavored to 
use them for the embellishment of the im¬ 
perial city. Rome under the empire was the 
capital of the world, and attracted artists 
from every country. The result was that the 
architecture of Rome became a mixed style. 

Roman Catholic Church, or the Holy, 
Catholic, Apostolic and Roman Church, 
the largest of three great divisions of Chris¬ 
tendom, namely Roman, Greek, and Protest¬ 
ant, defined by its own theologians as ‘a body 
of men united by the profession of the same 
Christian faith, and by participation in the 
same sacraments, under the governance of 
lawful pastors, more especially of the Roman 
Pontiff, the sole vicar of Christ on earth.’ 

According to this definition the church is 
essentially a visible body. Roman Catholic 
theologians, however, distinguished between 
the body of the church and the soul of the 
church, the former being the visible organiza¬ 
tion established by Christ as the divinely ap¬ 
pointed means of salvation, the latter em¬ 
bracing all Christians who are in good faith, 
and who have thus the indwelling of the 
Holy Ghost without which no man can be 
saved. 

The Attributes of the Church, as taught by 
its leaders, are three: Authority, or the right 
and power of the Pope and the bishops, as 
successors of the apostles, to teach and to 
govern the faithful; infallibility, or the im¬ 
possibility of error on the part of the Church 
in matters of faith and morals; and inde- 
fectibility or the power of the Church to en¬ 
dure to the end of the ages. 

The principle of the authority of the church 
is based upon the divine commission to the 
apostles to ‘teach all nations, 5 to offer sacri¬ 
fice, and to govern the flock of God, as well 
as upon other explicit statements of Christ. 
The infallibility of the Church is likewise 
supported by Christ’s own statement, T will 
ask the Father and he shall give you another 
Paraclete, that he may abide with you for¬ 
ever, the Spirit of Truth. 5 The third attribute 
of the church—indefectibility, includes not 
only its persistence to the end of time but 
also its preservation from corruption in the 
sphere of faith and morals and assurance 
against loss of the hierarchy or the sacra¬ 
ments. In its support is cited Christ’s prom¬ 
ise: ‘The gates of Hell shall not prevail 
against it. 5 Those external signs by which 
the church may be distinguished from all 
heretical or schismatic bodies, are four, and 
are summed up in its claim to be the ‘one, 
holy, catholic, and apostolic church. 5 


The chief laws which the Church of Rome 
has made binding on all her members are: 
i. The observance of Sundays and holy days 
of obligation by hearing Mass and resting 
from servile works; 2. fasting at prescribed 
seasons and on certain days, also abstinence 
from flesh meat on Fridays; 3. annual con¬ 
fession and communion, the latter at Eastei 
time; 4. the prohibition of marriage within 
certain degrees of kindred and at forbidden 
times; 5. an absolute fast from midnight be¬ 
fore reception of communion, except in dan- 
ger of death, when the sacrament is admin¬ 
istered as a ‘viaticum . 3 Besides these general 
laws, there are others binding on the clergy, 
the principal of which are: The obligation 
of celibacy, commencing with subdeaconship; 
and the daily recitation of the canonical 
hours contained in the breviary. 

The form of worship is highly ritualistic. 
It is embodied in the Missal, or Book of the 
Mass, and the Breviary containing the Divine 
Office or prayer which all priests are obliged 
to recite daily in the name of the church on 
behalf of her children. The sacraments of the 
church are seven: Baptism, which is per¬ 
formed as soon after birth as possible, by 
sprinkling, and which is held to be necessary 
to salvation; confirmation; penance, entailing 
confession of sin on the part of the penitent 
and the granting of absolution by the priest; 
the Eucharist or Holy Communion; extreme 
unction or the last anointing administered to 
persons in danger of death; Holy Orders, by 
which ministers of the church are ordained 
for their sacred duties; and matrimony. 

The principal sacramentals are the sign oi 
the cross, expressing the mysteries of the 
unity and trinity of God; holy water blessed 
with the prayers of the church; holy oils; 
blessed candles; blessed ashes placed on the 
forehead on Ash Wednesday to bring to mind 
the spirit of penance appropriate to the Len¬ 
ten season; blessed palms; images of the 
Virgin and the saints; rosaries, and scapu¬ 
lars. 

At the head of the governing body of the 
Roman Catholic church, usually known as 
the hierarchy, is the Pope, in whom is vested 
‘the whole fulness of supreme power, ordinary 
and immediate, over all and each of the 
pastors and the faithful. 5 He is assisted by 
the Sacred College of Cardinals, and by sev¬ 
eral Sacred Congregations or permanent ec¬ 
clesiastical committees, of which cardinals arc 
the chief members; by archbishops, and bish¬ 
ops ; by the apostolic delegates and vicars, 
and by certain abbots and other prelates. 



Roman 


4024 


Romance 


The history of the Roman Catholic Church 
divides itself naturally into three periods. The 
first period extends to the time of the Great 
Schism of the ninth century, and is marked 
by the foundation of the church by the Apos¬ 
tles and by the development of those fixed 
standards of ecclesiastical life with which is 
bound up all its later history. The earlier part 
of this period was an era of persecution. The 
second era of the church’s history is marked 
by the wide extension of its activities among 
the Celtic and Teutonic nations of Northern 
and Central Europe, and by the Great 
Schism, whereby the Greek Church withdrew 
from the Roman communion. The modern 
period of Roman Catholic history begins 
with the Protestant Reformation by which 
whole nations separated themselves from the 
Roman communion, and the Council of Trent 
(1545-1563), redefining Catholic doctrines. 

The historic beginnings of the Catholic 
Church in the New World are almost coin¬ 
cident with the discovery of the continent, 
for as early as 1493 twelve priests accom¬ 
panied Columbus on his second voyage of 
, exploration. The first episcopal see erected on 
the American continent was that of San 
Domingo, which was created in 1513. The 
second American see was that of Santiago de 
Cuba in 1522; next came the see of Mexico 
in 1530. From these centers went forth the; 
missionaries who first preached the Gospel j 
to the natives of the southeastern and south¬ 
western portions of the territory now oc¬ 
cupied by the United States. During the same 
period French missionaries were preaching 
the Gospel on the banks of the St. Lawrence, 
in Maine, and Northern New York, and even 
penetrating into the region of the Great Lakes 
and the Valley of the Mississippi. The first 
Catholic church in New York City was St. 
Peter’s, built in 1785. St. Patrick’s Cathedral, 
Fifth Avenue at 51st Street, was begun in 
1858. 

The See of Baltimore was created in 1789, 
and its first bishop, John Carroll, was con¬ 
secrated Aug. 15, 1790. The growth of the 
Catholic Church in the United States during 
the nineteenth century was exceedingly rapid, 
owing chiefly to the great tide of immigra¬ 
tion. In 1790 there were about 30,000 Cath¬ 
olics in the thirteen colonies; in 1870 there 
were about 5,000,000 in the U. S.; in 1939, 
about 20,700,000. The world total is esti¬ 
mated at about 330,000,000. The Catholic 
population of the New York archdiocese, 
which includes Manhattan, the Bronx and 
Richmond in the City of New York; and the 


counties of Dutchess, Orange, Putnam, Rock¬ 
land, Sullivan, Ulster and Westchester in 
New York State, is about 1,000,000. The 
diocese of Brooklyn numbers about 1,100,000, 
and that of Newark, N. J., about 750,000. 

In 1929 the Lateran Treaty marked the re¬ 
sumption of cordial relations between the 
! Vatican and the Kingdom of Italy, which 
had been suspended some sixty years. This 
treaty, made during the pontificate of Pius 
xi. and while Mussolini was head of the 
Italian government, restored the Pope’s tem¬ 
poral power over Vatican City, and he again 
became an independent sovereign. 

In 1933, a radio broadcasting station was 
inaugurated at the Vatican, with an address 
to the world delivered by Pope Pius xi. 

The year 1939 saw the death of Pius xi. 
and the elevation to the papacy of Cardinal 
Eugenio Pacelli, as Pius xn. By the death 
of Cardinal Hayes of New York in 1938, and 
of Cardinal Mundelein of Chicago in 1939, 
the United States lost two of its four Cardi¬ 
nals. The new Pope continued the policies of 
his predecessor in attempting to prevent Eu¬ 
rope from another great war. 

Roman Catholic Emancipation. See 
Catholic Emancipation. 

Romance. The word roman meant orig¬ 
inally nothing more than a literary composi¬ 
tion written, not in Latin, but in some of the 
vernacular tongues derived from Latin, es¬ 
pecially French: fo-r instance, the prose 
chronicle of the crusades by William of Tyre, 
being written in French, and happening to 
mention the name of the Emperor Heraclius 
early in its text, was known as Le Roman 
d Eracles. But as probably the largest and 
certainly by far the most popular part of 
vernacular literature during the twelfth and 
thirteenth centuries^ consisted of adventurous 
stories sometimes in prose but rather more 
commonly in verse—the connotation of the 
name was gradually adjusted to its denota¬ 
tion, and the original sense was entirely 
merged in the secondary. 

The kind of style which we call romance 
is not absent from the literature of the Greeks 
and Romans, but it Is not largely present 
there. To all intents and purposes the Odyssey 
is a romance. Only at the confines of the clas¬ 
sical period do we see something like ro¬ 
mantic traits. These In Petronius may be due 
to the old Italic spirit forcing itself up at 
last through Greek culture; but in Lucian 
and Apuleius it must certainly be taken in 
connection with Asiatic and African Influ¬ 
ences. and these influences also appear in the 



Romance 


4025 


Romance 


interesting group of ‘Greek romances’ which 
are scattered over the centuries (from fourth 
to twelfth). The qualities thus sparsely vis¬ 
ible reappear in mediaeval literature unmis¬ 
takably. 

The classic limitations of unity, measure, 
and so forth were certainly attended to in 
most epic poems by the poets; it was a rule 
laid down that nothing should be left totally 
unexplained, and that nothing should hap¬ 
pen without some connection (if it were only 
that of episode) with the main plot. In ro¬ 
mance all this was changed. Christianity itself 
not merely supplied a mythology much more 
resembling these other religions than the of¬ 
ficial paganism of Rome, but gave the most 
powerful assistance to the supernatural at¬ 
mosphere of romance by its attitude toward 
the one and the other. 

Again, the strictly critical spirit was almost 
dormant in the middle ages; and the ro¬ 
mance, as such, was written not according to 
rule, but merely to please. If the adventures 
were exciting, the descriptions brilliant, the 
hero and the heroine attractive, what more 
could be wanted ? War maintained, with ne¬ 
cessary changes, the claims it had exerted on 
the ancients, and r'eligion immensely in¬ 
creased them. It is not quite certain even that 
saints’ lives are not the earliest examples of 
rudimentary romance, as we have them in the 
vernaculars, and earlier still in Latin. 

Rut the third great theme which, though it 
could not be kept out entirely, had been 
snubbed and kept down in antiquity — the 
theme of love—received an extension greater 
still, and always increasing as time went on. 
It became the invariable (and too often triv¬ 
ial) motive of the later romances of adven¬ 
ture. In fact, the typical mediaeval^ romance 
may be said to be a love story diversified ad 
libitum by episodes of adventure, and dom¬ 
inated by the religious note, which often, 
though not always, shades off into semitones 
of outer and vaguer superstition. 

It could require no extraordinary origin¬ 
ality to perceive that narrative of this sort 
might be adapted to less serious subjects and 
yet retain its interest of adventure. The ex¬ 
treme beauty of some of these stories, and 
the story interest of all but the dullest, could 
not fail of their effect; and the charm of 
story-telling once exercised, the reflection that 
it might be enjoyed for work day as well as 
Sunday use could not fail to follow. 

There seems to be little if any doubt that 
the first remarkable examples of the complet¬ 
ed product of the typical romance of love. 


adventure, and (mainly religious) mystery 
are found in connection with the legend of 
King Arthur, of the Knights of the Round 
Table, and of the Quest for the Holy Grail. 
It is remarkable that no single romance ever 
incorporated the whole or even any very 
considerable part of this group of legends, 
the best-known record of it in England, the 
Morte d’Arthur of Sir Thomas Malory, be¬ 
ing a fifteenth-century compilation from var¬ 
ious originals, from before 1200 to Malory’s 
own time. 

The most numerous class of romances 
deals with the adventures of individual 
knights, and (in somewhat less number) 
ladies, whose course of true love or rightful 
heirship is interrupted by fate or human 
wickedness, but who invariably triumph, and 
generally marry, at the end. Of these, the 
most famous and popular, though by no 
means the best of literature in any form that 
we possess, were probably the stories of Sir 
Guy of Warwick and Sir Bevis of Hampton. 
All of these but two or three at most are of 
substantive interest; and it has sometimes 
been thought that four of the best of them— 
Seven Wise Masters, Arthur and Merlin, 
Alexander, and Richard Coeur de Lion —are 
the work of a single though unknown hand. 

Still later is the lovely fairy story of Sir 
Launfal, written (or rather rewritten) by a 
known person, Thomas Chester, early in the 
15th century. Almost all that can be said 
against the poorer specimens of the common 
run of romances has been put with extraor¬ 
dinary felicity and admirable wit by Chau¬ 
cer in Sir T ho pas —the conventional beauty 
and valor of the knight, his determination to 
fall in love with somebody very lovely, very 
exalted, and very difficult of attainment, the 
haphazard geography and etceteras of the 
story, the vain repetition of detail, the giants 
and evil beasts that get in the hero’s way. 
Other faults are the extreme long-windedness 
of some of the romances, the intolerable 
amount of mere catalogue description, the 
inevitable tendency of all recited work to 
cliche repetition of stock phrase. 

Really brilliant phrase, the ‘gold dewdrops 
of speech,’ for which Chaucer himself was 
so justly praised, was but seldom achieved 
by any one save himself and Dante and a few 
others before the end of the 14th century; 
while dramatic representation of character is 
almost unknown throughout the middle ages. 
Thus the romancers constantly miss ‘psy¬ 
chological moments,’ of which classical or 
modern poets would avail themselves eagerly 



Romance 


4026 


Roman Law 


and to their utmost. In the latest romances 
of all, and in a few of the earlier, the ‘con¬ 
jurer s supernatural’-—a blend of witch and 
giant and so forth—is overdone quite ad 
nauseam, and ends by debasing the poetical 
to or below the level of the puerile. 

Despite all this, we may assert for ro¬ 
mance a very great place indeed in the liter¬ 
ature of the world. Its great title is that it 
added a new way of literary pleasure. The 
peculiar charm of romance is not susceptible 
of ultimate analysis: it ends, like all other 
such things, in a mystery—in an appeal to 
feeling. 

We have illustrated the characteristics of 
romance chiefly from English examples, but 
they are not very different either in the 
French or in the German. The greatest known 
writer of the accomplished romance itself is 
Chretien de Troyes, in the later 12th century, 
a poet to whom some would assign the main, 
and to whom all must assign a large, part in 
the development of the Arthurian story. The 
Germans were particularly fortunate in pos¬ 
sessing writers of very great talent, who de¬ 
voted themselves to the task of naturalizing 
the French romances — Gottfried of Strass- 
burg, author of the most poetical version we 
possess of the Tristram story; Hartman von 
der Aue, author of the exquisite Der Arme 
Heinrich, which furnishes the subject of 
Longfellow’s Golden Legend; and above all 
Wolfram von Eschenbach, one of the chief of 
mediaeval poets, who worked out the mystical 
side of the Grail legend in his poems of Par- 
zival and Titurel. Italy probably had not a 
little early work of the chanson de geste 
kind, though only the invaluable Poema del 
Cid remains to us. 

Romance Languages, the modern Euro¬ 
pean languages derived from Latin, the 
speech of the ancient Romans. They are de¬ 
veloped from the ordinary colloquial Latin of 
the middle ages. Not including local dialects, 
the ^ following are the Romance languages: 
Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portu¬ 
guese, Roumanian, and Rhaeto-Romanic, or 
Rumonsch. Provencal is the speech of Prov- 
enge, the southeastern part of France, known 
to the Romans as the Provincia par excellence. 
Apart from changes in the form of words, the 
Romance languages differ from Latin mainly 
in being much more analytic—in using auxil¬ 
iary verbs instead of changes of form to sig¬ 
nify variations of person, tense, mood, and 
voice, and in using prepositions instead of 
cases in nouns. They all contain non-Latin 


elements in their vocabulary in varying pro¬ 
portions. 

Roman Empire, Holy. See Holy Roman 

Empire. 

Roman Law. A body of law, sometimes 
known as the Civil Law, developed by the 
ancient Romans. Religious customs undoubt¬ 
edly had a great influence in its origin and 
early development. Probably the first syste¬ 
matic codification of the secular laws of 
Rome was the famous Law of the Twelve 
Tables, about 450 b.c. Other codifications 
were attempted, but the great works of 
Justinian, about 529-534 ajd., including the 



Roman Remains in England. 

Upper, Uriconium, Wroxeter; Lower, 
Gateway to Roman Camp, Borcovicus, 
Northumberland. 

Institutes, Digest or Pandects, and the Codex, 
were the most authoritative, and the great 
source of legal knowledge for centuries. The 
Code Napoleon, a compilation of the Roman 
law as developed in France, is the basis of the 
Louisiana Code, and of the codes of most of 
the South American states. 



Roman Literature 

Roman Literature. See Latin Language 

and Literature. 

Roman Remains in Great Britain. 
Great Britain, except for the small portion 
lying n. of the river Tyne, was for many 
generations an integral part of the Roman 
empire. In the southern parts of the island, 
a complete network of highways or ‘streets’ 
testify to the settled condition of the country 
during the Roman occupation. 

The relics of Roman London can be studied 
in the British Museum and at the Guildhall; | 


Romans 

among the many evidences that the citizens 
of Silchester led a refined and often a luxuri¬ 
ous life. Throughout Roman Britain the same 
high degree of civilization is everywhere man¬ 
ifest, Everywhere the dwellings of the upper 
class were warmed by hypocausts beneath 
the flooring of the rooms. Also there were 
baths (supplied by lead pipes), ovens, and 
other, comforts. Consult Conybeare’s Roman 
Britain; Haverfield’s Roman Britain (1906). 

Romans, Epistle to the, the first of the 
epistles of St. Paul as they appear in the New 


4027 



while portions of the city walls and of the 
Tower mark the site of the old Roman forti¬ 
fications. But the Silchester relics in the mu¬ 
seum at .Reading furnish the best representa¬ 
tion of life in a Roman-British city. The city 
was surrounded by a wall nearly two miles in 
circumference and nine ft. thick, as well as 
by a fosse. Beside the forum stood a large 
basilica, 325 ft. in length by 125 ft. in 
breadth, and there is also the foundation of 
what is believed to have been a Christian 
church. Huge wine jars, of a kind used for 
holding the vintages of Spain and Italy, am¬ 
phora, Samian ware, rings, and other person¬ 
al ornaments, and ladies' safety pins, are 


Testament. It is addressed to ‘all that are in 
Rome’ and deals chiefly with the problem, 
How shall a man become righteous before 
God? Paul’s answer is: By personal approp¬ 
riation of and surrender to God as manifested 
in the perfect yet ever-continuing work of 
Jesus Christ— i.e., by faith. 

Though the epistle is not a scientific treat¬ 
ise, but a true letter, it is rightly regarded as 
one of the fundamental bases of Christian 
theology. The Epistle to the Romans was 
probably written at Ephesus, shortly after 1 
and 2 Corinthians (c. 56-58), and was con¬ 
veyed to Rome by Phoebe, a deaconess. Con¬ 
sult numerous Commentaries . 




Romanticism 


Romanticism, a term somewhat loosely 
used and difficult of definition, but in gen¬ 
eral meaning the reproduction in modern art 
or . literature of the life and thought of the 
Middle Ages. The great critic, Walter Pater, 
says that the terms classic and romantic do 
not describe particular periods in literary his 
tory so much as certain qualities and tenden 
aes running through the literature of all 
times and countries. As at present understood, 
the term romanticism faces in two directions. 
As it earlier opposed its novelty, its freedom 
and .lawlessness, its strange beauty, to the 
classical respect for rules, conventions, and 
precedents, so now its discontent with exist¬ 
ing conditions, its idealism, and mysticism are 
opposed to the realist’s adherence to fact. 

.Perhaps the most important title in the 
history of English romanticism is Thomas 
Percy’s Reliques of Ancient English Poetry 
published in 1765. Among the many illus¬ 
trious names which adorn this period are 
those of Chatterton, Byron, Wordsworth, 
Scott, Crabbe, MacPherson, Cowper, Cole¬ 
ridge, and Burns. In Germany the movement 
manifested itself in the transcendentalism of 
Kant, in German pietism, and in such writers 
as Goethe, Novalis, Schiller, Richter, Fouque 
and Hoffman. The great apostle of romanti- 
9 s ™ m France is Victor Hugo. A large and 
brilliant galaxy of names surrounds him 
among them De Musset, Lamartine, Gautier’ 
George Sand, Dumas, Chateaubriand, Rous- 
■seau, Sainte-Beuve, and Flaubert. Consult 
Beers’ English Romanticism in the Eighteenth 
Century; Maar’s Modern English Roman¬ 
ticism (1924). 

■ Romany. See Gypsies. 

Romblon, pueblo, Philippine Islands, capi¬ 
tal of Romblon prov., 167 m. s.e. of Manila 
It has a completely landlocked harbor* p 
10,467. * 

. ^ ome > capital of the ancient world and, 
since 1871, of the kingdom of Italy and of 
toe prov. of Rome; p. 1,349,000. It is on the 
Tiber, about 22 m. from its mouth. The river 
divides the city into two unequal parts, the 
more important lying on the eastern or left 
bank, from which rose the famous 'Seven 
Hills of Rome. The climate is fairly good in 
winter but oppressive and humid in summer. 
/f: ; ™ ocle * n Rome is distinguished for its his¬ 
toric ruins, its many monuments, statues, 
gates, fountains,, public buildings, and famous 
churches. The city is enclosed by a circle of 
detached forts and by a wail pierced by 13 
gates. Twelve bridges span the Tiber in or 
near toe city, several of them of great an- 


4028 


Rome 


tiquity. The oldest is the Ponte dei Quattro 
Capi built by Fabricius in 62 b.c. The Ponte 
Sanf Angelo, with its five arches, leading to 
the Vatican, is the best known. 

For purposes of description, the city may 
be divided into four sections: 1. the n. and 
northeastern hills; 2. the district on the left 
bank of the Tiber; 3. the district to the s.; 
and 4. the district on the w. or right bank of 
the river. The northern and northeastern sec¬ 
tion comprises the.Pincio, Quirinal, Viminal, 
and . Capitoline Hills. In ancient times the 
Pincio was covered with parks and gardens, 
and the Quirinal was the home of the Sabine 
settlement. At the extreme n. is the Porta dei 
Populo, at the beginning of the Via Flaminia, 
which connects Rome with Tuscany. This 
northern district contains the church of Santa 
Maria del Populo; the Fontana di Trevi, the 
finest public fountain in Rome; and the Villa 
Medici, erected in the sixteenth century and 
since 1800 occupied by the French Academy 
of Art. In its eastern part is the Piazza di 
Spagna, .around which centers the foreign life 
of the city. To this square, from the Pincian 
Hill, descends the famous Scala di Spagna, 
with its. 137 steps. Leading from this section 
of the city to the Piazza Venezia, which may 
be said to be the center of Rome, is the broad 
busy thoroughfare known as the Via Nazion- 
ale, the most important street in modern 
Rome. On it stand the Gallery of Modern • 
Art and the Palazzo Colonna. A little to the 
s.e, is the church of Santa Pudenziana, said 
to be the oldest church in Rome, erected on 
the spot where St. Pudens and his daughters 
who entertained St. Peter, are said to have 
lived. Still farther e. rises the imposing edi¬ 
fice of Santa Maria Maggiore, the largest of 
the churches in Rome dedicated to the Vir¬ 
gin. 

The second district, that part lying next 
the Tiber on the left bank, extends from the 
Quirinal and Capitoline Hills to the river. 
During the Middle Ages and the following 
centuries it was almost the only inhabited 
quarter of the city and is still the most dense- 
y populated. It has many narrow crooked 
streets, but contains numberless points of in- 
tCTest. The main thoroughfare is the Corso 
officially known as Corsb Umberto Prirno 
and continued outside the city to the n. as 
the Via Flaminia. The Corso is nearly a m. 
m length; about half way in its course is the 
Piazza Colonna, one of the busiest squares in 
Rome, in the center of which rises the Column 
of Marcus Aurelius (95 ft.). Farther to the s 
is the Palazza Sciarra Colonna, the finest of 



Rome 


4029 


Rome 


the many palaces lining the Corso; at its ter¬ 
mination is the imposing Palazzo Venezia, be¬ 
gun in 1455 and built of stones obtained from 
the Colosseum. Near the Palazzo Venezia is a 
huge, monument to Victor Emmanuel n., be¬ 
gun in 1885 and finished in 1912. It consists 
of colonnades and steps surmounted by an 
equestrian statue of the king and is richly 
adorned with mosaics and paintings. 

Northwest of the Piazza Venezia is the 
Palazzo Doria, one of the most magnificent in 
Rome, with a notable collection of paintings; 
n. of this is the Palazzo Colonna with a pic¬ 
ture gallery; and still farther n.w., near the 
.Tiber, is the Palazzo Borghese with a beauti- 
ful colonnaded court. The church of Santa 
Maria Rotonda, known as the Pantheon, not 
far from the Piazza Colonna, is the only an¬ 
cient building in Rome still in good preser- 
vation. Other noteworthy features in this 
section of Rome are the University; the vari¬ 
ous government offices; the Palazzo della 
Cancellaria, a fine Renaissance building with 
a beautiful court; the Palazzo Farnese, built 
of material taken from the Colosseum and the 
Theatre of Marcellus; the ruins of the Thea¬ 
tre of Marcellus, begun by Caesar and com¬ 
pleted by Augustus; and the Porticus of Oc- 
tavia, erected by Augustus and dedicated to 
his sister. 

The third section of Rome comprises the 
southern portion, beginning with the Capitol 
and containing the Capitoline, Palatine, Av~ 
entine and part of the Esquiline Hills. In the 
time of the empire it was the most important 
part of the city, but has now lost much of 
its characteristic appearance owing to new 
and ill-advised construction. The Capitoline 
Hill is approached by a magnificent staircase, 
which leads to the church of Santa Maria in 
Aracceli, crowning its summit and occupy¬ 
ing the site of the ancient Capitoline temple 
of Juno. The square of the Capitol was de¬ 
signed by Michelangelo. Southeast of the 
Capitoline Hill, between the Palatine and 
Esquiline, lie the remains of the once mag¬ 
nificent Roman Forum. Conspicuous among 
these ruins is the Colosseum. South of the 
Colosseum stands the Triumphal Arch of 
Constantine, one of the best preserved struc¬ 
tures of its kind in Rome. Of the Forum of 
Trajan there still remains a marble shaft, 
known as Trajan’s Column, The Palatine Hill 
was the site of the Roman Quadrata. In the 
days of the republic it was occupied by priv¬ 
ate dwellings, including palaces. The Aven- 
tine, once the home of the Roman ‘plebs,’ is 
now chiefly covered with vineyards and 


monasteries. The section known as the Lat- 
eran lies s.e. of the Colosseum. Here are 
churches and the Lateran Palace, in which 
the popes resided from the time of Constan¬ 
tine until 1300, and which now contains the 
Museum Gregorianum Lateranese, founded 
in 1843. 

The fourth section of the city comprises 
the quarters lying on the w. bank of the 
Tiber. In the n. is the Borgo or Vatican quar¬ 
ter and in the s. is the Trastevere, with the 
Via della Lungara between. The chief ancient 
structure in the Borgo is the Caste! Sant’ 
Angelo, the tomb of Hadrian. West of the 
Castel Sant’ Angelo are the church of St. 
Peter and the Vatican. The Trastevere is the 
home of the working class. In this section are 
the churches of Santa Maria in Trastevere, 
rebuilt in the twelfth century, Santa Cecilia 
in Trastevere, the legendary home of St. Ce¬ 
cilia, and San Pietro in Montorio, on the 
traditional site of St. Peter’s crucifixion. A 
fine view of Rome is afforded from the piazza 
in front of San Pietro in Mortorio. South of 
Rome are the Catacombs, the burial places of 
the early Christians; to the n. is the Villa 
Albani with a good art collection. The Via 
Appia which leads s. from Rome, a famous 
ancient highway, is now transformed into a 
modern street. 

Industrially Rome is not important. Man¬ 
ufactures of art goods, as bronzes, cameos, 
ecclesiastical ornaments, and mosaics, and 
the making of copies of famous paintings are 
flourishing industries. 

After the Allies invaded Italy, Rome was 
declared (Aug. 14, 1943) an open city. 

History of Rome. 1. The Regal Period 
( 753 ~ 5 *° b.c.). —The germ of Rome was a 
village on Mons Palatinus. Legend, tradition, 
and early festivals point to pastoral inhabi¬ 
tants coming from Alba Longa and other 
Latin towns, augmented by migrations. The 
evidence of language points to community of 
origin or early connection with Greeks. It is 
said that this village was first fortified by 
Romulus, who was regarded as founder of 
the city. To his reign ( 753 - 7 * 5 ) are assigned 
the formation of the senate, the introduction 
of Sabine inhabitants, and the first struggles 
with Fidenae and Veii. Of subsequent rulers, 
Servius Tullius (578-534) built the first wall 
including the Seven Hills; he also divided the 
whole people into one hundred and ninety- 
three centuries for military service, and into 
twenty-one tribes for purposes of taxation. 

L. Tarquinius Superbus (534-510) extended 
Roman power beyond veins Latium, fought 



Kome 

-------—----- ^030 ___ Rome 

t* e Vobowis and founded various colonies mitia centuriata of the Campus Martius, the 
Italy. But his tyrannical conduct made populus expressed its will. The Upper House 


him unpopular, and he was exiled. 

2. The Republic (509-265 b.c.).—T he Ro 


was the Senatus (originally composed of 
senes, old men of the patricians, the heads of 


, 1 . — om ^v.14. ui nxv. patiiciaub, tne neaas 01 

e commencement of this period the families) . It was also known as the Con- 

r^;u« r ^ S ° r daDS ’ C0mp0Sed of scri Pt Fibers. The senate solemnly conferred 

(jamtkoe), all supposed to be related the sole executive power of the state on the 
an earing e same name. The paterfamilias king and afterwards on the consuls. The 
was the unit of Roman life; the heads of the kingship, elective, conferred the powers of 




UPP r«wTTf ^ .Emmanuel and Tomb of the Unknown Soldier; Lower 

Castel Sant Angelo (Hadrian’s Tomb) and the Ponte S. Angelo Across the Tiber. ’ 


families of the original gentes formed the or- 

iginal patricians, their descendants, the great 
Patrician Order; gentes formed later con¬ 
sisted of the Plebes (originally ‘the many’), 
who possessed no "political rights until they 
won them under the early republic. 

A popular assembly, the comitia euriata, 
assembled in the comitium, the Lower House; 
by it, and by the Servian institution, the co- j 


punishment and death, symbolized by the 
fasces or rods and axes borne before the Ro¬ 
man ruler by twelve lictors. The king (or the 
inter-rex) appointed his successor. 

For over two centuries the history of 
Rome is chiefly the struggle of the patrician 
and plebeian orders. Poverty and the custom 
by which the debtor became the slave (nexus 
or addictm) of his creditor led in 494 to the 










© Publishers Photo Service. 

The Roman Colosseum: Exterior and Interior Views. 













Rome 


4032 


secession of the plebeians to the Mons Sacer, 
where they, threatened to establish an in¬ 
dependent city. By the Lex Sacrata they ob¬ 
tained alleviation of their misery, and the 
right to appoint annually t rib uni plebis, or¬ 
iginally two, finally ten, in number, with 
power. The decemviri legibus scribundis drew 
up, in' 451-450, the Twelve Tables of the 
Roman law, thus abolishing a great plebeian 
grievance law, like religion, having been 
previously a mystery only to be known by 
patricians. The Lex Canuleia (455) legalized 
for the first time, marriage between patricians 
and plebeians. 

. The plebeians continued to gain conces- 
sions. In 326 nexum, by which defaulting 
debtors became at once slaves of their credi- 
tors, was abolished. In 304 Cn. Flavius pub¬ 
lished the fasti and formulae of lawsuits ,* in 
300 the lex Ogulnia admitted plebeians to the 
colleges of pontiffs and augurs. About 275- 
266 the aedileship gave an entree to the sen¬ 
ate. All disabilities were now at an end, ex¬ 
cept that patricians could not be tribunes. In 
the intervals of these struggles Rome had 
been conquering Italy, and by 266 Roman 
authority extended from the Rubicon to 
Rhegium. 

3. The Republic (265-28 b.c.).—T he form¬ 
ation of provinces beyond the sea began with 
the Punic Wars. Commercial rivalry was the 
cause of these wars. The immediate object of 
the first war (264-241) was Sicily. At the end 
of the war, Sicily, except the kingdom of Sy¬ 
racuse, was made the first Roman province. 
Corsica and Sardinia followed. In the second 
Punic War (218-201), Sardinia was retained, 
and after ten years of fighting the Carthagin¬ 
ians were driven from Spain. Carthage had 
to surrender all ships of war, to evacuate 
Spain and all possessions beyond the frontier, 
and could offer no resistance to Roman ex¬ 
pansion. The provinces were increased by the 
addition of the kingdom of Syracuse to Sicily, 
by the formation of two provinces in Spain, 
and by a protectorate over Numidia. Politic¬ 
ally the effect of the war was to enhance the 
position of the senate, which, in the absence 
of the magistrates on service and at times of 
trouble, assumed many administrative func- 
tions. Indirectly also it led to an eastward ex¬ 
pansion, Rome becoming supreme in Greece 
and Asia Minor after 189. 

In 146, after a three years’ siege, Carthage 
was destroyed, and her territory made into 
the province of Africa. The Roman ex¬ 
chequer gained so much from these conquests 
that citizens were no longer called upon to I 


Rome 

pay the land tax {tributum), while great 
fortunes were made by companies of revenue 
collectors ( publicani ) and by bankers and 
money-lenders. Senators were debarred from 
these employments, which were therefore un¬ 
dertaken by equites, who thus' formed a 
wealthy middle class. The governorships were 
also immensely profitable. How these oppor¬ 
tunities were abused is shown by the fact 
that the first qucestio perpetua established 
was for trial of malversation by governors in 
the provinces (149). 

The reverse side of the picture is the dis¬ 
tress among agriculturists in Italy. The price 
of corn went down owing to importation 
from Sicily, Sardinia, and Egypt. Only large 
holdings paid. Small owners were bought out, 
free laborers supplanted by slaves, and the 
city was crowded with indigent people, thus 
forced from the land, while those who stayed 
were unable to compete with the great own- 
ers, who also held more than the legal amount 
of ager publicus, or fed more than the legal 
amount of cattle on it. Tiberius Gracchus 
proposed to reduce the holdings of this land 
to the legal standard, and to settle poor citi¬ 
zens on the surplus (133-131). Both he and 
his brother Gaius (123-121) perished by vio¬ 
lence at the hands of the aristocrats. The pro¬ 
posals of Gaius aimed at curtailing the power 
of the senate by transferring the judicia to 
the equites . The poor were to be relieved by 
colonies, by distribution of cheap corn, by the 
shortening of the time by military service, 
and by giving the soldiers their arms and 
clothing. The bloodshed accompanying the 
fall of the Gracchi began the revolutionary 
era. A popular party arose, ready to go all 
lengths against the senatorial government and 
the monopoly of office by the great families. 
The struggle waged, the constitution of the 
republic resting in the power of first one and 
then another leader, leadership being deter¬ 
mined by the fighting strength of a man’s 
soldiers. 

Finally, in 60, Pompey, Caesar, and Cras- 
sus, the millionaire, joined in the informal 
coalition known as the ‘First Triumvirate.’ 
Pempey’s acta were confirmed; Caesar ob¬ 
tained the consulship for 59, and the prov¬ 
inces of Gaul and Illyricum for five years af¬ 
terwards. But Caesar’s successes. in. Gaul al¬ 
armed the senate, and Pompey was gradu¬ 
ally placed by it in a position to counter¬ 
balance him. Crassus perished at Carrhse 
( 53 ) and in spite of the renewal of the agree¬ 
ment in 56, whereby Cjesar had five more 
years in Gaul, Pompey and Caesar gradually 



Rome 


4033 


Rome 


became alienated. Pompey was resolved that 
Caesar should resign his provinces before 
standing for the consulship in 48; Caesar was 
resolved to enjoy the full term of office given 
him by law, and not to come home as a priv¬ 
ate citizen. Pompey was, murdered in Egypt, 
in 48. For the rest of his life, however, Caesar 
was in almost constant warfare, and could 
only partly carry out his large schemes of re¬ 
form. On March 15, 44, he was assassinated. 

A second triumvirate was formed in 43 by 
Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian, to last five 
years. Antony then went to Asia to govern 
the East; while Octavian returned to Rome 
to govern the West, Lepidus being allowed 
Africa. But Antony met Cleopatra at Tarsus, 
and falling under her influence followed her 
to Alexandria. There he shocked Roman feel¬ 
ing by seeming to wish to transfer the center 
of empire to Alexandria. In 36 Lepidus was 
deposed from the triumvirate, which had been 
extended to a second period of five years 
(37). Octavian’s popularity grew as that of 
Antony decreased. He became to the Ro¬ 
mans the guarantee of peace and safety. 
After more than one quarrel and reconcilia¬ 
tion, the two men resolved on war. In 32 
the senate formally deposed Antony from his 
command and declared war on Cleopatra. 
Defeated at Actiiim, both committed suicide 
in Egypt. At the end of the year 28 the newly 
devised constitution left Octavian Caesar head 
of the state, with powers resting on decrees 
or plebiscita. 

4. The Principate and Empire (27 B.C.-305 
a.d.) .— Octavian Caesar now received the title 
‘Augustus’ and proconsulate imperium, giv¬ 
ing him practical command over all troops 
in Italy and the provinces. In 23 Augustus 
dropped the consulship, and received a con¬ 
firmation of the tribunicia potestas for life, 
by which he henceforth dated the years. He 
secured peace in Italy, though there were 
several wars. From this time the history of 
the Roman Empire is that of her emperors. 
Among these emperors, Tiberius (14-27 a.d.), 
Caligula (37-41), Claudius (41-54), and Nero 
(54-68) depended on their armies for power. 
The Flavians (69-96) began with Vespasian, 
and attempted to restore the senate to its 
former power, to return to a simpler life, 
and to promote the general welfare of the 
people. Many of the emperors from about 
200 to 300 were proclaimed by soldiers and 
later killed by them. From 268 to 284 (Clau¬ 
dius to Diocletian) there were some able 
emperors who put down pretenders and se¬ 
cured the frontiers, Britain being recovered, 


Egypt reconquered, and the Persians forced 
to cede territory beyond the Tigris. 

Constantine, in 323, ruling the empire alone, 
adopted the Christian religion, thus making 
it the state religion, and ending the severe 
persecution of Christians. However, Julian 
(360-363) attempted to supersede Christian¬ 
ity by a restoration of Hellenism. From 
about 370 a.d. the history of Rome was 
marked by a series of barbarian invasions. 
There was extreme poverty within the em¬ 
pire, the populace being drained by excessive 
taxation for the support of armies and the 
court. By 439 the Western empire had 
shrunk to Italy and Sicily and Sardinia. The 
next invasion, that of the Huns, was repelled. 
After ravaging the Eastern empire (441-450), 
Attila, the ‘scourge of God,’ was defeated at 
Chalons by the Visigoths, and died in 453. 
But in 455 Genseric and his Vandals from 
Africa again took Rome. The Visigoths took 
possession of Italy, and their leader Ricimer 
put up and deposed whatever emperor he 
chose. There was still an emperor at Rome 
or Ravenna; but Ricimer called himself 
king at Milan, and after his death (472), 
Odoacer, having suppressed some rivals, took 
the same position. In 476 he deposed Romu¬ 
lus Augustulus (son of Orestes, his predeces¬ 
sor in command of the army), and made 
himself king of Italy; though Zeno, emperor 
of the East, still regarded Julius Nepos, who 
had been recognized in 474, as emperor till 
his death in 480. The senate signified to Zeno 
at New Rome that they were content with 
one emperor, and that ‘the republic would 
be protected by Odoacer.’ The Western em¬ 
pire, thus merged in the Eastern, was in a 
sense revived by Charlemagne in 800 as ‘the 
Holy Roman Empire,’ and continued with 
various developments till the resignation of 
Francis n. in 1806. Its connection with 
Rome ceased after Charles v. (1519) . The 
imperial pretensions were meanwhile main¬ 
tained at Constantinople till 1453. For mod¬ 
ern Rome, see Italy. 

Bibliography. 1. Latin.—'Fox early Roman 
history there are no contemporary authori¬ 
ties. .Our., chief source is Titus Livius, who 
wrote a History of Rome from the founda¬ 
tion to 9 b.c. Cicero’s works give a vivid 
contemporary picture from about 70 to 43 b.c. 
For the conquest of Gaul (58-51 b.c.) and 
the civil wars from 49 to 45 b.c. we have 
the Commentaries of Julius Caesar. Another 
history is by Aurelius Victor, The Origin of 
Rome, Illustrious Men, and The Ccesars from 
Augustus to Constantius n. 



Rome 


4034 


2. Greek. Polybius, for the first Punic 
War, and a great part of the second. Dion 
Cassius wrote a history of Rome from the 
foundation to the reign of Elagabalus (222) ; 
it is particularly valuable for the period of 
the Civil War and the principates of Augus¬ 
tus, Caligula, and Trajan. 

3. English .—Larger histories are Momm¬ 
sen’s The History of Rome and Provinces 
of the Roman Empire; Merivale’s General 
History to A.D. 476, and Fall of the Roman 
Republic; Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire; Fowler’s Roman Festivals; 
Smith s Dictionary of Roman Antiquities . 

Rome, city, Georgia, 50 m. n.w. of Atlanta. 
Shorter College for Women (Baptist), the 
Martha Berry Industrial School for boys and 
girls, and a boys’ preparatory school are 
situated here. The leading industrial estab¬ 
lishments are cotton and lumber mills, tan¬ 
neries, foundries, machine shops, and various 
manufactories. It is a large peach and cotton 
market. The region is also rich in mineral 
wealth, bauxite, iron ore, barytes, and tripoli 
ore being extensively mined; p. 26,282. 

Rome, city, New York, Oneida co., on the 
Mohawk River, 14 m. n.w. of Utica. It is 
the seat of a State Custodial Asylum and of 
the Central New York Deaf Mute Institu¬ 
tion. 

Rome > Prix a prize founded in 1666 
by Louis xiv. of France, to enable young 
painters and sculptors to study at Rome. It 
is now granted by the French government, 
following competitive examination, to paint¬ 
ers, sculptors, musicians and architects (an¬ 
nually); line engravers (biennially); en¬ 
gravers on fine stones and medalists (trien- 
nially). The winner is allowed four years 
study at the Villa Medici in Rome, which 
is under the direction of the Academie des 
■. Beaux Arts. 

Rommell, Erwin Eugen Johannes 

(1891-1944), German soldier, served in World 
War 1 and later became a Nazi; trained the 
Storm Troops and Elite Guards. In World 
War II was field marshal; drove the British 
back into Egypt, but was later defeated; died 
in action, 1944. 

Romney, George (1734-1802), English 
portrait painter, was born in Dalton, Lanca¬ 
shire. He painted fashionable men and 
women of the day, and was noted as a 
painter of boys; yet he was never admitted 
to the Academy. He also painted large his¬ 
torical compositions. His work lacks concen- 
trated vigor and spiritual insight, and is un¬ 
equal; but his best has simplicity, poetical 


Ronsard 


treatment, and dexterous draughtsmanship, 
and gives an impression of movement and of 
elusive grace. 

Romulo, Carlos Pena (1900- ), U. S 

Army officer and author, was born in Manila; 
educated at Columbia; professor and public 
official in Philippines. ^Rescued from Bataan 
m 1942, became Gen. MacArthur’s aide-de- 
camp. Wrote I Saw the Fall of the Philip¬ 
pines (1942). 

Romulus, in ancient Roman legend, the 
son, by Mars, of Rhea Sylvia, and twin- 
brother of Remus. Mother and children hav¬ 
ing been cast into the river Anio, the mother 
was turned into a goddess, and the children 
were washed ashore and suckled by a she- 
wolf. After they had founded Rome, Romu- 
lus, having slain his brother Remus, made 
the^ Capitol an asylum for homicides and 
fugitive slaves. Romulus reigned to 715, until 
he was carried up to heaven in a fiery chariot 
by Mars, his father. 

Rondeau, or Rondel, a form of lyric akin 
to the sonnet, of French origin, consists usu¬ 
ally of thirteen iambic lines, arranged in three 
irregular strophes, with only two rhymes, 
and with a refrain repeated in the first’ 
eighth, and thirteenth lines. ’ 

Rondo, an early form of instrumental 
composition, in which the first and principal 
subject alternates with other subsidiary sub¬ 
jects. At first it seldom contained more than 
two subjects, but Mozart, Beethoven, and 
later composers introduced three, the second 
and third, when reappearing, being always 
m new keys, and frequently developed or 
varied to a considerable extent. 

Ronge, Johannes (1813-87), the leader of 
the German Catholic movement, was born 
at Bischopwaide in Silesia, and became 
(3:840) a Roman Catholic priest. While act- 
ing as teacher of a village school, he drew 
on himself excommunication. Thereupon he 
established a ‘German Catholic’ church inde¬ 
pendent of the pope. Having taken part in 
the political movement of 1848, he had to 
take refuge in London, where he lived till 
1861. 

Ronsard, Pierre de (1524-85), French 
poet, was born ^ near Vendome. The object 
he set before himself was to impart some- 

thing of the ancient classic polish to the 
French language, and so render it better 
fitted to be the vehicle of poetic expression. 
His lyrics alone are palatable to modern 
readers. Sainte-Beuve edited (1828; new ed 
1879) his CEuvres Choisies. Some of Ron- 
sard’s poems were translated by Longfellow • 



4035 _ Rood 

also by Page in Ms Songs and Sonnets of cel screen, hence termed the rood screen. 
Pierre de Ronsard (1903). Generally figures of the Virgin and St. John 

Rontgen, Wilhelm Konrad von (1845- were placed on each side. 

1923), German physicist was born at Lennep. Rood, a unit of superficial measurement, 
It was while he was professor of physics at the fourth part of a statute acre, and equal 
Wiirtzburg that he made the discovery for to 40 square perches or poles, or 1,210 square 
which his name is chiefly known, the Ront- yards. 

gen rays, popularly known as X-rays, a Rood, Ogden Nicholas (1831-1902), Am- 



name he used owing to doubt of the exact erican physicist. In 1858-63 he was professor 
nature of these curiously acting rays. of chemistry and physics in Troy University, 

Rontgen Rays, X-rays. See Vacuum N. Y., and in 1863-1902 professor of physics 
Tubes, Radio-Activity and Radium. . in Columbia University, N. Y. He made 
Rood, a cross or crucifix; specifically a many valuable scientific discoveries, includ- 
representatiqn of the crucified Saviour, or ing methods of making of quantitative ex- 
more commonly, of the Trinity, placed in Ro- periments on color-contrast, the measurement 
man Catholic churches on or over the chan- of the duration of lightning flashes, and the 











Roosevelt 


application of stereoscopic photography to 
the microscope, besides devising a flicker 
photometer of novel form, 

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (1SS2- 
1:945), thirty-second President of the United 
States, was born in Hyde Park, New York, 
January 30, 1S82, and educated at Groton 
and Harvard, where he was graduated in 
1904. In 1905 he married his cousin, Anna 
Eleanor Roosevelt. Five children were born 
to them, James, Anna, Eliott, Franklin D., 
and John A. After three years at Columbia 
University Law School he was admitted to 
the bar and practised with Carter, Ledyard 
and Milburn, 1907-1910. In 1911 he became 
a member of the law firm, Marvin, Hooker 
and Roosevelt, and in 1924 of Roosevelt & 
O’Connor. He was elected to the New York 
State Senate in 1910 and resigned to become 
Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1913-1920, 
which period covered the World War. As 
State Senator, he led important opposition to 
Tammany Hall, blocking Boss Charles E. 
Murphy’s efforts to dictate the senatorial 
nomination of William Sheehan. He was 
nominated, for Vice-President at the Demo¬ 
cratic National Convention, 1920. In 192S 
he was elected Governor of New York for 
the term 1929-1931, and reelected for a sec¬ 
ond term during which he removed a New 
York County Sheriff and forced the resig¬ 
nation of James J. Walker Mayor of New 
York City. 

At the Democratic National Convention 
in 1932 Mr. Roosevelt was nominated for 
the Presidency on the fourth ballot, July 1. 
The ensuing November election proved a sen¬ 
sational victory for the Democrats. The day 
of Roosevelt’s inauguration, March 4, marked 
so serious a crisis in the banks of the country 
that Roosevelt proclaimed a bank holiday be¬ 
ginning March 6, during which no money 
could be paid out; he also called a special 
session of Congress for March 9, He was 
able to get numerous measures passed by this 
Congress and soon began the planning of the 
New Deal. (See.UNITED STATES, NEW 
DEAL). In 1936 he won a second term over 
Alfred M. Landon, carrying every state' ex¬ 
cept Vermont and Maine. In 1937 he called 
for a reorganization of the Supreme Court 
(See SUPREME COURT). In 1938 the 
wages-and-hours law was passed, establish¬ 
ing a 40-hour week and fixing minimum 
wages. This term was also marked by the 
many sit-down strikes. 

In 1940 he broke the tradition against a 
third term and defeated Wendell L. Willkie. 


4636 


Roosevelt 


In his message to Congress, Jan. 6, 1941, 
he advocated four freedoms: freedom of 
speech and religion, freedom from want and 
fear. He joined Prime Minister Churchill 
in issuing the Atlantic Charter (see AT¬ 
LANTIC CHARTER), secured the passage 
of the Lend-Lease Bill (see Lend-Lease), 
and following the Japanese attack on Pearl 
Harbor, Dec. 1941, called on Congress to 
declare war against Japan and Germany. 
In 1942 he established the War Labor Board 
and asked for fixed price ceilings and ration¬ 
ing of essential commodities. In 1943 and 
1944 he was engrossed in war problems, with 
conferences at Casablanca, Cairo and 
Teheran. In some instances labor troubles 
led to government seizure and operation of 
war plants. 

In 1944 Roosevelt won a fourth-term 
victory over Thomas E. Dewey. He attended 
the Crimea Conference at Yalta (see 
CRIMEA CONFERENCE) in Feb. 1945. 
Here, as in previous Allied conferences, he 
evidenced marked ability as a statesman. On 
April 12, while on a visit at Warm Springs, 
Ga., he suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and 
oied suddenly. On April 14 funeral services 
were held in the White House in Washington 
and on the following day the President was 
buried in the garden of his estate at Hyde 
Park, N. Y. 

Pres. Roosevelt will be remembered for 
the many democratic social measures he 
sponsored and for his able leadership in 
World War II. Consult Lindley’s Franklin 
D. Roosevelt r (1932) ; Looker, This Man 
Roosevelt (1932); Mrs. Sara Roosevelt, My 
Boy Franklin (1933); Ross & Grobin, This 
Democratic Roosevelt (1932), 

Roosevelt, Kermit (1889-1943), son of 
Theodore Roosevelt, president of the Roose¬ 
velt Steamship Company. His books include 
V/ar in the Garden of Eden (1919); and 
American Backlogs (1928). 

Roosevelt, Nicholas (1893- ), diplo¬ 

matist and editorial writer, was appointed 
Minister to Hungary by President Hoover in 
1930. He resigned later to join the staff of 
the New York Herald Tribune. Earlier, he 
had been Vice-Governor of the Philippines. 

He wrote several books, including The Rest¬ 
less Pacific , The Philippines, a Treasure and a 
Problem , and America and England. 

Roosevelt, Nicholas J. (1767-1854), 
American inventor, was born in New York. 
During the Revolution he invented a paddle 
boat in which the movement of the paddle 
was produced by springs. In 1802. he assisted 



Roosevelt 


4037 


Roosevelt 


Robert Fulton in building a small marine en¬ 
gine, and in 1809 he formed a partnership 
with Fulton for constructing steamboats for 
the Western rivers. 

Roosevelt, Robert Barnwell (1829- 
1906), American author, uncle of President 
Theodore Roosevelt, born in New York. He 
established the New York State Fishery 
Commission, and was president of the Inter¬ 
national Association for the Protection of 
Game; also a member of the American Asso¬ 
ciation for the Advancement of Science. 
Among his published works are: The Game 
Fish of North America (i860) ; The Game 
Birds of the North (1866); Florida and the 
Game Water Birds (1869) • 

Roosevelt, Theodore (1858-1919), twen¬ 
ty-sixth President, of the United States, was 
born in New York City, Oct. 27, 1858. He 
was the son of Theodore (1831-78), and 
Martha (Bulloch) Roosevelt, and was de¬ 
scended in a direct line from Claes Martens- 
zoon and Jannetje (Thomas) Van Roosevelt, 
who came to New Amsterdam from Holland 
about 1651. He was graduated from Har¬ 
vard in 1880, and married in the same year I 
Alice, daughter of George Cabot and Caroline 
(Haskell) Lee of Boston, Mass. She died 
in 1883, leaving one daughter, Alice Lee— 
later Mrs. Nicholas Longworth. 

After a short course in law Roosevelt be¬ 
gan to take an active interest in politics, 
becoming a Republican member of the New 
York State Assembly in 1882,1883, and 1884. 
He was a delegate to the Republican State 
convention of 1884, and delegate-at-large 
from New York and chairman of the New 
York delegation to the Republican National 
Convention at Chicago in June, 1884. He 
also became a member of the New York mil¬ 
itia, serving in the 8th regiment of the State 
National Guard. He married for his second 
wife, on December 2, 1886, Edith Kermit, 
daughter ©f Charles and Gertrude Elizabeth 
(Tyler) Carow of New York City. Presi¬ 
dent Harrison appointed him, in May, 1889, 
a member of the United States Civil Service 
Commission, and President Cleveland con¬ 
tinued him in office until, in the spring of 
1895, he resigned to enter the administration 
of Mayor Strong in New York as police com¬ 
missioner. He was recalled to Washington 
two years later to take the position of Assis¬ 
tant Secretary of the Navy. 

War with Spain having been declared in 
April, 1898, Roosevelt recruited the First U. 
S. V. Cavalry, better known as the Rough 
Riders. In November, i8q8;' he became the 


Republican candidate for governor of New 
York. His two years’ administration wat 
conspicuous for its vigorous reform of the 
State canal management and the establish¬ 
ment of an improved civil service system. In 
June, 1900, he was forced, much against his 
own preference, to accept a nomination for 
Vice-President on the ticket with William 
McKinley for President. He was sworn into 
office in March, 1901. In the fall of the same 
year occurred the assassination of President 
McKinley, and on September 14 Mr. Roose. 
velt succeeded to the Presidency. Events of 
this period were the settlement in 1902 of 
the coal strike in the anthracite fields of 
Pennsylvania, and of the Venezuela difficulties 
of 1902-1903. In 1904 Roosevelt was elected 
President in his own right. A notable achieve¬ 
ment of that administration was the bringing 
to a close of the Russo-Japanese War, a serv¬ 
ice for which he was awarded the Nobel 
Peace Prize in 1906. The secession of Panama 
from the Colombian confederation in 1903 
opened the way for the assumption by the 
United States of the construction work which 
had been carried on till that time under 
French auspices. The recognition of the se¬ 
ceding state as an independent republic, and 
the negotiation of a treaty vesting the neces¬ 
sary rights in the United States Government, 
have been styled The Roosevelt coup d'etat! 
The enactment of a law conferring practi¬ 
cally dictatorial powers in the Canal Zone 
upon the President placed the matter on a 
settled footing, and thereafter he supervised 
every stage of the proceedings, even visiting 
the Isthmus in person in 1906. (See Panama 
Canal.) Roosevelt also prosecuted a vigor¬ 
ous warfare against the aggressions of in¬ 
dustrial monopolies, and turned the enginery 
of the Department of Justice upon several 
of the so-called trusts. 

On March 4, 1909, Roosevelt retired from 
office. Before the expiration of his term he 
had planned an expedition to Africa to hunt, 
and incidentally to gather specimens of rare 
fauna for the Smithsonian Institution, which 
outfitted the expedition. His party which in¬ 
cluded his son Kermit and a small group of 
naturalists, had many interesting adventures; 
and sent home trophies embracing 4,897 spec¬ 
imens of mammals, more than 4,000 birds, 
about 2,000 reptiles and batrachians, and 
some 500 fishes. The return journey included 
short stays in leading cities of Egypt, Italy, 
Austria, France, Belgium, Holland, Norway, 
Germany, and England, where Roosevelt was 
highly honored. 



Roosevelt 


w F f U ^ W A ng a nft between himself and Pres¬ 
ident Taft, and a disagreement between him¬ 
self and Republican leaders, he became in 
1912 candidate of his newly organized Pro¬ 
gressive Party for the presidency, but was 
defeated in the November election by Wood- 
row Wilson. (See United States, History.) 
An exploring trip to South America followed 


4033 



Root 


® 1916, by A. L. Pack 

Theodore Roosevelt. 

In 19x4. During the World War, Roosevelt 
urged on the administration an earlier en¬ 
trance on the side of the Allies than was 
m the plan of President Wilson. His death 
occurred suddenly on January 6, 1919. 

The personality of Theodore Roosevelt was 
scarcely less striking than his career. His 
most notable mental characteristics were an 


extraordinary quickness of apprehension, a 
keen interest in every subject which had to 
do with human progress, and a whole-souled 
scorn of the insincere. As an executive he 
was distinguished for his resourcefulness in 
devising, and his boldness in attempting, new 
methods of accomplishing results for which 
others had struggled in vain over well-beaten 
paths, and his tireless pursuit of an end 
upon which he had once fixed his purpose. 
He was honored with the degree of ixd 
from nearly every important university in 
the United States, and many European uni¬ 
versities. Roosevelt’s published works in¬ 
clude: The Winning of the West; American 
Big Game Hunting (1S93) ; The Strenuous 
Life (1900) ; African Game Trails (1910) • 
The New Nationalism (1910); Theodore 
Roosevelt , an Autobiography (ioi‘?) * 

Through the Brazilian Wilderness (1914)’ 
Life Histories of American Game Animals 
(1914); America and the World War (xqie) 
His Complete Works, in 15 volumes, were 
issued m igro. 

Roosevelt Dam, the chief feature of the 
halt River Project, an important irrigation 
undertaking of the U. S. Reclamation Serv¬ 
ice, located in the valley of the Salt River 
Arizona. The Roosevelt Dam lies in an in¬ 
accessible mountain region, 75 m. ne of 
Phoenix. The site of the dam is in a narrow 
gorge cut by the river through a lofty ridge 
of sandstone, which helped supply the mate¬ 
rial for its construction. The dam was com¬ 
pleted in 1911 a t a cost of $6,500,000. Its 
base covers about an acre of ground, and it 
rises, from foundation to parapet, 286 ft At 
the base it is 235 ft., and on the top x,o8o 
ft., m length. The dam is built on a curve 
upstream, having a radius of about 400 ft. 
”~ e reservoir outlet is through a tunnel 
about 500 ft. long, in which are six gates to 
be used for sluicing and for regulating the 
flow from the reservoir. With the reservoir 
full these gates discharge about 10,000 cubic 
ft. per second. Two spillways, each about 
200 ft. long, carry the flood waters around 
the dam. The dam backs up the waters of 
Salt River and Tonto Creek about 16 m. 
making a lake about 25 m. long, and 1 to 2 
m. wide, impounding about 1,200,000 acre 
It. (about 456,190,000,000 gallons) of water. 

Un heb. 5, 1911, the last stone was set, and 
on March 18 the dam was formally opened 
by Theodore Roosevelt, in whose honor it 
is named. 

Root, in Algebra, denotes any value of the 
unknown quantity In an equation which will 





A CLIMBING ROSE 



Root 


* 

403 $ Roots 


render both sides of it identical (see Equa¬ 
tion). In arithmetic, the square root is that 
number which, multiplied by itself, produces 
the given number; the cube root, the num¬ 
ber which, multiplied into itself and then 
into the product, produces the given cube; 
so with fourth root, fifth root, etc. 

Root, in Plants, is that part which absorbs 
nourishment from the soil or from water. The 
root ordinarily grows downward, and its 
functions are the fixing of the plant in the 
soil, and the extraction therefrom of solu¬ 
tions of mineral salts and other food material, 
which are passed on through the stem to 
the leaves. As the leaf surface of a seed plant 
is developed the root system grows; in a 
large sunflower it occupies about one cubic 
yard, in a large tree hundreds of cubic 
yards. The primary root is merely the en¬ 
larged radicle of the seedling: it is the direct 
prolongation of the stem. All secondary roots 
arise from this first root; the secondary roots 
may give rise to others-, and so on, until the 
common much-branched root is formed. 
When the primary root is much thicker than 
the secondary roots it is called a tap root. 
Roots are also described as fleshy (the beet 
root), or as woody (the roots of trees). 

Roots are usually buried in the soil, but 
they may be aerial, as in the ivy; these arise 
from the stem, and fix the plants to their 
supports. In the tropics many plants have 
aerial roots; thus the mangrove forms forests 
in the swamps. Aquatic plants often have 
roots which do not penetrate into the mud, 
but float freely in the water. 

Root stock or Rhizome is the name given 
to an underground stem that is easily dis¬ 
tinguished from a root by the fact that it 
ends in a bud, and bears leaves or scales. 
In the autumn the aerial leaves die down, 
but the rhizome lives through the winter, and 
in the spring its terminal bud goes on grow¬ 
ing. See Plants. 

Root, Elihu (1845-1937), American lawyer 
and public official, was born in Clinton, N. Y. 
He practised law in New York, and made 
rapid strides in his profession. He was coun¬ 
sel for William M. Tweed in the celebrated 
Tweed Ring trial; and for many great cor¬ 
porations and railway companies. From 1881 
to 1885 he was district attorney for the 
southern district of New York. 

In 1899 Elihu Root succeeded Russell A. 
Alger as Secretary of War, and at once set 
about reforming the Department. In 1904 
he retired to the practice of law in New York 
City; but in July, 1005, upon the death of 


[ John Hay, re-entered the Cabinet as Secre¬ 
tary of State. In this office he did much 
toward reorganizing the consular service and 
improving the business methods of the De¬ 
partment. In 1909 he was elected U. S. Sen¬ 
ator, to succeed Thomas C. Platt, for the 
term ending in 1915. In 1912 he was perman¬ 
ent chairman of the Republican Nationa 1 



Copyright Pack Bros. 


Elihu Root. 

Convention, and in 1916 candidate for the 
Republican presidential nomination. The 
Nobel Peace Prize of 1912 was awarded to 
Root in recognition of his services for the 
pacification of Cuba and the Philippines, and 
his handling of various matters in dispute 
between Japan and the United States. He 
was trustee of the Cooper Union and Metro¬ 
politan Museum of Art, director in several 
companies, and held important offices in both 
national and international bodies. 

Root, George Frederick (1S20-95), 
American composer and organist, composed 
some of the most popular songs of his time, 
notably ‘The Battle Cry of Freedom,’ ‘Tramp, 
Tramp, Tramp,’ ‘Just Before the Battle, 
Mother/ and the quartet, ‘There’s Music in 
the Air.’ 

Roots, Logan Herbert (1870), American 


Ropes* 


4040 


bishop, was born near Tamaroa, Perry co., 
Ill. He studied at the Episcopal Theological 
Seminary, Cambridge, Mass, In 1896 he 
went to China, where he was engaged in gen¬ 
eral missionary work until 1904. In that 
year he was consecrated missionary bishop 
of Hankow, China. 

Roper, Daniel Calhoun (1867-1943), 
Secretary of Commerce, was born in Marl- 
• k° ro co., S. C. He was a member of the 
S. C. House of Representatives, 1892-4; 
clerk of the U. S. Senate Committee on In 
terstate Commerce, 1894-7; clerk of the 
Ways and Means Committee of the House 
of Representatives, 1910-13 ; first-asst. Post. 
master-General, 1913-16 ; vice-chairman U. 
S. Tariff Commission, 1917 ; commissioner of 
Internal Revenue, 1917-20; Secretary ol 
Commerce 1933-39. 

Ropes. The term rope is usually confined 
to the larger species of cordage, such as ex¬ 
ceed one Inch in circumference, though the 
principles of manufacture are the same for all 
kinds of cordage. The materials used in¬ 
clude Manila hemp, flax, cotton, hemp, jute, 
sisai > coil \ and other vegetable fibres. These 
are spun into yarn by machines resembling 
in principle those used for spinning cotton. 
A dozen of these yarns may be ‘laid’ to¬ 
gether by machine, to form a small strand 
called twine, and three or more strands be 
similarly laid together to form a small cord. 
For rope making the same operations are 
performed, but with a larger number of yarns 
to the strand. The first machines for rope 
making were used in England in 1820; while 
thoroughly practical machinery was first em¬ 
ployed in Massachusetts in 1834. Since that 
time many improvements have been made 
and American rope-making machinery is used 
all over the world. 

Rops Felicien (1833-98), Belgian painter 
and etcher, was born in Namur. He gained 
a high reputation as an engraver and painter 
m oil and water colors. Examples of his art 
are the engravings Buveuse d’Absinthe (1863) 
and Dame au Pantin (1871), and the water 
colors .Za Scandale (1876), Une Attrafiade 
(1877), Dentation de St. Antoine ( 1878), and 
Pornocrates (1878). He was also an illustra- 
tor of note. 

Roque, a development of the game of cro¬ 
quet, but requiring a greater degree of skill 
and accuracy It can be played by two 
but four or eight players, playing partners’ 
m a ke a more interesting contest. The Na¬ 
tional Roque Association, which controls the 
game in America, was founded in 1882, and. 


Rosacesg 


since that time has held annual champion¬ 
ship tournaments, the title being awarded 
in three divisions, the players being formed 
into classes according to merit. There are 
also sectional tournaments with champion¬ 
ships. For rules of the game, consult Spald¬ 
ing s Official Roque Guide, 

Roque, Saint (1293-1327), patron saint of 
sufferers from plague, was born in Mont¬ 
pellier and travelled as a pilgrim through 
Fiance, Italy, Spain, and Germany, minis¬ 
tering to the sick. 

Roquefort, town, Southern France, in the 
department of Aveyron. It has been famous 
since Roman times for its cheeses, made of 
goat’s milk and sheep’s milk and matured in 
grottoes and cellars beneath the village* p 
1,200. 5 

Roraima, highest mountain in British 
Guiana, the culminating point of the Paca- 
raima range, situated at a point where Vene¬ 
zuela, British Guiana, and Brazil meet. The 
upper part rises in precipices from 1,600 to 
3 j°°° ft. high; the upper surface is an im¬ 
mense red sandstone rock, nearly 8 m. long, 
and extremely picturesque. The highest 
point is 8,740 ft. above sea-level. 

Rosa, Carl August Nicholas (1843-89), 
German operatic impresario and musician, 
was bom in Hamburg, his real name being 
Rose. He studied in Leipzig and in Paris, 
made a tour of the United States in 1867’ 
when he married Euphrosyne Parepa, the 
famous soprano, and sang with her in the 
principal American cities in 1869-72. 

Rosa, Monte, the name given to a group 
of lofty Alpine peaks between Switzerland 
and Italy, near Zermatt. 

Rosa, Salvator (1615-73), Italian painter, 
etcher, and poet, was bora near Naples. He 
went in 1635 to Rome, where he found favor 
with Cardinal Brancaccia. He returned to 
Naples, but in 1639 again went to Rome, 
where he soon became famous as a painter, 
poet, and musician, and where, except for 
nine years in Florence (1642-51), he spent 
the remainder of his life. Rosa was especially 
successful in battle scenes, marine views, and 
landscapes, particularly wild and gloomy 
scenes, storms, and tempests. Among his 
best known pictures are the Conspiracy of 
Catiline, La Fortum, Prometheus, Jacob’s 
Dream, Jonas Preaching at Nineveh, Saul and 
the Witch of Endor. 

. Ros . ace ®» a large natural order of plants, 
including the apple, pear, plum, strawberry, 
raspberry, almond, and rose. The flowers 
usually consist of a five- lobed calyx, five 



4041 


•Rosario 


regular petals inserted on the calyx, num- 
erous stamens, and a variable pistil. Among 
the genera are Rosa, Pyrus, Mespilus, Rubus, 
Geum, Dryas, Potentilla, Fragaria, Spirasa! 
and Prunus. 

Rosario, town, Argentina, in the province 
of Santa Fe, the second largest city of the 
country, on the Parana River. It is a flour¬ 
ishing modern town, the terminus of six rail¬ 
ways, a port, and an emporium of commerce. 
Large sugar refineries are situated here; p. 
265,000. 

Rosary, or Prayer Beads, ■ a string of 
beads of various sizes by means of which 
count is kept of prayers. In the rosary used 
in the Roman Catholic Church the smaller 
beads represent Ave Marias, the larger Pater¬ 
nosters. The ordinary rosary consists of 
fifty-five beads, each ten Ave Marias being 
separated by a Paternoster. -The rosary of 
the Blessed Virgin consists of fifteen decades 
of prayers, containing fifteen paternosters 
and doxologies, and 150 Ave Marias. The 
lesser rosary is composed of a third of these 
exercises. Rosary Sunday, instituted by Greg¬ 
ory xm, is the first Sunday in October. 

# Rosas, Juan Manuel (1793-1887), Argen¬ 
tine dictator, was bom in Buenos Ayres. In 
1829 he became governor, and in 1835 dicta¬ 
tor, of Buenos Ayres. His energetic rule 
soon restored tranquillity to a province dis¬ 
tracted by twenty years of civil strife, and 
his ‘League of Governors’ was the germ of 
the Argentine Republic. 

RoscHer, Wilhelm (1817-94), German 
political economist, was born in Hanover. 
In 1848 he was called to the chair of political 
economy at Leipzig, and there he remained, 
exercising a wide influence, until his death. 
Not the least valuable of his writings are his 
critiques of early writers on economics. 

Roscius, Quintus ( ?-6z b.c.), the most 
famous comedian of ancient Rome, was born 
in Solonium, near Lanuvium. He was pat¬ 
ronized by the dictator Sulla, and was an 
intimate friend of Cicero. 

Roscoe, Sir Henry Enfield (1833-1915), 
English chemist, born in London, was a 
grandson of William Roscoe, the historian. 
He was professor of chemistry at Owens Col¬ 
lege, Manchester, 1857-1887, and vice chan¬ 
cellor of the University of London, 1896- 
1902. His chief chemical researches were on 
vanadium and the chemical action of light. 

Roscoe, William.- (1753'-183x), English 
historian, was born in Liverpool. His num¬ 
erous writings include a protest against the 
slave trade (Wrongs of Africa, 1787-88), of 


Rose 

which he was a staunch opponent, but it is 
as the historian of Lorenzo de’ Medici (1795), 
and of Pope Leo x. (1805), that he is best 
remembered. 

Roscommon, inland county, Ireland, in the 
pi0vince of Connaught; with an area of 915 
sq. im The surface is level or undulating 
with hills in the n. Agriculture is the princi¬ 
pal industry; p. 93,904. 

Rose (Rosa ), a genus of ornamental shrubs 
grown chiefly for their beautiful flowers and 
handsome foliage. They are found in all 
countries of the world and are native to all 
except parts of South America and the trop¬ 
ics. Rose cultivation is among the oldest 
branches of horticulture and the rose is a 
prime favorite among all lovers of flowers 

Roses are mostly low, medium sized 
shrubs, usually with prickly stems, odd-pin- 
nate leaves, and large solitary or clustered 
flowers ranging in color from a deep rich 
crimson to white and yellow. There are single 
and double varieties, wild and cultivated, 
climbing, bushy, dwarf, and tall; some ex¬ 
ceedingly fragrant, some practically odorless. 

For practical purposes, roses may be di¬ 
vided into two great classes: summer roses, 
blooming in May, June, and July; and au¬ 
tumn roses, blooming from May until the 
frost comes. Among the summer roses are 
the Provence Rose (R. centifolia) ; the Moss 
Rose; the Damask Rose (R. damascened) j 
the Sweet Briars (R. rubiginosa) ; the Poly- 
antha roses (R. multifiora) , among which 
are the well known Crimson Ramblers; and 
the Wichuraiana roses (R. wichuraiana ), 
which include the Dorothy Perkins, Minne¬ 
haha, Gardenia, Lady Godiva, and other 
popular varieties. The autumn roses, which 
comprise species that flower several times 
from May to October, include Hybrid Per¬ 
petual Roses; Tea Roses; Noisette Roses; 
Japanese Roses (R. rugosa) ; and many 
others. Roses are propagated from seeds, 
buds, cuttings, and grafts. New varieties 
are grown from seeds planted in carefully 
prepared and well-manured beds. The ideal 
soil is a rich deep loam, but clay cr sand may 
be used if properly manured. The rose bed 
should be carefully drained, as roses are in¬ 
jured by excessive moisture. Planting may 
be/done either in autumn or spring, autumn' 
being preferred when the winters are not too 
severe. During planting, the roots should be 
kept away from the wind and not allowed to 
become dry; they should have plenty of 
room, and should point downward, rather 
than spread out flat. The spaces around the 



Rose 


4042 


Rosebery 


roots should be filled In with well pulverized 
soil, and this should be tramped in securely 
around the bush. Roses require more or less 
pruning for the removal of dead wood, to 
make the bush symmetrical, and to encourage 
the development of buds. Most rose growers 
consider early spring the best time for prun¬ 
ing. The chief insect pests to be combated 
are the rose aphids or lice, which feed on 
the juice of the plant, the rose-slug, the leaf- 
hopper, the rose chafer, the rose midge, rose 
curculio, and thrips. Spraying with arsenic 
or a nicotine solution or destroying all bl¬ 


ister of public works, and in 1864 was named 
by the British Government as commissioner 
in the negotiations with the United States 
in the settlement of the Oregon claims. In 

1868 he floated the loan in England for the 
completion of the Intercolonial Railway. 
He retired from public life in Canada in 

1869 and settled in England, but the same 
year was appointed special commissioner to 
Washington to arrange a new fisheries treaty 
and to settle the Alabama Claims. He drew 
up thi Treaty of Washington in 1870. 

Rose, Roman die la, a French poetico- 



Pkoto from A. T. De la Mare C o . 

Roses . 

Left, Scotch Briar; Right, Melody. 


fested buds may be employed as remedial 
measures. 

Rose, Chauncey (1794-1877), American 
merchant and philanthropist, was active, also, 
in promoting railroad development in Indiana 
and other States. By a defective will, he be¬ 
came sole heir to the fortune of his brother, 
John, whose known wishes he carried out by 
distributing more than a million dollars to 
charities in New York City and elsewhere. 
He founded Rose Polytechnic Institute, at 
Terre Haute. 

Rose, Sir John (1820-88), Canadian 
statesman. From 1858 to 1861 he was min- 


satirical allegory of the 13th century, which 
for three hundred years influenced all liter¬ 
ary work from lyric to drama, and from ser¬ 
mon to prose tale. It is written in octosylla¬ 
bic verse, and contains over 23,000 lines. 
Though prolix and often trifling, the work 
abounds in vigorous description, realistic 
portraiture, and eloquent invective. 

Rosebery, Archibald Philip Primrose, 
Fifth Earl of, and First Earl of Midlo¬ 
thian (1847-1929), British statesman, was 
born in London. From 1881 to 1883 he was 
Undersecretary of State for Home Affairs, 
and in 1886 was Foreign Secretary, becom- 



Rose Chafer 

ing premier on Gladstone’s retirement in 1894. 

Rose Chafer ( Macrodactylus subspino- 
sus), a small beetle, light brown in color, 
with long spiny legs, which feeds on roses 
and other ornamental shrubs, and also at¬ 
tacks the blossoms of apples, plums, cher¬ 
ries, grapes, and various grains and vege¬ 
tables. 

Rose Cold. See Hay Fever. 

Rosecrans, William Starke (1819-98), 
American soldier. On the outbreak of the 
Civil War he became a volunteer aide on the 
staff of General McClellan. He succeeded 
McClellan as commander of the Department 
of the Ohio; was put in command of the 
Army of the Mississippi; succeeded General 
Buell in command of the Army of the Cum¬ 
berland. His defeat at Chickamauga in 1863 
was the only blot on his military record. 

Rosecrans went as minister to Mexico in 
1868; was a member of Congress from Cali¬ 
fornia during 1881-5; an d was register of 
the national treasury from 1885 to 1893. 

Rose Geranium. See Pelargonium. 

Roselle, borough, New Jersey, Union co.; 
3 w. of Elizabeth. It has manufactures 
of hydraulic machinery; p. 13,597. 

Roselle Park, borough, New Jersey, in 
Union co.; chiefly a residential town; p. 
9,661. 

Rosemary ( Rosmarinus officinalis) , an 
aromatic, evergreen herb which has long 
been cultivated in gardens as an ornamental 
shrub. It has tiny light blue flowers and 
narrow leaves which are used for seasoning. 
An essential oil obtained from the leaves 
is used as a perfume. 

Rosen, Charles (1878- ), American 

landscape painter, was born in Westmoreland 
co., Pennsylvania. He studied in the Na¬ 
tional Academy of Design and the New 
York School of Art, and received numerous 
awards for his work, including the Inness 
gold medal and first Altman prize of the 
National Academy of Design in 1916. 

Rosen, Roman Romanovitch, Baron 
(1847-1921), Russian diplomatist, bom of 
Swedish stock. He was successive^ charge 
d’affaires in Japan, consul-general at New 
York, and charge d’affaires at Washington. 
He was minister to Japan from 1903 until 
the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, 
Ambassador to the United States from 1905 
to 1911, and a joint plenipotentiary with 
Count Witte in the Russo-Japanese peace ne¬ 
gotiations at Portsmouth, N. H., in 1905. 
After the Bolshevist revolution, haying lost 
all his possessions, he escaped to the United 


Roses 

States. He published Forty Years of a Diplo¬ 
mat’s Life. 

Rosenbach, Abraham Simon Wolf 

(1876- ), American bibliophile. For his 

own account and as the representative of 
others he has spent millions for rare books in 
the auction rooms of Europe and America. 
He acquired a Gutenberg Bible for $106,000, 
one of the highest prices ever paid for a single 
volume. He maintains offices in Philadel¬ 
phia, where he lives, in New York, and 
abroad. 

Rosenthal, Moriz (1862-1943), Austrian 
pianist, was a pupil of Liszt. He made numer¬ 
ous successful concert tours of Europe and 
the United States. 

Rose of Lima, Saint (1586-1617), a nun 
of the third order of Dominicans, was born 
in Lima, Peru, the daughter of Gaspard Flor¬ 
ez of that city. She entered the order in 1606, 
and gained a reputation for the severe regi¬ 
men of her life, of which many stories are 
extant. She was canonized by Clement x, 
who fixed her day as Aug. 30. She was the 
first American saint so canonized. 

Rose of Sharon, a name sometimes given 
to the Syrian mallow (Hibiscus syriacus ), a 
beautiful shrub with brilliant flowers, rang¬ 
ing in color from purple and red to a delicate 
pink and white. 

Rose Quartz. See Quartz. 

Roses, Wars of the, the name given the 
series of struggles in England in the latter 
half of the 15th century between the houses 
of York and Lancaster. They were so named 
from the badges worn by the rival factions, 
that of York being a white rose and that of 
Lancaster a red one. During the temporary 
insanity of Henry vi. of the house of Lancas¬ 
ter, in 1453-4, the Duke of York became pro¬ 
tector of the realm. When, on the king’s re¬ 
covery, he was dismissed from office, the 
Yorkists, armed, won the battle of St. Al¬ 
bans on May 22, 1455, and York again be¬ 
came protector. In 1456 York was dismissed 
a second time, and in Sept. 1459, Salisbury 
defeated the Lancastrians at Bloreheath. 
Henry vi. then met the Yorkists at Ludlow, 
Richard of York escaping to Ireland, and 
Salisbury and Warwick to Calais. A Parlia¬ 
ment was then called by the royalists at Cov¬ 
entry, and the Yorkist leaders were attainted. 
So far the struggle had been for control of 
the government. After the attainder of York, 
Salisbury, and Warwick, at Coventry, the 
war became one for life and death. At the 
battle of Northampton, in July 1460, War¬ 
wick captured Henry vi., and a Parliament 


4043 



Rosetta. 


4044 


Ross 


decided that Henry should rule during his 
lifetime, but should be succeeded by York. 
In the north, however, the Lancastrians 
would not yield, and on Dec. 31, 1460, they 
defeated and slew Richard of York and Sal¬ 
isbury at Wakefield. Queen Margaret, wife 
of Henry, at the head of the victorious army, 
marched south, defeating Warwick on Feb. 
17, 1461, at the second battle of St. Albans, 
and setting Henry vi. at liberty. Meanwhile 
Edward of March, the eldest son of Richard 
of York defeated Jasper Tudor at Morti¬ 
mer’s Cross, and arrived in London on Feb. 
26. Margaret retreated and Edward was pro¬ 
claimed king as Edward iv. He at once 
marched north, and inflicted a decisive defeat 
on the Lancastrians at Towton on March 29, 
1461, and thus definitely secured the throne. 
The Wars of the Roses now entered upon 
their third and final phase. After being de¬ 
feated by Warwick, Margaret fled to France, 
while Henry vi. was captured in 1465 and 
imprisoned in the Tower. During 1469, 1470, 
and 1471, many sudden political changes took 
place, the Yorkists winning Edgecote Field in 
1469, and being defeated at Losecoat Field 
in 1470. Warwick’s flight to France was soon 
followed by his return, and by Edward’s 
flight to Flanders. On his return in 1471 Ed¬ 
ward overthrew and killed Warwick at Bar- 
net, and defeated Queen Margaret at Tew¬ 
kesbury. The accession of Henry vn. after 
the battle of Bosworth, and his marriage with 
Elizabeth of York, finally gave England 
peace. 

Rosetta Stone, the name given to an in¬ 
scribed slab of basalt (38 by 30 in.) found 
near Rosetta, in the Nile delta, in 1799, and 
now preserved in the British Museum. It 
gave the key to the interpretation of Egyp- 
tion hieroglyphics, the legend inscribed upon 
it being trilingual. The inscription is a de¬ 
cree of Ptolemy Epiphanes, promulgated* at 
Memphis in 196 b.c. 

Rose Window, in architecture, a window 
chiefly seen in Gothic buildings, circular in 
form, the interior space being filled in with 
tracery work, the main parts of which in some 
instances radiate like the spokes of a wheel. 

Rosewood, the wood of various tropical 
trees, the best being that of the Brazilian 
Daltergia nigra and other members of the 
same genus. It Is a hardwood, of a reddish 
brown or purple color, with a pleasant odor 
resembling that of a rose, hence the name. 
It is highly valued for cabinet work and for 
furniture. 


Rosicrucians, a mystical society claiming 
to be the guardian of secret knowledge of the 
nature and purpose of the universe and of 
the real nature of man, allegedlv derived from 
the Mysteries of Egypt, Greece and Rome. 
Modern Rosicrucians trace their name to a 
Benedictine monk, Christian Rosenkreuz 
(1378-1484), who travelled in Palestine and 
Arabia during 1393-1402 receiving mystical 
initiations. Returning to Germany, Rosen- 
creutz organized a group of seven, one of 
whom established the cult in England. The 
United States has three legitimate Rosicru- 
cian bodies which maintain colleges in the 
large cities and issue courses in esotericism 
and the mystical interpretation of the Bible. 

Ross, Betsy (1752-1836), maker of the 
first American flag, according to the tradition 
that she sewed it for a committee on which 
were George Washington and Robert Morris. 

Ross, Edward Alsworth (1866- ), 

American economist, born in Virden, Ill. He 
was professor of economics at Indiana Uni¬ 
versity, at Cornell, and at Leland Stanford 
(1893-1900). In 1901 he was lecturer at the 
University of Nebraska and at Harvard. His 
publications include: Honest Dollars (1896); 
Social Control (1901) ; The Changing Chinese 
(1911); Russia in Upheaval (1918) ; The So¬ 
cial Revolution in Mexico (1918) ; The Rus¬ 
sian Soviet Republic (1923) ; Roads to So¬ 
cial Peace (1924); World Drift (1928). 

Ross, George (1730-79), American poli¬ 
tician, signer of the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence, born at New Castle, Del. He was 
a delegate to the Continental Congress. 

Ross, Sir James Clark (1800-62), British 
1 admiral famous as an Arctic and Antarctic 
explorer, made five successive voyages to the 
Arctic regions with his uncle, Sir John Ross,, 
and with Sir W. E. Parry. From 1829 to 
1833 he was engaged in further voyages, and 
in 1S31 determined the position of the north 
magnetic pole. From 1839 to 1843 he com¬ 
manded the expedition of the Erebus and 
Terror into the Antarctic seas, and reached 
latitude 78° 10's. 

Ross, Sir John (1777-1856), British ad¬ 
miral and Arctic explorer, began his career 
in 1818, when he accompanied Parry to ex¬ 
plore Baffin Bay. From 1829 to 1833 he was. 
on another Arctic expedition. 

Ross, John (1790-1866) , Cherokee Indian 
chief, son of Daniel Ross, acted as the chief 
agent of the Cherokee nation in their struggle 
to prevent their removal from Georgia. 

Ross, Nellie Tayloe (1880- ), Apaeri* 



Ross 


can public official, was born in St. Joseph, 
Mo. She married William Bradford Ross, 
lawyer, who became governor of Wyoming in 
1923 and died in Oct., 1924. She succeeded 
mm Jan. 5, 1925, to fill out his unexpired 
term ending in 1927. She was vice chairman 
ol the Democratic National Committee, in 
charge of the activities of Democratic women. 
In April, 1933, she was appointed Director of 
the United States Mint, the first woman to 
hold that office. 

Ross and Cromarty, Highland co., Scot¬ 
land, stretching from Moray Firth in e. to 
beyond Outer Hebrides in w.; area 3,089 sq. 
m ; Much of the county is wild and moun¬ 
tainous. Sheep-farming is largely carried on, 
also salmon and sea fishing; p. 62,082. 

Rossellino, Antonio (c. 1427-r. 1479), 
whose real name was Gamberelli, Florentine 
sculptor, studied with Donatello. 

Rossellino, Bernardo (1409-c. 1464), eld¬ 
est brother of the preceding, also an Italian 
sculptor, though he became celebrated as an 
aichitecl and military engineer, largely in the 
employment of Pope Nicholas v., and after¬ 
ward that of Pius n., for whom he restored 
many of the basilicas of Rome. 

Rossetti, Christina Georgina (1830-94), 
English poet, was born in London, the 
daughter of Gabriele Rossetti, the Italian 
poet patriot. An exquisite grace, a continual 
charm, a subtle and delicate music are the 
characteristics of her poetry. Except for a 
short residence at Frome in 1853, and some 
months of travel in France and Italy in 1861, 
she was rarely away from her London home. 
Her early Goblin Market is her most enduring 
achievement. Other works are: Sing-Song 
(1872); A Pageant and Other Poems (18S1) ; 
The Face of the Deep (1892). 

Rossetti, Dante Gabriel (1828-82), Eng¬ 
lish poet and painter, whose real name was 
Gabriel Charles Dante Rossetti, was born in 
London, the son of Gabriele Rossetti. The 
poem, The Blessed Damozel, was written be¬ 
fore Rosetti was twenty. In painting he made 
himself the pupil of Ford Madox Brown, 
whose influence directed pre-Raphaelitism 
and essentially affected Rosetti’s art. See Pre- 
Raphaelitism. As Beatrice in Beatrice De¬ 
nying her Salutation to Dante, one of the 
earliest water colors, Miss Siddal (whom 
Rossetti married in i860) assumes her place 
in his art. It is almost entirely in water col¬ 
ors that Rossetti’s genius is to be studied dur¬ 
ing those years. An attempt to decorate the 
hall of the Oxford Union with tempera paint- 


Rostov 

ings from the Morfe d’Arthur led to his inti¬ 
macy with Morris, Burne-Jones and Swin¬ 
burne. In 1861 Rossetti published the volume 
of translations, The Early Italian Poets. 
His Poems were published in 1S70. At Kelm- 
scott Manor, which he shared with the Mor¬ 
ris family until 1874, and later at 16 Cheyne 
Walk, Rosetti painted, and added to his 
verse the Ballads and Sonnets (1881), and 
completed the large oil replica of Dante’s 
Dream. 

Rossini, Gioacchino Antonio (1792- 
1:868) , Italian operatic composer, born at 
Pesaro. With the production of Tancredi 
(3:813) Rossini’s name became famous 
throughout Italy. During the next ten years 
he composed over twenty operas, among 
them one of his greatest works, II Barbiere di 
Siviglia (1816). After a five months’ visit 
to England he settled in Paris (1S24), where 
he was appointed director of the Theatre 
Itaiien. His last and in some respects most 
famous opera, Guillaume Tell, was produced 
in Paris in 1829. His Stabat Mater was his 
only work of importance after Guillaume 
Tell Rossini was the greatest Italian operatic 
composer of his generation. 

Ross Sea, Antarctic sea, named for Sir 
James Clark Ross, British explorer, one of 
the centers of the Antarctic whaling industry. 
Both the Scott and the Amundsen expeditions 
to the South Pole were within the Ross 
Quadrant with territory claimed as a British 
dependency. On the Ross Sea is the Bay 
of Whales, the base of the Byrd Antarctic 
expeditions of 1928 and 1933-1935. 

Rostand, Edmond (1864-1918), French 
dramatist, born at Marseilles. In 1894 his 
verse comedy Les Romanesques was produced 
with the greatest success at the Theatre Fran- 
gais. Its successors are La Princesse Loin- 
taine (1895) , La Samaritaine (1897) and 
Cyrano de Bergerac (1S97). L’Aiglon, which 
was produced in 1900, is in no way equal to 
Cyrano. Both Cyrano de Bergerac and 
L’Aiglon were successfully presented in the 

u. s. • . 

Roster, a list of officers or men for duty, 
with a record of the duty performed by each. 

In the U. S. army, all details for service, in 
garrison or in the field, are made by roster. 

Rostov, tn., former Yaroslav gov., Central 
Russia, 3/'. m. s.s.w. of Yaroslav city. The 
Church of the Assumption was founded in 
1230, and has a famous belfry of c. 1590; the 
Spasso-Yakovlevskii monastery has a re¬ 
nowned treasury. There are a citadel and 




Rostov 


4046 


Rotch 


two old palaces. Rostov has fisheries and 
market gardens. It is an icon-manufacturing 
center; makes candles, wax, tallow, linen, 
vinegar, soap, leather, white lead, treacle, and 
sweetmeats; p. 14,342. 



Christina Georgina Rossetti. 
(Photo by Elliott & Fry.) 


Rostov-on-Don, tn. of Don Cossacks ter¬ 
ritory, S. Russia. After Odessa it is the best- 
built city in S. Russia. It has a cathedral and 
a fine town hall (1897-99) * There are large 
local fisheries. It exports cereals, wool and 
tallow. The port is ice free for 258 days a 
year. It was the scene of fighting in the 
World War; was capital of the Don Cossack 
Republic of White Russians, of brief exist¬ 
ence; was occupied by the Germans in 1918; 
p. 20,864. Under the Soviet Five-Year Plan, 
Rostov became a key industrial center. In 
1942 Rostov was once more in the territory 
attacked by the Germans. 

Rosyth Castle, ruined castle (1561), on n. 
shore of Firth of Forth, Fifeshire, Scotland. 
Here the British Government acquired shore 
lands for a naval base, much used in the 
World War. The castle is connected by a 
causeway with the shore at low water. It is 
referred to in Scott’s Abbot. 

Rota, a court of appeal in the organization 
of the Vatican administration of justice, cor¬ 
responding to a supreme court. The name 
may have come from the arrangement of 
judges’ seats in the medieval court. The 
Council of Trent substituted committees of 


cardinals, but in 1908 the ancient court was 
reestablished by Pope Pius x. 

Rotary Clubs, community organizations 
established for the promotion of the highest 
ideals in business, the professions, and public 
service, created under a national and interna¬ 
tional association with which each club is 
affiliated and according to the standard pat¬ 
tern of the organization. Membership in 
each town or city is limited to one repre¬ 
sentative of each business, profession, or in¬ 
stitution on the approved list. By weekly 
meetings the clubs promote good fellowship 
and lend their support to civic and national 
causes in accord with their aims. There are 
annual international conventions, with an at¬ 
tendance of 8,000 to 9,000 members and their 
families, representing the 5,000 clubs. 

Rotation of Crops is the practice of grow¬ 
ing different crops on the same fields from 
one season to another in a regular succes¬ 
sion. This succession of crops allows a con¬ 
venient arrangement of the farm work, tends 
to increase the fertility of the soil by the in¬ 
troduction of leguminous crops and green 
manuring, and conduces to the destruction of 
weeds and insects which may infest the land. 

Rotch, Abbot Lawrence (1861-1912), 
American meteorologist, born in Boston, 
Mass., established at his own expense the 
Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, Mil- 
ton, Mass. He made the first measurements 
in America of the heights of clouds, and their 



Dante Gabriel Rossetti. 


velocities, and was the first to employ kites 
for suspending self-recording instruments in 
American meteorological experiments. His 
publications include: Observations and Inves¬ 
tigations at Blue Bill , published since 1887 in 



World Photos. 


Rotogravure Process. 

Upper, Depositing Room; Lower, Rubber Impression-Cylinder Grinder. 








Roth 


4048 


Rotterdam 


innals of Harvard College Observatory , and 
Sounding the Ocean of Air (igoo). 

Roth, Frederick George Richard 
(1872-1944), American sculptor, bom in 
Brooklyn, N. Y. He began exhibiting in 1890, 
and has received medals and many prizes. 
He is particularly successful with wild ani¬ 
mals, his latest works, shown at the N. Y. 
National Academy. 

Rothafei, Samuel L. (Roxy) (1882- 
1936), American manager of motion picture 
theaters. His first enterprise was a small mo- 
ion picture house in Forrest City, Pa., es¬ 
tablished at the end of seven years’ service 
with the United States Marines, with which 
he had served in China during the Boxer 
Rebellion, and in San Domingo. His first 
large house was the Capitol in New York 
City, from which he moved to the Roxy 
Theater, thence to the Radio City Music Hall. 
Retiring from the latter in 1934 he established 
a theatre bearing his nickname in Philadel¬ 
phia. 

Rothhorn, the name of several lofty peaks 
in Switzerland. The Brienz-Rothhorn (7,715 
ft.) is ascended by a mountain railway. 

Rothrock, Joseph Trimble (1839-1922), 
American botanist, was surgeon and botanist 
to the U. S. Engineering Corps Exploring 
Expedition west of the 100th meridian, under 
Wheeler, in 1873-6, and was later professor 
of botany in the University of Pennsylvania. 
He was State Commissioner of Forestry for 
Pennsylvania from 1893 to 1905. 

Rothschild, Family of, a famous fam¬ 
ily of bankers. It was founded by Mayer 
Anselm Rothschild (1742-1812), born in 
Frankfort, the son of a Jewish merchant. He 
opened a money exchange business in his 
native town and in 1803 loaned a large sum 
to the Danish government, thus starting 
business as an international financier. Mayer 
Anselm left five sons, whose influence speed¬ 
ily became recognized throughout the chan¬ 
celleries of Europe, and few international 
loans were negotiated without their help. 
Nathan Mayer (1777-1836), the third son, 
went to England in 1797, and during the Na¬ 
poleonic wars rendered invaluable financial 
assistance to Great Britain. Lionel Nathan 
(1S09-79), son of Nathan Mayer Rothschild, 
was a member of Parliament and was notable 
for his part in securing Jewish emancipation 
in Great Britain. His son Nathan Mayer 
(1840-1915), created First Baron Rothschild 
in 1885, was distinguished for his philan¬ 
thropy. 


Rotifera, Rotatoria, or Wheel Animal¬ 
cules, microscopic aquatic organisms, in 
which the anterior region of the body is fur¬ 
nished with cilia, whose movements produce 
the appearance of a rotating wheel. The body 
is divided into three regions—the head, bear¬ 
ing the wreath of cilia by means of which, 
in many cases, the animal swims, and which 
also serve to wash food into the mouth; the 
body, containing the viscera; and the ‘foot,’ 
by means of which the animal can attach it¬ 
self, temporarily or permanently. There is 
a complete food-canal. The sexes are sepa¬ 
rate : but the males are few in number, short- 



Rotifera 

1. Hydatina senta. 2. Melicerta ringens. 


lived, and much simpler in structure than 
the females, which during a large part of the 
year reproduce parthenogenetically. 

Rotogravure, an intaglio printing process 
for reproducing photographic illustrations. 
The illustrations (and text) are engraved by 
the cross-line method on copper cylinders 
and the printing is done in a rotary press. 

Rotorua, famous health resort and tourist 
center, New Zealand. It is situated in the 
hot-lake district, an extensive pumice pla¬ 
teau, nearly 1,000 m. in extent and about 
1,000 ft. above sea-level, intersected by high 
igneous ranges, relieved by enormous trachy¬ 
te cones, and dotted with beautiful lakes 
and luxuriant forests. Two miles distant is 
Whakarewarewa, with curative baths and a 
siliceous terrace from which rise large gey¬ 
sers to a height of from 20 to 100 ft.; p. 2,000. 

Rottenstone, a light, porous, somewhat 
friable, siliceous rock, which is used largely 
for polishing surfaces of steel and other met¬ 
als. ■" 

Rotterdam, chief seaport, and second larg¬ 
est city, Netherlands, in the province of 
South Holland. By the Nieuwe Waterweg 
('New Waterway’) it has easy access to the 
North Sea, from which it is 20 m. distant. 
Along the river front stretches the beautiful 
quay known as the Boompjes. In the Grootc 
Markt, or Market Place, is a statue of Eras¬ 
mus, whose birthplace still stands. Other fea- 



Roubalx 


tines oi interest are Boyman’s Museum, hous¬ 
ing a collection of Dutch and Flemish masters, 
including Rembrandt, the brothers Maris' 
Cuyp, Franz Hals, Ruysdael, Bols, Maes, and 
Hobbema; the Groote Kerk, or Church of 
St. Lawrence, consecrated in 1477 and re¬ 
stored in 1912; the Old Town Hall, a seven¬ 
teenth-century edifice; the Nautical Institute 
and ^ Museum, and the Ethnographical and 
Maritime Museum. Rotterdam has a magni¬ 
ficent harbor with extensive docks and har¬ 
bor works, and because of its strategic loca¬ 
tion commands not only a large maritime 
trade but an extensive river commerce as 
well. Grain, timber, metals, hardware, petro¬ 
leum, drugs and chemicals, rice, coffee, to¬ 
bacco and palm kernels are exported. Ship¬ 
building is an important industry. The name 
Rotterdam, which indicates that the town 
pwes its origin to the building of a dyke or 
flam in the Rotte, first occurs about 1280 


4049 


Rouge 


houses, and ennobled by some of the most 
beautiful churches in France. Chief of these 
are the cathedral (13th century onwards) 
which once possessed the heart of'Richard 
Coeur de Lion (now transferred to the mu¬ 
seum of antiquities) ; St. Maclou (15th cen¬ 
tury) ; St. Ouen (14th to 15th century), one 
of the most delicate and graceful of all Goth¬ 
ic churches; and St. Gervais, one of the old¬ 
est churches in France. The chief industry of 
Rouen is its cotton manufacture. There are 
also dye works, and manufactures of linen, 
wool, silks. Rouen was the ancient capital of 
Normandy. During the Great War it was a 
camp for reinforcements and had several base 
hospitals. Here Duke Rollo was buried, Wil¬ 
liam the Conqueror died (10S7), Joan of 
Arc was burned at the stake (1431), and 
Lord Clarendon died (1674). It is also the 
birthplace of La Salle (discoverer of the Mis- 


The 16th and 17th centuries were a period of 
great prosperity. Many quays and docks 
were constructed between 1850 and i860; in 
1863 the New Waterway through the Hook 
of Holland was begun. Large areas of the 
city were devastated by German air bombing 
in 1940; p. 612,000. 

Roubaix, France, is the foremost woolen 
manufacturing town of France. The factories 
turn out goods—both in cotton and silk, be¬ 
sides wool—to the yearly value of over $80,- 
000,000. During the War it was in the hands 
of the Germans who pillaged the factories 
and blew up the railway station before they 
left, but since that time the town has made 
great progress towards recovery of its former 
prosperity; p. 117,209. * 

Roubiliac, ! Louis Francois (1695-1762), 
French sculptor, was born in Lyons. .He set¬ 
tled in London about 1730 where his first 
notable production was a statue of Handel 
for Vauxhall Gardens (1738). Other well 
known works include the statue of Shakes¬ 
peare in the British Museum (1758), that of 
Sir Isaac Newton at Cambridge (1753), and 
the Handel monument in Westminster Abbey. 

Rouble, the Russian monetary unit, prop¬ 
erly a gold or silver coin, now represented 
chiefly by a paper token. It is divided into 
100 kopecks. 

Rouen, town, France, capital of the de¬ 
partment of Seine-Inferieure, on both banks 
of the Seine. It is a railway center, the chief 
cotton port of France, and the seat of an 
archbishop. The streets of the old town are 
narrow and picturesque, with timber-fronted 



Seated Players 

Rouge-et-N oir (Diagram of Half of 
Table), 


sissippi), Corneille, and Gustave Flaubert; 
p. 122,898. 

Rouge, ferric oxide, Fe-Os, obtained by 
calcining sulphate of iron. It is a fine, deep- 



Rouge-et-Noir 


4050 


Routers 


red powder used as a polishing agent for glass 
and metals. Rouge is also the name given to 
a cosmetic, in which a base, such as French 
chalk, with or without oil, is colored by the 
addition of extract of carthamin and cochi- 
neal or other red coloring matter. Liquid 
rouge is obtained from the making of car¬ 
mine. 

Rouge-et-Noir, a game at chance, also 
called ‘trente-et-quarante’, played on a large 
green table with six packs of 52 cards, which 
are counted out on the table by the dealer. 


hawks. All have reddish mantles and legs 
characteristically feathered to the toes, which, 
with the beaks, are yellow. 

Rough Riders’ Association, an organiza¬ 
tion of members of the First Regiment, 
United States Volunteer Cavalry, which 
served in Cuba under Roosevelt, formed at 
the end of the Spanish-American War to per¬ 
petuate the experiences of the regiment. 
Membership is open to all members of the 
regiment and descends to the eldest son. 

Rouher, Eugene (1814-84), French pub- 



A Typical Row of Houses behind the Dyke. 


It gets its name from the diamond-shaped 
red (rouge) and the black (noir) compart¬ 
ments of the gaming table. 

Rouget de Lisle, Claude Joseph (1760- 
1836), French poet. While serving as a cap¬ 
tain of engineers at Strassburg, during the 
night of April 24, 1792, he composed the 
words and music of La Marseillaise, the 
French national anthem. 

Roughleg, a name given to four species 
of buzzard hawks of the genus Archibuteo. 
One is a native of the Pacific Slope, another 
species (A. lagopus sanctijohannis) is one of 
the largest and most striking of American 


lie official, in 1849 became prime minister. 
As minister of agriculture (1855-63) he ne¬ 
gotiated the Cobden treaty of i860. He was 
one of the principal supporters of the im¬ 
perial regime, and a large share of the re¬ 
sponsibility for the Franco-German War 
rested with him. He fed to England after 
the fall of the empire, but returned to France 
in 1872 and was a member of the General 
Assembly as a Bonapartist. 

Roulers, town, Belgium., in West Flanders; 
famous for the manufacture of linen and 
cotton goods, lace, and silk ribbons. It was 
the scene of the victory ol the French over 












Roulette 


the Austrians on July 13, i 794> and in the 
Great War it was taken by the German 

i° rces in 1914, was under direct fire in No¬ 
vember, 1917, and was retaken by the French 
m October, 1918; p. 26,657. 

Roulette, a game of chance played with 
the aid of a wheel and a table marked with 
numbers and other divisions on both sides 
of a wheel, which is in the center. The wheel 
is a cylinder, the upper part of which is di¬ 
vided into 37 or 38 sections, each section cor¬ 
responding to a number marked on the 
board. The cylinder is balanced on a pivot, 
and the croupier spins it. The cylinder re¬ 
volves in a wooden frame shaped like a 
shallow basin. The croupier sends by a hand- 
throw a little ivory ball round the upper part 
of the basin. After describing an irregular 
course determined by the studs, it finally 
comes to rest and the croupier calls the num- 
ben At Monte Carlo the wheel has one ‘zero 
on it and thirty-six numbers from 1 to 36. 
The minimum stake at roulette at Monte 
Carlo is five francs. There are eight methods 
of staking, shown by the dots on the board. 

(1.) En plein .—On one number; the bank 
pays thirty-five times the stake. (2.) A cheval 
—On the line between any two numbers; the 
bank pays seventeen times the stake. (3.) La 
transversale pleine .—On the boundary line of 
any row of three numbers; the bank pays 
eleven times the stake. (4.) En carre .—On 
four figures. If one appears, the bank pays 
eight times the stake. (5.) Transversale simple . 
"~On six figures; the bank pays five times 


4051 


Roumania 



Diagram of Roulette. 


the stake. (6.) On the first, middle, or last 
dozen, by placing the stake on the little 

PM D 

square marked - or —? 

12 12 12 

or on a column by placing the stake in the 
little space below the column. These are 2 
to x chances. (7.) The even chances are 


wagering on passe (19 to 36), manque 
(1 to 18), even (pair), uneven (impair), 
black and red. (8.) A stake can be 
placed a cheval between two neighboring 



even chances. If both chances win, even 
money is paid. If one chance loses and one 
wins, the coup is without result. The zero is 
the great advantage that the bank has over 
the player. If zero appears, the player who 
has staked on an even chance has the choice 
between his stake being relegated To prison’ 
until the next throw, or giving half his stake 
to the bank. The imprisoned stakes which 
are on the winning spaces when the next coup 
is made are set free; the bank takes the 
others. Half of stakes .a cheval on even 
chances are fortified if the zero appears. 

Roumania, or Rumania, an independent 
kingdom of Southeastern Europe, with 
Ukraine and the Black Sea on the east, and 
Hungary and Serbia on the west, Bulgaria 
on the south, and Hungary, Poland and 
Ukraine on the north. The area has varied 
in recent years. Prior to the Treaty of Bu¬ 
charest (see Balkan Wars) , it was 50,720 sq 
m. By additions of 1918-1920, it has also 
Bessarabia, 171,151 sq. m.; Transylvania, 23,- 
792 sq. m.; Bukovina, 4,032 sq. m.; Crisana 
and Maramuresha, 8,566 sq. m.; and the Bar- 



Roumania 


4052 


Roumania 


at, 7,102 sq.m. This makes its total area 
113,886 sq.m., with a total population of 
approximately 18,000,000. Of these Rouman¬ 
ians by race number over 13,000,000. 

The general configuration of the surface 
of Roumania proper is an irregular inclined 
plane, sloping by broad and gentle terraces 
from the Carpathians and the Transylvanian 
Alps to the north bank of the Danube, which 
for a considerable distance forms the bound¬ 
ary line between Bulgaria and Roumania. The 
climate of Roumania is one of marked ex¬ 
tremes. The winters are bitterly cold and 
the summers almost sub-tropical. There is 
practically no spring, the severe cold of win¬ 
ter being followed by intense summer heat. 
The natural resources of Roumania include 
large tracts of woodland, valuable mineral 
deposits, and a soil of exceeding fertility. For¬ 
ests cover 6,935,120 acres. The state owns 
nearly 3,000,000 acres of the forest lands, 
and privately owned forests are under gov¬ 
ernment control. The mineral wealth in¬ 
cludes rich petroleum springs, extensive coal 
fields, and deposits of lignite, salt, building 
stone, copper, iron, gold, lead, manganese, 
and quicksilver. 

The rich Roumanian soil insures good har¬ 
vests, and agriculture and kindred industries 
engage two-thirds or more of the popula¬ 
tion. There are some 450,000 acres devoted 
to vineyards and orchards. Tobacco is cul¬ 
tivated under the supervision of the state. 
Sheep, oxen and swine are reared. Manufac¬ 
turing industries are not large. They depend 
chiefly on the local market. The great natural 
trade route is the Danube, the principal ports, 
Sulina and Constanta on the Black Sea 
Coast, and Galatz and Braila on the Danube. 
The great majority of the people belong to 
the Greek Orthodox Church. There are also 
Catholics and Protestants, Armenians, Jews, 
and Mohammedans. Only the Orthodox cler¬ 
gy are recognized by the state. Primary edu¬ 
cation is free and compulsory. There are two 
main universities (Bucharest and Jassy), with 
faculties in law, philosophy, science, medi¬ 
cine, and theology. 

Roumania is a limited hereditary mon¬ 
archy, with a constitution, on the Belgian 
model, dating from 1866. The executive pow¬ 
er is vested in a council of eight ministers; 
the legislative power in a senate and chamber 
of deputies. This country was occupied in 
antiquity by a people called Getae, and by the 
Dacians. Trajan transformed the country 
into a Roman province and it soon became a 


flourishing part of the Roman empire. Dur¬ 
ing the following thousand years the region 
was swept by successive barbarian invasions. 
Towards the end of the 14th century the in¬ 
dependent states of Walachia and Moldavia 
were formed. Walachia was forced to recog¬ 
nize Turkish suzerainty in 1411. It regained 
its independence for a short time under Mich¬ 
ael the Brave (1593-1601), who defeated the 
Turks at Calugareni (1595) and united under 
one sceptre Walachia, Moldavia, and Tran¬ 
sylvania. ■ Moldavia did not become the vas¬ 
sal of Turkey till a century later than Wala¬ 
chia (1513). Stephen the Great (1458- 
1504) is the hero of Moldavia, as Michael 
the Brave is of Walachia. During his long 
and glorious reign he defeated the Poles 
(1461), the Hungarian king, Matthias Cor- 
vinus, at Baja (1467), invaded Walachia, 
which he wished to unite with Moldavia, and 
inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turks at 
Rakova (1475). 

During the next three centuries the ambi¬ 
tious designs of Russia and Austria towards 
the principalities became apparent. Austria 
deprived Moldavia of the province of Bu- 
kowina (Bucovina) in 1775, and Russia took 
away in 1812 the large province of Bessara¬ 
bia. The Congress of Paris of 1856 declared 
the principalities to be neutral territories un¬ 
der the guarantee of the powers. In the 
Russo-Turkish War of 1877 Roumania as¬ 
sisted in the success of the Russian arms and 
on the battlefields of Bulgaria she won her 
independence, which was confirmed by the 
Congress of Berlin (1878), In 1881 Prince 
Charles was crowned king of Roumania 
(with a crown forged from the guns cap¬ 
tured at Plevna). During the First Balkan 
War, Roumania maintained neutrality; in the 
Second, brought on by trouble over the divi¬ 
sion of the spoils, she allied herself with 
Greece and Serbia and. secured as.. a result 
of her participation some 2,000 sq.m, oi 
Northeastern Bulgaria. 

Upon the outbreak of the Great War, Rou¬ 
mania adopted a policy of watchful neutrality 
to which she adhered during the latter 
months of 1914 and the year 1915. On Aug. 
27, 1916, she entered the war on the side of 
the Allies. For a history of the ensuing 
struggle, see Europe, Great War of: Rou¬ 
mania. Threatened with starvation, the ex¬ 
hausted country signed a three months’ ar¬ 
mistice on Dec. 10, 1917. A preliminary 
treaty was agreed to, March 5, 1918, and on 
May 6, 1918, the treaty of Bucharest was 



Roumania 


4053 


Round Towers 


signed. By treaties of 1919 and 1920, she ob¬ 
tained the additions of territory listed above. 
A Constitution of 1923 was adopted for all 
tne national provinces. Carol 11 became king 
in 1930. In Feb., 1938, Carol assumed virtual 
dictatorship and suspended the Constitution. 
Roumania stood in a critical position in 1939. 
The Little Entente expired with the fall of 
Czechoslovakia; and the collapse of Poland 
left Roumania in the path of possible further 
German or Russian aggressions. In 1940, 
Carol abdicated and, under German pressure, 
Roumania ceded portions of her territory to 
Russia and Hungary. By 1941 the Nazis were 
in control of the country and Roumania was at 
war with Russia. 

Roumania: Language and Literature. 

Roumanian is a Romance language. Its vo¬ 
cabulary contains a large admixture of Sla¬ 
vonic words, while Albanian, Turkish, Hun¬ 
garian and French words have also been in¬ 
troduced. The oldest remains of the Rou¬ 
manian literature consist almost exclusively 

translations of the Bible and lives of the 
saints. More representative of the literature 
are the chronicles, composed from the begin- 
ning of the 17th century onward. A national 
literature in the general sense of the word, 
however, dates from the beginning of the 
19th century. The pioneers of the national 
renaissance were George Asaki (1788-1869) 
in Moldavia, and Heliade Radulescu (1802- 
72) in Walachia. The Roumanian language 
possesses one of the richest and most beau¬ 
tiful collections of folk-songs and folk-lore 
in the world. These treasures were first col¬ 
lected in part by Vasile Alexandria (1821- 
90), a distinguished Roumanian poet. Among 
his most celebrated fellow-poets have been 
Bolintineanu (1826-72), Eminescu, Cosbuc, 
and Vlahuta. 

Among the principal Roumanian historians 
were Balcescu (1819-52), Hasdeu, who 
was also the greatest philologist, Jorga, 
Tocilescu, and Xenopol. A great impulse 
in the development of the national litera¬ 
ture was given by Titu Maiorescu 
in his critical essays, and by the foun¬ 
dation of the society Junimea, which grouped 
round its organ, Convorbiri Liter are (appear¬ 
ing since 1866), the most talented of the 
young writers. The most important of these 
are Creanga (1837-89), a clever story-writer; 
Caragiale (b. 1852), the principal national 
dramatist; Veronica Mide (1853-89); and 
Jacob Ncgruzzi, Ganea, Slavici, Naum, Dui- 
liu, Zamfirescu, and Delavrancea. 

Roumamlle, Joseph (1818-91), Proven¬ 


cal poet, entered the publishing business and, 
along with Mistral, devoted his life to the re¬ 
suscitation of Provencal as a literary lan¬ 
guage. His Noels breathe the pure faith of 
the people; while his prose tales often dis¬ 
play a keen wit and shrewd humor. 

Round, an early form of vocal composi¬ 
tion, analogous to a canon, in that each per¬ 
former takes up the melody at certain periods, 
but differing from it in being of a uniformly 
rhythmical construction, and in having the 
melody always sung at the same pitch or at 
the interval of an octave. 

Round, William Marshall Fitts (1S45- 
1906), American prison reformer and au¬ 
thor. He engaged in journalistic work on the 
Boston News, New York Independent, and 
other papers.' He also served as correspond¬ 
ing secretary of the N. Y. Prison Association 
(1883-1906) ; organized the Burnham Indus¬ 
trial Farm for unruly boys at Canaan, N. Y., 
and invented the ‘Mills system’ of awards, in 
use in many institutions. 

Roundheads, a nickname given at the 
time of the rupture between Charles 1 and his 
Parliament to the supporters of the latter, 
who wore their hair cut short, in contradis¬ 
tinction to the cavaliers, or royalists, who 
wore theirs long. 

Round Robin, a remonstrance or petition 
signed by a number of persons, generally in 
a circular form, so as to avoid giving prom¬ 
inence to any single name. The device is 
said to have been first used by the officials 
of the French government as a means of 
making known their grievances. 

Round Table. The origin of this famous 
institution of King Arthur’s court is a ques¬ 
tion much debated by scholars. Layamon, 
who lived on the Welsh border, in his trans¬ 
lation of Wace, inserts a lengthy account of 
the founding of the Round Table. The whole 
tone and coloring of the story point to a 
very early date, while the tale as a whole 
finds more than one close and striking paral¬ 
lel in early Irish romance. The later prose 
romances tell us that Merlin made the Round 
Table, not for Arthur, but for his father, 
Uther Pendragon. The writer of the Quest e 
states that the table was made by Merlin 
in remembrance of that of the Holy Grail, 
which itself was a copy of that at which 
Christ and His apostles partook of the last 
supper.'' ■ 

Round Towers. This term is restricted, 
in the archaeology of the British Isles, to those 
ancient round towers which are peculiarly 
associated with Ireland, where over one hun- 



Roussed.ti 

dred specimens are still visible. Specimens 
may have been built, according to Dr. Petrie, 
as late as the 13th century, although he is of 
the opinion that most of them were erected 
from the 10th to the 12th century, while a few 
may be of 6th century origin. The date as¬ 
signed by Irish annalists to one of them 
(that at Tomgraney, Co. Clare) is about 
1005 a.d., being attributed to Brian Boroimhe 
before his overthrow of the Danes. It is a 
vexed question as. to what use these towers 
were put. 

Rousseau, Jean Jacques (1712-78), 
French philosophic writer, was the son of a 
watchmaker at Geneva. Rousseau, having fled 
from his native town, was introduced to a 
Madame de Warens, who occupied a some¬ 
what equivocal position as a pensioner of 
Victor Amadeus of Savoy and Sardinia, and 
agent for the conversion of Protestants to 
the Roman Catholic faith. By this woman 
Rousseau was sent to a seminary at Turin, 
where his ‘conversion’ was effected. Rousseau 
acquired powerful friends, and soon obtained 
the post of secretary to the French ambas¬ 
sador at Venice, where he lived for the best 
part of two years. On his return to Paris he 
became associated with Therese le Vasseur, a 
girl from Orleans, by whom he had five chil¬ 
dren, all of whom he sent to the foundling 
hospital. Rousseau’s literary success began 
in 1750, when he was awarded by the Acad¬ 
emy of Dijon a prize for an essay on the 
effect of the progress of science and art on 
morals; and in 1753 he brought out his suc¬ 
cessful opera, Le Devin du Village, and was 
equally successful with his Discours sur Vlne- 
galite parmi les Hommes, which may fairly 
be regarded as the popular gospel of the 
‘state of nature.’ In the same year Madame 
d’Epinay, one of his great friends, lent him 
a cottage called ‘The Hermitage,’ on the bor¬ 
ders of the forest of Montmorency, a few 
leagues from Paris. There he lived till the 
end of 1757, and in 1760-1 he published 
Julie, ou la Nouvette Heloise, La Paix Per- 
petuelle, and Le Contrat Social. On the ap¬ 
pearance of his Emile, ou de VEducation in 
1762 he was threatened by the Jesuits, and 
fled, first to Switzerland, subsequently to Eng¬ 
land, where he was the guest of Hume. At 
last he was permitted to return to France, 
where he died at Ermenonville. In England 
he had begun his remarkable Confessions. 
Rousseau’s real strength lies in his style. An 
edition of his CEuvres Completes was pub- 


Rowan 

lished in 13 vols. in 1884-87; all his works 
have been published in English. 

Rousseau, Pierre Etienne Theodore 
(1812-67), ‘the father of modern French land¬ 
scape,’ born in Paris; exhibited his first work 
in the Salon of 1834— Lisiere d y un Bois 
Coupe. His great work, La Descente des 
Vaches, was rejected in 1836 by the votes of 
the classic painters, and from that time till 
184S he was persistently refused. Others of 
his pictures were The Chestnut Avenue, The 
Marsh in the Landes; and after the reorgani¬ 
zation of the Salon in 1848, he exhibited his 
masterpiece, The Edge of the Forest. Up to 
this period Rousseau had lived only occasion¬ 
ally at Barbizon, but in 1848 he took up his 
residence in the forest village, where he sent 
out landscapes which are now considered the 
chefs d’ceuvre of French art. Fine examples 
of his work are in the Louvre and the Na¬ 
tional Gallery, London. His Hoar Frost is 
in a private collection at Baltimore; The 
Gorges of Apremont, in New York, and Morn¬ 
ing on the Oise in Orange, N. J. Consult 
Sensier’s Souvenirs sur Theodore Rousseau; 
D. C. Thomson’s The Barbizon School; Gen- 
sel’s Millet and Rousseau (1907). 

Roux, Pierre (1853-1933), French bacteri¬ 
ologist, was born at Confolens in department 
Charente. After being assistant (1874-8) at 
the Paris Hospital, he became assistant at 
the Pasteur Institute on its foundation in 
1888, vice-director on the death of Pasteur in 
1895, and director in 1904. As early as 1888 
he was successful, in conjunction with Yersin, 
in preparing the diptheritic antitoxin serum 

Rowan, Stephen Clegg (1808-90), Amer¬ 
ican naval officer, was born near Dublin, Ire¬ 
land. He was brought to the United States at 
an early age, and entered the U. S. Navy. He 
took part in the Mexican War, as executive 
officer of the Cyane in the capture of Mon¬ 
terey and San Diego. On the outbreak of 
the Civil War, he destroyed or captured the 
Confederate fleet in the Pasquotank River, 
assisted General Burnside in the capture of 
Winston, Newbern, and. Beaufort, and he 
spent some arduous months at Charleston on 
the New Ironsides. He was subsequently com¬ 
mander of the naval station at New York 
(1872-9). 

Rowan Tree, Mountain Ash, or Quick¬ 
en Tree (Pyrus aucuparia or Sorbus aucu- 
paria) , a tree belonging to the natural order 
Rosaceae, abundant in Great Britain and in 
many parts of continental Europe. An allied 


4054 



ggfS g- _ 4055 lowing 

species is P. americana, a native of North 

America, with purple fruit. 


Rowing is the propulsion of a boat by 
means of oars. A single row of oars was all 
that was attempted by the first shipbuilders; 
later, two and even four additional rows 
were added, as in the quinquereme of Rome 
and Carthage. Rowing as a sport may be 
dated from the early eighteenth century, when 
in 1715 one Doggett, a native of London, 
England, instituted a race to encourage good 


erbocker and the Invincible. In 1834 was 
formed the first rowing association in the 
United States, the Castle Garden Amateur 
Boat Club, with a boat house at Castle Gar¬ 
den, N. Y. In 1837 was held the first Hudson 
River regatta. The Boston regatta of 1842 
aroused much interest in the nearby colleges 
of Yale and Harvard. Harvard won the in¬ 
itial match between these great rivals in 1852. 
From 1870 to 1876 flourished the Rowing As¬ 
sociation of American Colleges, which held 



® Underwood. 


Rowing. 

Yale-Harvard Race at New London. 


rowing among the Thames watermen. As 
early as 1829 the first inter-university con¬ 
test took place at Henley, though the Henley 
races did not become an established annual 
institution until 1856. The Grand Challenge 
Cup at Henley, for eight-oared crews, is now 
the blue ribbon of the rowing world. The 
first foreign entry was made in the person of 
E. Smith, an American sculler, in 1872. The 
first race in America of which we have rec¬ 
ord was rowed in 1811, between the water¬ 
men of New York Bay and of Long Island 
Sound, in two four-oared barges, the Knick- 


some notable regattas. In 1883 was organ¬ 
ized the Intercollegiate Racing Association. 
The season of 1895 was a turning point in 
American college rowing. In that year Cor¬ 
nell, Columbia, and Pennsylvania fixed on the 
fine four-mile stretch of water on the Hud¬ 
son River at Poughkeepsie as the future 
course for their races, and invited the world 
to row with them. In the same year Cornell 
sent an eight oared crew to Henley that was 
defeated, and in 1896 Yale was also defeated 
over the same course. In 1900 the crew of 
the University of Pennsylvania entered for 











Rowland 


4056 


Royal 


the Grand Challenge at Henley, and their 
showing was splendid. They defeated the 
London and Thames Rowing Clubs in the 
trials, and were defeated by Leander in the 
hnals only after a glorious struggle. Since 
*878 the dual meet between Yale and Har¬ 
vard has been held at New London, Conn. 
Of late years school crews have attained dis¬ 
tinction in the Henley races. The American 
Brown and Nichols crew of Cambridge, Mass, 
and the crew of Kent School, Conn, have 
both won the Thames Challenge Cup in Eng- 
knd. Professional rowing flourished in the 
United States before the Civil War. The first 
championship races of this kind were rowed 
in 1837-8 between Stephen Roberts and Sid¬ 
ney Dorian, both of New York. Dorian 
won the first race, Roberts the second and 
third, and the fourth was ended by interfer¬ 
ence with the course from other boats. The 
five Ward brothers and three Biglin brothers 
were the most noted oarsmen of the late ’fifties 
and ’sixties, when professional sculling reached 
its greatest popularity. 

Rowland, Henry Augustus (1848-1901), 
American physicist, professor of physics in 
Johns Hopkins University, which chair he re¬ 
tained until his death. To Professor Row¬ 
land are due many notable investigations in 
physics. He made an absolute determination 
of. the ohm that helped to fix the value of 
this important electrical unit; and his work 
in spectroscopy, especially the spectrum of 
the sun, brought him an international repu¬ 
tation. His contributions in the fields of elec¬ 
tricity and magnetism were hardly less note¬ 
worthy. 

Roxana, daughter of a Bactrian chieftain. 
Alexander the Great married her in 327 b.c. 
In 311 Cassander put her to death. 

Royal Families of Europe. The belief 
in divine right of kings has manifested itself 
perhaps more forcibly in modern times by the 
persistent practice of intermarriage among 
their relatives, until, at the time of World War 
I, nearly all of the royal houses of Europe 
were closely related by blood ties. 

Reigning Families. — Belgium. —Upon the 
erection of the kingdom of Belgium in 1830, 
Leopold 1 was chosen as king, and his son 
Leopold n succeeded him in 1865, until hie 
death in 1909. His nephew, Albert 1 fol¬ 
lowed. Albert 1 married Elizabeth of Ba¬ 
varia. They had two sons and a daughter: 
Crown Prince Leopold (born 1901) married 
in 1926 Princess Astrid, daughter of Prince 
Charles, brother of King Gustaf v of Swed¬ 


en; offspring, Josephine Charlotte (born 
1927), and Prince Baudoin (born 1930). On 
the death of Albert 1 (Feb. 17, 1934), Leopold 
m succeeded to the throne. In 1940 he became 
a prisoner in Germany. 

Bulgaria. —King (tsar) Boris in, son of ex- 
king Ferdinand of Bulgaria. Boris was born 
in 1894 and succeeded on the abdication of his 
father in 1918. In 1930 he was married to 
Princess Giovanna, third daughter of Victor 
Emmanuel hi of Italy; offspring: Marie 
Louise (1933). Boris died in 1943. 

Denmark. — King Christian x succeeded 
in 1912 on the death of his father, Frederick 
viii. His grandfather, Christian ix, was fa¬ 
ther of the Empress Marie of Russia, wife of 
Emperor Alexander m of Russia and mother 
of Nicholas n; also of Alexandra, wife of Ed¬ 
ward vii of Great Britain and mother of 
George v; his son, George, became King of 
the Hellenes in 1863, assassinated in 1913 and 
succeeded by his son Constantine. Christian x 
married Alexandrine of Mecklenburg; off¬ 
spring: Crown Prince Frederick (born 
1899) and Prince Knud (1900). 

Great Britain.— -George v, son of Edward 
vh and grandson of Queen Victoria, succeeded 
on his father’s death in 1910. His mother was 
the Danish princess, Alexandra. He married 
his cousin, Victoria Mary of Teck, in 1893, 
Of their five living children the eldest is the 
Duke of Windsor (1894) who upon his fath¬ 
er’s death in 1936 became King Edward viii, 
and abdicated same year. He was succeeded 
by his next younger brother George vi 
(1895) who married, 1923, Lady Elizabeth 
Bowes-Lyon, daughter of the Earl of Strath¬ 
more and Kinghorne; offspring: Princess 
Elizabeth (1926)—heir to the throne, and 
Princess Margaret (1930). Other children of 
George V are: the Duke of Gloucester, mar¬ 
ried Lady Alice Montagu-Douglass-Scott; the 
Duke of Kent (died 1942) married to Princess 
Marina of Greece and father of a son and a 
daughter; and Princess Mary, wife of the Earl 
of Harewood and mother of two sons. George 
v was first cousin to the German ex-emperor, 
the last Russian emperor, the King of Den¬ 
mark, the late King Constantine of Greece, 
and the King of Norway, who married his sis— 
ter Maud. George v was also first cousin to 
ex-queen Victoria of Spain, to the late queen 
Marie of Roumania and to the late crown 
princess of Sweden. Edward viii on his ab¬ 
dication became Duke of Windsor. In 1937 he 
married Mrs. Wallis Warfield Simpson, an 
American, at Monts, France. 



Royal 


4057 


. Italy * Victor Emmanuel in, born in i860 
1S . ^ an , dson of Victor Emmanuel 11 and son 
°t Umberto (assassinated in 1900) and Mar- 
ghenta of Savoy. He married Helena, daugh¬ 
ter of the late King Nicholas of Montenegro, 
they had four daughters and a son Umberto, 
the crown prince, who married, in 1030 
Princess Marie Jose of Belgium. 

w^ E 7 IERLANDS '~ The queen of Holland, 
Willielmina, born in 1880, daughter of Wil- 

ham in and Emma, daughter of Prince 
George Victor of Waldeck-Pyrmont. In 1901 
she married Prince Henry of Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin, who died, 1934; offspring: daugh- 
cr, Juliana (1909), who married, 1937, 
Prince Bernhard von Lippe-Biesterfeld and 
is mother of three girls. 

Norway.— On the separation of Norway 
from Sweden in 1905, Charles of Denmark, 
second son of the late King Frederick vnx, 
was chosen to the throne, as the first king of 
Norway. He was crowned as Haakon vil 
In 1896 he married Maud, third daughter of 
Edward vn of England. He thus became the 
brother-in-law of his cousin George v. Con¬ 
stantine of Greece was also a cousin. OJaf, 
his son, was born in 1903 and married in 
1929 to Princess Martha, daughter of Prince 
Charles, brother of the King of Sweden. 

Sweden. — The royal house of Sweden 
traces its origin to Marshal Bernadotte, who 
became king of Sweden in 1818. The present 
king, who is Gustavus v, is a great-grandson 
of Napoleon’s famous marshal, and was born 
in 1858. He is a son of Oscar n and Sophie 
of Nassau. In 1881 he married Princess Vic¬ 
toria of Baden, a daughter of the only sister 
of William 1 of Germany, who died in 1930. 
The Crown Prince, Gustavus Adolphus, was 
born in 1882, and married in 1905 to Mar¬ 
garet of Connaught, granddaughter of Queen 
Victoria, and own cousin of the King of Eng¬ 
land and the Queen of Norway. Margaret, 
who bore four sons and one daughter, died 
in 1920. Subsequently the Crown Prince 
married (1923) Lady Louise Mountbatten, 
also of the British Royal Family. His eldest 
son, Prince Gustaf Adolf (born 1906) mar¬ 
ried (1932) Princess Sybille of Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha, a great-granddaughter of Queen Vic¬ 
toria. 

Former Reigning Families. — Austria- 
Hungary.— Charles 1, former emperor of 
Austria and king of Hungary, was the grand¬ 
nephew of the late Francis Joseph 1, whom 
he succeeded on the throne in 1916, and neph¬ 
ew of Francis Ferdinand, whose assassination 


Royal 


I at Sarajevo in 1914 brought on the war. The 
former emperor was the eldest son of Arch¬ 
duke Otto, younger brother of Francis Fer¬ 
dinand, and of Archduchess Maria Josepha, 
sister of the ex-king of Saxony. He was 
married in 1911 to Princess Zita of Bour¬ 
bon Parma, daughter of Duke Robert of Par¬ 
ma, and a younger sister of the first wife of 
Ferdinand, ex-tsar of Bulgaria. They had five 
children, the eldest being Francis Joseph Otto, 
born in 1912. In November, 1918, Austria 
and Hungary were proclaimed independent 
republics, and Charles went into exile. After 
two fruitless visits to Hungary (1921) he re¬ 
tired to Madeira where he died in 1922. 

Bavaria.— The former king was Louis in, 
who in 1913 succeeded his insane cousin Otto, 
younger brother of Louis n, to whom the un¬ 
fortunate title of ‘mad king of Bavaria’ was 
applied. He was married to the Archduchess 
Maria Theresa of Austria-Este, and had six 
daughters and three sons, the eldest being 
Rupert, who was born in 1869, and who mar¬ 
ried his cousin Marie Gabriele. The dynasty 
was deposed in November, 1918, and Bavaria 
was declared a republic. Louis died in 1921. 

Germany.— The German ex-emperor and 
ex-king of Prussia, William n, traced his an¬ 
cestry back to Frederick of HohenzoHern, a 
member of a noble German family in 980. 
William 11 was born in 1859, a grandson of 
William 1, the first German emperor, and a 
son of Frederick in. His mother was Victoria, 
the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria of 
England, and sister of Edward vn. William n 
married Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Hol- 
stein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, by whom he 
has had six sons and one daughter. On the 
death of the ex-Kaiserin in 1921 (April), 
William n married (November) Princess 
Hermine of Schonaich-Carolath (nee of 
Reuss). His eldest son, Frederick William, 
born in 1882 and married (1905) to Cecilie of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, was the crown prince. 
The eldest son of Frederick William, William 
Frederick, was born in 1906. The daughter 
of William n married the duke of Brunswick, 
grandson of George v of Hanover. 

^ Greece.— The king of Greece was Constan¬ 
tine i, born in 1868. He married (1889) So¬ 
phie, sister of the German ex-emperor, by 
whom he had five children. Upon the assas¬ 
sination of his father, George 1, in 1913, Con¬ 
stantine succeeded to the throne, but aban¬ 
doned it to his son, Alexander, in 1917. After 
the death of Alexander in 1920 he was re¬ 
called to the throne by a plebiscite. Con- 



Royal 


4058 


Royal Society 


stantine was forced to abdicate again, how¬ 
ever, in 1922, in favor of his second son, 
George u, who, when a republic was set up, 
relinquished the throne in less than a year. 
Constantine died in 1923. He was the first 
cousin of the emperor of Russia, of the king 
of Great Britain and of the king of Denmark. 
George 11 returned to the throne, 1935. 

Montenegro. —The last ruler was Nicholas 
1, born in 1841, and proclaimed prince of 
Montenegro in succession to his uncle Danilo 
in i860. He assumed the title of king in 
1910. Prince Danilo Alexander, born 1871, 
was heir-apparent but, upon the death of 
King Nicholas in March, 1921, Montenegro 
became a part of Yugoslavia. 

Roumania. —Carol n, who became king in 
1930, son of Ferdinand 1 and Queen Marie 
(daughter of the Duke of Edinburgh, after¬ 
wards Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha), is thus 
a great-grandson of Queen Victoria of Great 
Britain. He was born in 1893, married in 
1921 to Princess Helen of Greece (divorced 
1928) ; offspring, Crown Prince Michael (Mi- 
hai), born 1921. In 1940 the Germans forced 
the king to abdicate and he fled from the 
country. 

Russia. —Nicholas n, last tsar of Russia, 
was born in 1868, a descendant of Michael 
Romanoff, who founded the dynasty in 1613. 
Nicholas was the son of Alexander in and 
Dagmar of Denmark (sister of the late Alex¬ 
andra of England, the late Frederick vm of 
Denmark, and the late George 1 of Greece), 
and was therefore first cousin to the king of 
England, the king of Denmark, and the king 
of Greece. He married Alexandra Alice, 
daughter of the Grand Duchess of Hesse 
(formerly Princess Alice of England), and 
had five children. Nicholas abdicated both 
for himself and his only son Alexis in March, 
1917, and in 1918 the entire family was mur¬ 
dered by the Bolshevists. Later a young wo¬ 
man who claimed to be Princess Anastasia, 
and to have survived the Bolshevist attack, 
visited the U. S. and gained some following, 
though she was denied recognition by rela¬ 
tives of the late Tsar. Grand Duchess 
Marie, daughter of the late Grand Duke Paul 
of Russia, and cousin of the late Tsar Nicho¬ 
las became employed in a New York City 
Fifth Ave. shop as buyer and designer of 
novelty articles. Formerly a member by 
marriage of the royal family of Sweden, she 
lived for nine years in Paris where she oper¬ 
ated an embroidery factory to give employ- 
ment to exiled Russians. 


Saxony. —The last king of Saxony was 
Frederick August in, his ancestor in 1806 as¬ 
sumed the title of King of the Electorate of 
Saxony, and an earlier ancestor was emperor 
of Germany. He married Louise of Tus¬ 
cany in 1891 (the marriage was dissolved in 
1903), by whom he had six children. George, 
born in 1893, was the crown prince. On No¬ 
vember 9, 1918, Saxony was declared a re¬ 
public. 

Spain. —The last king of Spain was Alfonso 
xm of the family of Bourbon, and a descend¬ 
ant of Louis xiv of France. The only son of 
Alfonso xii and Maria Christina, daughter of 
the late Charles Ferdinand, Archduke of Aus¬ 
tria, he was born in 1886. He married (1906) 
Victoria Eugenie, daughter of Princess Bea¬ 
trice of England (Queen Victoria’s youngest 
daughter) and Prince Henry of Battenberg. 
Six children were born of this marriage, the 
eldest in 1907. Alfonso withdrew to France 
when a Spanish republic was established in 
* 93 *. 

Wurtemberg.— The ex-king was William 
n, who was born in 1848, and succeeded to 
the throne on the death of his cousin, Charles 
1 in 1891. He had been married twice, but 
had no male descendants. His cousin Albert, 
born in 1865, was heir-presumptive until 1918, 
when Wurtemberg was proclaimed a repub¬ 
lic. He died in 1921. 

Yugoslavia.— Crown Prince Peter was pro¬ 
claimed king, Oct., 1934, under a regency of 
three following the assassination of his father, 
King Alexander. His mother is Marie, second 
daughter of King Ferdinand of Roumania, to 
whom were born Prince Peter (1923), Prince 
Tomislav (1928) and Prince Andreja (1929). 
In World War II the monarchy was over¬ 
thrown and a republic established. 

Royall, Isaac (c. 1719-81), was born in 
Antigua, West Indies and later moved to 
Medford, Mass. Adhering to the royalist 
side in the Revolutionary War, he had to 
leave the country (1775). Although his large 
estates were confiscated, he bequeathed 2,000 
acres to endow a chair of law at Harvard 
University. 

Royal Society of London, the oldest sci¬ 
entific society in Great Britain, was founded 
in 1660, though the nucleus of the organiza¬ 
tion was formed fifteen years earlier by a 
number of learned men who met in London 
to discuss philosophical questions and report 
experiments. Sir Robert Moray was the first 
president of the Society, and Sir Christopher 
Wren and the Hon. Robert Boyle were among 



Rubus 


4061 


Ruffin 


director until 1867. As a composer, Rubin¬ 
stein has written largely in nearly every 
branch of music. He was an extreme anti- 
Wagnerian, and his style displays the influ¬ 
ence of Schubert and Mendelssohn to a 
marked degree. Of his symphonies, the Ocean 
and Dramatic are perhaps best known; but 
many of his compositions for piano, some of 
his chamber music, and a great number of his 
songs are highly esteemed. 

Rubus, a genus of shrubs and herbs be¬ 
longing to the order Rosacese. They bear 
mostly panicles or corymbs of white or pink 
flowers, followed by often edible fruits. 
Among the edible-fruited species are R. 
Idceus, the red raspberry. 

Ruby, a, red variety of precious corundum, 
AhOs, which differs from sapphire only in 
its color. It is strongly dichroic, and this 
property is useful for distinguishing it from 
garnet, spinel, and red paste; while its speci¬ 
fic gravity (4) is higher than that of red 
tourmaline, and in hardness (9) it is inferior 
only to the diamond. The most precious of 
all is the bright carmine red, known as the 
‘pigeon-blood’ color. Large rubies are ex¬ 
cessively rare. These gems are obtained prin¬ 
cipally from Upper Burma, Siam, and Cey¬ 
lon. ‘Reconstructed rubies’ are obtained by 
melting small rubies in an electric furnace 
and then allowing them to cool very slowly. 

Ruckstuhl, Frederick Wellington 
(1853-1942), American sculptor, born at Brei- 
tenbach, Alsace; educated in St. Louis, Md., 
where his parents settled in 1854. His female 
marble figure Evening, received honorable 
mention at the Salon of 1888, and later a 
grand medal at the Chicago World’s Fair in 
1893. It is now in the N. Y. Metropolitan 
Museum. Among his other important works 
are the bronze Victory on the Soldiers’ and 
Sailors’ monument in Jamaica, N. Y.; marble 
figures of Wisdom and Force for the appellate 
court, New York city. 

Rudbeck, Olof (1630-1702), Swedish au¬ 
thor and scientist, born at West eras. At the 
age of twenty-three he discovered the lymph¬ 
atic vessels; was professor of practical medi¬ 
cine at Upsala (1660), where he founded a 
botanical garden and edited a herbarium en¬ 
titled Campus Elysius (1701-2). His chief 
v/ork, however, was his Atlantica (1675-98), 
in which, with immense erudition and extra¬ 
ordinary ingenuity, he endeavored to prove 
that Plato’s Atlantis was really Sweden, and 
that Sweden was the cradle of human culture. 

Rude, Frangois (1784-1855), French 


sculptor, born at Dijon. His chief work is the 
fine trophy on the Arc de Triomphe de 
l’Etoile. He broke with academic traditions, 
and turned to living nature for his inspiration 
and models. His best work is found in the 
Lille and Dijon museums, at Versailles, and in 
the Luxembourg Gardens at Paris. 

Rudolf L (1218-91) , German emperor, was 
elected in 1273. In 1278 he defeated and 
killed Ottocar, the powerful Bohemian king 
who held Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Car- 
niola. This victory proved to be the founda¬ 
tion of the future greatness of the house of 
Hapsburg. 

Rudolf II. (1552-1612), German emperor, 
was the son of Maximilian xl, and became 
emperor in 1576. Weakness was the most 
conspicuous feature of Rudolf’s character. In 
1606 the Hapsburg archdukes set up Matth- 
ias, the emperor’s brother, as head of the fam¬ 
ily, and compelled Rudolf to resign all his 
dominions except Bohemia. In 1611 Matthias 
seized Bohemia. 

Rudolf or Rudolph, Franz Karl Joseph 
(1858-89), crown-prince of Austria-Hungary, 
only son of the Emperor Francis Joseph. It 
is generally believed that he committed suicide 
over a love affair at Meyerling, near Vienna. 

Rue (Ruta graveolens ), a perennial ever¬ 
green herb, whose leaves were formerly occa¬ 
sionally used for flavoring and in medicine. It 
was the herb of repentance and the herb of 
grace. It bears greenish-yellow flowers, and 
the leaves have a powerful smell. 

Rueda, Lope de (d. c. 1567), Spanish ac¬ 
tor and dramatist, and one of the founders of 
the Spanish secular stage, born at Seville. He 
first popularized the true drama in Spain, and 
wrote his own plays, mostly from Italian 
stories. But his most famous works are short 
humorous dialogues or interludes, called 
: pasos. 

Ruff {Machetes pugnax) , a bird of-the far 
north, more common in northern Europe than 
America, and a near ally of the sandpipers. 
In the spring the male loses the feathers on 
the face, which are replaced by yellowish 
or pinkish tubercles; curled tufts of feathers 
also arise near the ears, and later the shield¬ 
like ruff is developed. 

Ruffe, or Pope (Acerina cernua) , a small 
fresh-water perch, found in sluggish streams 
throughout central Europe, and common in 
many parts of England. 

Ruffin, Edmund (1794-1865), American 
agriculturist, born in Prince George co., Va. 
In 1832 he founded the Farmer's Register and 



Rugby 

edited it until 1841. He fired the first shot 
opening the siege of Fort Sumter (April 12, 
1861), and at the dose of the Civil War killed 
himself rather than swear allegiance to the 
Union. 

Rugby, Warwickshire, England, on the 
Avon. The church of St. Andrew replaces 
an older one, mostly demolished in 1777. 
Public buildings include the famous school, 
founded in 1567 by Lawrence Sheriff. Dr. 
Arnold was headmaster (1828-42), and 
among many memorials in the chapel are 
effigies of Dr. Arnold and Dean Stanley; p. 
23,824. 



Photo hy Elliott & Fry. 
Rubinstein. 


Riigen, German island in Baltic; p. c. 48,- 
000. The soil is fertile, and agriculture, cattle 
raising and fisheries flourish. Bergen is the 
capital. 

Ruger, Thomas Howard (1833-1907), 
American soldier, born at Lima, N. Y.; be- 
came a brigadier-general. He fought at Chan- 
cellorsville and Gettysburg; assisted in sup¬ 
pressing the draft riots in New York city; 
and was provisional governor of Ga. in 1868. 
In 1871-76 he was superintendent of West 
Point. 

Ruggles, Charles (1892- ), actor, was 

born in Los Angeles, Calif. He was educated 
in the public schools and made his first ap¬ 
pearance in a stock company at the Alcazar 
Theater, San Francisco, 1908. He is popular 
in motion picture films and has appeared in 
many character parts. He is a recognized 


Rugs 

champion handball player, an expert swim¬ 
mer, and boxer. 

Ruggles, Samuel Bulkley (1800-80), 
American lawyer, born in Conn., began to 
practise law in New York in 1821. He was 
a member of the legislature in 1838, and in 
1840 and 1858 was president of the canal 
board. He was an authority on financial and 
statistical subjects, and represented the U. S. 
in the international monetary conference at 
Paris. 

Rugs. Most of the Oriental rugs sold in 
the United States come from Persia, Russia 
and Turkey. A few come from India and 
China and some are woven in Beluchistan 
and Afghanistan. The Ballard collection in 
the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 
is notable. Everywhere the method of weav¬ 
ing is practically the same. The warp threads 
are stretched vertically between two rollers. 
The pile is formed by the ends of rows of 
woolen knots tied to the warp between weft 
threads that bind them in place. An aniline- 
dyed Oriental rug is of little value as the life 
has been taken from the wool and the colors 
grow harsh with age instead of softening and 
blending into quaint and curious harmonies 
as do vegetable colors. The principal centers 
of rug-weaving Persia are Tabriz and Sul- 
tanabad, where the industry is under Euro¬ 
pean control. Tabriz rugs excel in fineness of 
weave and intricacy of design. The color¬ 
ings are exquisitely delicate and the patterns 
brilliantly harmonious. Other rugs of North¬ 
western Persia are Gorevans, Serapes, Bak- 
shaishes, and Herezes. Among rugs woven in 
Western Persia are Sultanabads, Fereghans, 
Hamadans, Sehnas, Serebends, Kurdistans and 
Saruks, The high reputation of Kerman rugs 
is due partly to the quality of the wool of 
South Central Persia. The principal types 
of rugs woven in the Caucasus are Daghes- 
tans, Kabistans, Derbends, Chichis, Shirvans, 
Kazaks, Guerges and Karabaghs. Rugs wov¬ 
en in Russia east of the Caspian along the 
line of the Transcaspian railway are Tekkes, 
Yomuds, Khivas, Bokharas, Afghans and Sa- 
markands. The most important center of 
rug weaving in Turkey is Oushak. The indus¬ 
try is under European control and large, thick 
rugs in Persian, Turkish and European de¬ 
signs are woven under the names Kerman, 
Ghiordes, Yaprak, Sparta, Gulistan, Enlie, 
etc. The colors are strong greens, green- 
blues, reds and maroons. Anatolia is another 
name for Asia Minor. Under the name Ana¬ 
tolians are sold small odds and ends of every 


4062 


Ruiz 


4083 


Rumex 


variety of Turkish weave. A century ago 
small prayer rugs were woven at Anatolian 
cities, which are unsurpassed by the best Per¬ 
sians and which are the most cherished pieces 
in museums and private collections. The mod¬ 
ern reproductions of them are inferior in qual¬ 
ity. Consult Lewis, Practical Book of Oriental 
Rugs. 

Ruiz, Juan (fl. 14th century), Spanish 
poet, sometimes called the Spanish Rabelais, 
but more commonly known as the arch-priest 
of Hita, was a type of the free-living, coarse- 
spoken priest of his time. In prison at Toledo 
he wrote his famous poem, El Libro de los 
Lantares , a set of songs, free, vivacious, and 
full of coarse wit. 


this rule is reversed: turn left on meeting, 
right to pass. If a person driving at a slow 
pace is overtaken by another driving at a 
faster pace within local speed regulations, 
the first person is bound to give way for the 
other to pass, if he is so requested. A person, 
is not bound to look back for overtaking 
vehicles, and is not bound to keep to the 
right of the center of the road except to al¬ 
low others to pass. Failure by drivers to ob¬ 
serve the rules of the road is presumptive evi¬ 
dence of negligence. This applies also to vio¬ 
lation of local regulations as to speed, separa¬ 
tion of heavy and light traffic, etc. 

By international agreement, in order to 
avoid collisions, sea-going vessels are required 



Rugby School. 

Left, The Quad Gate; Right, The School and Chapel from the Close. 


Rule Nisi. A direction that some particu¬ 
lar act be allowed unless good cause to the 
contrary be shown. A decree nisi is a provi¬ 
sional decree, made absolute within a 
specified time unless , cause against it is 
shown. 

Rule of Faith ( Regula Fidei) , a concise 
summary of the apostolic teaching as con¬ 
tained in the New Testament and in the tradi¬ 
tion of the earliest churches. 

Rule of the Road. There are three sources 
of the law of the road on land, statutes, 
municipal ordinances, and the common law. 
Special provisions in regard to automobiles 
and bicycles are contained in the statutes of 
most states. The first rule of the road is that 
persons driving along a public highway must 
turn to the right of the center of the road 
upon meeting another person coming from 
the opposite direction and in overtaking an¬ 
other a vehicle should go left. In Britain 


when under way— (a) to carry certain light? 
and signal apparatus; ( b ) to proceed in ac¬ 
cordance with certain rules; (c) to make cer¬ 
tain signals. Steam vessels must keep out of 
the way of sailing vessels. 

Rum, an ardent spirit, obtained by fer¬ 
menting molasses, distilling the wash, and 
storing the distillate for at least two years in 
order to mature and improve it by the form¬ 
ation of esters, which give the rum a fine, 
soft, mellow flavor. The dark color is due 
to the addition of burnt sugar. The best 
natural product is imported from Jamaica, 
Demerara, and Martinique. 

Rumex, a genus of mostly herbaceous 
plants, belonging to the order Polygonaceae. 
Among the species are the broad-leaved dock 
(R. obtusifolius) , the canaigre (R. hymenose - 
palus)) which furnishes tannin in its roots; 
the common sorrel (R. acetosa ), and the 
sheep’s sorrel (12. acetosella ). 







Rulers 


4064 


Rulers 


Rulers of the World 


Country 


Afghanistan. 

Arabia—Saudi. .. 

Argentina. 

Australia. 

Austria. 

Belgium. 

Bhutan (Br. Protectorate). 

Bolivia. 

Brazil. 

Bulgaria.. 

Canada.. 

Chile. . .. 

China. 

Colombia. 

Costa Rica.. 

Cuba. 

Czechoslovakia. 

Denmark. 

Dominican Republic. 

Ecuador. 

Egypt. 

Eire (Irish Free State) .... 

Finland. 

France. 

Germany. 

Great Britain. 

Greece. 

Guatemala... 

Haiti. 

Honduras. 

Hungary. 

Iceland.... 

India (British).-. 

Iran (Persia). 

Iraq (Mesopotamia). 

Italy... 

Japan.. 

Liberia..,.. 

Liechtenstein............ 

Lithuania. 

Luxemburg. ..... 

Mexico... 

Monaco.. 

Morocco... 

Nepal.. 

Netherlands. 

Newfoundland. .... .. 

New Zealand.. 

Nicaragua. .. 

Norway... 

■■Oman,. ... 

Palestine.. ..■ 

Panama.. 

Paraguay.... 

Persia (Iran)... 

Peru...... . w .. 

Philippine Islands. . ...... 

Poland .... 

Portugal. . -- ......... 

Roumania.. 


Name of Ruler, Etc. 


Acces’n 


Mohammed Zahir Khan, King .... .. 

Abd-el-Aziz es Saud ibn Saud, King .'. 

Gen. Edelmiro Farrell, President .. 

I he Duke of Gloucester, Governor-General .. 

Joseph Chifley, Premier .. 

Leopold Figl, Chancellor . 

Leopold III, King .. 

Jik-me Wangchuck, Maharajah .. 

Maj. Gualberto Villarroel, President . 

Gen. Eurico Dutra, President . 

Simeon II, Czar .. 

Field Marshal R. L. G. Alexander, Governor-General . 

W. L. MacKenzie King, Premier .. 

Juan Antonio Rios, President . 

Chiang Kai-shek, Acting President . 

Alberto Lleras Camargo, President . 

Teodoro Picado, President . 

Dr. Ramon Grau San Martin, President ... 

Eduard Benes, President . 

Christian X., King . 

Rafael Trujillo, President . 

Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra, President . 

Faruk L, King .. 

Sean T. O’Kelly, President; Eamon de Valera, Prime Minister . . . . 

Field Marshal Baron Carl Gustav Mannerheim, President . 

Gen. Charles de Gaulle, President of Council. .. 

George VI., King and Emperor; Clement R. Attlee, Premier . 

Archbishop Damaskinos, Regent . 

Dr. Juan Jose Arevalo, President ... 

Elie Lescot, President . 

Gen. Tiburcio Carias Andino, President . 

Zoltan Tildy, Premier . 

Sveinn Bjornsson, President .... 

Field Marshal Sir Archibald Percival Wavell, Viceroy .! 

Mohammed Riza Pahlevi, Shah . 

Feisal II, King .....* * 

Alcide de Gasperi, Premier .... .**’*’** 

William V. Tubman, President .. 

Franz Joseph II, Prince ...‘ ‘ ] 


Manuel Avila Camacho, President .... 

Louis II., Prince., ... 

Moulai Mohammed, Sultan .. ’’[’”******* 

Tribhubana Bir Bikram, Shah ...it! 

Wilhelmina, Queen. ... i * 

Vice-Adm. Humphrey T. Walwyn, Governor. . 

Sir Cyril L. N. Newall, Governor-General; Peter Fraser, Premier. 

Gen. Anastazio Somoza, President. .. 

Haakon VII., King ......i .!. i 

Seyyid Said ibn Taimur, Sultan .. ii i i i i i i .* i 

Lt. Gen. Sir Alan Gordon Cunningham, High Commissioner. ’ ’ * ’ * 

Enrique A. Jiminez, President ... .... 

Higino Morinigo, President . ..... 

Mohammed Riza Pahlevi, Shah . . . ____ _ 

Jose Rivero, President .. ...... i. 

Sergio Osmena, President. . ......i i i i. 

Stanislaw Mikoiajczyk, Premier. . . .! i ! i i i i i i 

Gen. Antonio Oscar de Fragoso Carmona, President.. ........... 


193 3 
1926 

1944 

194? 

1945 

1945 

1934 

192b 

1944 

1945 

1943 

1945 

1942 

1943 
1945 

1944 

1944 

193? 

191*2 

1942 

1944 

193b 

1945 
*944 
*944 


1944 

*945 

1941 

*933 

*945 

1944 

1943 

194 * 

1939 

*945 

1943 

1938 


1940 
1922 
1927 
1911 
1890 
1936 

1941 

*937 

1905 

*932 

*945 

*945 

1940 

1925 

1945 

*945 

*944 

1926 


Russia (U. S. S. R.) .... .... 

El Salvador... 

Siam. 

Soudan, Anglo-Egyptian... 
South Africa, Union of.. ., 

Spain. 

Sweden. 

Switzerland. 

Syria (French Mandate)... 

Trans-Jordan. 

Tunisia... 

Turkey. 

United States. 

Uruguay. 

Vatican City, State of. 

Venezuela. !. 

Yugoslavia. 

Zanzibar. 


Mikhali L Kalinin, Chairman; Joseph Stalin, Premier. . 

Gen. Salvador Castro; President. . .. 

Ananda, Mahidol, King . 

Lt.-Gen. H. J. Huddleston, Governor-General . . 

Maj. Gideon Brand van Zyl, Governor-General; Jan Christian Smuts 

Premier .... 

Gen. Francisco Franco, Head of Government. . . ' ’ " * * ’ * * 

Gustaf V, King. ... .. ............... .. 1 

Dr. Karl Kobelt, President..... . .... 

Shukri bey al-Quwatli, President .. . ” * ’ *. 

Abdullah, Emir. .... ..' * .*.*.'*' 

Sidi Lamine, Bey. .................... 

Ismet Inonu, President . ... ......... .. ...[ ’ ]; ].* * 

Harry S. Truman, President ......._.... . ..!.!!!! V*! X 

Juan Jose de Amezaga, President . 

Pius XII., Pope and Sovereign. . . . . . . . , ............ 

Romulo Bettancourt, Provisional President .!!.*...*. 

Republic established. .... ..... . .......... .... . ' ' ’ * ‘ ‘ ‘ 

Seyyid Khalifa ibn Harub, Sultan. . 


1938 
*945 
*935 

1940 

*945 

*939 

1907 

*945 

1941 
1921 
* 943 
*938 
1945 

1942 

1939 
1945 
*945 
191 I 





















































































































































© American Museum of Natural History y 

The Hayden Planetarium of New York, the treasure house of the stars, the theatre of sky magic, where those 
who wish to study the planets may witness the wonders of the UNIVERSE. 















Rumford 


Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count 

(1753-1814), American scientist, taught 
school in Rumford (Concord), N. H. He was 
acquitted after trial on charges of disloyalty, 
and went to England in 1776. In 1781 his 
property was confiscated. He was received 
with much favor in England and continued 
his scientific studies and made valuable ex¬ 
periments with explosives. In 1785 he be¬ 
came aide-de-camp and chamberlain to the 
Elector of Bavaria. In 1791 he was invest- 
ed with the rank of a Count of the Holy 
Roman Empire, and chose the title of Rum¬ 
ford, after the little New Hampshire town in 
which he had taught school. He gave a large 
sum to Harvard to found the Rumford pro¬ 
fessorships in science. 

Rumsey, James (1743-92) , American me¬ 
chanical engineer, born in Bohemia Manor, 
Cecil co., Md. In 1784, while engineer in a 
mill at Shepherdstown, Va., he became inter- 
ested in Watt’s steam engine, and applied it 
to the propulsion of a boat. The Rumsey 
Society was formed in Philadelphia to aid 
him m his experiments, and he went to Eng¬ 
land, where a similar society was formed to 
aid him construct an ocean-going steamer, 
but died there while conducting further ex¬ 
periments. He was author of A Short Treat¬ 
ise on the Application of Steam (1788). 

Runciman, Walter (1870- ■), British 

shipping magnate and financier. He has oc¬ 
cupied several cabinet posts and became 
President of the Board of Trade under the 
MacDonald coalition government. 

Runes. The Gothic word tuna or run, 
originally denoted something occult or cryp¬ 
tic, and early became a synonym for knowl- 


4066 


Rural 



Sculptured Stones with Runic 
Inscriptions, Isle of Man. 

edge and wisdom. Oracular proverbial say¬ 
ings were ‘runes’ ,* and the magic drum of the 
Lapps was the rune drum. Eventually the 
term came to denote exclusively the letters 
of the Northern (Norroene) alphabet, called 


the Futhorc from the first six letters, ; tk’ 
being but one. Extant runes are mostly in¬ 
scribed on stones. 

Runner is the name given to a slender 
prostrate branch of a plant, from which 
branch leaves and roots proceed at each node. 
A good example is the strawberry plant. 

Runnymede, meadow where King John 
is reputed to have signed Magna Charta on 
June 15, 1215. 

Rupee, the unit of value in British India. 
Its value in English money necessarily varies 
with the price of silver. In normal times it 
is worth is. 4d. British money, or about 28 
cents U. S. 

Rupert, Maria Luitpold Ferdinand 
(1869), Crown Prince of Bavaria, was bom 
m Munich. He was educated at the Univer- 
sity of Munich and at the outbreak of the 
Great War in Europe became commander of 
the Fifth German Army. 

Rupert, Prince (1619-82), nephew and 
general of Charles 1. of England, was the son 
of Elizabeth (daughter of James 1.) and 
of Frederick v.. Elector Palatine, king of Bo¬ 
hemia, and was born at Prague. He was em¬ 
ployed (1642-6) by Charles 1. In 1673 he be¬ 
came Lord High Admiral and conducted three 
furious fights off the Dutch coast in that year. 
In 1670 Rupert became first governor of the 
Hudson’s Bay Company. His last ten years 
were spent in retirement in the pursuit of 
chemical, physical, and mechanical researches. 

Rupert s Land, former designation of the 
territory of North America drained by rivers 
entering Hudson Bay. It was granted to the 
Hudson’s Bay Company in 1670 through the 
efforts of Prince Rupert. The lands are now 
included in the Northwest Territories and 
the province of Manitoba. 

Rural Credits. The agricultural or rural 
eredits movement embraces numerous and 
various plans for aiding American fanners by 
loans of money. Federal legislation upon 
rural credits embraces the Federal Farm Loan 
Act of July 17, 1916, a powerful, radical, and 
iar-reaching measure, which provided for 
twelve great Federal Land Banks, each with 
a capital of $750,000 supplied by the Federal 
Government, which waives all right to divid¬ 
ends. A Federal Farm Loan Board assigned 
he forty-eight States to twelve districts, and 
located the twelve Federal Banks in the cities 
° Springfield, Mass.; Baltimore, Md.: Col- 
umhia s C.; Louisville, Ky.; New Orleans, 
& St w L °/f> ¥°-; St. Paul, Minn.; Omaha, 

I Neb., Wichita, Kans.; Houston, Tex.; Berk- 




Careful grading and inspecting of Viscose Manufacture of Rayon Yarn. 




Rural 


4068 


- Ruslan 


eley> Cal.; and Spokane, Wash, In 1923, 
twelve intermediate credit banks were estab¬ 
lished to assist in the operation of the twelve 
land banks. See-also United States, New 
Deal. 

Rural Schools. Rural schools may be de¬ 
fined' as schools in country districts. Con¬ 
siderable thought has been given in recent 
years to the needed reorganization and im¬ 
provement of rural schools by providing bet¬ 
ter buildings and better trained teachers, and 
by standardizing schools. But it is recognized 
that the problems involved are not educa¬ 
tional merely, but a part of the wider prob¬ 
lem of improving country life in general 
throughout the country. To this improve¬ 
ment such organizations as the General Edu¬ 
cational Board and the Division of Rural 
Education in the U. S. Bureau of Education 
are bending their efforts. 

Rushy, Henry Hurd (1855-1940), Amer¬ 
ican botanist, born in Franklin, N. J., and 
graduated from New York University (m,d. 
18S5). From 1888-1930 he was professor of 
botany, physiology, and materia medica at 
Columbia University, and from 1897 to 1902 
was also professor of materia medica at Bel¬ 
levue Hospital Medical College. , In 1907-09 
he was connected with the U. S.’ Bureau of 
Chemistry as an expert on drug products. He 
has written widely on medical subjects con¬ 
nected with plant life., ■ ^ 

■ Benjamin (1745-1813), American 

physician and patriot. Elected a member of 
the Continental Congress, he signed the Dec¬ 
laration of Independence (1776). In April, 
1777, he was appointed surgeon-general, and 
in July physician-general, of the Continental 
Army. He was a founder of Dickinson Col¬ 
lege, of.the Philadelphia dispensary, the first 
in the United States, and of the College of 
Physicians, and was active in the establish¬ 
ment of public schools. 

• : Rush, Richard (1780-1859), American 
lawyer and diplomat, in 1817 was for a short 
time acting Secretary of State, and was then 
sent as Minister to England, where he re¬ 
mained until 1825. 

Rush-Bag© t Convention. After the War 
of 1812, Sir.. Charles Bagot signed 'with Act¬ 
ing Secretary Richard Rush an agreement, re¬ 
vocable at six months’ notice, that each na¬ 
tion might build or keep on the Lakes only 
four vessels with one 18-pounder each. Rev¬ 
enue cutters and training ships were not 
barred. This Convention has never been re¬ 
voked, and during the century of its existence 


has been an immense gain toward peace. 

Rusk, Jeremiah McLain (1830-93), Am¬ 
erican soldier and legislator, was bom in 
Morgan co., 0 ., and was occupied as a farmer 
in early life. In 1871-6 he was a Member of 
Congress; in 1881 Was elected governor of 
Wisconsin, and twice re-elected; and from 
1889 to 1893 was the first Secretary of the 
Department of Agriculture. 

Rusk, William (1756-1833), American 
sculptor, born in Philadelphia, the son of a 
ship’s carpenter. Among his earliest works 
were the fine figureheads for the American 
frigates United States and Constitution, A 
full-length statue of Washington for Inde¬ 
pendence Hall in Philadelphia (1814) is con¬ 
sidered his masterpiece. 

Ruskin, John (1819-1900), English author 
and art critic, came into general notice with 
Modern Painters and other treatises on the 
fine arts; in later life he was best known as 
a lecturer and essayist on ethics, education, 
and philanthropy. He was born in London. 
He had long been an admirer of the pictures 
of Turner and impatient at the popular mis¬ 
understanding of what he conceived to be the 
painter’s aims in his later work. Ruskin’s in¬ 
terest in architecture produced The Seven 
Lamps of Architecture (1849) and The Stones 
of Venice, These books were not merely a plea 
for Gothic forms in building, but an attempt to 
trace the conditions of artistic craftsmanship, 
which the author found in the social system 
of the Middle Ages. This line of thought was 
partly developed in Lectures on Architecture 
and Painting, given at Edinburgh in 1853; in 
The Political Economy of Art, lectures at 
Manchester in 1857; and in The Two Paths, 
in 1859. When the Pre-Raphaelites came into 
notice, Ruskin took up their cause, and 
promoted it with both his purse and his pen. 
Carlyle’s influence contributed to develop his 
range of thought from art to social and eco¬ 
nomic studies. In December, 1864, Ruskin 
addressed Manchester audiences on the use 
of books and the influence of women, and 
published the discourses as Sesame and Lilies 
(1865). At the same time he was writing 
his monthly Letters to the Working Men of 
England, under the title of Fors Clavijera, 
In 1871 he bought a cottage—Brantwood, on 
Coniston Water—and spent the next four 
years chiefly at Coniston, occupied in work 
for his St. George’s Guild. He promoted' art 
classes and home industries — notably the 
hand-spinning and weaving of linen. His 
Complete-Works appeared in. 1904-6.