Full text of "The Politics of Divine Wisdom, Theosophy and Labour, National, and Women's Movements in Indonesia and South Asia 1875-1947"

See other formats

Herman A.O. de Tollenaere

The POLITICS of
DIVINE WISDOM

P!|jm ■■ , -^

BANDOBMC

voce, obr TMSooaraare vnKBanK3MG

Theosophy and labour,

national, and women's movements

in Indonesia and South Asia

1875-1947

I-H H

O c«

Herman- A. O. deTollenaere

The POLITICS of
DIVINE WISDOM

|Ai4c«C UX* DH THB06CPD01F. VW*MKB»C

Theosophy and labour,

national, and women's movements

in Indonesia and South Asia

1875-1947

The POLITICS of DIVINE WISDOM

Theosophy and labour, naiional, and women's movements in Indonesia and Souih Asia.

1875-1947

ten weienschappelijke procve Op hcl gebied van dc Sociale Wetenschappen

PROEFSCHR1FT

ler verkrijging van de graad van doctor

aan dc Katbolieke Universiteit Nijmcgen

volgens bt^sluil van hel College van Decanen

in liel openbaar le verdedigen op dinsdag 21 mei 1996

des namiddags le 3.30 uur prccics

door

Herman Arij Oscar dc Tollenacre

geboren op 24 September 1949 tc Leiden

Promotores: Prof. Dr. G. Huizercn Prof. Dr, G. Lock

Leden van dc manuscripicommissie: Prof. B. Hering, Prof. Dr, R. Van N>cl

Prof, Dr. C. Rissecuw.

Uitgevenj Katliolicke Umvcrsiteit Nijmegen

op wcJfe anderc w.jzc ook. /mirier vcx>r a r E ^d C sdinficlijkc uy.lcmr.nnt van dc- uil t cvci.

No par. Of ti,x book may be reproduced ,„ any form by prim fihotopin., microfilm or „>y ota mean, *i«hout W i«cn
permission front Ihc publisher.

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To my sister. Ets de Tollenaere

My moiher told me how, for the first lime, as a child, she boarded the tram from The
Hague to Wassenaar, As it passed the rich people's mansions there, she cried out to her
father: 'Oh! 1 have never seen such beautiful houses before!' 'Yes', my grandfather
replied: but add£d that they were built with the sweat of the Indonesian workers.

In the 1920's, Indonesian students published their Indonesia Merdeka magazine in the
Merelstraal in Leiden, When my father came to The Netherlands a decade later, he went
to live in that street, in a boarding-house with Indonesian and Japanese students. I lived
there during my childhood.

As I grew up, I followed political controversies in the 1960's US from papers. Martin
Many writes that occultists were mainly on the conservative side of these questions. On
composition of 'New Age' groups, Eileen Barker says: 'one of the most prominent
features of the movements is the disproportions! e numbers of materially advantaged,
middle [and upper?] class followers, whom they attract.' 1

January 1996. The Dutch businessman Gerrit van der Valk says he is tdepathically
gifted. He advocates the theosophical 'Akasha chronicle' method in historical research.'

The I990's. Beliefs like contacting spirits of the dead, reincarnation, astrology, and
paranormal healing are widespread Authors note them from Dutch universities to British
royalty's Cannllagaie affair. 5 to ihe US Pentagon intelligence's Siar Gate affair. 1

This is not an overnight development. Some of its previous history is in this book
Scientists and others may think, prematurely, once they as individuals know aspects of
occultism are nonsensical, there is no longer a social problem.

One can reproach critics, from Fncdrich Engcls up to Tlicodor W Adorno, Ihai (hey did not
take phenomena like mysticism, occultism, spiritualism, and others, seriously enough, 5

'New Religious Movements. Yel Another Greal Awakening?' in Phillip E. Hammond. The
Sacred in a Secular Age. Berkeley, University of California Press. 1985, 36-58. 40.

"Eric van Onna, 'Gerrit en Toos van der Valk'. VARA TV-Magazine, 6)2-1 -1996, 4.

*Mare. 3- 10- 1 991: 19-12-1991 VAN VUGT, 20. attributes occult tendencies among Dutch
untversily studenls to government pressures to study faster. The Daily Mirror, 19- 12-1992. British
Princess Diana engaged a clairvoyant to contact her late father as her marriage to Prince Charles
went on (he rocks

D. Waller. 'The Vision Tiling. Ten years and S20 million laier, the Pentagon discovers that
psychics are unreliable spies'; Time, Dec. II, 1995. The 'ultra-secret Defense intelligence
Agency' spent millions on Star Gate' (official code name) involving fortune-iellers in snooping on
(he whereabouts of Sovie( submarines. North Korean tunnels. Colonel Gaddafi, etc: to no avail.
The CiA also had ns secret paranormal programs.

SENFT, 7. 'One cannot Tight nonsense, just by saying it is nonsense.' Australian investigator
of astrology Geoffrey Dean, interviewed NRC 10-1-1991.

Theo sophists, though, saw progress in the evolution of consciousness with the
nearing of the sixth root race, progress up fiom the mental plane, to the buddhic,
intuitional plane 1 , with clairvoyance for all. Like with some other systems of thought,
one attraction of theosophy is that once you accept a few axioms, the whole universe
seems to fail coherently into place around you.

Is a third (or 4th, or ...) perspective possible, when one investigates especially links
to political history in Indonesia and India?

I hope I wil! start discussions. 1 hope this book will clear up some misunderstandings;
though inevitably it will produce new ones, there being hardly any 'definite' books on
any subject. I hope readers will let me know their criticisms, so if I ever publish anything
again on this, it will be an improvement.

I am very grateful to the people who helped me (any not mentioned should sec it as
deficiency in my memory or space, not in gratitude): my parents Felicien de Tollenaerc
and Anna de Tollenaere-Blonk. 1 shall never forget how Carla Risseeuw helped me on
my way, as I began. Professors G, Huizer and G, Lock presenting me contributed much
to the cohesion of my thesis. I also owe gratitude to Rudi Jansma. Dr. Harischandra
Kavirama and Miss Rajesvari Kaviratna, whose ancestors played a prominent part in the
1880 reception of the TS leaders in Sri Lanka, and in subsequent Buddhist education
(here; F. Tichelman and E. Schwidder of the internaiionaal Instituut voor Socialc
Geschiedenis, (he people working at Leiden university library and Instituut Kern,
Nirmala Nair, Tine Ruiter, M. Ave, Wan Dengkeng, H. Maier, Hans van Mien,
Mrs Madelon Djajadiningrat-Nicuwcnhuis. A. Ollongrcn. Hon Tom Wong. H. van dcr
Laan, Yvonne Houps, Jurrie Rciding, J. Perstjn, Catherine Wessingcr {Loyola
University, New Orleans, USA), Catherine Candy (Loyola University, Chicago), Joy
Dixon, Robert S- Ellwand. J Santucei. Charles Coppel, Susan Blackburn, lent Rrtnvn,
D. van Arkel, I. ScholTcr. W. Otietspecr, Socman Kasanmoentalih. Nanette Wijslnjer,
A Caluwacrts; Frits Evclein and l : aye van lerlant of the Tlieosoftsche Verentging in
Amsterdam. E. Riclkerk and others at the Nederlands Historisch Data Archief Tor photo
scanning help. H Poe?_c, D. Henley. Rita de Coursey, Rosemary Rohson, and oihcrs ai
the Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land en Volkcnkunde in Leiden.

They helped me in the more desperate moments of writing this thesis (abbreviated in
Dutch; 'diss.') when I reflected how close (he abbreviation is to Dis, the Roman god of
hell. Is having to rewrite from scratch after accidentally erasing your computer file (he
1990's equivalent of ancient Sisyphus" punishment? Has blaming the computer for your
mistake anything to do with the doctrine of Karma?

Do 1 have the right to write this book?

Tell them ; As pure water poured into lite scavenger's bucket is befouled and unfit for use,

so is divine iruth when poured into die consciousness of a Sensualist

according to a 'Master' 2 of TS founder H.P. Blavatsky.

'BESANTandLEADBEATEROOH). 5. MARCAULT(1930), 672.
^Letler to HPB from her Master; CLEATHER(1922A), IV.

VII

The word 'sensualist' has not just one sense. As the set of opposites. 'matcnaltst' and
idealist ' has different meanings in philosophical, and in everyday language.

•Sensualist' can mean: A. Sensual, materialist person in a pejorative context. B. One
who subscribes to the doctrine that all knowledge is derived from sensory perception:
sensationalist, in me sensed) of a follower of the eighteenth century French philosopher
Etiennede Condillac.

[ do not consider myself a
dogmatic sense B sensualist.
However. I wrote, trusting my
own two eyes, though deficient,
more than the 'Spiritual Eye or
Clairvoyance' of theosophists like
Leadbeater. Alice did not take
everything in Wonderland for
granted. Without questioning of
political, religious, and scientific
authority, there is no freedom.

The use of o book, fimn 'Alice in Wonderland'

VIII

HOW THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN

This book was written in English; not on account of compliance with a Dutch Education
Minister's wish English should become the language of universities in The Netherlands;
not on account of theosophist C.W. Leadbeater's clairvoyant prediction it would be the
'universal commercial and literary language' of the year 2763 A.D.; 1 just laziness. Most
sources and literature on theosophy 3 are to English, so it saved translating; not to mention
inaccuracies, inevitably creeping in with translation.

Unless stated otherwise, all translations of quotes, originally not in English, are mine,
I quoted Japanese authors' names as in the originals; though the order of personal and
family names may be incorrect, Indonesian geographical names are in the new spelling.
Names of persons are in the old spelling, except if they, like Sukarno, also played an
important role after the introduction of the new spelling.

Wherever possible, I tried to avoid using 'learned' expressions for their own sake, or
without ex p lariat ion.

Numbers after authors' names, or years of publication, are page numbers. Dates arc
in the day -mo nth-year format; 1-3-1900 is 1 March 1900, for instance.

I made illustrations with the WordPerfect Presentations. Harvard Graphics and PCPG
computer programs.

MASTER KEY TO SYMBOLS

CAPITALS

Pat

Interrupted, underlining

Italics

Small

Solid underlining

[Square brackets]

author's names; titles in References, p. 412ff.

emphasis

my emphasis in quotations

title of book or magazine

quotes; footnotes, etc.

emphasis by authors quoted

my interpolations

'LEADBEATERtmi), 122. W,Q Judge in The Path May 1886: "The Sanskrit language will
one day again be the language used by man upon this earth, first in science and metaphysics, and
later in common lire.' DONKER: the Maharishi Mahcsh Yogi in the 1990's wanted Sanskrii as
only school subject.

'Big T or l? Writings on iheosophy do not agree. When Krishnamuru, after leaving The
Iheosophical Society, wrote 'theosophy' his ex-colleagues did not like that. TT May 1932, 220f.
That I, like others (77/ Jan, 1987, 28) use V is not preference, one way or the other, it saved
typing; also, many theosophists prefer the idea of an impersonal god {8e6c, theos in Greek) to a
personal God with persona) name. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,
Boston, Houghton Mifflin. 1978', says "often capital T for TS doctrine, as distinct from more
general 'theosophic' 'mystical apprehension of God'; which is not our subject. See p. 8. The New
York- and Adyar-based organizations both called themselves The Theosophical Society; others the
TS. ELLWOOD and WESS1NGER(1993), 79 speak of the TS (Pasadena now; Point Loma earlier)
as Ihe TS; of TS (Adyar) as the TS; this should be inverted (RANSOM(1950). 33),

CONTENTS

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

HOW THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN

MASTER KEY TO SYMBOLS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

LIST OF TABLES

MAPS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

GLOSSARY

PART 0. INTRODUCTORY

1. POLITICAL HISTORY OF THEOSOPHY; THIS BOOK'S BORDERS

A.QUESTION NUMBER ONE: WAS TUCTS APOLITICAL 1

B.QUESTION NUMBER TWO WAS THE TS LEFTIST''

C.WHAT IS DIVINE WISDOM?

D. OTHER LIMITS AND LINKS. THIS BOOK'S DIVISIONS

2.WHAT SOURCES AND LITERATURE SAY AND IX) NOT SAY

A. AUTHORS OF HISTORY FROM THE INSIDE

B.FROM THE OUTSIDE

PART LON THEOSOPHY

J THEOSOPHY ON ITSELF AND THE UNIVERSE; RELIGION AND SCIENCE

A. RELIGION

1. Karma, reincarnation, human origins
2. Christianity
3. Other religions
B.SCIENCE

2.THEOSOPHY, PREHISTORY, HISTORY, PARAHISTORY
PART H.REIGN AFTER REIGN

1. REINCARNATION OFA BUDDHA: H.P. BLAVATSKY, 1831-1891

A.THE NOBLE WlDOW{?), 1831-1875

B.DO AS THE SPIRIT SAY DO, 1875-1879

C.WILL INDIA DESERVE IT? 1879-1884

V
Vlll
Vlll
XIII
Xlll
XIV
XVIII
XXII

I
I

tl
. . 6
... 9

. II

. 13

17
. . 19
20
23
24
. , 27

40
... 40
... 45
... 50

, O." "> ' ' ,hr '

D.FAQIR OR FAKER? FROM COLOMBO TO COULOMB. 1884-1888
E.FROM LONDON TO NI8BANA, 1888-1891

2.REINCARNATION OF KING ASHOKA: H.S. OLCOTT, 189M907

A.IMPHEE, PAPERS. BULLETS. INSURANCE AND GHOSTS, 1832-1875

B. PRESIDENT-POUNDER AND OCCULT PUPIL, 1875-1891

C.POISON, MARS. TAROT. AND GROWTH. 1891-1907

3.REDMCARNATION OF HERAKLES: ANNIE BESANT, 1907-1933

A. EMPTY CHURCHES AND MATCHES. 1847-1891

B.ESOTER1C AUTOCRAT, 1891-1907

C.STARS AND SPLITS, 1907-1913

D. WATCH-TOWER IN THE STORM. 1913-1918

E.AFTER THE WORLD WAR, THE WORLD TEACHER, 1918-1933

4.REINCARNATION AS REPRINT: GEORGE ARUNDALE, 1934-1945

A.HOME RULER, BOY SCOUT AND BISHOP. 1878-1933

B.MEN AND GERMANS. 1933-1945

S.REINCARNATION FROM BRAZIL: C. JINARAJADASA, 1945-1947

A. FROM COLOMBO TO HIROSHIMA. 1875-1945

B.FROM ARYAN EMPIRE TO INDEPENDENCE. 1946-1947

PART III. WHOM DID THEOSOPHY ATTRACT?

56
60

62
62
63
65

69
69
73
75
79
86

89
90
91

93
93
94

I.SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF THEOSOPHISTS 95

A.THE AMERICAS AND EUROPE 95

1. Nobility 97

2. Business 98

3. Military, clergy, and judiciary 99

B.INDIA '.102

C.INDONESIA 107

1. Chinese and Indians 107

2. Dutch 109
3.Javanese 1 15

D.OTHER ASIAN COUNTRIES 124

E.OCEANIA AND CONCLUSIONS 126

2.THEOSOPHY FOR WHOM? 127

PART IV.THE LABOUR MOVEMENT 138

I.SOCIAL DEMOCRACY AND COMMUNISM 1 38

A.MARX AND ENGELS ON SPIRITUALISM AND THEOSOPHY 138

I. Spiritualism 139

2. Annie Besant before theosophy 140

3. Theosophy 140
B.THEOSOPHY ON CLASSLESS OR HIERARCHICAL SOCIALISM. 1875-1918 .. 141

1.1875-1905 141

2. Workers, peasants, and landlords of Latvia in 1905 144

3.1908-1917 147

4,From czar to soviet. 1917and after 150

C. CONSCRIPTION IN INDONESIA? THEOSOPHISTS AGAINST SOCIALISTS .. 152

LTheosophists and war up to 1918 1 52

1.1. From Kurukshetra till 1904 153

1.2. From Russo-Japanese war till 1914 155

1.3. World War I: views and visions from Adyar 156

1.4.World War I: the USA 159

1.5. World War I: Germany and Austria 160

2.Sneevliet versus Van Hlntoopec Labberton 161

3. Conscription, the 'axis of all political activity' 168

4. Marco and the battle for Sarckxtf Islam 174

5.Semaoen and buffalo, tiger, and Lion (SI

6. Countdown to the queen's birthday 185

7Jambi, geese, fox, converts, and Radjiman 189

8. Around the world in 235 days 195

9 .To wards the end of conscription, 1917-1918 209

lO.From /SO V to Mtf, 1918-1927 223

11, Indies social democrats and Indi'i Weerbaar after 1918 232

D.LABOUR, COMMUNISM. AND INDIA 234

E.THE LANKA SAMA SAMAJA PARTY 239

2. 'ANARCHISM AND SIMILAR EVILS'

3.CONCLUSIONS OK PART IV

PART V. IMPERIALISM, HOME RULE, NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE

240

243

245

(.IMPERIALISM

245

2. HOME RULE. INDEPENDENCE 248

A.INDIA 250

l.Lord Curaon and other viceroys 250

2. Beginnings. 'Congress and its mother body, our Society'. What is Svaraf? 252

3.Gokhale, Tilak, and Gandhi 257

4.Jinnah, Das, Menon 270

S.Motilal and Jawaharlal Nehru 271

B.CEYLON 276

C.INDONESIA 281

1. Beginnings and Budi Utorrto 281

2.Post-Budi Utomo movements: Sarekal Islam 293

3Jr)dische Parti] and Indo-Europeans 300

4. Reconstruction of the Javanese nation 305

4. 1 .Debates against Tjipio, Soewardi and Darsono 305

A.t.Wederopbouw's views: only Javanese or also thcosophical? 315

5. Bali. Lombok. Outer islands 329

6. West Sumatra

7. Decline and not) -co-operation, 1918-1923
S.Hatta and Perftimpoenan Indonesia
9. Since Tabrani and Sukarno

^CONCLUSIONS OF PART V

PART Vl.TME WHITE BROTHERHOOD: HOW ABOUT SISTERHOOD?

I.WOMEN IN RELIGIONS AND IN THE TS

2, MADAME BLAVATSKY

330
335
345
352

366

368

370

3.ANNIE BESANT FROM 'FULL-FLEDGED FEMINIST' TO DELICATE BALANCE 371
A.F1GHT1NG 'VICE' 374

4.INDIA 376

A. EDUCATION . , 379

5. EDUCATION IN CEYLON. THE WELL AND THE PENDULUM

383

6. INDONESIA 385

A. EDUCATION 388

7. CONCLUSIONS OF PART VI
SUMMARY
SAMENVATTING
RINGKASAN

3S9
393
399
405

REFERENCES 412

ARCHIVES ,412

NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS 412

BOOKS. PAMPHLETS, ARTICLES 412

INDEX OF PERSONS
CATCHWORD INDEX

439
448

APPENDICES 455

SOME SOCIAL AND IDEOLOGICAL HISTORY CATEGORIES 456

CURRICULUM VITAE

459

XII I

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

The use of a book; from 'Alice in Wonderland' VII

MAP 1. UNITED STATES XIV

MAP 2. EUROPE XIV

MAP 3. THE NETHERLANDS; 1947 XV

MAP 4, JAVA XV

MAPS. INDONESIA XVI

MAP 6. SOUTH ASIA XVII

Theosophy divergences, allied organizations, related occultism; adapled from ROE, 387 7

TS symbol, with Ankh sign in the middle. From TT Ian. 191 1 , 481 24

Somewhere in ihe Himalayas, the Masters' abode was, according to HPB 44

A. P. Sinnett in 1917; from TMN1, 1921, 343 54

Madame Blavatsky in her bath-chair in the garden of Annie Besant's house 61

Annie Bcsani; photo The Theosophical Society 74
Jiddu Krishnamuni at Ecrde castle in Ommen in July 1926; photo The Theosophical Society 77

Gandhi, as portrayed on a Sri Lanka stamp 86

Toial Theosophical Society membership. 1875-1933 88

C.W, Leadbeater as a Liberal Catholic Church bishop: photo The Theosophical Society 91

Asirologic symbol of Mercury 98

Duponl logo 98

Professions of India TS branch secretaries. 1898 105

Professions of India TS branch secrelaries, 1905 105

TS membership as a percentage of tola! population in some countries 1 10

Prince Koesoemodmingral, from; Djawa 12 (1932). 318 I 17

Professional categories ofTS members in Indonesia, 1925 120

U.S. presidential seal 159

Cartoon with Marco's 'Sama rasa dan sama rala', IV; PW, 17-2-1917 175

The plane for Indie Weerbaar lakes off ai Soesicrbcrg 'plihkam' 200

Jakarta TS headquarters; TMNI 1922, 234 217

Political spectrum oflndia. 1918-1933 257

Buddhist TS schools in Ceylon 280

Tlicosofisch Maandblad voor Nederlandsch Indie 292

Mangkoe NegorO VII and his wife, the RaloeTimoer. Prom: CANNEGIETER( 1937) 319

Left 10 right: Sanioso. Soegondo, Soenarjati. From 45 tahun sumpah pemuda, 102 360

Women's literacy percentage in Ceylon vs. India and Pakistan 383

Articles in The Theosophisi, Ocl. 1912-Sept. 1917, by authors' sex and coimlry 390

Articles in The Theosophist, Apr. 1934-Mar, 1939, by authors' sex and country 391

Tepper's 1898 family tree of animal species and human races 457

TS on issues, 1875-1947. Changes in Annie Besanl's thinking 458

LIST OF TABLES

VIEWS ON RELEVANCE AND PROGRESSIVENESS OF THEOSOPHY 15

VIEWS ON CREATION AND/OR EVOLUTION 32

THEOSOPHY ON TEMPORAL AND SPIRITUAL AUTHORITY 321

SOME SOCIAL AND IDEOLOGICAL HISTORY CATEGORIES 456

Den He*aerf\_^

"^^^r^K

/iC»i£ a UCWN iKO0g\.

r Orrifn^n

-J^u/ei \

L *!!c WW..

'♦'SQeS'.CfEt.Tg yT

Arrie Ha^ue

V^ei.r^fM

^V\£V^ L^Cft op 2 are'.

AWP J. 77/£ NETHERLANDS; 1947

MAP 4. JAVA

XVII

Gobi
desert

KASHMIR

TIBET

Amritsar. Simla
.Quetta Lahore ^#^

SIND
Karachi

GUJARAT

Delhi. Kurukshetra^^ Darjee|ing

ASSAM

■Aliqarh
.ucknow

Allahabad

1917
border
of

Madras
presi-
dency

BENGAL
Benares - MandaLay

MADHYA
PRADESH

■Bombay " Na 9P ur

Calcutta
BURMA

MaHraq Andaman islands

M VeN?re a \Mylapore ,^
Mysore. ^yAdyar \J \ -

\ <^ / ^

^ ^.Tanjore \

y ' ; ' ■ \

(Colombo
_ Wellawatte
Panadura

Galt^ 233

SRI LANKA (enlarged)

MAP 6. SOUTH ASIA

XVIII

AAB

AdB

AJS

AMORC

AR[P1

SAC

BAH

BCW

BNA

BPCA

BTS'

C. of E.

•CE1

cue

CIS

CPI

CPN

CWL

DCA

DNT

DVH

DVS

EN!

ENIa

FPC

FTS

GEPB

GSA

HE!

HOTS

HP/dT

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Alice Bailey

Annie Besant

Adyar Bulletin

American Journal of Sociology

Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Cruets

Aero Politico

Antirevolutionairc Panij (The Netherlands)

American Theosophist

Buddhist Annual of Ceylon

Boekenkrant Ankh-Hermes

H.P. Biavaisky Collected Writings

Bulletin Nederlandst Arbeidersbeweging

Besant Privy Council Appeal

Buddhist Theosophical Society (Ceylon)

Budi Utomo {Indonesia}

Broad Views

Church or England

Christ elijke Encyclopedic

Cambridge Encyclopedia of India

Central Hindu College

Contributions 10 Indian Sociology

Curuppu mull age Jinarajadasa

Communist Party of India

Communis! Party of The Netherlands

Charles Webster Leadbcatcr

De Groene Ainsserdammer

Djwal Kul (a Mahatma of the Great White Brotherhood)

Daily News (Colombo daily)

De Nieuwe Tijd (Dutch socialist monlhly)

Doesburg s vroegsle historic

De Vrije Socialist (Dutch anarchist paper)

Encyclopaedic war Nedertondsch-tndie

Ensiklopedi Nasional Indonesia

Evangelische Omroep (Dutch Protestant broadcasting corporation)

Esoteric Society; Esoteric/ Easier n School

Freelhouglu Publishing Company (London)

Fellow of the Theosophical Society

Grande Enciclope'dia Portuguese e Brasileira

General Secretary

George Sidney Arundale

H India Baroe (Indonesia)

History of European Ideas

Herald of the Star

Haagse Post/de Ttjd

XIX

HPES Helena Pctrovna Biavaisky

HPO H'india Poel.-n

HSO Henry Steel OJcoti

HT History Today (Great Britain)

HVW Het Vrije Woord (Indonesia)

JESHR Indian Econonuc and Social History Review

JG Indische Gids (on Indonesia)

MSG Internationa a I Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis (Amsierdam)

ILP Independeni Labour Parly (Great Britain)

IM Indonesia Merdeka

IP Indische Partij (Indonesia)

IPO Overzicht der Inlandsche en Chinees-Maleische Pers Originally typescript, later

primed, press reviews, made in Wdlevrcden for the Dutch East Indies

government. Present a! KiTLV and MSG

IS Indische Siemmen (Indonesia)

ISDP Indische Sociaal-Dcmocratischc Partij (Indonesia!

ISDV Indische Sociaal- Democratise he Verecniging (Indonesia)

1SKCON International Sociely for Krishna Consciousness

IT Indian Tlieosophist

IV Het Indische Volk

IW Indie Weerbaar (Indonesia)

JAAR Journal of the American Academy of Religion

JB Javaansthe Bladen

JCII Journal of Contemporary History

JMH Journal of Modern History

JS Jong Sumatra

KM Km Humi (a Mahatma)

KITLV Koninklijk Institute voor Taal -. Land-, en Votkenkundc (in Ixiden)

KM Kavem Mocdu (Indonesia)

KOI' Koloniaal Tt/diclmfl (on Indonesia)

KS Koloniak Studiecn

KT Kalliermc Tingley

A'V Kolonioai Verslag I Ncdi'rtandsch (Oast-) Indie. Annual report; by ihe Duich

government to parliament on Indonesia Printed at Algemt'ene iMndsdrakkcrij , The

Hague

LU Lc Lotus Bleu

LCC Liberal Catholic Churclr

LO Leidsch Dagblad

LOC De Locomotief ( Indonesia)

LSSP Lanka Sania Samaja Party

LTV Lid Theosofischc Vcreemging (FTS in Duich)

LttcH Lucifer (The Hague magazine)

LucL Lucifer (London magazine)

M Morya (a Mahatma)

MAS Modern Asian studies

MB Maha Bodhi (Journal)

MBB Mateische Bladen in de Buitenbeiittingen

MBS Maha Bodhi Society

MCB Maleisch-Chinesclie Bladen

MEW Marx Engels Werke

MJB Maleische Java Bladen

MR Modem Review (Calcuita)

MRBTD Maandelijkse Revue van BrocJiures en van Tijdschrift- en Dagbtadartikelen , of IC

N8 Narionalistische Bladen

NCE New Catholic Encyclopedia

Nl New India

NIE Nieuw Indii

NIP Naiionaal Indische Panij (Indonesia)

NOID New Oxford Illustrated Dictionary

NRC Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant(-Handelsblad)

NSB Nationaal Socialistische Beweging (The Netherlands)

NSW New South Wales (Australian state)

NV New York

OCS! Ovenichl van de gestie der Centraal Sarikat-lstam in het jaar !92i

GDf ' Ordc dcr Dicnaren van Indie (Indonesia)

ODL Old Diary Uaves

OELC O(rtental) E(soteric) Library Critic

OH Oetoesan Hindia (Indonesia)

OM Oetoesan Melajoe (Indonesia)

'OP Opbou* (Dutch libera! monthly)

OR Occult Review

OSE Order of Ihe Star in (he Last

0T0 Ordo Tenipli Orienns

OVIW Orgoan van de Verce/tiging "Indie Weerixiar" (Indonesia)

PEB Polinck-Economischc Bond (in Indonesia)

PI Perhinipoenan Indonesia

PKl Panai Komoenis Indonesia

PWIA Personal memories of C, S. A rundate

PN1 Partai Nasional Indonesia

PPPB Perserikatan Pegawai Pegadaian Boemipoelera (Indonesian pawnshop employees'

union)

PRI Panai Ra'jat Indonesia

FT Pewana TJieosofie boewat tanah Hindia Nederiand (Indonesia)

PW Pantjaran-Wana (Indonesia)

RANI Regeerings-Almanak war Nederiandsch-lndie. two volumes came oul once a year

a( Landsdrukkerij. Baiavia (Indonesia). All quotes from second volumes

RC Roman Catholic

RvA Recht voor Alien (The Netherlands)

SA South Asia. Journal of South Asia studies

SAAM Sarekat Adat Alam Minangkabau (West Sumatra)

SAN Sociological Analysis. A journal in the sociology of religion

SD Vie Secret Doctrirc

SDAP Sociaal-Demccrausche Arbeiders Partij (name of Dutch Labour Party till 1946)

SDF Social Democratic Federation

SDh

SME

SPD

SPR

SRiA

SUNY

THA

THC

THNI

TtnA

TKA
TM

TtvlNI

TPII

TPS

TTC

TliM

TUP

ULT

UNP

WED

WWH

XX]

Strt Dharma (Indian women's magazine)

Sinar Hindia (Indonesia)

Sarekat Islam (indonesia)

Soeara Merdika (Indonesia)

Soenting Melajoe (Indonesia)

Sozialdemokratische Parte i Deuisch lands

Society for Psychical Research

Soeara Rajot (Indonesia)

Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia

State University of New York

De Thcosofische Beweging (Amsterdam monthly)

Tlieosopliicat History

Tlieosophia (Amsterdam)

Theosophical History Centre

TlieOSOphy: Tlie history of a nineteenth century imposture

Tlieasophy in Australia; or lit Australasia

TlieOSOfie in Nederlandsch-indie

T Kan Anders (Dutch magazine)

Tlie Tlteosopincal Movement (Bombay ULT magazine; or: ULT book of that title,

published 1925 and 1951)

Transcendental Mudnation

Incosoftsch Maaitdblad voor Nederlandsch-lntlit'

Theosophical Publishing House

Theosophical Publishing Society

Tlieosophical Review

Theosophical Society

Tlie Tiieosopliist

The Theosophy Company

Ttieosophische Uilgevers M3.i!xeluppij

Theosophical University Press

Theosofische Vereeniging (TS in Dutch: old spelling)

Tlieosoplticat World

United Lodge of Theosoplnsis

United National Party (Sri I .anka)

Vnje Arbeid (The Netherlands)

Wederopbouw (Java magazine)

Erom/On the Watch-Tower (editorial)

Warnn- Warta

A Woman World-Honoured

XXII

I. in Indonesia; S. Sanskrit

GLOSSARY

adat

Adhi Dharrno

Adipati

aJani

Aryo

assistent resident

Batavia

Budi Uiomo

Buitenzorg

braltmana

bupali

controlcur

dalang

Daloek

desa

dcwan

gamelan

hadj

hadji

hormat

Insuhnde

jimat

Jonkhecr

kabupalen

kainpung

kaum muda

kraion

kromo

ksalriya

Makassar

Mas

Mas Adjeng

maya

Ngabehi

paku

panchama

Pangeran

traditional (mainly unwritten) law and customs; I

Exalted Duty; I.

high Javanese title of nobility

world; I.

Javanese title of nobility

Dutch official, ranking below resident; !.

pre-1942 name of Jakarta

Beautiful Endeavour; name oNavanese organisation founded in 1908

pre-1942 name of Bogor

highest (originally: priestly) of four vamas. S.

highest rank for Javanese in Duich colonial administration. Dutch

regent

Dutch official, ranking below assisieni resident. I

wayang theatre puppeteer or stage-manager; 1.

West Sumatran title of nobility

village; 1,

prime minister of Indian principality

Javanese and Balinese forms of music, mainly on mei.il imtruiueni.t; I,

Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca

Muslim who has been to Mecca

homage; 1.

Indonesian archipelago; also name of e;trh twentieth century

opposition parly

amulet. I.

lowest Dutch title of nobility, baronet

region, administered by bupati; bupati's residence; I.

neighbourhood. 1.

young people; 1.

palace; I.

non-noble Javanese person; Javanese language, as spoken to higher

ranking person

second highest varna; noble; warrior. S.

old name of Ujung Pandang

lowest Javanese title of nobility

Lady, equivalent of Mas for unmarried women: I

in Hindu theology and theosophy: blindness, illusion; S

Javanese title of nobility

pivot; 1.

late I9th century term for person not belonging to one of the four

vamas; S.

[usually non-ruling] prince; 1.

XXIU

pnyayi nobleman; (traditional) official; literally, a king's younger brother, 1.

Raden Javanese title of nobility, higher than Mas

Raden Adjeng l^ady; title for Javanese unmarried women, higher than Mas Adjeng

Raden Ajoe Lady; title for Javanese married women {first wives if marriage is

polygynous) of relatively high nobility
Raden Mas Javanese tide of nobility, higher than Raden; in the Central Java

principalities a more exclusive title than elsewhere
Raden Mas Toemenggoeng Javanese title of nobility, higher than Raden Mas

Dutch official, ranking below govern or -general and governor; 1.

pupil of Muslim boarding school; social category as for instance in

GEERTZ(1960); 1.

greeting, for instance a prince, with hands folded before one's face; i

ray; 1.

old name of Surakana

lowest varna; S.

title of ruler of Surakarta; roughly, king or emperor; J.

shorter form of Susuhunan

Mr; lord; I.

third highest varaa; merchant. S

one of four main castes in Hinduism; S.

advisory council of the Dutch Last Indies from 1918. elected bv

limited electorate

(especially Javanese) theatre, in various forms; best known with

puppets; I.
yuga long period in Hindu chronology; S

zemindar Indian landlord

resident
santri

sembah

sinar

Solo

sudra

Susuhunan

Sunan

toean

vaisya

varna

Volksraad

wayang

PART ((.INTRODUCTORY

l.POLITICAL HISTORY OF THEOSOPHY; THIS BOOK'S BORDERS

This book is of history. History of political views; views originating from various social
backgrounds, meeting one another, sometimes clashing sharply. It is pan of the history of
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, times of big change in technologies and
economies. Twice there was a world war. Colonial empires were conquered and broke
up. Political and religious ideologies changed.

The Theosophical Society {TS; see list of abbreviations, p. XVIII), was founded in
1875. Its history has more links, and different links, to politics than one might suppose
from much literature. This organization is also interesting as a relatively well -organized
'nucleus' of a looser, broader occult current, influential in those times.

It claimed to bring its members and the world at large the fountainhead of truth
behind all religions and sciences. From the first sixteen members in a New York drawing
room, it spread to scores of countries, recruiting or strongly influencing hundreds of
thousands, 1 mostly upper or middle class men and women. Why were palmists,
astrologers, the father of Indonesia's first president, mayors from Seattle in the United
Stales to Karachi in today's Pakistan, United Kingdom ministers, a New Zealand
Premier, future Prime Ministers of Australia and India, 3 in one organization?

Many grouped around them did not join, but for a shorter or longer time thought:
'Well, there must be some truth in it'. 3 Millions either boughC their books, or borrowed
them from general, or theosophical. libraries. When radio became popular in the 1920's,
theosophists had their own station in Australia, and influenced a Dutch broadcasting
authority.

'Needless to say, 'influencing' not in the sense of any conspiracy theory. S1TARAMAYYA,
1 19 credits Annie Besanl with 'millions of followers in die East and the West' (he was not one or
them) Anarchist opponent RABB)£(I898A), I: (hcosophisl membership 'millions.' An
exaggeration then; and later, though membership did grow in the post 1898 decades. During AB's
presidency (1907-1933) 1 11,682 new members joined the TS (Adyar); see p. 89 of this book.

J BESANT(19I3C>. 157: a FTS became mayor of Seattle, For Karachi sec p. 270. For New
Zealand and Australia, p. 126-7; Nehru of India, p. 271; Sukarno's father, p. 354.

3 Two examples of many who. while rejecting some aspects of theosophy, accepted many odier
aspects: Portuguese author Fernando Pcssoa; sec p. 99; Dutch Frederik van Eeden, p. $9.

"h. Hotchener 'The greatness of the TS'. TW March 1937, claimed TPH had sold more than 2
million books. Also, many books by leading TS (Adyar) members, and by non-Adyar theosophists.
came out at oiher publishers'. In The Netherlands in 1902. 500 £'s worth of Adyar theosophical
books were sold. In 1905, it had risen to 2000 £ 'mostly to non-members' ; TT Oct 1907, 95.
Sizable, given lower price level, and lower Dutch guilder-sterling rate then. MUTHANNA, 63:
448: Bcsant's Bhagavad Gita translation 'sold in millions of copies'. Millions? BROOKS(l914A),
175 estimates 100,000 till then. CAMPBELL, 35: 500.000 his Unveiled copies sold 1877- 19S0.
LEADBEATBR(1922), 16 claimed 'more than a hundred thousands copies' of At the Feel of the
Master, by J. (Crishnamurti, printed up to 1914.

2 Introductory

The TS also aroused opposition. Indonesia eventually had the most numerous non-
ruling communist party in the world. Why did the paper, out of which it arose, have the
leader of Indonesia's theosophists as its most criticized opponent? Why did leading
communists Semaoen and Darsono write their first ever articles against theosophists?

I asked two questions: 1. Was the Theosophical Society apolitical? 1. Was the
Theosophical Society politically leftist? I looked for answers in the TS' relationships to
three types of political movements: labour, national, and women's movements: especially
in colontally ruled countries in South Asia and Indonesia. Both how theosophists saw
those movements, and how people active in those movements saw theosophists, is
important for this. How did the TS influence politics of its lime, how was it influenced by
them?

This book needs a start and a finish. My Start is in 1875, in the foundation year of the
Theosophical Society. My finish is in 1947, the year of India's' independence; one (not
the only one) country where theosophists sometimes had sizable political impact. 1 tried
hard to cut out everything before 1875 or after 1947. Sometimes 1 only ha If -succeeded, if
issues were loo closely linked. But 1 do not pretend to have elaborate ideas on the
Theosophical Society as it is now, in the 1990's.

A. QUESTION NUMBER ONE: WAS THE TS APOLITICAL?

British historian Hobsbawm. writing on the 'age of empire', mentions Annie Besant and
'the apparently non-political ideology of theosophy'. 2 What, then, was appearance, what
reality?

Imelman and Van Hoek said on the ideas of longtime prominent TS member Rudolf
Slciner that Hobsbawn's appearance' was also reality The descnpiion by socialist Van
Ravestcyn of thcosophy (and spiritualism) as 'ami- or unsocial views' is relaicd to this J
[Might the views not more often be ami- or unsocialist?) Implicitly, many political history
writings, also those including Mrs Besant, support this viewpoint by excluding or almost
excluding theosophy , J Annie Besant, (hough, said about hcrsetf:

''India', in lliis work, means whal many authors then called British India', including toddy 's
independent India. Bangla Desh, Pakistan; sometimes also Burma, depending on time and context.

: H0BSBAWM(I987),288.

^IMELMAN and VAN HOEK, 123. VAN RAVESTEYN(I9I7), 630 A. Koopmans, in DEN
DULK c.s., 7' Steiner's 'anthroposophy,,. Because it is a Weltanschauung and view on life . .
therefore it may become active in all aspects of the world and life'. J. van der Meulen, ibid.. 14
denies anthroposophy is apolitical or non-social 'as ihis movement, on (he contrary, manifests itself
in numerous fields in society'. The criticism of being 'non-social' is, indeed, incorrect for
anthroposophy, as for its parent, tlieosophy Critics had better investigate instead whete within
society occult movements stand.

'Otherwise good OREN does not go into Besant's (heosopliical ideas at all. The recent
biography TAYL0R(1992) has 156 pages on the 15 years before Annie Besant joined the thco-
sophists, 1874-1889; that is, 10,4 pages per year. On her 44 years in ihe TS, Taylor spends 86
pages; 1.95 pages per year (she also has 18 pages on the TS pre 1889). Some theosophist authors
on AB write few on her time before 1889: there is a sort of either/or situation in literature on her.

Limits 3

They say: "Mrs. Besant is a religious teacher; she must have nothing to do with politics". But
1 assure you that just because Mrs. Besant is a religious teacher, therefore she has everything
to do with politics. 1
As for the theosophy of the Society to which she made her annual convention presidential

speech:

Some people say: "What has Theosophy to do with politics?" Everything ... Religion is either
everything or nothing. 2

There is a similarity to James Webb. Though disagreeing with Mrs Besant on ihe
value of occultism, he wrote:

Indeed, because ihe occuhisf is necessarily a philosopher -although he may most frequently be
a very muddled one- it is difficult 10 imagine him without political opinions.
This political history of theosophists does not pretend to deal exhaustively, as an aim
in itself, with their claims that some superhuman beings live in Tibet, some on other
planets (see p 28): of astrology, occult chemistry, auras or yoga; of para-normally
restoring eyesight to ihe blind;' of opposition to inoculation. Neither is its primary
subject the internal organizational dynamics of the Theosophical Society; nor their links
to issues like 'charisma' which sociologists of religion study much. Nor does it pretend to
cover the whole field, usually seen as 'political'. It selects the subjects of Parts JV 10 VI;
see p 5.

The Indian National Congress, before theosophist Annie Besant became its president
in 1917, asserted a difference between 'social' and 'political' issues." At Congress
sessions, one could only discuss political subjects, in a narrow sense; beginning with her
presidency, 'social' ones as well. An example of a political issue: should India be a
British colony? an autonomous Dominion? or an independent republic? Child marriage
was a 'social' issue; though influenceable by governments and legislatures.

In this book, wc will use politics' in a rather broad sense. As did Annie Besant:
People warn to exclude politics from life, as though "politics" did not include all Hie aclwttics
of collective life. Polities are not the doings or political parties any more than the Government
is ihe Slate Some wiseacres would not ... allow ihe blood (O course unhindered through artery

'BESANT(iyi7A). 19 J. N£HRU(1956). 343. on Mrs Besant: 'There was a spiritual and
religious clement about all this, and yet (here was a strong political background to it '

! BESANT(1917A), 63-4; repealed in different wording ibid., 65,

^88(19711,200

J 0LC0TT(I954), 3991T. The TS (Point Loma-Covina-The Hague) is one of ihe organizations
claiming succession to de Purucker. It held out to potential participants in a 1990 'alternative
thinking' course, as thinking is the cause of health, or of illness, ihe prospect of ceasing of illness,
maybe taking effect not in this life, however; in the next one. after reincarnalion.

J JINARAMDASA(1986), 15: I Annie Besant] 'strenuously opposes any form of inoculation'.

6 HE1MSATH(I964). 342: 'In 1917, under the presidency of Mrs, Besant, the Congress broke
its long-standing rule of ignoring social questions; under Gandhi's leadership, after 1920, the
Congress conlinued to pass resolulions on social reform at its annual sessions'.

4 Introductory

and vein from and (o ihe same heart. They would insist on selling aside some 10 circle round

(he liver, some round the brain, some round the lungs, as they divide morality, religion,

commerce, professional life, into separate and dissociated organs, instead of organs of the

whole body politic. '

We wiil not just see that social categories usually seen as 'politicians', like ministers
and MPs, were well represented in Theosophical Society memberships of diverse
countries and times. We intend to look, for instance, at views on relationships of men to
women as well as of the British government to India.

The international TS then did not give rise to an international political party. 1 There
is direct and indirect influence on politics though. Only in the long run, afterwards, may
you tell which was strongest. Complex links exist between ideas on. say. an, and ideas
on society and politics. Wherever relevant, I refer to these links. 1

Are movements like ihe Theosophical Society 'running away from polities'; or
running from one form of politics to another? Should critics not look at differences in
politics rather than at supposed apoliticism?

B. QUESTION NUMBER TWO: WAS THE TS LEFTIST'

A fairly widespread view of movements like theosophy sees them as politically
progressive. Its supporters do noi always argue convincingly, (hough.

James Webh's The Flight from Reason is a general history of occuhism of c. 1820-
1910, It includes, but does not focus only on, the Theosophical Society and political
aspects. Webb speaks of the TS as part of 'progressive' thought. ' Also, of kinship of
occultism with 'Nationalisms, Socialisms', and 'Women's Rights'; so, in the contexi of
nineteenth century Europe, where association of naiionalisms with the political right was
weaker than later, with (he political left. He extended (his to later twentieth century Asia,
and (probably) Britain, by answering the question, of occultists' politics; Let us imagine a
'hands-off Viet-Nam' demonstration, with perhaps a dclegaiion from North Viet-Nam
among the protesters.' Elsewhere though. Webb implicitly contradicted this, speaking of
conservative monarchist occultists in Trance, influencing British TS member Anna

'BESANT(I9I6B). 362. BESANT(19I7A), 19. rejected the idea of strong separation between
the political and the non-political, as man is one: he cannot divide himself into water-tight
compartments',

'Unlike the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's TM movements 1990's Natural Law Party: DONKER.
Ai ihe 1925 Jubilee Convention, the TS declared as one of iis aims the establishment of a World
Governmeni on the spiritual basis of restoration of ancient religions' Mysteries; RANSOM(1950),
23. Freemasonry, more so than the TS in some phases of its history, is officially opposed to
political links; yet COHEN, 134, wrote: 'But all this does not mean thai ihe movement has no
political aspects or political consequences' .

'Well-known theosophy-mfluenced anisis: Scriabin, ihe composer; Mondriaan, the painier.

"WEBB! 197 1), 54. WEBB(1974B), 249.

Limits 5

Kingsford; and of theosophy as one influence on German nazis, 1 We will see how this
was with 'nationalisms, socialisms and women's rights' in a colonial context.

US sociologist Tiryakian considered secret societies linked to occultism as mostly
progressive, though conceding some, like the US Ku Klux Klan and Germany's post-
World War One Thule Society, were reactionary. 1 Tiryakian wrote that esoteric thought
has 'a model opposed to the static, stable or harmonious view of things inherent in the
natural attitude'. He added, though, 'to document this point would require much more
space than here available'. 3

His colleague Daniel Bell focused on one category of the political left: in 1970, he
linked in passing 'nihilism and anarchism' to 'gnostic esotericism'. 4 Linking these two in
this way suggests conventional wisdom of the 'surely, everyone knows that' type. If
everyone knows already, then no one needs research, confirming -or partially or
completely denying- it. However, I think we do need more research on this; so I started
some of it.

I myself for most of my life have known hardly more about Annie Bcsant's politics
than her socialism in the 1880's and Indian National Congress presidency in 1917-8, !f
one knows only two points of a long sequence, one presumes the connecting line is
straight; in this case, going through a politically leftist area all the time. I presumed that
all too readily then.

One can compare conservatism or progressiveness 5 in two ways. First, in individuals'
views before and after they joined, or before and after they left, the Theosophical
Society. This is the most difficult way, needing biographical materia) on many persons. 1
did this mostly on Annie Besant, who plays a role in all parts. Second, what I did mainly,
in relationships to the three movements of our Parts IV to VI.

Why did I choose those three subjects? Because labour, anti-colonial national, and
women's movements are big movements about which much material should exist. As for
contents, most people see all three as emancipatory and progressive. So, how relations
with them are may say something on the TS's rate of progressiviiy. [ looked at the ideas
of iheosophisls about these subjects. Also, at the ideas of outsiders to the iheosophica!
movement, concerned with those political subjects too; they met theosophists on 'their'
fields, and came to see them as allies, or as opponents.

Though leaders did try to get members in line, the Theosophical Society developed its

'WEBB^l), 218. 228; 189; 202f. Ibid., 60. on Himmler. M0SSE{1961); MOSSE(1966),
M0SSG(1978), also claim influence of theosophical ideas on nazi ideology. WEBB(1971). v saw
1 9th century occuliists as the precursors lo 'the romantic revolutionaries of today.' xiv: 'the occult
and the revolutionary, run in the same paihs'.

-TIRYAKIAN0974), 270-1 .

3 TIRYAKIAN(1974),268,

'Quoted TIRYAKIANU974), 269.

s Here, 'progressive' stands for assent to; 'conservative' for opposition to equivalence among
people; supporting democracy, respectively hierarchy; opposition, respectively assent to a stronger
military. All these issues will come up in later chapters.

6 introductory

inconsistencies and contradictions, like most movements lasting beyond a cenain
minimum of time, and involving more than a certain minimum number of people. One
cannot say that the ideas of theosophists on politics were monolithic. Does this imply,
though, that the spectrum of these ideas reflected in a completely proportional way all
views 1 on politics of the world from 1875 10 1947; from revolutionary anarchism or
Marxism to all types of fascism {including the Spanish type, closely connected to the
conservative wing of the Roman Catholic church)? Were all ideas equally represented,
including of a state based on orthodox Protestant Christianity, or on orthodox Islam? Or
was (here rather a focus in the spectrum of theosophical ideas on politics; a focus that on
many, though not on all, subjects was somewhat right of centre?

Why might it be right of centre? In our Part III we will look at which social
categories were over- rep resented, and which were under- rep re sen led, among TS
supporters,* It is not an infallible rule that organizations, attracting, as it turns out, mostly
members from higher income or status groups are always conservative, or that organis-
ations, recruiting mostly lower income or status categories, are always progressive; let
alone that all their members, one by one, have conservative, respectively progressive
views. Still, this type of connection between position in society and views has mcri
probability. People who have much to lose tend lo have different ideas from those who
have little to lose; as various social scientists see it. 5

C.WHAT IS DIVINE WISDOM'

How should I define theosophy 4 for this book? As for movements or organisations -not
doctrinal content; that comes later. One might do il in three ways:

A In a wide sense, people call various attempts within various religions to get
knowledge of God, or of 'higher worlds', theosophy. B. The ideas within the

'BESANT(192IG), A: 'We haw-amongtn |the TS| every variety of conservative, liberal,
moderate, extreme views on every religious, political and social opinion'. Roughly true; but il
leaves open (he questions if 'every' is 100%. and if all varieties were equally tn fluent ial.

^Throughout this book, both over- and under-represenlaiion are meant as compared to
populations as a whole, unless it is specified in the context.

^Sociology of knowledge deals with links of ideas to social categories. VAN
DOORN/LAMMERS, 195-6; BERGER(1967), 117f. BERGER/UJCKMANN, 138: 'Different
social groups will have different affiniiies with the competing theories and will subsequently,
become 'carriers' of the latter.* Roberto Michels. 'Conservatism* in Encyclopaedia of (he Social
Sciences, vol. 3, N.V., MacMillan, 1950: 'Undoubtedly, the classes which most readily experience
conservative feelings and work out complimentary ideologies are the wealthy classes, Uiose who
have something to conserve.'

'It is not right, when one in spiritual science or Theosophy, or generally in occultism, defines
much, talks in concepts a lot'. R. Steiner, Die geistige FUhrung des Menschen und der Mensclilieit.
Berlin 1911, 16,

Z o

o
o

1 '5
< o:

° I".
a*

< =

O u)

■UJ

Or*

5- a

v> g

(J "5

tZ <*
(- c

UJ '-

* I

in c

3: <

X ol

jrirnt in '

E > I

E H ;
= Id :

Z t—t z

E C_> E
i O =

: J E
E < E

E U<n E

E K<» E

- ft," z

E O E

E </> E

E O E

: W :

E X E
= H =

5".

Z<J

* *

< s

a •>

_ >

z .

Q S

J ■£

O «

» £ 3

tij
o

8 Introductory

Theosophical Society, There, they translated theosophy as Divine Wisdom. 1 C. Ideas
outside the direct framework of that Society, but acknowledgedly or otherwise traceably
influenced by B.

The links of some of A to the theosophy of the TS, founded in 1875, are tenuous.
They would burden this book with looking backwards for many centuries, probably with
'diminishing returns'. So we will only use senses B and C?

Already before 1891, when Helena Blavatsky, co-founder of the Theosophical
Society, died, there were some secessions from it. There were more after 1891.' The first
of two larger ones happened in 1895: most United States members, taking along some of
other countries, split from The Theosophical Society, headquartered in Adyar (South
India) to form the Theosophical Society, eventually known as TS (Point Loma).

A second secession happened in 1913. The majority of the German section, led by
General Secretary for life Rudolf Steiner broke away, 4 or was expelled, with part of the
membership of other sections, to form the Anthroposophical Society. As with the TS
(Point Loma), this change in name* did not mean big changes in many of the major
doctrines.

We will meet more, smaller, splinter groups later. Not all of them are unimportant
for a study of the politics of Divine Wisdom.

In (his book, simply 'Theosophical Society' (TS: members are FTS, Fellow of the
Theosophical Society) means TS (Adyar); presided over, until 19-47, the end of our
period, by Colonel H. Olcoti, A. Bcsant, G. Arundale, and C. Jinarajadasa, respectively.

The TS (Adyar) gets most of the attention: because they had most members; because

'BLAVATSKY(I Q S7), I. The word 'theosophy' came from Webster's dictionary, when die
TS wis founded in 1875, and various possible names were suggested, TH July 1986, 177.

3 Anioinc Faivre. 'Theosophy'. in EUADE(1987), vol. 14. 466: 'the Theosophical Society,
which bears only a distant relationship to traditional theosophy.' GUENON(192l)'s not lhal
friendly neologism iheosophisme for (he TS, as different from (heosophie, did noi caich on much;
though HUTIN did use it.

See p 7 for some of I he organizations. J. Gordon Melton, in his Introduction (o
T. M1LLER(I991), 7 estimated 'over one hundred separate groups thai can be traced directly to
the Theosophical Sociery (though few bear that name) '

"Ttw version found in much literature; GOODR1CK-CLARKE0986). 104; ROE. 2l5f: 'split
ofT; TAYLOR(1992), 296: 'departed'. But STEINER<1925). 293 himself maintains he was locked
out, trying to stay in on his own terms. The GREAT SOVIET ENCYCLOPEDIA vol. 25, 589:
'After the {Krishna muni] schism look place, R, Sieiner formed an offshoot movement ...' No: it
was 16 years before that schism. HUTIN, 1376. wrongly calls Steiner 'a former pupil of Madame
Blavatsky'. PAUWELS and BERGIER. 175, construct a scheme of 'black magic' 'satanic'
Blavalsky theosophy versus Steiner's 'white magic' anthroposophy. This conspiracy theory doesn't
explain why Steiner was an official in the 'satanic' TS for so long and did noi leave voluntarily.
RAVENSCROFT has a similar theory, and scores of pages on Sieiner; yet not a single sentence on
Steiner's TS membership.

J If one believes in an 'innet God' in man, the difference between 'divine' and 'human' wisdom
is not big. Ironically, 'Anthroposophist' was a pseudonym for a Bombay Christian opponent of the
TS in 1879. BCW, II, 25.

Limits 9

they had most political impact, certainly in India and Indonesia.

D.OTHER LIMITS AND LINKS. THIS BOOK'S DIVISIONS

India and Indonesia are big countries, central in world colonization and decolonization
history; India also in religio-spiritual iheosophic ideas. One can see its attraction to a
person like Annie Besant, politically ambitious already before joining the TS.

About Indonesia 1 have written in comparative detail. Theosophical history, and more
so history of theosophists' relationships to politics, of this important country is closer to
being virgin territory than of india, Iskandar Nugraha's MA. thesis of 1989, which I did
not know about until 1995, is an exception.

Ceylon, 1 easy to reach from Adyar headquarters, was an example of a relatively small
country where a limited number of 'The' TS, or other, theosophists might make a
difference.

Other countries like The Netherlands, Britain, or Australia in themselves are not my
subject. They only are sometimes in this book as pari of the background. Some links of
iheir political hisiory to the TS may also be iniercsiing. But really including them would
mean loo many disparate chapters. Souih Asia and Indonesia have more factors in their
histories in common, limiting disparateness. There, one can sludy anti-colonial national
movements; not : n, say, Germany's hisiory

This study is divided into six parts. PART I is aboui how theosophists sec the
universe, planet liarth, and prehistory and history of humankind; compared to other,
religious and scientific, views, I made it as compact as possible. Though not my real
subject, one needs it for context.

TART II looks, more or less chronologically, at the history of the Theosophical
Society (and related organizations) from 1875 to 1947. PART III looks at from which
social backgrounds (he TS recruited members.

PARTS IV to VI are about relations to three political movements. They are: the
labour movement; national movements in colonially ruled countries; and the women's
movement.

One could say: PART I, ideas; PART II, hisiory; PART IV to VI, history of some
political ideas, and their interaction with the social and poliiica! locale of the time.

Limiiing myself to the ihrce subjects of Pans (V to V). in this book I did noi use all
opportunities that the many sides of the politics or theosophy present, to look at most
major problems 2 and currents in political life at the lime Theosophisis had relationships,
some parallel, some antagonistic, (o mosi of these, from anarchism 10 fascism,
communism to czarism, social democracy to liberalism.

The subject is also many-sided, in the sense of on the borderlines of many disciplines:

'Today officially and internationally known as Sri Lanka; spell sometimes Shri. 'Lanka' ihen
was the usual name in Sinhalese, iis most widely spoken language. This book often uses 'Ceylon*
like most contemporaneous English-language sources. Independence. 4-2-1948, agreed on by 1947,

^ROE, XV: 'many moral issues emerge ... The list includes race, gender, species, progressive
educaiion, peace . . music ... art.'

Introductory

hisiory. political science, sociology, philosophy, religious science... Discussing theosoph-
ist prehistory and history concepts needs some geology and biology.

Many-sidedness has its drawbacks too. Sometimes, I felt reminded of these lines by
Dutch Annie M.G. Schmidt:

Achier tike muur tijn andere murenf en nooit een eenhoom often bitttbouw.

Behind every wall, there's other walls/ never a unicorn or a bugbear.

During my research, I found lots of mythical creatures (at least, belief in them): but
mainly, labyrinths of 'other walls'.

2. WHAT SOURCES AND LITERATURE SAY AND DO NOT SAY

The Theosophical Society has advantages as an object of historical research in the 1875-
1947 period: it was neither too big nor too small, 1 international, existing all of thai time,
a well- recorded organization. Overall, there is not loo liule material. Too much?

The quantity of primed paper produced by theosophisis probably outnumbers the publications

of any organization, 1

TS 'magazine density' per member must be one of ihe highest of the time
international magazines, plus at least one for most national sections and many local
'lodges'. Pamphlets and books in many languages came out. Hundreds of ihem were by
Annie Besant alone.' She owned New India, for some lime (he best-sold daily paper of
Madras presidency in Souih India.

Some of the publications were explicitly polilical (like the weekly Commonweal 1 ).
Others, like the best known TS monthly Vie Tlieosophisi , coniained both explicitly
polilical articles, and articles implicitly interesting as background, if you try to put ihcir
ideas on politics inio perspective.

Some of my findings on various polilical queslions are from bulky books on them,
some, ihough, are short remarks, often from short articles, sometimes asides from a
context that is seemingly noi much related to ihe subjects.

Did I overrate these remarks? Here, one should think of the possibility thai within a
social context (of a certain society, of a certain class, or a certain organization) some
ideas are thought of as so self-evident that they need lidlc ot no defence or explanation,*

So an enquiry inio the hisiory of importani ideas may yield little material evidence, if

'Unlike a tendency such as world trade unionism, wilh ils hundreds of millions of people
involved. Roman Catholicism or Islam are also (oo big, and have too long, too complicated,
previous histories. Neidicr would a really small, shon-tived movemeni. concentrated in one coun-
try, do.

3 SP1ERENBURC(1988), 158.

'M. COLE. 195, estimated: 'four or five hundred books and pamphleis and an infinite quantity
of articles'. MIERS, 162: most of the work was done by her ghostwriters like Ernest Wood:
certainly in her later years. Madame Blavatsky wrote 'close to one thousand individual articles* in
the 1874-1891 period; B. de Zirkoff, preface to BCW t XIV, p. Vll.

'Not The Commonwealth', as misspelled in TMN! 1918, 559: and in GUEN0N(192I), 287.
^SSEEUWC^SS), 177, based on Bourdieu, speaks of 'doxa\

Sources

they are 'above discussion'; and maybe much on subjects wriiers within that society, class

or organization feel uncertain about.

One also should consider, when looking at the history of theosophisi ideas, how

accessible sources are.

There is not just 'too much material.' There is 'too little* at the same time:

Given that much essential Theosophical historical material is in closed collections, the

researcher who would be objective faces a major hurdle. Such [for instance, Esoteric Section]

archives are generally closed to outsiders, or to anyone whose approach will not be that of a

'true believer'. 1

Do later reprints always have the same value to historians as originals? According to

theosophisi Price:

Several branches of the Theosophical Publishing House have been reprinting some older
Theosophical books with changes dial adjust their content to modern knowledge and
sensibility. But such changes admittedly alter the originals and thus distort history

Ideas about racial differences and class disiinctions have been prime candidates for deletion. 1

A. AUTHORS OF HISTORY FROM THE INSIDE

Theosophists have always written about their own past (though those interested in history
sometimes complain other theosophisis are nol); more so than non adherents. In 1985, ;i
Theosophical Hisiory Centre, organizing conferences and publishing pamphlets, was
esiablished in London, ihen attached to the TS English section. Also since 1985. there is
Theosophical History magazine, more or less connected to the Centre, 'although the two
are technically separate', 1

Many theosophists' writings have the advantages, and/or the disadvantages, of
hisiory, writlen from 'within' organiza lions in general Some are apologics J for authors'
Stances within <in this case) (he Iheosophic movement, or for leaders authors may tot low,
they may also be attacks within or without thai movement s

'TILLETTU9S9), 44

'PRICE(I988B); PRICE(J988A>. Van Vledder of (he Dutch TS in a 1992 lecture:
Jinarajadasa's First Principles of Tlieosopliy is no longer reprinted 'as it mentions races .. noi
human races ... (V00RHAM(I988): 'no link at all to physical race) In our times one is probihited
using the word race, then one is supposed to discriminate against people ' As for 'not human
[physical] races', BESANT(I919B), 71 defined 'race' as: 'An eihnic type, distinguished by marked
physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual characteristics, consisting of a root-slock, and, later, of
branches.' These branches are 'Sub-Races'-, races have a 'common (divine) Ancestor', as wilh
Blavatsky.

3 7WJan. 1985. 16. See also Informattonsbiatt JTir Wieosoplue in Deutschiand 16(1990), 9ff,
4 Just one example: CLEATHER(!922B). The Christian Pautus Orosius. fifth century A.D.,

wrote Historia contra paganos- hi story against the pagans; to him, historic truth was subservient to

religion

J A sharp example: CLEATHER(I922A), Changing sides in more than one case necessitated

rewriting history. E.g., Bahmanji Pestonji Wadia had been a long time assistant to Mrs Besant;

Introductory

Tillett sums up five problems in theosophical 'self-portraits':

There is a spectrum of historical dishonesty across which attempts to present Theosophical

history can be ranged. In selecting examples I have kept to the area I know best - but I would

not suggest that only the Adyar-based Society offers specimens of all these.

1. omit inconvenient material ... 2. edit out inconvenient material ... [in] new editions.'

3. incomplete s tatements likely to mislead ... 4. misleading statements ... 5. false statements

(or shall we tall tbem lies). 1

Tillett proved TS leader Leadbeater misstated his own birth-date, and overstated the

social status of his family. 1

So far the problems, if theosophists deal with their own history. These are linked to a

problem that we will meet on p, 35, the problem of theosophists with history in general.

The history of all movements for human regeneration is in large measure a failure ..

Theosophical history Is in a sense depressing (as is Buddhist history or Christian history).'
As he wrote this, Price was thinking of internal conflicts.

Those conflicts are 'depressing' in another sense: few of thern were about the
theosophist view of history. A view of non-Darwinist evolution of socially and 'racially'
'higher' and 'lower' 1 humans; tied to the central Karma and reincarnation axiom.

after his 1922 break with her, he upgraded Bcsant's 1890s leadership rival. W.Q. Judge, in bis
writings.

'CLEATHER(1922A), 76f: AB and G.R.S. Mead inserted their own ideas into their (3rd)
ediiion of Blavatsky's SD. 'Annie Besam's corruption of rhe Secret Doctrine'. Ibid., 7lf.
'Tampering with H.P, Blavatsky's writings'. CLEATHER and CRUMP(1927): [AB'sTS' Voice of
the Silence editions] 'contain errors and even, in some cases, deliberate alterations and omissions'.
CL£ATHER(1922A), herself. 2 quoted HPB I am the mother and creator of the Society it has
my magnetic fluid ... Therefore I alone and to a degree , _._ , can serve as a tighining conductor of
Karma for it.' The dots I underlined stand for Olcolt' in HPB's original. Mrs Cleather aficr 1895
did not recognize Olcott as presidem. Quoting ihal letter in CLEATHER (I922B). 26, 'Olcoti' is
mere, no dots Anthroposophisls editing Sleincr's early work put 'Anthroposopliy' in most spots
where Steiner wrote 'Theosophy'. Dissident anihroposophist and owner of Cagliosiro publishers
Spaan called this editing: 'falsifications'; THISSEN. 17. In 1951, six years after Indonesia's
declaration of independence, the Theosophical Publishing House brought out Leadbeaier's T)ie
Occult History of Java, reprinting 1929-30 articles from the Australian Tlieosophist , but omitting
the last article "in which he praised the Dutch East Indies government; see p, 356.
T1CHELAAR(1977), 122: 'One can hardly see this magical removal as white [ = 'good'] magic'.

TILLETT(1989), 45-8.

> TILLETT(1982), llf. GOODR)CK-CLARKE(1985), 90f. proved the same two things on
Austrian theosophist cum Hitler's mentor on 'race' Lanz von Liebenfels, Leadbeater was leader of
the ES (TS inner circle) 1933-34. He had played an important part earlier on; in the 1880s he was
Secretary in Adyar. See p, 55. Misspelling 'Leadbetter': CUMBEY, 49; MOSSE(196J), 87.

*PRICE(1987), 50.

5 In the Secret Doctrine, BLAVAT$KY{)977), vol. II, 421: 'Mankind is obviously divided into
god-informed men and lower human creatures. The intellectual difference between the Aryan and
other civilized nations and such savages as the South Sea Islanders, is inexplicable on any other

Sources

Or, conflicts were not about elitism pervading the movement, dividing 'the Few' 1
from 'the masses who need only practical guidance' 1 (not 'philosophy'). Not about the
threat of turning the TS official object of 'Universal Brotherhood' into an empty shell via
fine print on 'older' and 'younger' brothers. 1

B.FROM THE OUTSIDE

Sometimes, theosophists see it as problematic if people look at their history 'from
without": 'Ellic Howe is not a believer in anything occult, which renders his editorial
contributions shallow." 1

Can only pious Roman Catholics write about the long history of ihe papacy, can only
the Reverend Ian Paisley write an Oliver Cromwell biography?

Many non-thcosophiscs can hardly imagine a body, which they often see as unworldly
or escapist, linked to politics. Though political aspects especially have interested quite
some outside authors; like me.

These observers tend to disregard the connection between theosophists' views on the
nature of the world, on animal and human evolution and history -one might say. their
philosophy- on the one hand; and their views and actions on practical politics on the other
hand J

Tor instance Dinnage's biography treats Iksar^'s iheosophy unsympatheiically as a

grounds. No amount of Culture, nor generations of training amid civilizaiioii, could raise such human
specimens as the Bushmen, (he Veddhas of Ceylon, and some African tribes, iu ilie same intellectual
level as the Aryans, ihe Semites, and the Turanians so called. The 'sacred spark' is missing in them
and it is they who are the only inferior (italics HPB] races on the globe, now happily -owing to the
adjustment of nature which ever works in Ihal direction- hu dying out'. Yet theosophist
VOORHAM0988) protested 'that in Ihe 18 big volumes of Blavatsky's collected works no one can
show a single passage, a single sentence, a single word from which a racist thought mighi appear'
JIN'ARAJADASA(I948), 28, altacked the doctrine of 'superior' or 'inferior' races; without saying
who supported it

'To whom H.P. Blavaisky dedicated her Tlte Voice of the Silence
-BLAVATSKY(I9S7), 247.

3 EDGER(1903), 180f; iranslated into Dutch and sold by die Indies TS; TMNI 1922. 464
CANDHK1940), 194, on theosophists he met in South Africa: 'The chief ihnig about iheosophy is u>
cultivate and promote the idea of brotherhood. We had considerable discussions over this, and I
criticized the members when their conduct did not appear to me to square with ihcir ideal'.
WEBB(1974B), 249 on TS 'quarrels': There never was much conflici on principle.'

J Jean Overton Fuller, TH Oct. 1985. 73, VAN LEEUWEN(1921H). 109: Count Wine had little
sympathy for his cousin Blavatsfcy 'and just because of that could only be a bad biographer'.

*JINARAJADASA(1948),*5; 13 emphasized the link: a small body of Theosophists ... as
statesmen, artists ... etc,' as 'only possibility to renew the world' Writings on theosophist politicians
tend to play down (see TING AY on Postgate's Lansbury biography) or omit (WEHLER;
WESSEL1NG, 141 on Hubbe-Schleiden, who described himself as having 'no other interests day or
night' than theosophy; 7T, June 1899, 555; SHARMA(1972) on Sir S. Subramania Iyer) iheir
theosophy KUMAR did not mention as theosophical inspiration to AB her Masters, HPB or CWL

) 4 Introductory

■fantasy world', 1 separately from her 'sympathetic' politics. However: even the weirdest
fantasy ultimately has its origins in reality. It may influence that reality strongly, in ways
much more earthly than occult magic.

Mrs Besant gets by far the most attention; this is understandable in view of her
prominence in Indian and British politics. Many books in which Annie Besant enters the
Indian history scene in a small or larger supporting part 1 also juxtapose, instead of
connect, Besant's theosophy (if dealt with) and her politics. They do not point out the not
only spiritual, but also political, watershed theosophy marked in her ideas. 3

With due regard to U-rums and contradictions in Besant's personal history, a link
runs through theosophist political history, from quite before till quite after her time; both
in and out of her society. Basically, Mrs Besant was a person, more able at putting into
practice theosophical political ideas, which leaders before, besides, and after her held as
well, in some form or other.

Many have failed to see the link. Marxist writers were on far more familiar ground
criticizing ideas, closer to their own (social democracy; secular ami-colonialism) than
with ideas that to them were 'too far away', 'too weird' to deserve, maybe, more than a
sneer in passing.' One can compare this to many Marxist reactions 10 forms of religion;
and. surely before 1933, to some of their reactions to fascism. 5

Anarchists, often seen by iheosophists as main opponents, relatively frequently wrote
polemics against theosophy; from Rabbie in 1898 to Senft in 1991,

Women's historians 6 are interested as many women have been prominent in the TS,
certainly compared to other religious organizations. I found, by the way, less in my
sources on relationships to women's movements in Asia than in Europe; which explains
the relatively small size of my Pan VI. Some womens' historians work within what one
might call a feminist- Marxist framework. A keen eye for possible gender and/or class
prejudice, though, docs not automatically make for a keen eye for questionable race 1

doctrines.'

A keen eye for biographical scholarly detail, as in Tillett, is also no guarantee for
much more than passing references to racial theories; or to politics in general.*

'DINNAGEfJSSe). 122.

J GHOSE(1975). SHARMA(1972) does not include her ai all.

'ROMElN^fi), 654-5 gives the reader an impression of continuity. "There was, however,
another side to the tempestuous Annie Besant, She was also a mystic ...'; AU(19B5), 6.
Unfortunately, this useful book usually does not have references of quotes.

"PALME DUTT. VAN RAVESTEYN. 412. LAXNESS, 178: 'confused theosophic cam'.
Henk Sneevliet, and ROMEIN(1976), 63lff. investigated the TS somewhat more.

S DIM1TR0F(1973), 102ff., criticized them.

6 ROE, 162f. See part VI,

'For example BURF1ELD0983), besides a tendency to over-estimate socialist and feminist
influences in theosophy, ignores 'race', though she does note upper class elitism. TAYLOR(l992)
mentions TS race theories only in a small note on p. 368.

8 TtLLETT(1982), 104. SMITH. 154 does mention HPB's 'pseudo-anthropology'.

Sources

Concerning sociology and other social sciences, Zaretsky speaks about 'neglect' of
esoteric groups, though he himself considers

the occult is a legitimate and important area of investigation in its own right and as an avenue

leading to greater understanding of the society of which it is a pan. 1

Another category, writing about theosophy (including, sometimes, its views on
politics) from the outside are Christian apologists for Catholicism or Protestantism,"
Much of their work, though, falls outside the scope of this book, being 'purely'
theological {like attacking TS views on God as 'pagan') or legal (like accusing
H.P. Blavatsky of fraud, or C.W. Leadbeaier of perversion).

TABLE 1 . VIEWS ON RELEVANCE AND PROG RES STATENESS OF

THEOSOPHY

THEOSOPHIC

OCCULT VIEWS

POLITICALLY

IRRELEVANT'

THEOSOPHIC

OCCULT VIEWS

POLITICALLY

RELEVANT

THEOSOPHISTS RATHER
PROGRESSIVE IN POLITICS

Dinnagc; T. Ali;
Muihanna; Nethercoi

Tiryakian; J, Webb

THEOSOPIilSTS RATHER
CONSERVATIVE IN POLITICS

L Nehru; Engels, Van

Ravesieyn, Laxness;

many Marxist*;

This book J

This book aims lo he the first study of the Theosophical Society on ihe three selected
subjects in political history; also the first one from an unusual viewpoint (see the lower
nghi cell ol Tabic 2); which it hopes to prove at least as plausible as the ihrec other ones
in that table. U tends lo (over-?) emphasize what others under-emphasized. Throughout
the hook, I have tried to present controversial issues in a many-sided way; showing
diflerenl hides, both within and outside the theosophical movement, in controversies i

'ZARETSKY, vn.

■'Catholic: F.J.W.S., 55: the TS is 'the wolf in sheeps' clothes'. LUNS, 4, of the Dutch
Roman Catholic Apologetic Society: 'this foolish and impious system of ideas', Protestant
HAITI EM A c.s; HUTTEN, C£(1929). vol. V. 4l8ff. Ibid., 420: Theosophy is the absolute
opposite of the gospel of Gods mercy', ibid., 418: it is nothing but a. return of 'the old Gnostic
errors' (a Christian version of reincarnation theory they oppose -1 ).

■'Thinking the ideas politically irrelevant is not the same as denying the relevance of Annie
Besant as a person, or the TS as organizational framework; 0WEN{1968).

''h is basically also Reva POLLOCK GREENBURG's view. She mentions mainly only Annie
Besant, however, as the main theme of her book is the Fabian Society, not the TS. SMITH, 142,
saw she TS as a 'heresy of the right'. G00DR1CK-CLARKE(1985) focused on links to ihe
Austrian and German extreme right. He has a halfway position on significance (why else write a
whole book?) or insignificance (his discussion of the Thule Gesellschafi, 135f.).

~ ^ ^ CT/^WiVE mCIDUS STUDIES

Introductory

did noi urn primarily t0 support or to a.tack either ihcosophisis or opponents of theirs
Ra.her, Irom my work, people with more or less conservative views may find they are
closer to theosophists' than they thought; or progressives may find distances are greater
than they thought. On the other hand, ieftis. foes or rightist friends of viewpoints akin to
ihose of the TS, may find that their estimate of distances between themselves and
theosoptusts on the political field was more or less correct.

17
PART I. ON THEOSOPHY

l.THEOSOPHY ON ITSELF AND THE UNIVERSE; RELIGION AND SCIENCE

Thcosophy. as its various schools see it, is Super-religion' and Super-science:

Thecsophy itself is Religion: not a religion, but religion per se carried to die tuh degree ... If is
Philosophy, also; not a philosophy, bui philosophy per se. carried to the nth degree ... [t is
Science; not a science, but science per se. carried to its nth degree, so thai no human iniellect can
compass its bounds. 1

In the future. it will end differences between religion and science, which twentieth-century

people see in their Maya [illusion]:

... we should not go far wrong in saying (hat ihe religion of Ihis community is to do what it is

(old. There is no son of divorcement between science and religion, because boih alike are beni

entirely to the one object, and exist only for ihc sake of ilie Siaie !

Thcosophy aims high:

The philosophy of Thcosophy, i e., Brahma- Vidya has answers for all quesuons, explanaiions for

all phenomena, and has no unsolved problems "

Reading how high theosophy aims, one may ask, as Annie Besant did: 5 how arc (he aims

related to practice, for instance (Super)-politicaf practice''

'WILSON(I970). 143, speaks of 'lite 'supra-religious' system of I heosophy'. Krishna Ltoa in
M, 25-8-1924. 9: -religion of religions'. BESANTf l92tC). 11,11, ihe Maharaja [of Gwahorl
wishes to be huill temples of (he different religions m India. Already a Hindu Tculplc, a Mosque,
and a fine Sikh Temple have been buik in ihis beautiful park, and our T S Temple or ihc Anciciii
Wisdom siands on a hillock above everything else-a suitable position for a T.S ijodge'. Tli March
1932, 138: Duich GS J Kruishcer 'mentions Mrs Bcsani has said, thai the Great Ones, who live
deep in the Himalayas, possess a chart on which every Religion is represented in its colour The
Theosoplncal light is white' |all colours: BLAVATSKYl 1987). 58| 'The Theosophical Society was
chosen as the corner-stone , (he foundation of (he future religions of ihe world.' 7TM3V 1937, 102.

; DE PURUCKER ( 1947), 26. Ibid., 14, on HPB 'Her greai work, 77ie Secret Doctrine, she
tailed "Hie Synihesii of Science, Religion and Philosophy. " These words, to many who do not
understand their Tuh import, may perhaps al first blush seem somewhat ambilious words ..'

J LEADBEATER( 1971 ), 24. This book, based on clairvoyance, is on the new race. A.D
2760.

4 8rahma-Vidya (Sanskril); literally, knowledge of Brahma. TM March 1934, 73; quoted
OELC May-June 1934. 'We can say safely thai Theosophy loday is (he only doctrine in the world
which never Tails (0 provide the answer.' LEOLINE L. WRIGHT. 21. Theosophy solves all
problems in ... an ... politics ... nationalism, internationalism .. ' G. Arundale, Theosophy is the
neM step', quoted OELC Oci.-Nov, 1937. 'The doctrine we promulgate being die only (rue one':
leuer from the Broiherhood's (see'p. 44 of (his book) Grand Masicr, quoied CLEATHER(I922B),
36.

^'No praclice is responsible unless it is based on irue melaphysics. No metaphysics is true, lhal
is, viable, if ii does noi lead loa responsible practice'. An imroduaion so the science of peace, 53.

6 DAS(1947), 446-7: In short, what ihe Human Race needs today, is a World Religion, which
will ... be ... the very oldesl, indeed eternal, all-inclusive, universal religion, which will expressly

/./

How theosophists related to religion and science is interesting (or our later took al
political consequences. Jawaharlal Nehni, some thirty years after the end of his TS member-
ship, wrote politics must be based either on magic or science. 'Personally. I have no faith
in or use for the ways of magic and religion," In the times we write about and after, on the
one hand many political movements claimed to base themselves on religious truth; like the
Roman Catholic State Party in The Netherlands, or Hezbollah (Party of God) in Lebanon.
On the other hand Marxist parties, 5 or the French Parti Radical, claimed scientific truth. As
theosophy claimed both religious and scientific truth, politics, based on it, are an interesting
case of a not that frequent combination in views.

One aiso finds (he relationship in society between religion and science in one of (he
categories into which sociologist of religion Bryan Wilson divides religious movements; in
the category which he Calls 'manipulationist*. He regards Christian Science and the
Thcosophical Society as prime examples of manipulationism. Manipulationism to him is a
type of religion linked to the evolving of more impersonal and complex types of societies.
Manipulationists claim their doctrines to be science as least as much as they claim them to
be religion. 3 They differ from what Wilson calls introvcrsionists who withdraw from
politics. *

This part is about theosophy after it had become a more or less coherent doctrine, say
after 1888 (publication of Vie Secret Doctrine). Earlier on, it was less easy to distinguish
from ideas in spiritualist circles. U. Newton, first TS treasurer in 1875. ;aid the Society
started as pure' Spiritualists: it added interpretations of (for instance) South Asian religions
vcars later. 5

intitule . all Ihe existing religions, and will also provide a World Order, a World Organisation,
which will not abolish any, but will include, moderate, federate, all existing nationalities.'
1 milker India; quoted IjRECHER(1959), 194-5.

Indonesian Marxist paper SM, 10-5-1917. 13, translated 'social democracy' as 'ilmoe Sama
Rata'; the science of equality.

WJ USON( 1 975), 15: 42. Ibid., 504, in his Conclusions: 'the new manipulations seels of ilic
modern world, which, by means that claim to be scientific, metaphysical and religious, offer men
the prospect of greater success in the world by (he enlargement of their natural faculties and
intelligence.' GEERTZ(1960), 317. has the name 'Javanese science' for mystical movements in
East Java: in a small lown. Pare, which he called 'Modjokuto'. Some of these had connections to
the TS.

"As examples of introversionism WILSON<1970). I18f. names Christian sects in North
America, like the Amish and the Huuerites. Of manipulationist Christian Science, he writes, ibid
148: 'Christian Scientists have been prominent in politics a number of American Senators have
been Christian Scientists, and so were Lord and Lady Astor and Lord Lothian, British Ambassador
to Washington in the early war years.' Conservative Lady Astor was the second woman elected to
Westminster parliament, after Constance Markievtcz, On Java, GEERTZ(I960), 317: "This-
Worldly" Mysticism.'

TH July 1986, 182. MANSION, 31: theosophy as simply copying Indian forms of religion',
is too simple. Spiritualism: see p. 45.

Religion and science

A. RELIGION

In all religions, philosophies (and sciences), throughout human prehistory and history,
theosophists say, one should differentiate between an outer, 'exoteric' 1 doctrine, for the
'thoughtless multitude'; 1 and. more importantly, an 'esoteric'. Inner, occult ['hidden']
Doctrine for the Initiated, for the Few. These Inner doctrines are basically the same. They
all derive from the Ancient Wisdom, from the source of al) religions:'

there must also be one truth which finds expression in all die various religions-except in the

Jewish ..."
And they will reunite with this Wisdom, with Theosophy; to form what we call a super-
religion. Whether one's religion, one's exoteric creed, is Christianity, Hinduism,
agnosticism, or whatever, does not ma((cr to the Thcosophical Society, as long as one's
esoteric creed, one's super-religion, is theosophy. So in principle one may combine member-
ship of the TS. as far as it is concerned, with that of any religious community.'

'Creel: philosopher lamblichos, about AD. 300. (he author of a historically doubtful
biography of Pythagoras, made an early reference to (lie opposiles esoteric' versus 'cxoieric';
using ii for differences within Pythagoras' school VON FRITZ. 21 1 . lamblichos is highly valued
in the TS: 'laniblichus now ts known under another name |ol his present incarnation] as one of ihc
Masters, who helped 10 found ihc present Thuosophical Society : T It Marlyn. 'De Wcrcldlcraar
en democratic", TMNi 1920, 1 15.

! DE PURUCKER(1940). 38. BLAVATSKY(I987), 246: uneducated masses'. DAS(I947).
417: 'AH believe their respective religions to have two aspects, one. for (lit masses, another, for
the few advanced souls: ...'

For Theosophy is the irue and authentic Mother of Religions and Philosophies and Sciences
the great central systemic Source whence all ihe lalier originally derived in past times, and
therefore is their Interpreter: it interprets the hid meaning and secret symbology of all these ancient
systems'. DE PURUCKER(I940), S!f. DE PURUCKER(I906), 6: theosophy 'is (he great central
Light, whence ail other lights originate'.

J BLAVATSKY(1987>, 45

5 May one also combine membership in the TS (Adyar) with membership in another theosophic
organization' The General Secretary of (he British section, Bertram Kcightlcy, asked Olcolt diis in
1904. Did Olcolt' s ruling of a few years' earlier 'that any member of the T.S | Adyar] joining the
Judge-Tingley organizaiion [the T.S., Point Loma], ipso facto cancelled his membership in the
T.S.' still hold good? Olcolt, in an Executive Notice, published 7T, Feb. 1905, suppf. x, replied it
still did: 'nothing could be clearer than that a person who links himself with such a hostile body
(the Point Loma TS] has lost his right to remain with us as a fellow member: he has to choose
between two opposite poles.' As (he decades passed, (his ruling gradually was no longer applied
On the relationship of the Point Loma TS lo other theosophists. T1NGLEY(1915), 26 slated: 'This
organisaiion does not have any relationships in any way to whatever other societies and bodies,
which call themselves Theosophical'; ',.. call themselves Theosophical and which do not recognize
[Catherine Tingley as (he Leader and Official Head of (he Theosophical Movement all over the
world*; DE PURUCKER(1906), 23. Dr. Peverelli of ihe Pt. Loma TS asked die Dutch East Indies
TS (Adyar) for its members' list in 1932; u refused. TiNl 1932, 86.

20 //

1. Karma, reincarnation, human origins

Theosophists reject chaos or chance.' For centuries. Christians had taught that chance
does not exist, but that every event, cwnjjiny jgarrow falling off a roof 1 happens
according to the will of a personal god. Nineteenth' cenru^ienw u£te£d this idea U
the uncomfortable spectre of chance should be explained away, then it had to be done on
a different basis.

HP. Blavatsky introduced two interdependent principles of order in the universe-
Karma and reincarnation. She thought them central among tenets that all religions should
have m common. For over 2,500 years, in some form, these two had been part of
Hinduism, and, differently 4 , of Buddhism.

They certainly were not central from the start in theosophy. In isis Unveiled,* her

'Sir S. Subramania Avar ir, a memorial speech to HPB in Adyar 'According io the well-
established doctrine of Karma, there was no such thing as an accident'; 'White Lotus Day in Adyar'
TT. June 1906, 701. See J1NARAJADASA(1939), 3. Psycho-analyst Jung also wrote, in 77,e
Psychology of the Unconscious, 'there is no such thing as chance.' Quoted Lady Emily Ulyens
Psycho-analysis and ,he Ancien, Wisdom. TT. Oci 1920, 55. Boll, occultism and Sigmund Freu.l
influenced Jung, Lady Emily thought that some of Jung's ideas were 'closely akin' to iheosophy but
others 'grossly maierialistic'. In the 1990's, geologist and palaeontologist Stephen Jay COULD
rejects teleology and predictability, often seen in the U.S as linked lo evolution He sees survival not
as a ideological reward for 'fitness', but as , queslion of the luck of the draw in a 'grand scale
lottery'. Studies of. for insiance, the fossils from the Burgess Shale in Canada show dial survivor,
seem to have nothing in common. 'Suppose you are a very successful fish; and then your pond dries
up. You become extinct .. Also Homo sapiens is here by ihe luck of the draw ' See p. 37.

'According to JINARAJADASA(I« I A), 42. 'no more wonderful fact exists' than .he divine
link to ihe sparrow, 'it is literally irue ... Mighty Beings guide every event'.

J A complex Sanskrit term, summed up as 'cause and effect', 'fate', etc; not 'eternal repose'-
CLARK, 23. For theosophists, roughly, the belief all good or bad fortune or a human (or a set of
humans, an animal, or an atom) is due io lhal being's own good or bad deeds in the past; the past of
this life, or ihe past of earlier incarnations. Lcadbeater in 'Theosophy in Every-Day Life' IT May
1905, 471: 'a man who has siudied die Theosophica! system ... knows that under the unerring will of
Divine justice if suffering comes io him, il comes because he has deserved it; it comes because it ,s
necessary for his evolution in consequence of actons which he has commitied of words which he
has spoken, of thoughts to which he has given harbour in previous days and earlier lives- and so the
whole idea of injustice as connected with suffering is absolutely removed from him' For instance
how do you explain that a child is born 'without healthy brains'? Besant in 'Mrs Besant on
iheosophy and reincarnation', TT. Apr. 1906, 536: 'Idiocy and lunacy are the results of vices'
BA1LEY0922A), 41 distinguishes five caiegories: world karma; racial, naiional group and
individual karma. HPB. quoted TB Apr. 1931, 180: theosophists should preach karma and
reincarnation 'wherever thou findest a chair or table to speak from . '

4 For instance, not tied to the caste stratification of society in Buddhist theory. Anatta doctrine
denies immortality of the soul; see p. 46
S Vol. 1,351. MEADE, 255; 417.

Religion and science

first book from 1877, Madame Blavatsky considered reincarnation a rare exception. Only
after going to India two years later, she considered it the general rule.

What if ancient Egyptian religion, Isiam, or Christianity do not have karma and
reincarnation? Theosophists solved the problem by claiming the Initiates within these
religions' kept tbe teachings secret, and did not commit them to accessible writing, as the
'ignorant many' might misunderstand them.

In Hinduism, karma and reincarnation teaching was tied to caste. 2 In theosophy, it
was tied to class/caste by the tenet of 'old souls', who are ahead on the path of spiritual
evolution, having lived more lives then young souls, It was also tied to doctrines of an
'Aryan race', of racial superiority, rising in the late nineteenth century.

So upper and middle class Europeans, Americans, Australians, and Indians, adding
pseu do- bio logic and pseudo -historic racial theories deepened 'higher-lower' ideas on
society of conservative Brahmanism.

As both the origin, and the future, of all religions is the one Wisdom Religion, called
since H.P, Blavatsky's revelations 3 fjieosophy, so the origin and future of all humans is the

'Egypt' DG PURUCKER(1940), 605: 'In this the Egyptologists are entirely wrong.' The
Egyptologists, ibid., 607: 'whose only argument against Herodotus' [Greek historian; de Pumcker's
authority On this, as were Europeans from before Chaillpol lion's decipherment of Ihe hieroglyphs in
(lie early 19th century | assertion IS that they have not yet found proof . .' In laie annquiiy Egypt even
most priests could noi read hieroglyphs. So reincarnation- initiates, if any. could have wrillen down
their ideas, safe from the thoughtless multitude* (ibid.. 3S) of (heir times, these ideas (hen might
have been rediscovered later, in de Pumcker's days, millions of inscriptions had already been found,
many of which were on ideas on life after death; quite different ideas (hough. Schopenhauer, loo.
thought that ancient Egyptians believed in reincarnation, but he lived a century of Egyptology earlier.
There was in ancieni Egypt a belief that people aficr dying had powers to appear like animals;
Herodotus may have confused these ideas with Creek Pythagorean ideas of reincarnation by way of
animals. Islam. O.S.M., 'Reincarnation, an Islamic doctrine'; TTOct. 1910, 49-54, PARR1NDER,
273. only 'a few extremists' among 'some Shi'a Muslims, especially in india' believe in
reincarnation. Christianity: 'St. Jerome says that the doctrine of rebirth was an esoteric doctrine with
the early Christians.' Kate C. Havens 'Psychic science and reincarnation'; TTOcl. 1902, 50. 'Even
the Syrian Sage, Jesus the Avatara (incarnation of a god. especially Vishnu, in Hinduism) ... is said
to have taught certain things lo his disciples in private, whereas to ihe multitude the same truths, or
at least parts of them as the case may have been, were taught not openly . '; DE PURUCKER
(1940), 54 'The Christ stood thus in front of humanity, that he taught diem, as far as they could
understand, the idea of reincarnation; Karma ... that is what he laughl.' RudolTSleiner, 7-7-1909.
on St. John's gospel. To DEKKER-GR00T{19I9), 33-4, the story of the two brodiers Jacob and
Esau proves reincarnation teaching in the Bible, as a just God cannot hate Esau for what he did in
this life, bui only because of sins in previous lives.

! HEENGAAN en TERUGKOMEN, 77, See our Pan III .

'isabelle Pagan, 'Aryan mythology'. TT Nov. 1914, 143: 'our Aryan revelation'. TT Sept.
1930, report of TS congress: Bishops Wedgwood (760) and Leadbeater (764-5) use il in a positive
sense. Most theosophists do not use the word revelation like Christians. Here it refers to books like
Isis Unveiled.

1. 1

Divine Principle. 1 Theosophists use this more all-embracing (or more 'vague" >: ) expression
more frequently Lhan 'God.' Most reject trie Christian (or Muslim, or Jewish) doctrine of .i
personal God. Madame Blavatsky also emphasized her image of God differed as a God of
Karma from the image as a God of Mercy from the Bible or the Koran. 5

So (he return to the Divine Principle was the future of humans: but only after very many
reincarnations, lasting hundreds of millions of years.

Essentially, there is just One life, the life of tvara,* 1 the 'Central Fire' s from which sparks
fly outwards; sparks identical with, yet different from, the Centra! Fire.

So, Man does not descend from animals, from 'lower' life forms, but is of divine
origin,* Theosophy shares this idea with conventional Christianity (which, however, draws
a sharper dividing line between Creator and creature 7 ), dominant in 1 875's most powerful
countries; though challenged by scientists categorized as 'materialists'. For the theosophists'
view of long-term development of life on earth; and its similarities to, and differences from,
two other views, see the table on p 32

Religions, and theosophy, are forms of idealist thought; idealist in the sense of thought
opposed to materialist philosophy. In this philosophical sense, the only one of two 'materi-
alism' senses which Mrs Bcsant saw as a 'serious opponent' of theosophy," we will use
'materialism' and 'idealism' throughout this book. v II. P. Blavatsky opposed materialist and

'Theosophy considers humanity as an emanation from divinity on us return paih thereto,"
BLAVATSKY0987). 217.

2 For this objection to TS doctrines: MANSION. 34; 77". July 1901 792, quoting French
Protestant minister Chazel; LEADBEATER (1922). 410, MOSSE(l9f.l), 86. 7T. Feb. 1906, suppl..
xxv: "talk as 10 foggy and vague theories (of the TS|'. Mrs liesant, before she jtuned the TS. warned
her readers against 'vaguely worded' theosophy; National Reformer, CI June 1882; quoted
TAYL0R(I992). 236

i BCW, XIV. 42: her God is '(he God of Immutable Law, not charily: the God of Just
Retribution, not mercy, which is merely an incentive to evil-doing and to a repetition of it*.

The 'Lord' (Sanskrit), (he Creator, in Hinduism more or less synonymous wnh Brahma, or
Siva, or any god who is considered the highest,

Aristotle attributed the theory of a Central Fire to followers of Pythagoras: COXON. 904
6 See p, 28. BESANT(I889), 1 1: 'Man, according to Theosophy, is a compound being, a spark
of the universal spirit being prisoned in his body, as a flame in (he lamp.'

As did the Islam of a Javanese Muhammadijah critic of the theosophy -influenced Budi Sena
movement: 'these people thought that God and man were one, in contrast to Islam which leaches that
Cod is God and man is man'; GEERTZ(1960), 317.

S BESANT(1894), "iA. Ibid 'That [n on -philosophical; of 'pleasure' and 'enjoyment')
materialism will never rule the world.'

9 T. Carlyle, an influence on AB, HPB (see ARUNDALEO920)), T.H Manyn
(MARTYN(19I4). 261) and Arundale (7T Apr. 1936, 84; 'one of the greatest or modern writers',
TMNl 1918. 244); expressed idealist philosophy in his Sanor Raartus 111: 'matter exists only
spiritually, and to represent some idea, and 'body' it forth.' TMNl, 1917, 313-9, had a partial Dutch
translation of Sanor Resanus. Dutch neo-Hegelian philosopher Bolland. quoted as mono, TMN!,

Religion and science 22

atheist thinking even more than she did the Christian form of religion. 1

2, Christianity

TS relations with Christianity were mutually ambiguous from the start. Conservative
Christians especially see any creed different from their own, as 'pagan', as diabolic.
Especially an occult one; the TS is the best known organized occultism.

A too impulsive missionary in the Central Provinces [of India; today's Madhya Pradesh] actually

called us (theosophists) ... "devi I- worshippers."

Though Christians attacked the TS since its inception, it attracted 1 other Christians to its

1918, 14, briefly described his idealism as: 'What is truth? idea.' Jacket text, 77 Sept 1930 (eic),
111 "Hie Theosopliist is ... dedicated ... to (he destruction of materialism.' Anna Kingsford, TH July
1987. 85: 'destroy the canker of Infidelity.' BFSANT(19I2A). 91. '1 may add that most of us regard
the Theosophical Society as the result of a spiritual impulse, sent out into the world by ihe While
Brotherhood, in order to save the world from sinking into Materialism, and to prepare the minds ot
men for (he restoration of (he esoteric teachings of religion'. Hubbe-Schlcideii. FTS, was not that
idealist when dealing with his practical colonialism: 'the economic question .. to-day is the basic
clement of all polities'; quoted WEHLCR. 431. CE, 420; and MICHEL. 17 accuse theosophy of
■materialism- il.ey sec materialism (or humanism; CUMB12Y. 23) as the great am.-CnmlMi,
conspiracy including all that is not Dutch Proliant Gcreformccrde Kerk. respectively Roman
Catholic 'Materialist' also is a favourite term of abuse among occultists disagreeing with one
another' for instance PROKOFIEFF. 17. Cathy PORTER. 36, wrote of ihe idealist -material, si
dilemma as people saw it in 1 9th century czarist Russia, as angry shouting matches between
"maierialisls" and "idealisis": those who believed that the injustices of U.e present could only be
removed by radical social changes, and those who looked back to ihe religious philosophies of the
past, and held lhai ii was only people's thoughts and feelings, never iheit social institutions, which
were amenable to change'. H.P. Blavaisky belonged to the 'idealists' of ilus perspective

>BCW XIV, 4): 'No real philanthropist, hence no Occulusl, would dream for a moment of a
mankind without one liule of Religion. Even the modern day Religion in Europe. conEncd io
Sundays is belter than none', HPB had written to Aksakov ihat all.eisis were not adimiicd as TS
members; MEADE, 155, A letter by HPB, 7T. Nov. 1931, 162: 'every scamp, every atheist, evcrj
murderer'

Wi. vol 2 March 1888-Aug. 1889, 355. Also F.J.W.S.. 27. Later, a Miss M'cNcik, 'A
lady who 'came to India as a zealous iheosophist', had a vision of Chrisi. and, according to
missionary TH0MPS0N<19I4), 30. 'overwhelmed by a sense of sin fell at His feel'. She ll.en wrote
Prom neosophy <o Chrisi. ibid,. 1. In 1920, die all-Anglican bishops' conference in Lambeth Palace
,n London was not as hostile, dtough spiritualism. Christian Science, and theosophy included 'serious
error'- On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that these movements are very largely symptoms
and results of reaction against materialistic views of lire. We cannot but sympathise with persons
who seek a refuge from the pressure of materialism'. Quoted A. Besant, WT. 7T. Oct. 1920. 6
Besant predicted, ibid., 8: 'The next generation of bishops will not only speak respecifully of
Theosophy, but will bless it as the trunk from which spring the branches of all religions.'

3 ln 1906, LUNS, 8. worried about TS attraction on Dutch Caiholics. According to member
Frederick J Allen, q'uoied THNI. 7-8. in the early 1890s the Dublin TS Lodge had among iis
members 'Caches. Episcopalians, Presbyterians. Methodists, Unitarians, Swedenborgians,

/./

membership, also since its inception; even clergymen,'
both Romji Catholic and Protestant, even an Anglican
bishop of Haiti. 1 Sometimes, people who had left
Christian churches, rejoined them after becoming
theosophists and interpreting Christianity from a theosophic
perspective then.'

Now and then, though, there were problems with
some Christian members.' The theosophist seal,
printed on magazines and books, has a snake; in
Christian iconographic tradition, a devil symbol.* Its
Egyptian 'pagan' Ankli (life) hieroglyph' did not attract
especially Christians. Neither did the name Lucifer 7
for a leading TS magazine,

Lucifer ... They have boycotted it in London, and will
not allow ii to be sold at the news-stands ... She [HPB)
laughed as she said: There arc people who believe (hat
I am the devil with horns and hoofs."

TS symbol, with Ankh sign in the
middle. From TT Jan. 1911. 481

3. Other religions

Within a few years of its. founding, the TS started to attract many members from various non-
Christian religious backgrounds. This was not surprising, as both theosophisl doctrines and
symbols were a mix from many religious and philosophical systems and beliefs and other

Quakers, Pusitivists. Agnostics'.

'RANS0M(I938), 115. among the first 16 members was Rev. J.H. Wiggin, editor of Die
Ubentt Christian. Olcolt noted during his visit to Australia in 1891: 'Clergymen of orthodox
repute and much influence joined the Society'. Quoted MURPHET, 246.

2 BCW, II. 52. claimed (unnamed) American bishops had joined the TS.

'For instance, after (he founding of the Liberal Catholic Church: and Anglican David Gosthng
from England, the Bombay lodge president; TT, Apr. 1905, suppl. xxv. See p. 38.

"in 1882. Dr. G. Wyld, (he British TS president, resigned because the heads of (he Society in
Bombay [HPB and HSOl ., had systematically, and without discriminating between popular or
verbal and esoteric or Theosophical Christianity, continually ridiculed that (Christian! faith.' TH
Apr. 1987, 74.

J Snakes shed their skins, interpreted as 'old bodies', and it's not easy to find a dying snake.
So, many cultures see them as symbols of immortality, or of reincarnation. 7T July 1936. 342,
interprets the TS snake as 'Indian'. But the seal is from 1875, when reincarnation was not a TS
doctrine! A Dutch Protestant I980's anti-occult book was called T)ie realm of the snake.

'Described by HPB as 'the handled cross or the Egyptian TAU'. BCW, HI, 315.

'Literally 'hghi-bearer'. In Christian mythology, name of a fallen angel who became the devil.

8 'A visit to Madame Blavatsky.' Commercial Gazette, Cincinnati, 13-10-1889; as reprinted
WACHTME1STER(1976), 137.

Religion and science

sources.

Some or them were, in no particular order of hi parlance; ideas ascribed to Hermes
Trismegistos, 1 Pythagoras, 2 and other Greek and Roman antiquity philosophy and religion;
tarot J from medieval Italian card-playing; triangles from Freemasonry; also masonic

1 H.J. Rose, 'Hermes Trismegistos', in N. Hammond/H. Scullard (eds.). Die Oxford Classical
Dictionary. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1972\ 503: 'Hermes Trismegistos, a clumsy translation of
Egyptian "Thoth. the very great', with (he adj[eclivej. emphasized by repetition ... When so named,
Thoth is the reputed author of the philosophico- religious (realises known collectively as
Hermetica .... also of sundry works on astrology, magic and alchemy. These arc invariably lute.
Egypiian in the sense of being produced in Egypt by men of Greek speech, and (except for the
astrology books ...) contain little or nothing of native Egyptian doctrine or custom. Their
attribution to the Egypiian god of letters is a result of (he then prevalent enthusiasm for the
supposed ancient wisdom of Egypt ,.,'. KROLL, 795: the various writings are not really
interconnected; some parts are as late as the fourteenth century AD. In the fifteenth century, after
(heir rediscovery, they were reputed to he much older than Pythagoras and Plato though;
MnEUSE(l9K3), 27-54. Theosophists believed that 'Hermes Trismigustus' reincarnated as Jesus
Christ; and laier as the Order of the Star in the East's World Teacher; A, Hfeyimms!,
'Vragcnbus', TMNI 1926, 148

"'Pythagoras has become | through reincarnation] the Master K II , well known in connection
with the Theosophical Society, |as a Master, its real J.eadci| and he speaks out the rheosophicil
ideal of the State-ihc father-mother of us citizens, the Protector of all.' BESANT(19I2A). 74
Diana BOWDER. 183: 'Pythagoras wrote no books, and his followers were noted for secrecy . .
later Pythagoreans, as well as members oT other sects, tended to attribute theii own views to him to
gain authority.' A. Peimacim, 'Rctorf, I847f , in \- Delia Cone (ed.) Divtmario riegli scrtttori
Grcci e Lntini, Semitic Milanese, Mar7.orati. 1988 of the speeches, ascribed to Pythagoras, no one
can (ell if they are really his. Lexicon tier Alien Well. Ziirich. Artemis, 1965. 2490: followers then
said of teachings 'duToi; Eifia'. 'lie (Pythagoras) said so himself; an early instance of arguing
from authority, Ibid.: 'the |Pylhagorean| order, with its hierarchic structure was one ol the
principal mainstays of aristocracy against the democratic tendencies until the midst of the 5lh
century B.C.' Also (O VON FRITZ, 210, Pythagoreans were 'aristocratic and oligarchical.' To G.
Casenaito. ■pnagorici', 1635T, in DELLA CORTC. especially with laicr Pythagoreans, both
politically conservative and progressive tendencies existed. Brooks taught young Jawaharlal Nehru
about Pythagoras: J. NGHRU(I958). 15. Annie Besani, WT, TT Oct. 1915. 7. named Pythagoras
as the inspiration for HPB's silencing her on leftist politics : 'In the old Pythagorean way, she
imposed on me silence on the subjects 1 cared for most .. ' Leadbealer claimed that in a former life
in the ancient Greek world he had become a member of Pythagoras' school after meeting him in
504 B.C.; H[enry] II[otchener], 'How Theosophy Came to Me, By Bishop C.W. Leadbeater', TT,
June 1930, 544. One should be careful not to draw too direct a line from the school of Pythagoras
to theosophy; or, as iheosophists and others sometimes tend to do with ideas which differ in lime
or in place, to Buddhism. The Prisma Elekironisciie Encyclopedic from 1990 stated under
Pythagoras' that he [rather, his school, as no writings can be attributed to him with certainty]
aimed at 'liberation from the wheel of reincarnation'; but (he 'wheel' is a Buddhist, noi a Greek,
metaphor.

^Olcott, ODL. TT Dec. 1901, 137. Later to be expelled French PTS PAPUS (d'Encausse;
1860-1916), 62 in 1889 claimed a religious origin for tarot cards; (he 'Gypsy, akhough both
ignorant and vicious, lias given us the key'. HPB played patience and divined from cards.

/.;

influence in calling a local branch 'lodge', and in secrecy, pledges of loyalty; belief in 'the
astral light', and spirits from spiritualism (though interpreted differently), ; fairies 2 from
{Russian, British, etc.) folk religion; a heavenly hierarchy of 'Angels or Dcvas' from the
pseudo-Dionysius 1 writings of about A.D. 500; Arhat from Buddhism-used in the sense of
theosophist high degree initiate. One can find the story of the vanished country (continent?)
of Atlantis in Plato, and in nineteenth century Ignatius Donnelly. The idea of an age-old
struggle between good White Powers and bad black powers (see p. 31) is familiar from
Zoroastrianism and Manicheism. Much is borrowed from various Hindu schools of thought.

Supporters saw this heterogeneity as Eclecticism with a positive connotation, taking the
core, the best, from all (other) doctrines. Some 'others', chiefly Souih Asian religions,
became a bit more equal than others, when TS headquarters moved to Jndia in 1879
(Bombay, later Adyar near Madras). Especially Hinduism became so; 4 especially after Annie
Besant became president in 1907.

Theosophists were proud of the brotherliness at their gatherings, believers in many
religions silting peacefully side by side. Outside the TS, such was not always the case.

CLEATHER(1923), 4.

'BLAVATSKY^S?). 27ff.

2 Thc 'Cottingley fairy photographs': tn 1920/21 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and Edward
Gardner, TS English section general secretary after 1924. (IINARAJADASA(1925), 256)
published photos in the Strand niagazine. These were said to be of 'red' faino The makers, Elite
Wright and Frances Griffiths, young girls in 1920. confessed in 1981 and 1983 the photos were a
hoax, with cut-out fairies of 'Windsor and Newton Bristol board, secured to the ground with hat
pins'. Alex Owen, "Borderland forms'; Arlhur Conan Doyle, Albion's Daughters, and ihe Politico
Of ihe Cottingley fairies. 1924-1945', History Workshop. 38, Autumn 1994. 48-85; JII'PLS
Frances Griffiths called Doyle's and Gardner's associate in (he case. Geoffrey Hodson, a phony.'
Later. Hodson spoke as TS leader in Indonesia, and published articles on autocracy of the wise as
synthesis between totalitarian and democratic politics. See p. 365.

J 8ESANT(192I1), 42. Pitudo-Dionysius writings (wrongly ascribed to the first century A D
Christian saint Dionysius) also influenced the writings of Thomas Aquinas and other Christian
(especially Roman Catholic) theologians on 'angclology', assigning angels their places in a
hierarchical system, Deva means god in Sanskrit and its use in this cosmological context dates
from 19th century thcosophy. BESANT(I912A), 69: 'the hierarchies of superhuman Beings-
Devas, Angels and Archangels', VAN G1NKEL(I9I5), 20f. TMNI, 19)7, 214; 'Dewa's. also
called Angels'. T1CHELAAR(1977). 121: 'angels, in India called "Deva's".' LE. Girard, in
TMNI 1920, 293, has also 'fairies' as synonym for devas. 7T, Mar. 1906, 431, 'Notes on the
science of the soul', by W.A. Mayers, thought St. Dionysius really was the author of the Pseudo-
Dionysius writings. So did VAN LEEUWEN(1920Q, 236, who spelled the name as 'Dionysus the
Areopagite'.

''current Theosophical teachings ... They are all only extracts from the [Hindu] Vedas.
Upanishads, Puranas, etc ... The Hindu Religion is the oldest and most comprehensive, and it
contains the moral and spiritual teachings of all religions of the world,' R.P, DAS, 28. But Swami
V1VEKANANDA, vol. IV, 263, called the TS 'this graft of American Spiritualism'; ibid., 264:
'Hindus ... do not stand in need of dead ghosts of Russians and Americans 1 '

Religion and science

Critics thought it a 'mishmash'. 1 Madras daily the Hindu in 191 1 proved that outsiders
sometimes could find common ground:

Representatives of Hinduism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and Islam wrote (o the paper

condemning Theosophy, and noting that while in theory members of any religion could join the

TS and continue to practise their faiths, in fact they were obliged to adopt a collection of doctrines

and ideas which was inconsistent with any of (hem. 1

'Our' period saw the rise of other attempts at 'super-religion'. One of the best known,
originating from Iranian shi'a Islam, was Baha'i, seeing itself as youngest (and best, because
taking the best from earlier ones) world faith. It had some common ground with the TS.
Though Baha'i's leader Abdul Baha (Abbas Effendi), son and successor of prophet
Baha'u'llah. sympathetically addressed a theosophists' meeting in 1913, he wrote of TS
belief in reincarnation as 'puerile imagination.' 5

Even if we limit ourselves to India, theosophy was not the first attempt at synthesis
between different religions. In Indian Islamic history, sixteenth century Mogul emperor
Akbar, trying to found a syncretist Sun 4 religion look some steps towards Hinduism. So did
Ahmadiyyah Islam, Sikhism, and since the nineteenth century, Brahmo Samaj and Arya
Samaj, started from a Hindu background, but by their monotheism took steps towards Islam
(and Christianity). 4

13. SCIENCE

W.Q. Judge wrote his teacher H.P. Blavatsky's object was to make religion scientific, and
science religious'. 6 We have seen something of ihcosoptiists' relationship to religion. How
about science?

The scientific revolutions, first of Copernicus, later of Darwin and (he enormous
prolonging backwards of (he lime scale in geology' undermined not only the Christian God's

'F J.W.S.. 55. FOUDRA1NE, 137-8; 'If one loves twenty beautiful women, and one takes ihe
eyes from one of them, another one's nose, and yet another one's legs, one is left with a corpse
which does not breathe any more. Thai is whai ihe theosophists iricd to do,' Maybe Christian
critics remembered two brothers in their Taith discussing tis declining influence. 'Isn't it terrible,
people won't believe in anything anymore! -The real problem is people will believe in anything. '
See also ROM E!N(1976), 632.

J TILLFTT(1982), MOf. Mrs E. Richmond in 'Theosophy the source or all religions', TT. Oct.
1898. 9' 'Tlie claim made for Theosophy thai it is the source of all religions is a very large one,
and one that meets with much opposition from members of sonic of the religions of ihe world ..."

J WEBB(1971), 251. Marguerite Pollard, 'The Bahai Movement and Theosophy'. IT Sept.
1912,822-8; 828.

^Nearly four centuries later, TS leader Jinarajadasa praised him for it; JINARAJADASA
(1934). The Koran (41:37) forbids sun worship.

5 SeeJONES(1976); YADAV,

6 (New York) Sun, 26-9-1892, quoted SMITH, 159. BESANT(1900), 8; (1905), 368: (1908C),
39f , approvingly quoted Plato: 'Science should be the helper and handmaid of religion, '

'As many pointed out, including Sigmund Freud; GOULD.

/.;

Religion and science

authority (whether o r not He exists). They also worked towards 'dethroning human
arrogance' 1 which certainly exists. To some, the function of modern occultism is to fulfil
a strong desire to reconcile the findings of modern natural science with a religious view that
could restore man to a position of centralily and dignity in the universe. 1
Now, we go to the individual sciences. First, astronomy. Theosophists see the
universe as orderly and hierarchical. 5 There is a link bere to their views oh political and
other human life on earth.* They see heavenly bodies as inhabited by super-humans? and
as parallel to humans, like all astrology: 6 'The sun and the stars [are] ... living entities,
alive and intelligent, making and unmaking what Theosophists call Karman.' 7

'GOULD.

! GOODRlCK-CLARKE(198S), 29. HPB saw die aim of her book the SD as to give ro man his
rightful place in the plan of the Universe. Theosophist MURPHET, 128, saw it thus: '... Darwinism
and other iconoclastic theories of advancing science were lowering man's traditional image of
himself. The book [Esoteric Buddhism by A. P. Sinnelt of the TS] tended to reverse the process,
offering a deeper, more acceptable concept or the old idea that man was made in the image of God'.
On this 'magic-analogical thought, micro-macrocosmic conception* see HSCHLER, 2S3.

5 Cosmos' for universe is from Greek kooh&<, order; from the idea in ancient Greet religion
that gods had made otder out of chaos. Recent astronomers Lend to emphasize chaos in outer space

"'Every great man, every honest man, is by nature a son oT order, not of disorder. ... he is the
preacher of order. Does not all human work in this world consist of bringing order?* Carlyle, quoted
by G,S. Arundale, speech in Madras January 1918; as in WED. Aug. 1923. 45.

5 D£ PURUCKER(194Q), 199. 'There arc beings on other planets of our solar system -one
would not call diem 'humans.' and yet they are actually more evolutionally advanced than we human
beings arc- who think diviner thoughts than we do. There arc also beings or entities inhabiting the
Sun ... [surface heal, astrophysicists say, over 4000 C°; even Teflon skins would not do. But De
[•cracker's Fundamentals of the Esoteric Philosophy, Pasadena, TUP. 1979', 62 etc. says, sunlight is
purely spiritual, not holtet (ban the object it shines On) and consequently the Sun and its globes have
inhabitants thinking god-like thoughts, because having a god-like or solar consciousness.' De
Puruckcr was Theosophical Society (Pt. Loma) Leader, 1929-1942. On this point. Leadbeater of The
TS agreed. Rudolf Sleincr; stars are 'homelands of the Gods'; quoted VREEDEand MEYER, 194.
Erich von Daniken was not original

6 BESANT(1893), her autobiography, begins with her horoscope by 'Alan Leo'. BCW, 111. 45
'Astrology ... a sublime science'. J1NARAJADASA(I938). 65: 'true astrology will be the
predominating religion of mankind.'

'Karman is the Point Loma TS form of Karma. DE PURUCKER(1940), 152. Today still,
primary schools which Steiner's anthroposophical TS offshoot set up, teach so on outer space.
Nineteenth century German philosopher Fechner (theosophists say that he taught their Mahatma KH)
also thought stars were alive. We already mentioned heavenly bodies' god-like commensals on p. 28.
note 5. Some astrologers now take Neptune into account; but like all planets that were discovered
post-1700, after the invention of better telescopes, it played no part in traditional astrology. Though
TS vice president A, P. Sinnetl, in Broad Views, Jan, 1905; quoted TT, Feb. 1906. 390, wrote,
basing himself on clairvoyance; 'the Chaldean [Mesopotamian] astrologers of the period [21.000

Two paragraphs before, we mentioned Goodrick-Clavke's view that occultism attracted
those who wanted to re-establish in the centre of the universe Man ail 'his' planet. Astro-
logy, like ancient astronomy with which it is intertwined, is geocentric: the stars in con-
stellations like the zodiac signs only have 'special relationships' if seen from Earth. The
zodiac has only 'related' stars, if seen from the geographic and cultural context of ancient
Greece and Arabia; so it is not universally human, 1 let alone cosmic, Anthropocentrism in
theosophy is less tied to planet Earth than other anthropocentrisms are, as theosophists
believe humanity in the long run will move to planet Mercury. 5

y^~\ Next, let us turn to chemistry. Annie Besani and C.W. Leadbeater, with the

<^\M|)help of a 'Theosophical microscope' (clairvoyance) looked at the hydrogen atom:

six main bodies, contained in an egg-like form. It rotated with great rapidity on its

own axis, vibrating at die same lime and the internal bodies performed similar

gyrations.

The six bodies' each contained three 'ultimate physical atoms'. 3

Mrs Besam did not only have occult, hut also practical social and economic ideas on
chemistry. She addressed the 1916 Theosophical convention in Lucknow in India:

You must make your [Indian] chemists, like the German chemists, the servants of your

manufacturers.

Next, biology. Well into the 19th century. Aristotle' 4th century J J C. idea thai species
arc immutable -which became the established opinion of Christian churches- strongly influ-
enced it. Central to the breakthrough of evolution theory was Charles Darwin publishing On
the Origin of Species (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871). He stirred many supporters;
certainly initially many opponents too.

>ears ago] . most certainly knew of the existence of Neptune'. DL I'URUCKER (1940). 183 and
193, explained whj it was not one of the -Seven Sacred Planets': 'It is no proper planet of our
solar system, h would be correct, doubtless, to look ujioii Neptune as a captured comet of a certain
aatr' Astronomy notes size is different: ihe diameter of Neptune is 49,100 kilometres, with
comets, il usually is a few km. The mass of Neptune is mote than 50.000,000 times that of comets
al their ma\iinum (computed from map: 77ie soksr system. Washington, D C. National Geographic
Society. 1990. D. Oergamini el al. The universe, s.l , Time-Life 1964. 69). According to Annie
Bcsant. the seven sacred planets are 'ruled by (he "seven Spirits before the throne of God,"
mentioned in the "Revelation of S. John'"; BESANT(1912A). 85.

'JANSSEN(I954). 21-2: ancient Egyptians did not have the zodiac concept.

J BESANT(1912A), 85.

V Besant/C.W. Leadbeater' Occult chemistry; quoted T1LLETT(1982), 67f. An 'ultimate
physical atom' is the smallest indivisible unit of matter. Non-occult chemistry divides the hydrogen
atom into basically two components: I. one proton. 2. one electron, in circular, not 'egg-like* orbit
around it. BESANT(192U), 36: clairvoyance as 'super-sense telescope or microscope.'

"BESANT(1917A), 61.

5 One of biologist Louis Agassiz' motives for opposing Darwin was his belief in human racial
inequality. He thought humans of different 'races' had different ancestors; an idea he shared with
AB and Leadbeater. In 1862, Harvard University expelled John Fiske for supporting Darwin's
theories; ROTHMAN, 295. At Olcott's and HPB's New York 1870's home, nicknamed 'the

/.;

Religion and science

To many Christians (and oilier believers) the idea was anathema that man was not created
by God; but had evolved from an animal, from a beast, especially an ape-like beast, abhor-
rent to humans to whom apes look like a mocking comment on themselves, too close to the
model for comfort.

When biologists tried to lecture on Darwinism in the southern US, religious shock
troops, shouting 'Go to hell with your gorilla!', attacked them. Until the Reagan presidency,
up to now, US pressure groups, overwhelmingly made up of n on- biologists, claim
'creationism', not evolutionism, is true. They demand at least equal status with evolution
biology for it in education.

H,P. Blavatsky, in the Secret Doctrine, and her followers, solved the riddle of
creation/evolution of humans; apes and other animals, by claiming apes and other animals
descended from humans-nol vice versa;

Man is, in fact, the most primitive of all Mocks on earth . .. the other Vertebrata, as well as the

great groups of the Invertebrata. likewise were derived from the human stocks, but in the previous

Globe- Round. 1

every vital cell ... contains widiin itself the potentiality not only of the divinity latent wiiin it,
but it also contains . . numerous lower , . life- impulses, which ... would produce an inferior
creature, whether it be an clepliam. ., a dog, 1 or some biological 'spori' which past hislory shows
has noi yet appeared on eanh. The reasons ... why such cells , , in man loday do not evolve forth
into new phyla beneath man are . , : First, evolution, as a process of unfolding new bodtei and
sinning new stocks lias permanently ceased for the remainder of this Round "

Lamasery', was a stuffed dead ape they called 'Professor 1-iske", it wore a white 'dicky' and
necktie around the throat, manuscript in paw. and spectacles on nose'. An 1878 journalist, quoted
MURPHET. 87

'DE PURUCKER(I947). 121 HPB in her manuscript, the later Secret Doctrine's vol HI, on
differences wilh Darwinists; 'To the advocate of the "animalistic" theory, our cosmogenetica! and
anlhropogenclical teachings are "fairy tales" at best ... For those who would shirk any moral
responsibility, it seems certainly more convenient to accept descent from a common simian
ancestor, and see a brother in a dumb, tailless (all baboon species have tails] baboon, than to
acknowledge the fatherhood of Pitris, the "Sons of God"...'; BCW, XIV. 2. WEBB<1971). 52
ascribes to HPB, without references, the opposite of her real ideas' 'Man had evolved from apes -
perhaps'; 'Just as homo sapiens had evolved from a lower form of animal life'. 'Do not fall into
■the mistake of the western way of thinking, and say that man descends from the animal; that is not
true'; BESANT(1900). 151. Man, as a spiritual Being, comes forth from God and returns to
God;' BESANT and LEADBEATER(1 Q 13), I. LANZ VON LIEBENFELS(B), 26 on Darwinism,
'the general monkey nonsense.*

! BLAVATSKY(1977), vol. 11, 684: animals are 'post-Human' . 'Animals are the refuse of
human evolution'. Rudolf Slciner, quoted R, MEYER, 95, '., that animals and monkeys are
degenerate men, is the basic thought of the old esoteric anthropologies!' LANZ VON
LJEBENFELS(B), 27, 'men did not develop out of the animal world, rather the other way around .
by unnatural cross-breedings', Guido von List, quoted DE KRUIF(1985A). 6.

3 Large categories in biologic classification. E.g., the phylum Vertebrates includes humans,
fish, etc; the phylum Arthropods: insects, crabs, etc.

J DEPURUCKER(1940), 319.

So today evolution (except 'spiritual evolution') stands still.

Of late, fcriinul liberationists criticize 'speciesism', 1 as an analogy to 'racism* or
'sexism'. Christian religion has been blamed for much speciesism in history, 1 resulting in
cruelty to domestic animals and wholesale extinctions of non-domestic ones. But mainstream
Christianity has no speciesism monopoly.

As many theosophists are well-known for vegetarianism, and/or anti-vivisectionism; 1 and
many have warm feelings for their domestic animals;* one might think there are no traces of
speciesism in theosophical theory. Are there not?

Fitting in with what we have seen on evolution theory, theosophists often refer to animals
as 'younger brothers'.' TS (Pi. Loma) Leader Gottfried de Purucker wrote:

The human soul can no more migrate over and incarnate in a beast-body than can die psychical
apparatus of a beast incarnate upwards in human flesh ... because the impassable gulf ., which
separates ... the Human Kingdom and the Beast Kingdom, prevents any such passage ... from the
oneupinio i lie other, which is so much i is superior in all rcspecis .. there is ihe impossibility ihat
the impcrfccily developed beast-mind and beast-soul can find a proper lodgment in whai

'B Noske. Humans and other animate London. Pluto, 1989. In speciesism the human species
is Ihe one and only yardsnek for all (oilier) animal species. There is similarity is the geocentric
world view; for instance, of asirotogcrs. Spccicsists believe a priori in the 'superiority' of humans
(especially, if male in many views), and the 'inferiority' of other species. Thus, one can exaggerate
the uniqueness of humans (all species, all individuals have a cerlain uniqueness) as iool-users;
lately u was discovered, a species so couiparaiivcly 'low' as a Wcsl Java fish picks up leaves to
hide behind from enemies. Any observer must guard agahisi exaggerating the point in ('spatial', or
biological, or .. ) space from which the observing is done In many religions, nocturnal animals.
hke bats or owls, are suspected or links with the devil, or oilier dark powers' One may link this
aspect of anlhropocentrism, looking from the viewpoint of diurna! humans, to the equation in many
religions (nol just in iheosophy or Christianity) of good with 'lighl'; bad wuh 'night: darkness'

^MICHEL, 14: 'On no Star or planet lives a ... heing, that noble and thai divine as us. living
limbs or the Holy Cross, who surpass all plants and animals and life.' Usual exceptions in
Christian hislory: the saints' lives traditions of Anthony or Egypt and Francis of Assisi. French
Renaissance thinkers like Montaigne and Gasscndi (not Descartes) tended to upgrade the position
of animals.

^Mabel Collins was president of British anii-vivisectiomsts; 58 MPs were vice-presidents, TV,
Oct. 1907, 3, BESANT(I907B). I73f. bases ami- vivisection on superiority of humans to animals.
LEADBEATER0922), 585: 'The proper substitute for 'vivisection' is. of course, clairvoyance.'
R. HALL in Animals are equal (243; 247) quotes CWL in support of her ideas. Her predecessor in
belieMn clairvoyance, though, was nol also her predecessor in beliefs in equality: one should not
project these backwards into the history of occult movements.

"KOOT^on), 261: in 1911 in Indonesia, of members of ihe Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals in the Dutch Indies 'only - 12' were also members of our TS. This really
disappointed me.'

Vtrundale, 7T Apr, 1936, 75. Eighteenth century German philosopher Herder called them
elder brothers' of humans.

TABLE 2. THREE VIEWS ON CREATION and/or EVOLUTION
(al) dates very approximate)

CONSERVATIVE

CHRISTIANS of

1875 or later

THEOSOPHISTS

BIOLOGISTS,
GEOLOGISTS,
LINGUISTS, etc

SOURCE of
INFORMA-
TION

Literal interpretation
of ihe Bible

The Masters and
higher clairvoyance

Excavations and
other research

ORIGIN of
LIFE

God
5.000 B.C. 1

Divine Principle,

Logos, tvara,
320.000,000 B.C.'

Non-living 5 matter
2,SO0,000,0O0B.C.

STATICS/
DYNAMICS
of LIKE

Species slay sialic

from Creation till

Judgment Day

Creation, 4 evolution,

from, and eveniually

back to. Divine

Principle

Evolution: relatively
simple species into
more complex ones

ORIGIN of
ANIMALS

Created by God, a

few days earlier than

man, 5.000 B.C.

Descent from casl-

off, 'lower' human

cells 5

Unicellular
organisms evolved

imo animals'
750,000,000 Fi C.

'Dublin -born Anglican Bishop Usher, 1580-1656, who added up years from genealogies in the
Bible Blavatsky 'ilie old exploded notions of the Jewish Bible wiih its 6000 (years| of (he world'.
Quoted 7T. July 1931, 627. BESANT<L92II). 38-9: "When [ was a young girl, most people (hat 1
was with thought that ihe world had not existed beyond six thousand years.' Dutch East Indies TS
leader Ubbenon thought the 'Jewish' computation did make some sense, though 'naive'; not as the
beginning of world history, but as the beginning of its Kali Yuga (see p. 38) era;
VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(I9IO), 2.

: BLAVATSKY(1977). vol 11.710.

DE PURUCK£R(1940). 170: 'The Esoteric Tradition recognises no so-called 'dead matter'
anywhere in Infinitude ...'

"The Christian creation concept was rejected: BLAVATSKY(19S7), 83.

S DE PURUCKER(1940), 319; SCHWARZ(1905), 551. This is (he important difference of
TEPPER's (see p. 460 of this book) family tree from usual biologists' ones. LANZ VON
LIEBENFELS(B), 3 If. did not see it; or pretended not to. TILLETT(1982), 5, sums up
iheosophisis' ideas on evolution: 'from minerals to Man and beyond to Superman'. That misses the
point of the supposed human/ divine derivation of minerals; who, if their Karma is right, may
become human later, h misses the difference from Darwin; or 'Social Darwinism',

Religion and science

CONSERVATIVE

"I
BIOLOGIST.';,

CHRISTIANS of

THEOSOPHISTS

GEOLOGISTS,

1875 or later

LINGUISTS, etc

After many

FUTURE of

Depends on

reincarnations, will.

? Depends on

ANIMALS

Last Judgment

in later Rounds,

human world

become human; still

economy, etc.

much later, Divine

AGE of

Contemporaries of

230,000,000 to

EXTINCT

Contemporaries of

'3rd Root Race man'

65,000.000

GIANT

man. 5,000 B.C.

15,000,000 B.C.

B.C.

REPTILES

ORIGIN of

Created on 6lti Day

Part of, which will

Descent from 'ape-

HUMANKIND

of Creation

relurn to, Divine

like' primate

Principle

mammal

PLACE of

Paradise,

Imperishable Sacred

Africa, most

ORIGIN of

Garden of Eden

Land, near North

probably Ethiopia-

HUMANKIND

Pole 1

Kenya area

400,0OO-20O,0OO :

ANTIQUITY

320,000,000 e C.

B.C. Homo sapiens'.

5,000 B C.

Tirst Root Race'

3,000,000 U C.

HUMANKIND

older 'man-like*
species

No 'Aryan race';

Indo-European or

ANTIQUITY

Since the downfall

At least 1,000.000

Indo-Gcrmanic lan-

Of ARYANS'

of the tower of

years; Aryan (Pifih)

guages 2500 B.C.,

Babel?

Root Race' 1

maybe common

origin from

unknown language,

4,000 B.C.

ARYANS in

India far from

INDIA

geographic focus of
Bible

Tor 850,000 years 1

Since 1750 B.C.?

'SCHWARZ(1905), 551.

J Allan C. Wilson, in: Scientific American . Apr. 1990.

3 BLAVATSKY(I977), (1, 470-1.

"SCHWARZ (1905), table K. But JINARAJADASA (1933). 20.000

34 /./

to il is truly a godlike sphere which in consequence it cannot enter. 1

Proud, upright, head ! high,' Man stands on this earth
He can act thinkingly, feelingly, calmly
Animals toil laboriously, heads [kop] down below
they toil all their lives, to fill their stomachs '
Some animals are more unequal than others;

It is highly probable, however, that no normal human being would care to have an anthropoid ape
around the house as a pet: their extremely bestial and often disgusting habits . would probably
and fortunately preclude this. 5

... embryo of a gorilla ... The horrible bestial mouth was there.*

We saw on p 29 many people abhorred the idea of descent from an apish animal more

History

'DE PURUCKER (1940), 597. But: 'How is the rascal .. ever to be paid off Tor his evil
deeds, if he cant be put into service as an omnibus horse or mule, or entombed in a snake's
body?' H P Blavaisky. quoted RAWSON. 211. BESANT and LEADBEATER(1913>, 116 have
one exception reincarnation from apes to 'low' humans, like 'Lemunan' Africans.
BESANT(1889), 29: "No Theosophist believes ... that ihe human Ego can enter a lower animal"
Bcsant. in 'Mrs. Itesanl on Thcosophy and Reincarnation', 77. Apr. 1906, 534-6. admitted that, as
a punishment, a human soul might be linked to an animal body, but. 'The penat connection of the
human Ego with an animal form is not reincarnation' The thcosophic view of the practically
unbridgealile gap between humans and animals in reincarnation differs from influences on the TS
in Ihe Greek antiquity school of Pythagoras' reincarnation doctrine, animals play a key role, hi
this, thcosophy also differs from many Hindus. 'But in my next life I can go into another body It
may be a dog's body or a cat's body, or a king's body' HEENGAAN P.N TERUGKOMEN, 32.
alsu 57 Dwell feminist anthropologist Postel asked a Sri Lanka Buddhist surgeon 1 if he lived
badly, might he be reborn as a woman? 'O yes, or even as an animal ' Mare, 10-1 1991, 7. On
women, sec p, 386.

There is a difference, untranslatable into English 'head', between Dutch hoofd (used for
humans and 'respectable' animals, mainly horses) and kop (mainly for non-'rcspectables', animals,
and $ome people).

Theosophtsts' ideas on the occult significance or the upright position see PARTLOW.

"Antifroposophic nursery rhyme, from WICHERT. In occult biology there seem to be no
kangaroos, or fish like the Slargazer (Uranoscopus). looking up all the time. HPB speaks of '(he
battle of divine human Spirit, and imperial WILL of man against gross and blind matter in the
shape of tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses and bears, without mentioning venomous snakes and
scorpions'. BCW, II, 76 J6rg Lanz von Liebenfels thought Ihe root of all evil had a sub-human
animal nature, G00DR1CK-CLARKE<1985), 9lf; etc. He was a self-styled theosophist; LANZ
VON LIEBENFELS(B). Mathilde Ludendorff-von Kemnitz-Spiess in her extreme rightisi writings
was another example of speciesism. She distinguishes between protozoans; multi-cell animals; and
Hypenoen (humans). DUDA and LU DEN DORFF{ 1987),

S DE PURUCKER (1940), 821.

*DE PURUCKER (1947), 144-5.

than the idea of evolution from animals in general. The theory of anatomist Frederic Wood
Jones that small Prosimian jhuias was ancestral to humans, prolonging ihe human family
tree back into time by lens of millions of years, attracted some among them in the 1920's 1 .

Both the Adyar TS monthly for Indonesia, and De FVrucker, Point Loma Leader,
enthusiastically quoted Wood Jones. Wood Jones helped De Purucker to correct his
manuscript of Man in Evolution} It criticized Wood Jones on one point. To go back to
Tarsius was not far enough, as man according to Theosophy was 'the most primitive of all
slocks on earth'.' Biologists never accepted Wood Jones' theory.

Writing about how theosophists see diemselves, (he universe, life on and off earth, we
have been moving slowly to their views on human prehistory and hislory, to the subject of
(he next chapier.

2.THEOSOPHY, PREHISTORY, HISTORY, PARAHISTORY

Dirk van Hinloopen Labbenon, the former Dutch Last Indies TS General Secretary, became
a D. Liu. at Amsterdam university in 1931, writing on history. He wrote in iheses thai a
Marxist or Roman Caiholic history 'cannot be (he "true" history', 'The true and honest
historian should have "Satyan naasti paro dharma h " J inscribed on his banner'. 5

Often, to Iheosophists clairvoyance and myth were truer history than historians' history
was. On the concluding page of the first volume of her Secret Doctrine, Madame Blavaisky
contrasted 'legend', being 'living tradition', favourably to history. Annie fiesant wrote 'A
mylh is far irucr than a history, for a history only gives a story of the shadows, whereas a
mylh gives a story of the substance that casls (he shadows' 1

l Uis Mtm'a place tiinong the- nsmnniah came out in London in 1929

'OH PURUCKIiR(1947). vii, 143, 178 'De Uitkijk'. TMNS 1926. 45.

J lbid , 121 . R. MEYER, 96, quotes Steiner's Tlu-osophy of the rotticruann (1907)- 'Man is the
first born being of the whole cosmos ' OELC, Apr. 1932. quoies "flteosaphy (US ULT parent lodge
magazine) March 1932, 'Studies in Karma'" ' there arc no 'animals' There are only icmporary
detached fragments of ex-human protoplasm, physical and psychic .. Thus, the only possible result
of settling a human affection upon an animal is a backwards alteration of the individual who makes
that error,' OELC, Jan. 1937 'Busting the Ballards'. quoted Ballard of '1 Am' (who claimed to
quote the Master the Count de Saint Germain): 'While it may hurl some, ihe Mighty Truth is. that
animal forms were created in the beginning, by these powerful black magicians

^Sanskrit; translated into English as Ihe motto of the Thcosophical Society since Olcotl and
Madame Blavaisky visited the Maharajah of Benares: There is no religion higher than truth'.

*VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1931 ), Stellmgcn, 3.

6 BLAVATSKY(1977),676.

^Esoteric Christiantry, quoted by J, Henry Orme, 'The Wandering Jew', 77". Dec, 1919. 267-
8. In her 'Aspects of the Christ', TMNI 1913, 340: You all know that a myth is much more
important than history. ... a faci . . is only the fourth or fifth reflection of the great truths in the
World of Ideas. A great idea, which is in heaven, is cast down into coarser and coarser matter,
each new coarser sphere destroys one of the aspects, and when in ihis way most aspects have

1.2

As expressed by Rudolf Steiner:

From ordinary history Man can learn bul few about mankind's experience in earlier (inie; ...
What Archaeology, Palaeontology. Geology, too, may teach us. always keeps within narrow
boundaries. Exoteric history must limit itself to what has been preserved in time. No one can
say if what has been preserved is the real as well, if he sticks to the exoteric explanations.

Everything that arises in time, though, originates from the Eternal Bui the Eternal is noi
accessible to sensory perception ... man ... however, can develop forces, slumbering within
him, in a way he may get knowledge about this Eternal. If man thus extends his perception, he
is no longer dependent on exoteric proofs in order to know about the past ... From perishable
hisiory he proceeds into imperishable history ... This history, however, is written with
completely different letters than the usual one. In Gnosis, in Theosophy it is called 'the Akasha
Chronicle'. 1

Only the Few, who may disclose from it just bil by tantalizing oil, know this
Chronicle, 1 1( is hard for pedestrian exoteric history (or political science, or any
discipline) lo rise (o the Divine Wisdom level of Akashic super-History,'

Unlike 'materialist' historians, who may divide time by bits of pottery, or by what stone
or what metal tools are made of, spiritual theosophists linked their view of history lo racial
theories. This aspect will come later. Now, I just mention its division of eternity inio seven
very long periods: 'Chains' or 'Manvaitlaras'. These Chains are divided into seven 'Rounds'
each, with seven 'Root Races' each (separated by global catastrophes), with seven 'sub-
races'' each.' 1 Charlotte Despard touched upon this aspect, and also upon a second aspect, its

disappeared, and 31 lasi me idea appears inio (he material world. Ilicn they call tins niuiilaied dead
body a fact. That is the real nature or facts, lo which people look up so much' On (he contrary, a
ni/ih is (he rendition of ihe Idea, as it exists in (lie heavenly world, and so it is always (rue '

1 STEINER(t909), 3f BESANT(192I1), 3R 'a person silting at Ad>ar . can we back, and
back, and back, and back, for hundreds of thousands of years; nay, he mav go into almosi
inconceivable numbers of years, and by direct observation may say whai happened in lhai far-off
pasl; that is called "reading the ilashic record". Sometimes, in reading it, you find that history has
been very inaccurate.' Akasha: a Sanskrit word theosophists borrowed from Hindu theology;
interpreted by DE PURUCKER(198I). 6 as 'radiant, luminous' (primordial substance) Theosophists
use 'aether' (a word used in early physics, laier dropped) more or ten as a synonym
L£ADBEATER(1922), 498; 'you niusl not take it Tor granted when you meet with any of out
Theosophicd terms, in Hindu or Buddhist books, that they mean exactly the same ihing. Very often
they do not '

STE1NER(I909), 7; 'On the sources from which these communications come, I am sull bound
to maintain secrecy now. One who knows ihese sources somewhat will understand why ... How
much of the knowledge hidden in the womb of Theosophy will be allowed to be communicated bit by
bil, is totally dependent on ihe attitude of our contemporaries,'

J See Van Leeuwen, p. 122, 'Intellectual thinking brings nothing but headaches'; from;
'Kerstmis', Schoolkrant Vrije School Mardand , Dec. 1989,4; the magazine of a primary school in
Leiden based on Sleiner's teachings, Lemuriel Baboen in TOONDER, 25; 'Thinking can bring us
nothing but misery.'

"BESANT and LEADBEATER(1913), 30; A. Warrington. 'A Sketch of Theosophy and
Occultism', 77", Aug. 1905, 654f.. 661. He, and LEADBEATER(I9I3), 202, have 'world periods'
between Rounds and Root Race periods. Smaller periods of seven years are also very significant,

History

leleology: 1

In the beautiful series of lectures, given by Mrs. Besant ... The Changing World', a picture is
drawn of the incoming tide, of the little waves which are sub-races, and the great waves, which
are root-races. That is a fine symbol of historical periods. One after another they come and go,
and to those who watch them it may seem that they barely, if at all, move in upon the shore of
human progress. 1

Unlike those who were then her fellow theosophists, Charlotte Despard here did noi
mention the questions, linked to the problem of teleology, of chance, of the possibility of
various alternatives, of 'human free will'. 1 Despard then belonged to both women's suffrage
movement and TS. Both were growing; her teleology was optimistic.

Were all theosophists optimistic? An interesting question; ihcir Society's century of birth,
the nineteenth, with ihe hindsight of knowledge of the trenches of Verdun; Auschwitz; and
Hiroshima, has been accused of optimism. Also, the 'exoteric' adopted faith ofTS founders
Blavatsky and Olcott, Buddhism, as an influence on nineteenth-century European thinking,
was often accused of pessimism.

Many Buddhists rejected (he accusation. Rut pessimism attracted many Europeans (such
as Schopcntiaucr, J Richard Wagner, Nietzsche) in what they saw as Buddhism.

It has been said nineteenth ceniury 'Buddhist' influence on Europe and ihe US was a one-
sided mix of northern or Mahayana Buddhism 5 (in itself. Theravada purists from countries
like Ceylon said, Hindu- influenced), and non-Buddhist Hindu writings, with metaphysical.

J. WILKINSON. Si. Augustine, too, divided world history into seven aj;es. The lend of global
caiawophes, destroying much or all life, is found in Schcuchzer (IStli century), a believer in ilic
biblical deluge; anti-evolution 19th ceniury biologists Cuvier and Agassiz (whom
fJI,AVATSKy(l9<>8). 179 quoted in support of anthopocetiirism); and Tabre d Olivel, CGl.UER,
79.

'Affirmed by DE PURUCKER(I947). 169. VAN GINKELt 1915), 6-7 'occuh science, which
leaches thai nature always works lowards a given goal'.

'Opening sentence of DESPARD (1910). She quoicd from a leclure by AD in St James Hall
in London. 16 May 1909, see ~lMNi 1918, 221-2.

'Dutch Cast Indies TS General Secretary Van Hinlooperi Labbenon said, in 3 speech io Budi
Uiimta' 'Also, every individual has his lask in ihis world, has io perform a certain kind of labour
in it He himself may fancy he is doing cvcryihing himself, bui in truth he is nothing more than a
wayang puppet. There are dalangs [wayang puppet masters] who arc behind this, and ihese dalangs
are ihe ones deciding about ihe drama which will be played'. Still, humans have a margin of
freedom. Some, those who gladly perform ilicir lask, use this margin well. Others, who in their
discontent rebel against karma, abuse freedom; and will face ihe consequences of being useless
wayang puppets; VAN H J N LOO PEN LABBERTON(1909). 8. Tlieosophist astrologer VAN
G1NKEL(1915}, 48 wrote: 'dial the humans are just cells, material vehicles of the various effects
of national Dcwa -consciousness'.

J Who wrote; 'The fundamental difference of all religions I can ... only see as whether itiey are
optimistic or pessimistic ...' Quoted DE KRUIF(1988), 11. Madame Blavaisky considered him one
of the great minds that lived during our period of history'. TTOct. 1883, 12.

5 MB, Dec. 1933. 497. Different views on Mahayana vs. Theravada influence exist.

1.2

History

elitist, and pessimist undertones.

The idea thai today's humanity was in a 'dark age', a Kali Yuga within history, appealed
to Western pessimists, like the Italian geology professor De Lorenzo, an honorary member
of the Maha Bodhi Society founded by theosophists, and a senator in the Mussolini era, 'The
Aryan race is now in its Kali Yuga, and will continue to be in it for 427,000 years longer.' 1
Hindus thought Vishnu's tenth 2 avatar would end the Kali Yuga. So did Steiner, but he was
not as pessimistic about time-spans as Blavatsky.'

Madame Blavatsky saw her century as 'this, our most savage and cruel century'/ In the
writings of her followers, one can find both optimism and pessimism. 5 Optimism in many
publications of Besant's TS (Adyar); an organization which grew steadily till 1928*
Pessimism for instance with smaller groups, or with individuals like Mrs Lcighton Cleather 7

Nineteenth century Briton T. Carlyle influenced theosophist ideas on history. We find
his influence in the idea that a Mahachohan, a Manu. and a Bodhisattva lead every new 'root
race' era in the TS calendar of world history,' His opinion (from On Heroes and Hero
Warship*) that history is chiefly made by 'great men' also inspired patriotic school history

l BLAVATSKY(l908), 155, This was also ilie view of DE PURUCKER(I906). 3. Hindus
believe the Kali Yuga started with the end of Krishna's earthly life; BESANT (1927), 7.

'Krishna. 8ih, Buddhr: 9th avaiar (not to ihc liking of many Buddhists).

''Also according to the old Oriental traditions, die Kali Yuga. io winch arc allotted 5.000
years [3100 B.C till A. D 1899-1900] is finished today'. Quoied R MEYHR, 59, Steiner started
biological-dynamical agriculture (by which outsiders know anthroposophists Itest) in ihc 1920s, as
lie thought old Kali Yuga seeds would not do in the New Age. Ibid , 194. A book advertised in the
TS' book catalogue (7T, Sept 1905, suppl,, liv. TS annual report on 1905, 78; these annual
re|>r>rts are ai the back of 77" volumes) Vie Dates of the Kah and Siilya Yugas. by David Gusiliug,
ilie president of (he Bombay TS, predicted the Kali Yuga would last till A.D 24-1K, In Hindu
chronology, the Satya Yuga is the positive era, opposite to the Kali Yuga.

*BCW, [II, 207 DE PURUCKERO940), 705 also bitterly attacked ilie I9tb century: 'yet
unforgotlen bul in no wise regrctled, has left lo its child the twentieth century a legacy from which
(he world is still suffering; , . There is probably in past known history no single term or oik
hundred years which has been so heavily scored with ihe records of moral failures

5 BLAVATSKY(1987), 227: 'Because ihc final goal cannot be reached in any way but through
life experiences, and because the bulk of these consist in pain and suffering'.
DC PURUCKER(1940), 34 I , shows sympathy Tor Oswald Spengler's pessimistic views, in spite of
Spengler's anti-theosophism.

6 LEADBEATER(l97t). WESS1NGER(1989), 312 Also optimistic; T1NGLEY(19I5),
? CL£ATH£R(I922A), 22.

S C.W. Leadbeater 'The Masters and the Path'; quoted TILL£TT(1982). 105. One might
eventually reincarnate this high by prominence in the TS. VAN DER LEEUW(1920>, 20: the
'great man' is recognized 'spontaneously; Ms authority being that 'of the Spirit.' HPB coined die
neologism Mahachohan from Sanskrit and Tibetan. Manu is the Creator of mankind in Hinduism
In the Rig Veda, India's oldest religious writing, he is the son of the sun god. A Boddhisaitva in
(especially Mahayana) Buddhism is a potential Buddha.

9 On which G. Anindale based his Jan 1918 Madras speech; WED, Aug. 1923, 45-6: 48-9.

primers in many countries; and twentieth century fascist ideology.

Personally. I do not subscribe to C-.\ '"le's view. Nevertheless, 1 I subdivided next part,
PART II, in terms of leading TS personalities; because of the autocratic position those
leaders had.

'Compares. JOHNSON, 2,

COMPARATIVE RELIGIOUS STUDIES

LIS PAR Y

PART II.REIGN AFTER REIGN 1

This is a more or less chronological account, up to 1947, of the theosophical movement.
Chapters are named after TS leaders. Yet, they do not pretend to be persona! psycho-
logical portraits. I will discuss some political issues that we will come across more
extensively in later pans.

JL REINCARNATION OF A BUDDHA: 3 H.P, BLAVATSKY, 1831-1891

I have no doubt whatever thai I am a Buddha, That Mule image of bronie in his shrine is me as I was
a thousand or ten thousand years ago*

It you will be led by me you will approach the light of truth and power, and become more potent
than any Jehovah the Jews ever conceived/ 1

A. THE NOBLE WIDOWf?), 1831-1875

Her devotees saw her as the White Lotus/ the Great Theosophists one of the (super-

'Leadbcaleron Bcsant, quoLed CLEATHER<1922A). 40; 'In her reign ,,'

'Many say, one mark (it a Buddha is non-re incarnation. HPB (BCW. XIV, 404f.). Buddha
reincarnated as die Hindu Sankaracharya-whom many Buddhists see as an enemy ot their fault, In
'Some inquiries suggested by Mr, Sinned's Esoteru BuiiiSslmi' . 7T, Sept 1883. 295-310. j>
reprinted 8CW. vol. V, L A., Philosophical Research Society, 1950. 182, she denied
Sankaracharya had persecuted Buddhists. Sterner claimed die historic Buddha, after Nirvana, in the
17th century, at the request of non-historic (I7di century fiction') Christian Roscncrcuiz went to
Mars; to end a war between rocks' Oslo speech 1912. quoted VREED£ and MEYER, 4K
PROKOPIEFF, 103 In theosophy, lite moves inside die solar system, sometimes towards die sun.
sometimes from tile sun out In the 50, Sanat Kumara moved from Venus to Eardi (and Buddha
camewith him according to Sterner; PROKOFIEFF, 79). 'Jupiter is not yet inhabited, but its moons
are.' BESANT and LEADBEAT£R(I9I3), 7. CRUMP (OB.C Scpl l«9) 'my step-aunt Mabel
Collins' got wrilten messages from 'die Nirmarvakaya [Buddhist enlightened one] HPB'; 48 years
alter 1891. In HPB's first book tsb Unwiled (1877) she spell 'Bhudda' and Kristna' The years of
occult training in India and Tibet, where she claimed she read the oldest book in the world, Dzyan -
no: Dyzan, as with WEBB(I97I), 50- do no l seem to have included spelling. Dutch translation of DE
PURUCKER(198I), 26: 'Boedhda'; no fault of De Purueker's probably,

'Blavatsky. quoted RAWSON, "212. 'Some one of the company suggested dial it might he a
relief it Buddha should retire into Nirvana and give us another rest of a few thousand years ' Ibid,,
213.

"HPB. quoted RAWSON, 214

s Theosophists commemorate 8 May, the day of her death. While Lotus Day. !n Hinduism, the
lotus is linked to the god Vishnu.

*BCW. vol. XIV. p. VII; preface by B, de Zirkoff, DE PURUCKER(1940), 339. 371, 373,
374, 383, etc. LANZVON LIEBENFELS(B). 23 'grossen Theosophm'.

HP. Blavaisky, J83I-J891

human) Great White Brotherhood living among mere earthhngs, ' at least equal in rank to
Jesus Christ. 5 They sang hymns in her praise. 3

Her parents knew her as Helena 4 Petrovna von Hahn, 'Of noble birth', later
theosophists 5 stress. Like many Russian empire nobles, her father was of German
ancestry: Hahn-von Rottenstein'-Hahn, related to rulers of a Mecklenburg principality.

CRUMP(1923), 69; ' ... H.P.B. couid scarcely have been of a lower occult status than what is
known as an 'Accepted Chela', which is no more than she herself claimed to be. The Masters
Themselves called her 'Our Brother H.P.B,' which certainly implies a higher status'.
BESANT{1909A). 85: '.,. to Those who sent her. she was: 'The Brother, whom you know as
H.P.B., but we - otherwise'. 'A Master' on HPB in 1875, quoted TT Aug. 1931. 558: 'Chaste and
pure soul; pearl shul inside an outwardly coarse nalure ... Anyone might well be dazzled by the
divine lighl concealed under such a bark.' Tor the purpose of the theosophical work that body was
an instrument used by one of the Masters, known to us as H.P.B.' A. Keightley, quoted:
PRICE(I986A), 23. Many leaders of religious organizations claim relalively low status for
themselves; but let followers (or Masters) accord them higher stalus. For ihis 'division of labour';
1IUTTEN, 574, quote 'Peace Mission' Father Divine: 'If my followers believe I am God. and by
[Ins conviction are led to renew their lives and experience bliss and happiness, why should ! hinder
ilirm?" The leader of (he Holy Grail Message Movement, O. Bernhardt used to have close contacis
io the TS (Adyar) earlier; MIERS, 3 Ibid , 174. claims businessman Rernhardl had been repea'.ed-
!y jailed Tor fraud. After he founded his cull, his followers called him 'King'. When he prohibited
this, he was called 'the LORD*; HUTTEN, 560. Weissenberg, founder of [he Evangelical Church
according to Si. John, called himself John die Baptist reincarnate; but his followers Jesus Chris:;
HUTTEN. 522f. 535, ibid , calls this church 'poor man's theosophy', Muslims may see a certain
parallel in (he history of Christian religion. Koran, sura 5, ayal 1 16; 'And when Allah said O lsa,
son of Marjain, hasi thou said unto mankind: Take me and my mother as Gods, beside Allah?', he
said: 'Glory be unlo Thee! i( is not for me to say (hat which I know to be nol (he (ruth '

3 DE PL1RUCKERO940). 1058: '.,. and it may as well be frankly stated thai H P. Blavatsky
was a Messenger opening such a Messianic Cycle, and that a previous Messianic Cycle ended ...
some 2160 years ago, more or less, with the life and work of the Avatara whom the West knows
under the name of Jesus the Christ.' See also L£ADBEATER(I922), 172 Many theosophists think
Jesus lived about 100 years 8 C. Late twentieth century Unification Church Moonies' follow ihe
traditional Christian birth year. They say Jesus was born 1930 years after Abraham; because
"history repeals itself, (he Lord of (he Second Advent ( = thcir leader, the Reverend Moon) was
born A.D. 1930. Woarom en hoe herhaalt de Ceschiedeius itch 7 [Why and how does History
repeal itself?) S.I,. Unification Church, n.d.

Hail, Blavatsky! Thy holy doctrine our heart awakens', hymn which opens all South
American TS meetings: written by Viscountess de Sande, of Rio de Janeiro; JTJune 1931 , 298.

■"Latin alphabet transcription of Russian Yelena or Jelena.

5 CLEATHER and CRUMP(1928), 5: BESANT(1909A), 85: 'the noble House of the Hahns';
77rf(l95l). 27; Leaflet International Headquarters Hall, TS. s.d. (1980's?): 'of noble family';
CRUMP (1923), 46: '.,. she who came of a noble Russian family, and could when she saw fit
behave like an Empress, as Mrs Cleather has often told me.' TMNI, 1919, 271: 'a Russian princess
or at least of high Russian nobility'.

'TTMay 1933, 299. CE, V, 418, spells Rotenstein.

//./

He was an army colonel, 1 Helena later claimed (incorrectly) that her mother,
granddaughter or Princess Dolgorukova and thus distantly related to the imperial
Romanov family, died when she was a baby. 5

She. was born on her family's large estate, close to the city of Yekaterinoslav,'
founded by Czarina Catherine the Great; today's Ukrainian name is Dnipropetrovs'k.

1831, the year of her birth, was thirty years before official (not yet, on all counts,
practical) abolition of serfdom. In the Ukraine, and south Russia proper, serfage had the
particular intense form called SipiuHKa, barstcheena. Their masters could legally,
depending on their dispositions, whip or sell peasants.

Serfs beaten to death were said to haunt cellars of a Blavatsky family estate. It is said
Helena caused (he death of a serf boy, threatening to set a malignant water spirit on him.'
If (he Story is true, superstitious awe may have gone hand in hand with awe of social
'belters', even if they still were children.

This was a society where Russian Orthodoxy was the stale church and the only legal
church; but where many pre-Christian beliefs in spirits still survived. 5 A stratified society
with a strong them versus us' sense. A society where the position of women was
inferior, even compared to Western Europe then. Where women could not legally get
higher education' of (he same level as men before 1917. Where they could not get any
education, or own any property, without permission of father or husband. Little Helena
learned to ride well on horse-back, though.

That Helena Petrovna belonged to hoth the privileged clas:> and the underprivileged
sex. in an autocratically ruled country, would influence (lie doctrines she was to develop
in rivalry to official religion. Not in the simple, mechanical way of making her a militani
feminist or at all limes an unambiguous monarchist, however

TILLETT(1982), 27. TUP Agency, Catalogs 1989. 4. MGADE, 123. says her father was a
captain: (hough HPB (ibid.) arid T!NGLEY(191S), 4, claimed he was a general
; MEADE. 28.

'So not in 'Siberia'; CAILLET, ROE, 8 calls her 'a White Russian'. Thai is used for. a). the
nationality from 'White Russia; Belarus'; east of Poland, north of die Ukraine; b) a supporter of the
armies fighting (he October revolution after 1917. A) is out of place; b) out of time for HPB

•'MEADE, 25f. TTFeb 1938, 442.

\n the USSR of 1990. 1 1 % were said to believe in contact with spirits of the dead (in the US in
that year, 42% claimed to have had that kind of comact personally: SEN FT, 34). Informtitiebitileiin,
USSR embassy in The Hague. 14-7-1990: 'Athcisten geloven in voortekens'.

An schools were an exception.

H.P. Blavaisky, 1831-189!

When Helena was 17 years old, 1 she married 39 year old 1 General Nikifor Blavatski. 3
the vice-governor 4 of Erivan in Arnienia. That made her name in Russian for the rest of
her life: Blavatskaja. As Madame Blavatsky. or as HPB, she became known, however.
She separated after a few months; there was no such thing as a legal divorce in Russia,

She hated her married name, because it reminded her of her husband as an individ-
ual;* and was proud of it, because of her status as a general's wife; or widow? Right
after becoming a citizen of the US republic in 1878, she did not use a title of nobility.
However, she did use a countess' coronet on her 1884 calling card. 7

Controversy, mystery, and speculations surround her life from 184? to 1874, She
wanted it that way. 8

Her separation had not made her a total outcast to her family, or to all of ihe ruling
set of Russia Her cousin, the czar's prime minister Count Wine, in his memoirs accused
her of all kinds of scandals (as did British Lady Asquith, who, unlike Wine, did not
know her). Others though, like ihe member of the Imperial Council, Alcksej Aksakov. in
the I870's, v and General Prince Emil von Sayn- Wittgenstein, C?.ar Alexander ll's relative
and aide de camp in ihe 1877-78 Russo-Turktsh war, ILI eveniually joined her Theosophical
Society. In Cairo in 1884. she was entertained at (he Russian consul's." While in India,
some English were suspicious of her: could she be a spy of the czar's government, their
rival in Afghanistan and elsewhere?

'MEADE. 55. She was mil 18. as \VhHUll97l). 44, WEBtit 1974B), 249; and, based on Webb.
OTrUKSI'CliM(l991). 41 say: or 16; TILI.E III 1982), 27

"Not 'four limes her age', as QTTERSPEI:R(I99I), 41 says Not 'elderly', as in
GUENON(l92l>. II and SKI.AR, II; 'jboui forty years older'. RUGE, 4: '41 year* older'.
IIUtTEN, 588; 'over sixty'. A. KOK. 6f>0: and (.'/;". vol, V, 4]y.

'Russian spelling The usual V Spellmi; was incorrect: TB Nov. 1931, 472.
SOF.RIOKOESOFMO(1923A). 17, antl Rujviail PROKOITEFF spcli 'Blavaisiij,' Russian genera!
and relative Fadcyeff spell 'Blavaci" and -HUvacti", SCW, 111. -t4f,-7. VAN REDKM. 103 and
VAN DFR MERWE, 77eic. 'lilawaisW . Bl.OCH, 194, 'l)!a\ ai/b ; YADAV. 80: 'Balavatsky'.

J Nra the Governor, as in Tt!NI, 4

s RAWSON, 209. She sometimes gave her first name as 'Hehona'. Helios was die ancient Greet
sun god. Helena was die name of (he first woman saiiu of the Russian Orthodox Church.

''She appeared not to know in 1887: she snapped: she knew nothing about old Blavatsky, be was
probably dead long ago and ihey had betier goto Russia if they wanted io know anything about him.'
WACI1TME1STER(I976), 63.

7 7TAug. 1931,624,645.

"'Between HPB from 1875 and HPB from 1831 to that date is a veil drawn, and you arc in no
way concerned with whal look place behind it. before I appeared as a public character.' SMITH,
1 46 quoted

'Beiween 1881 and 1888. he was for some nine a TS vice president. JINARAJADASA(iy25).
253.

lll 7T Aug. 1905, 704: Aimanach de Goihc. Perthes. 1883; 177

n TILLETT(1982). 39.

44 //. /

Madame Blavatsky later claimed
aboui her pre- 1874 days that she had
made intensive contacts, in Tibet and
elsewhere, with the Great White
Brotherhood, also known as the Adepts,
the Masters, or (after 1879) the
Mahatmas or the Trartshimalayan Lodge.
She said they were a group of,
originally, human beings, usually staying
in Tibet. By enlightenment they had
transformed themselves to transcending
their physical bodies, and acquiring
miraculous powers. They included
Masters like KH,' and M (Morya).

il is said Helena Peirovna got much of the inspiration for her statements on the
Brotherhood Irom the novels of British Tory politician Bu!wer-Lynon. ; He was the father
of Lord (.yuan. Viceroy of India, and grandfather to prominent ihwsophist Lady Emily
Luiycns.

Tito was inaccessible then. Its government hanned foreign visitors, the Himalayas
were unchmhed by Europeans as yet It had a reputation as the country of the legendary
snow leopard (known now (o exist, though in jeopardy of extinction), and of the legend-
ary Yeti (spoken of as -subhuman-; disputes on its existence still raging). To verify or
falstfy J Helena Petrovna's story on supcrhumans was not easy.

Some questioned (heir qualities, a Dutch anarchist paper asked in 1898:

H.P. Blavatsky, 183!- 1891

Somewhere in the Himalayas, the- .'.fosters '
abode hyw, according to HPB. Picture;
Mt. Everest, highest of ihese mountains

full name Kom Koomi Lai Singh (or Sing? His <or HPB's??) spelling was not certain from the
start, Before KH. "Gulab Singh* was used as signature under messages winch were said to come
from the Brotherhood' a name well-known as founder of the Kashmir ruling dynasty from the 1840's
on; an important military ally of the British during the 1857 Mutiny.

'ROE, 7, Edward George Earle Bui wer-Ly lion. 1803-1873. NEDERVEEN PIETERSE. 234
speaks of hun as main protagonisi of England's world leadership, liberal |?] 'Baron Henry (sic)
Lytion Bulwer.' The "Baron' came only after the House of Commons; his Viceroy son became an
Earl He also, l,ke his Conservative party leader Disraeli, was a prominent opponent of Darwinism
PARODIZ. 13,

Attempt to verify Canadian Tlieosopliisi, June 1927; attempt to falsify: MEADE 69f Emily
Sellon. 'Blavatsky, H.P.' in ELIADE(1987), vol. 2. 245-6 does no. investigate claims critically
With Blavatsky, d„ SP a (T,betan 'red-capped- monk: usual spelling drugpa) a a term of abuse; unlike
many Tibetan ideas on relationships between different monks. In a letter from HPB to an Indian in
1878, before departing for India (published TT Aug. 1931 , 626-9), she did not claim she had been
there before, explicitly denying having been initialed there: 'I, a woman and a European" " but did
claim occult training thousands of kilometres west: in the Middle Easl, and having met Travancore
Brahmins.

Couldii'i these 'masters' be just Jesuit fathers, oriental style.' 1

Other outsider sceptics denied their very existence, and the authenticity of the letters
allegedly written by them, and delivered to A. P. Sinnett. : H.S. Olcott, H.P. Blavatsky,
and others.

Theosophists wrote many books and articles on who wrote Mahatma Letters. They
consider the Great White Brotherhood to be the TS First Section, its real Initiators.
Already in 1851, Madame Blavatsky is said to have got their message to found the TS
twenty-four years later. Ascribing letters to Them in vain, or denying Their writings seen
as authentic, is desecration in theosophisi eyes. J What theosophists say on individual
Mahatma messages depends on where they stand in conflicts within the movement, like
the one with William Q. Judge,

During nearly 60 years in theosophical thought and organizations, I came across about ten
Mahalama Moryas, who not only flatly contradicted each other, but some of ihcm called the
others everything under the Sun. 4

B.DO AS THE SPIRIT SAY DO, 1875-1879

It is certain Helena Petrovna spent time in the Middle Last, especially Egypt, to study
snake-charming ;ind magic; and that she was involved in spiritualism/

The United Slates I 'ox. family sorted spiritualism in 1848. Circus director
P, T. Barnuni put the Pox daughters on show. Hy the time they were old ladies, they
confessed il had all been a hoax.' 1 Bui by then, too many believed in their early sayings,
to believe their later sayings. P,T. Darmun: 'There's a sucker born every minute'.

After most 1848-1849 revolutionary movements had been repressed, during the
I850's spiritualism rose in Lurope,' K;tr) Marx saw them as the times when China and
the lahSes started dancing, as ihe rest of the world seemed to stand still.'*

RA8f)lK(1898A). I, The London Standard in 1X83' the TS is a society founded on die alleged
Icals of certain Indian jugglers'; MEADE. 278 CUMBEY, 48' I the Masters) 'these demonic
messengers'.

"JONES(1989), 170; 'Sinncit became a major link between Blavatsky and the Mahatmas' In
tact, il was the oilier way around: Sinneit goi his Mahatma messages by way of Madame Blavatsky.

CLEATHER(I922A), viii.

4 J.H Dubbink. 77/ Jan. 1986, 120.

Here used in the specific sense of belief in communication with die dead. Noi in (lie more
general sense of a philosophy which claims primacy of (he spiritual over the material; more or less a
synonym of idealist philosophy, opposite of materialist philosophy.

( 'WEBB(I971), 3, Margaret Fox said they had used a ball on a bit of siring lo make 'spirit
rapping' sounds; CONSTANDSE, 13.

7 RANSOM(1938), 7ff.

'Das Kapitai, volume I in; Mam Ei^els Werke (MEW), vol, 23 (Berlin: Dietz, 1962), 85
China' refers to the T'ai Ping rebellion, from 1850 to 1864,

In France, Hippolite L,D. Rivail, who called himself Allan Kardec, became
influential with his La Revue Spirited Though his doctrines included reincarnation,
Madame Blavatsky did not like to acknowledge him as an influence, as his Roman
Catholicism repelled her. J

Spiritualism attracted, (o use an anachronism, 'trendy' people; it had become harder
to turn to politics, for the moment firmly, in some cases brutally, taken in hand by
traditional princely, aristocratic, or military elites. One needed some 'rebelliousness' to
become a spiritualist; a rebelliousness that usually did not cross the border between the
other side of death, and this side of social revolution. 1

Spiritualism fought materialist philosophy. It believed matter was just a by-product of
the spirit. Hence, a 'medium' (sort of nineteenth century equivalent of a pagan antiquity
oracle priest, or priestess), living contact between the 'spirit world', 'the other side', and
seances (spiritualist gatherings) could bring about 'materialisations', letting cups, shawls.
letters,' 1 or other items appear seemingly out of nowhere, out of the realm of the spirit

Spiritualism soon found itself in conflict with many Christians, as well as with
materialists; though quite a few Christian clergymen applauded it as proving the
immortality of ihe soul. Theosophisls would later have disputes on (his with Theravada
Buddhists holding the anaua -literally, 'nonexistence of the soul'- doctrine.

Spiritualism was an international, hut not internationally organized, movement. It
was not even nationally organized in mosi countries when; it had support, in spite of

'a rival group. leJ by Professor L Picuri, published La Revac Sptriiualute; RANS0M(I938),
14. WILS0N(I975), 111, misspelling Rivaill

! S!ie distanced herself from Kardec, #0'', vol, V (1883). LA , Philosophical Research
Society. 1950, 48 and 115.

'Close friends and relatives of Ri itisli Queen Victoria, (hough probably not she herself, engaged
in spiritualist stances; and believed in reincarnation; LONGFORD) 1966). 423, According to occult
research by Annie Ifcsant. Victoria wa-, a reincarnation of Alfred the Great, king of Wcsscx 87 I
901, who fought against the Danes. Reintnriinlmn, translated TMNl, 1919. All. Austrian [Impress
Elisabeth ('Sissi') and Rumanian Queen Elisabeth ('Carmen Silva') had spiritualist seances logcther.
COPPENS. Philosopher Buchner thoughi spiritualists had support especially among 'the cultured
classes'; quoted D,L N, Vink. 'Dc Terugtoclu van het Materiatisme'. TMNl 1916, 209-22: 210
HPB, BCW, HI, 97 wrote of 'spiritualists and mediums of the St. Petersburg grand moudc ... We
seriously doubt whether (here ever will he more than there are now believers in Spiritualism among
the middle and lower classes of Russia. These arc too sincerely devout, and believe too fervently in
the devil lo have any faith in "spirits."' Count \Wiuc agreed with his cousin UPB at least on the social
background of spiritualists m the czar's empire 'Every niglu, 1 remember, Tblisi society gathered at
our home around Yclena Petrowna, ... There came for example Counl V.-D. and the two couius O-
D. and other jeunesse dorce representatives . . .'; quoted TMNI, 1921 , 44, Later, in Britain in 1957,
the situation was different from HPB's, and many social theorists', view, but consistent with a view
which questions the widespread perception of the role of religion as particularly lower class:
STARK, 705, who did not mention Spiritualism, fc-nd that of the upper class, 50% believed in (he
devil, vs. 32% of the working class. See p. 135,

* M ate rial izal ions by HPB; Adyar TS headquarters museum preserves some. HPB did not want
lo be called 'medium': as that would imply she wasn't in control.

H.P. Blavatsky. I831-JS9I

some attempts. More or less loose groups, sometimes in more or less loose contact with
other groups, formed around certain mcca 1 (newspapers) and mediums (people).

When HP, Blavatsky and others from a spiritualist background formed the
Theosophical Society in New York in I875, 2 it appealed to believers in her
'materializations' and other supernatural 'phenomena'; in recently influential Eastern
wisdom (for the TS, not much farther east than Egypt at first); to non-material ist critics
of orthodox (Russian or otherwise) Christianity- 'Churchianity', many in the TS called it;
and especially to those who wanted to combine all these into a solid organization.

The Theosophical Society seems lo be atlracting within iis pale in India some of those who have

been forced (o give up ancient superstitions but who aren't strong enough to rest upon reason

alone.

Annie Besanl said this in 1882, the first time she wrote on (he TS; J ii might have been
about countries on both sides of the north Atlantic ocean as well as on India Why might
'those' not be 'strong enough"?

Since at least the days of Copernicus, cracks had begun to show in the various
Christian churches' monopoly as supreme authorities on scientific questions, in
traditionally Christian countries,''

In the very 19th century, when these countries subjected one heathen land after
another, because we have got/the Maxim gun. And they have not.* (Hilairc Uelloc),
cracks showed in the Christian monopoly as religion of the overwhelming majority, as
theology in the narrow sense, as main source of inspiration for ideologies thm either
propped up. or attacked, the social slants quo.

The theosophical movement was one oflhc first to jump into ihese cracks. It was one
focus attracting those who wanted a break with many doctrines of the established or slaie
churches of that time (like Anglicanism or Russian Orthodoxy); yet wanted no complete
break with all Christianity, or -one step farther away from orthodoxy- no break with all
religion; not with all concepts of the Supernatural* Those wanted still to keep alive in

Alfred A, llaightun was one of Ihe few to deliberately use 'media' as plural for 'medium'
(person). See his preface to HEUZE, 5. French Paul Heuze was a sympathizer of Rene Guenon:

ibid., 10

■Til July 1986. 177, 182, Not 1876 as in HARRISUSANTO; or 1881. ABU HANIFAH, 16.
The IS was also not 'founded ai Adyar near Madras in 1886'. as Subhas Chandra BOSE, 23. wrote

* National Reformer, 18-6-1882. Rcprmied by Indian freethinkers of the time; quoted
NEPF(I933), I85f. 'As a form of mysticism beyond the realm of creed, (heosophy attests to the
crisis of die traditional religions it tries to replace.' GREAT SOVIET ENCYCLOPEDIA vol 25
589.

"Linguist Max Muller {India, what can it leacli us?; 28) recalled the impact when, as an 1840s
schoolboy, he learned ahout Sanskrit: All our ideas on Adam and Eve and paradise, on (he lower of
Babel ... seemed lo turn around our head in a wild dance, our old world had fallen apart, someone
had to come lo gather die splinters, to try to build a new one out of them, to live with a new his-
toric a 1 consciousness.'

"Theosophisls reject the word; not (he existence of much usually included in it.

II I

man his belief that he has a soul, and the Universe a God.' 1

Breaks with religious mainstreams do not necessarily go hand in hand with social
rebellion, Catherine Wessinger names the TS as example of

Groups whose members may accept and conform to the social order, but reject (he religious

terms of the mainstream society.

From three different sides: theosophists, non-TS opponents of the labour movement,
and staunchly non-TS Marxists, eventually came parallel views on changes in social
position during the nineteenth century of on the one hand, ideas like atheism, and
scientific theories supposedly associated to them; on the other hand, theosophy.

Marxists like Van Ravesteyn, Comelie Huygens and Pannckoek had a theory that
after about 1848 the bourgeoisie, ceasing to be revolutionary, had no more use for
materialism, and switched to various idealist philosophies. This Van Ravesteyn saw as (lie
cause of the rise of spiritualism and theosophy. 5

Ex-Darwinisl Prof. Virchow wrote on Darwinism, when he had become an opponent
of it: '1 hope it did not escape your attention that Socialism has contacted it!' In a debate
at a German medical congress, he said against Haeckel. that if he kept propagating
Darwinism, revolutions like (lie Paris Commune in 1871 would result. * People
increasingly associated 'maierialism' with Marxist or anarchist labour movements

During a later wave of workers' rebellion, in 1918, Dutch East Indies (heosiiplnst
leader A. van Lecuwen made a speech in Cimahi against socialism lie said.

Il is not by chance that Ihe very |19th] century which brought us agnosticism, unbelief, and

materialism, also became the century of social democracy. The brotherhood of men was seen in

tilt: fact thai we are all children of the Earth, all formed from (lie s.imc mailer Itul (here is a

higher Brotherhood, we loo are children of one and the same 1 alher ,.,"

Helena Petrovna, (hough popular lor her phenomena, did not become president of ihe

Theosophicai Society, Pari of the reason may have been an organ i 7a [ion, not jusi

admitting women, but led by a woman, might have looked less credible to respectable

New York in the 1875 ideological climate on the 'proper' role of women. She became

Corresponding Secretary, a relatively minor office, though one for life, like the

presidency, 6 But:

'Rules of the TS, as quoted by HPB; BCW, If, 51

; 'lnu-o(Juc(ion'. 5 of WESSINGER(1993).

3 VAN RAVESTEYN<1917) PANNEK0EK<I917). Whatever the merits of this view on the
social origins of dieosophy. the TS would also attract European nobles, with no recent revolutionary
past. Also noil- Europeans like Brahmans; mostly privileged, hut not identical to bankers or factory
owners.

V. Virchow, Die Freiheit der Wisienschafl i/n modernen Staal. Berlin 1877, 12. D. de Lange.
*De tegenwoordige Stand van het Evoluiievraagsluk', DAT 1917, 497.

5 TMNI. 1919,90.

6 VAN MANEN(1916), 433. She called herself 'Secretaire General' in the 1880's. TV Aug.
1931, 624. In 1882, she was treasurer as well. J1NARAJADASA (1925). 24. Contrary to what

H.P. Blavaisky, IS3I-I89I

1 am the mother and creator of the Society; it has my magnetic fluid ... Therefore 1 alone and

to a degree Olcott can serve as a lightning conductor of Karma for it.'

TS President 1 {President-Founder; for life, until 1907) became Colonel (US Army,
retired) U.S. Olcott. To a journalist, he explained the Society's religious aims, and its
political aims as well:

In the State, we wish to spread high notions of honour, patriotism, responsibility and that

international exchange of courtesy ...
The TS supported pro-Mazzini activity of New York Italian republican immigrants in
1878, which led to a conflict wilh the consul for the kingdom of Italy. 5

Lawyer William Quart Judge was a prominent member in those early New York
days* The only woman, apart from Madame Blavaisky, of the first sixteen was Mrs
Emma Hardinge Britten. Colonel Olcott in 1875 referred to her: 'who both as a lady and
a Spiritualist is highly respected in two hemispheres'. 1

Mrs Hardinge Britten published a book, Art Magic, containing many ideas later to
become well-known in theosophy. This apparently was not to the liking of Madame
Blavaisky, 8 who, sooner than planned, published her own first book. It was Ish
Unveiled.' 1 Mrs Britten left the TS, quarrelling with its leadership both before and after
leaving. Olcott wrote 'the sarcasms and piffings' of Mrs Britten against the Society were
much resented." She was Ihe first major case; noi the last."

I : 0r some time, Ihe New York TS was almost dead. 1 878 saw signs of revival: after

MIERS. 301, says, HPB never was TS president; neither was Olcoti ever 'squeezed out' as
president by Annie Bcsant. EAUCHER(I984), 38, HOUKHS( 1995), 31 and M E. JAMES. 213.
have AB succeeding 'in 1891 to Helena Blavaisky to the presidency" of the TS; she actually
became PTS sixleen years later.

l Sce p. 12 n. 1. 'Magnetic fluid': a 18th century idea (Mesmer); rejected by physicists

; No( 'secretary'; as in OBEYESEKERA(1992A). Not 'president upon Blavalsky's death' as in
Shirley J. Nicholson, 'Theosophicai Society' in £L1ADE(I987). vol. 14. 464

5 See p. 62 note 8

* Hartford Daily New . 2-12-1878. as reprinted 7T Dec 1933,419.

S HPB. letter 10 Italian papet Fanfula, reprinted TT May 1932, 234f Italian nationalist
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) on the one hand opposed Roman Catholic clerical and monarchist
politics, on the other hand Marxism A TS lodge in Genoa was later called Giuseppe Mazzini
Lodge; General Report of the Thirtieth Anniversary and Convention of the Theosophicai Society,
1905. 145.

'Not 'W.A. Judge', as in Ascltehougs Konversasjons Leksikon, Oslo, Del Mallingske
Boktrykkeri, 1974, vol. 18, 783.

7 OLCOTT(l907), 27. Also one of the first 16 was her husband, Dr. Britten.

s M.N.O,, 'A schismatic brotherhood'. 77ie Statesman (Calcutta), 16-1-1924,

'in 1877; not 1871, as in UGLOW, 63. Then, HPB had not published anything yel. Also not
'1887', as in CLARK, 23,

l(l M.N. 0.(1924).

"RANSOM(1938), 78: of the first sixteen 'only H.P.B. and Col. Olcott remained to the end'.
She does not count Judge-he seceded in 1895: or DE. de Lara (ibid., 112) who 'seems to have
remained a member till he died'.

II. I

some preliminary groundwork, a British Theosophical Society started. Contacts in Greece
and Turkey had been established. The TS, though, remained small, until its leaders
Olcott and Blavatsky arrived in India in 1879.' They had left General Abner Doubleday.
veteran of the Seminole, 1854-55 Apache Indian, and Civil wars, 1 as caretaker for the
executive in New York,

C.WILL INDIA DESERVE IT? 1879-1884

The foreword to the address that Olcott gave 'At the Franiji Cowasji Hall, Bombay, on
March 23rd, 1879 ... before a large and enthusiastic audience' said:

... the Society should command the sympathy and secure die enrolment of the educated and
advanced -free- thinking- minds in all countries, and especially in India where the founders of the
Society have come to settle. More Hindoociied than most of the Hindoos born on the soil-
enraptured with ihe ancient learning and philosophy of India -devoied to India- for India they
have left dieir homes and sacrificed all worldly considerations. Let us hope India may appreciate
this self sacrifice, and deserve it.

Also from Bombay,* 1 in October 1879, came the first issue of their international
magazine The Theosophist. It declared:

Unconcerned about politics; hostile to the insane dreams of Socialism and of Communism,
which it abhors- as both are bjl disguised conspiracies of brutal force and sluggishness against
honest labour ,., 5

In the nineteenth century West, the interest in south and east Asian philosophies
gradually rose.' An interest, not matched by widespread knowledge, relatively little of
the ancient sources in languages such as Sanskrit (for Hinduism), Pali (Theravada
Buddhism), let alone Tibetan, had been translated into liuropean languages then.

Most Asian countries that were not yet colonics, became so by the last quarter of the
nineteenth century. If they were colonized, pressure on the life of the inhabitants
(political, economic, in the field of ideas) increased.

1 Not in 1878, as in SCHWA RTZBERG, 69. French Catholic priesi and occultist Constant
('Eliphas Levi'), and Anna Kingsford in her 1882 book 77if Perfect Way, and bier Rudolf Ste met ,
saw 1879 as an occult watershed year, a case where history, at least of the TS. and occultism may
happen to agree See GUENON(192l). 295. IMEt.M AN/VAN HOEK. 7

*VAN MATER()987), 93, BCW. vol. 1, 459.

'Reprinted in: VAN MANEN(19I6), 429.

■■The NCE forgets Bombay, saying it was published in Madras from 1879. CUMBEY, 48 has
the TS move from New York in 1875; M. LUTYENS(1975), 10, in 1882 (both wrong). Aschekougs
Koiiversasjoiu Lekstkon. Oslo, Det Malhngske Boktrykkeri, 1974. vol. 18, 783, wrongly has the
headquarters in Benares before they went to Bombay; A. KOK, 361. headquarters in Benares m
1882, in Bombay later.

5 HPB, 7T #1 (1879), 7: 'What are the Theosophists'; BCW. II, 105f; quote in
CLEATHER(I922A), 61 is not 100% literal.

'MUTHANNA, 70f,, on Annie Besanl and subjects like Karma and Yoga: 'She was the first
Western philosopher who talked about these subjects in die far off lands', overrates her undeniable
originality a bit.

HP. Blavatsky, 1831-189!

In the field of ideas, in India and Ceylon, missionaries and sometimes other
Christians had material and immaterial privileges under colonial government. In India
and Ceylon {as in Ireland), taxes that benefited only the Anglican Church were levied on
people of all faiths. 1 Missionaries [ended to look at the enormously complex and diverse
philosophical and religious situation of the South Asian subcontinent as 'abominable
native heathenism'.

We should not forget that, contrary to the image of the 'ever unchanging Orient',
there were already divergences and dynamics before the start of colonial rule; as we
discuss three of the possible South Asian reactions to missionary (more generally,
colonial) pressure.

1. Conversion to Christianity. Only a small minority in India did (his, as did a
somewhat bigger, but still less than I0% ; minority in Ceylon, smaller, thus easier to
influence, than India. Ceylon had been subject to missionary influences since the 16th
century incursions of Roman Catholic Portuguese.

2. Withdrawing into isolation with one's own religion, seen as dogmas not to be
changed, fondly remembering the idealized 'good old days', hoping someday the Gods
might bring them back. There certainly was isolationism among nineteenth century
Hindus: in many Hindu circles it was illegal to travel outside India A Brahmana who had
broken that law would he made an outcast, and would have to undergo purification rues
to be readmitted.

3. Trying to find a non-colonial answer 10 (he changes in one's society Trying to
modernize, without necessarily to 'Westernize' or Christ iani/.e. certainly not to
colonialize. In the political field, this led to nationalist movements (both secular and more
or less influenced by one religion or another, including in some ca^cs, paradoxically,
Christianity).

In the religious field, this meant developing arguments against the missionaries, both
from ic-intcrpretmg national traditions, and from non-('orthodox') Christian Western
sources. Already in pre-colonial limes, critical currents in both Hinduism and Buddhism
had attacked for instance tenets of caste, and denial to widows of (he right to remarry.'

From 1875," just before 1879, on, the Arya Samaj, founded by Swami Dayananda
Sarasvati, spread fairly rapidly, mainly in northern India. The swamt attacked image
worship, polytheism, and caste practices in Hinduism. He recognized only the Vcdas as
holy scripture, not (he numerous other writings many Hindus considered sacred (like the
Puranas). News of his activities reached Olcott in New York.

In Ceylon, a Buddhist ideological counter-attack had already begun somewhat earlier.
Christian missionaries had challenged Buddhisi monks to a debate. In 1864 in
Baddegama, the first of a series of discussions took place. The most famous of these

'/T, July 1905. 586, SUMATH1PALA. 15. In Ceylon in 1885, there were only 24.756
Anglicans; E. BALFOUR(1885). vol. I. 634; so less than 1 % of the people.

^ROGERS, 323:9%. SCHWARTZBERG, 96, estimates 9.8SE in 1901

'HE1MSATH, 9.

4 Not 1870; as in GUENON(1921), 27.

//./

debates, held mainly near the island's west coast, was in Panadura in 1873. It attracted

over 10.000 people; according to most present, the Christians lost. An account of this

debate, which Englishman Peebles published, got quite some attention including the
TS , i

So two religions, with hundreds of millions of adherents, not Christian, like the TS
founders, showed present-day vitality besides age-old reputation. But they were up
against a colonial government unsympathetic to them.

Would not these religions be thankful to a super-religion in the making, such as
(heosophy, if it helped them; for instance with newspaper publicity, or with a non-
Christian education network? Organizing Spiritualists might prove as difficult as trans-
porting a mass of frogs in a wheelbarrow. 2 Pope Pius IX, Czar Alexander 11. head of ihc
Russian Orthodox Church, or the Episcopal (Anglican) bishop of New York City, would
surely not accept the TS as superchurch to [heir organizations. Maybe someone,
somewhere else, would?

HPB and HSO contacted both Swami Dayananda and Ceylon Buddhist priests about
possible co-operation, and got positive replies; as this was the first time the recipients of
the letters discovered European or American sympathizers with what missionaries from
these continents denounced as paganism.

Colonel Olcott and Colonel Matin's daughter thought of moving to Ceylon, but
correspondence with Bombay convinced them India had better prospects ' They embarked
to Bombay, arguably selling a precedeni for many poor hippies and rich yuppies in search
of instant spiritual glory. 4

MURPHET. 132. SUMATH1PALA, 23-4. Christians sometimes reacted sharply 10 ilw
Buddmsi revival; E. BALrOUR(l885), vol. 1. 495: 'the defiant and blasphemous expressions whicli
they ICeylon Buddhist publications! comam against (lie sacred name of Jehovah, are probably ilie
most awful ever framed in human language'. Yet, decades earlier, 'ihe initial response of ilk-
Buddhist monks to Christian mtsstoiiization was not unfriendly. Buddhist monks even gave Christian
monks permission to preach in their temples, and were surprised when this gesture was not
reciprocated'; 0BCYESEKGRA(I992A).

? WILSON(1975>, 71 sees spiritualism as a 'lhaumaiufgicaJ' type of movement, and theosophy as
a "manipulationisf one. witb more scientific pretensions and more modern' organization ih,m
loosely structured spiritualism. But (ibid ) he writes: 'in mampulauonisl and conveniens
movements ihaumalurgical elements arc sometimes present ... In some ways ihe manipulations
sccis in advanced socielies are Ihe developed equivalent of the (haumaturgical religion of simpler
societies; in conformity with iheir cultural context they have made appropriate adjustments, and offer
their knowledge as objective, de-mythologized, and univerealislic in its implications, and acceptable
in terms of scientific principles'. Nineteenth century spiritualists already somenmes made scientific
claims, a 1870s spiritualist paper in Boston in the US. to which HPB contributed, was called ihe
Spiritual Scientist

H. S. Olcott. 'In memory of Mr. Ranade', 7T, Sept. 1905, suppl.. I.

'C. MEHTA<1979). Rajavi PALME DUTT(1940), 499f, commented io between Blavatsky's
days and the 1960s: "the sapient Western traveller, who goes to visit the immemorial East ...
whether to drink at the muddy fountain of Oriental spiritual higher thought |tike theo sophists], or to
expose with patronizing scorn the innate backwardness of 'Modier India' [like Katherine Mayo], is

HP. Blavatsky, 1831-1891

Why was there soon a conflict with the Arya Samaj? Apart from clashes between
Arya Samaj and TS religious views, 1 politics differed. In the religious Samaj, there was a
political anti-colonial undertone (though not an overtone just twenty-odd years after the
defeat of the uprising known as the 1857 1 Indian Mutiny). Dayananda's supporters prayed
every day:

May no foreigner come to our country to rule over us, and may we never lose our political

independence and become enslavened [sic] to foreigners,'

This was not easy to blend with TS visions of a World Empire of all "Aryans'
(including both British and Indians; see p, 247f,).

Olcott' speaks of a misunderstanding. But Swami Dayananda's biographer sees
double-crossing by the TS leadership. After first recognizing Swami Dayananda as
personal, and TS, spiritual leader,* they went to Ceylon to profess Buddhism.

Even before Olcott and Blavatsky landed in Calle on 17 May 1880, Ceylon's
Buddhist monks had been preparing a warm welcome. Cheering crowds of Uiousands
greeted them. H.P. Blavatsky presented the VIPs among these with handkerchiefs, which
she magically embroidered with their names, including a spelling mistake. They publicly

visiting only a museum or medieval lumber, and is blind to the living forces of the Indian people
Helena Pctrovna's hashish smoking may have set a precedent too: 'Hasheesh multiplies one's life a
thousand fold. My experiences are as teal as if diey were ordinary events of actual life . It is a
recollection of my former existences, my previous incarnations. It is a wonderful drug, and it clears
up a profound mystery.' HPB quoted: RAWSON. 211, HPB opposed hashish in writing loo. most
dedicated followers (but not P JOHNSON(I990). 22) deny that she ever used it
Tetrahydrocannabinol (active chemical in hashish) was supposed to be the material basis for some
20th century spiritual ideas too.

'J0NES(1989). 169-70. mentions two areas of eonflici. The first one, on the Aryan concepi of
God', is correct; Dayananda had a monoiheist concepi of a personal God. Jones' second area of
conflict, [Blavalsky's and Olcott's) 'sharp criticism of contemporary Hinduism' is more doubtful
Dayananda himself did not like the term Hindu, reminding him of traditionalists whom he fought,
and preferred 'Arya' Theosophists had a better relationship than the Arya Samaj with the orthodox
of the Sanaiana Dharma school, like G. N. Chakravarti. As is evident from JONES(l989), 174.
1 79. The relationship of (he TS to Ihe Prarthana Samaj. linked to the Brahmo Samaj, had never been
close For years, we lived near the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay, hut its plalfomi was ever closed
for. and refused io us, even when asked Tor'. Editorial note by HPB, 7T Aug. 1883, 274.

: Nol 1847, asTAYLOR(l992), 233 'Thirty-two years' implies.

J Swami Dayananda. Arxabhivtma 303-4. quoied YADAV. 5. See also the swami's Sotyaratha
Prakash, quoted ibid. TS relations to political emancipation paper Tiie Sialeinion were also not good
in 1881; HPB complained her labour was 'rewarded by the majority of the natives (on whose behalf
it was started) by the most foul abuse, suspicion, and ceaseless attacks upon the Theosophists': BCW,
ill, 387f.

*QDL, vol. I, 394ff.

5 JORDENS. 212-3: 'no doubt ... ihe Theosophists acted wuh duplicity,'

6 Mary K. Neff 'The hidden side of 'The Theosophist "; 7TNov, 1929, 195 blames the conflict

on the swami's 'jealousy', and wanting the leadership for himself. But that was offered to him by die

TS.

//./

HP. BlawlsLy, 1831-189)

recited the Buddha's Five Precepts (Pansil), and were thus formally admitted to
Buddhism.

Dutch sailors, stranded on Ceylon, had become BuddhisLs centuries before them. The
TS leaders, though, were the first to come especially to the island from another continent
to embrace the faith. As they
belonged to the 'respectable
classes', Buddhists saw them
as valuable allies in negoti-
ations on their position under
British rule.

After the Arya Samaj
broke with Olcott and
Blavatsky in 1882, they moved
TS headquarters south, closer
to Madras lawyer and
orthodox Brahmaua T. Subba
Row. 1 He helped H.P.
Blavatsky in the first stages of
writing her new book, Vie
Secret Doctrine. They could
buy an estate at a low price in
Adyar, 3 near Madras city.
They had a shrine built, where
Mahauna letters appeared
miraculously. Hindus gave
quite some support. So did
some Parsis, a numerically
weak but in some cases finan-
cially strong community,
descended from Zoroastrian
immigrants from Persia. 1

Some influential British
living in India also joined the TS (see p.
newspaper the Pioneer.

Attractiveness in Asia in turn attracted new members in Europe and North America.
Then, many Asian writings were translated. While many Orientalists were hostile to

A.F. Sinnetiin 1917; from TMNI, 1921. S-tJ

104), like A. P. Sinnett, editor of Allahabad

'The headquaners were not moved as late as 1907, as FREDERIC(l°84), vol. IX, 122 suggests;
or as early as the start of die TS; VAN DER MERWE, 136. Not already in 1879, as in Bonnier*
lexicon, Stockholm, Bonnier, 1966. vol. 14, 312. and in VARENNE, 225.

'Not 'Aydar', as in LlGOU, article on AB.

3 MEADE, 288. calls me Parsi Padshah a 'Hindu'. CEL 362: '.., as Theosophy became more
Hinduized ... Parsis began their own 'Zoroastrianiied Theosophy'.' The distance did not became as
big as with India's Muslims (hough.

theosophy, their work showed the long history -pre-dating Christianity- and literary
qualities, in religions which many had so far dismissed as 'crude barbarian paganism*. 1
Increasing sympathy for those faiths was not bad news for an organization claiming to
represent the link between them and the long hidden, authentic, original, tradition of the
West, as opposed to merely 'exoteric' Christianity.

Some Orientalists 1 eventually became FTS. The TS Adyar library collected and
published manuscripts in South Asian (and other) languages; though some charged the TS
with editing these to fit theosophist interpretation of Eastern religions. 1

The move to Adyar would make south India the region arguably most receptive io
theosophy in the world for many decades to come. This is not without its irony and
complications, when one looks at TS racial doctrines on south Indians. Theories of
separate northern origins for southern Brahmans might solve those complications.

The move south also meant Ceylon became easier to reach from headquarters. Olcott
especially was very interested in the island. His popularity even survived a clash with an
earlier ally, Buddhist High Priest Mogittuwatte. who accused him of using Buddhism for
ulterior theosophic purposes. Another important High Priest, Sumangala, took Olcolt's
side.

When Blavatsky and Olcott visited Ceylon in 1884, they had a companion:
C.W. Leadbeater, ex-Church of England priest, who had turned theosophist and Buddhist
via spiritualism. He joined the TS on 20 November 1883. Prom 1886 to 1889, Leadbeater
was in charge of the network of Buddhist schools the TS set up to break the Christian
monopoly. Olcott wrote to HPB:

Leadbeater is making a good impression on ihe people ,, and he will noi dream of trying m
break off the Buddhists from the TS and set up a lutlc kingdom of his own/ 1
Olcott was not so sure about others.

In presenting South Asia with an alternative to Christian education, theosophists were
fairly successful, in Ceylon more so than in India, in 1904 Ceylon, Ananda College of the
Buddhist Theosophical Society differed from government and Christian education in that

'W T. Stead in IH94 on H P. Blavatsky. quoted TMNI 1920. 432: 'Still more conspicuous has
been the success which this remarkable woman has had with her striving to get into the somewhat
hard heads of the Wesi European races, and especially into those of (he English, the conviction {a
conviction, which until then existed only within ihe heads of (he Orientalists led by Professor Max
Muller), that (he East as far as Religion and Philosophy were concerned in no way was inferior to
the West'. A missionary paper in Indonesia in 1918 called 'Muhammadanism' (Islam, the majority
religion there] 'a plague for the Dutch East Indies' and attacked Chinese religion; quoted TMNI,
1919,3.

'RICHARDUS. 11: J.W. Boissevain.

J YADAV, 2, his Introduction of the Autobiography of Swami Dayananda Saraswau, 'found
thai the English translation of the (1879-1880) Vieosophist was awfully mechanical and at places
quite confusing.'

"TILLETT( 1 982), 51. RICHARDUS, 18: CWL 'thought ... of becoming a Buddhist' in 1906;
he then already was for 22 years, and even after becoming an LCC bishop never gave that up.

//.;

Our College, alone, has for Principal and teachers men of native binh-Sinhalese
Buddhists'. 1 Still, for other schools and at other times, theosophisis attracted from
Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand (the last two relatively strong within
the TS) men and women teachers, who may have thought of opportunities to be close to
the Masters, and to help co-religionists or fellow Aryans, Teachers were about the lowest
category of TS members on non-Asian social ladders. Princes, duchesses, and daughters
of Viceroys of India were at the top end. The TS used school buildings as venues for
lodge meetings and lecturers, both local and from abroad.

D.FAQIR* OR FAKER? FROM COLOMBO TO COULOMB. 1884-1888

Though both TS leaders and many members came to it by way of spiritualism,
theosophist organizational and doctrinal discipline did not really appeal to all interested in
'phenomena'. Some joined the TS enthusiastically, some moved to its periphery, some
became hostile to it. The labyrinth or loose, autonomous spiritualist circles did not prove
easy to encircle by the snake in the TS seal.

'Spiritualist' as used in theosophist writings eventually got a pejorative undertone. 3
Historian Annie Romein-Verschoor wrote of theosophist attacks on spiritualism as
confirming 'the rule thai 'faiths' fight one another more the closer to one another they
arc "* In TJie Key so Tlxeosophy. published in 1889. H.P. Slavaisky devoted a chapter to

The Difference between Theosophy and Spiritualism' . I musi siaie here lhal u is Theosophy

which is die [ms; and unalloyed Spiritual ism, while the modern scheme of thai name is, as now

practiced by the masses, simply i ran seen denial materialism. 5

(r> 1882, in England, the division was not so clear yet. Both FTS and non-FTS. future
Conservative Prime Minister Arthur Balfour and many university men among them,
formed the Society for Psychical' Research, 10 investigate mediums and phenomena.
Many SPR members hoped lo he able to separate 'real' from fake' psychism hy
establishing certain controls. Professor Myers, FTS, and a prominent SPR member,
suggested Blavatsky's phenomena as a good field for research.

The TS leaders initially agreed. Richard Hodgson, who did the main work for the

'TS Genera) Report on 1904. 46

! Faqir = a saim in Sufi tradition within Islam; 77" March 1934, 567.

f TMNI. 1916, 472, said the difference was; 'Spiritualism drags down (he spirits of the dead.
iheosophy lifts up (he souls of the living'. Sometimes theosophists saw spiritualism a bii more
positively, as doing the preparatory work Tor (he real, (hcosophical, work: 'The sappers and
miners of the Thcosophical Society -Spiritual ism and Materialism'; CLAUDE WRIGHT(I890),
343 And A. P. Sinncu, looking back at the rise of spiritualism, saw ii as giving 'reality to ideals
and principles essenlial lo the maintenance of religious faith': 77", June 1921 . 301,

'ROMEIN-VERSCHOOR. 81. TMNI 1923, 321-4, reacted to an attack on the TS by Duicli
spiritualist Jonklieer Mr. [a law degree] R.O. van Holthe tot Echten in He! Toekomstig Leven
magazine.

! BLAVATSKY<1987). 33.

6 BOLLAND(19l I), 77 translated ii, unusually, into Dutch as 'zielig ondenzoek'

H.P. Blavatsky. 1831-1891

investigation committee, in Adyar and elsewhere in India, as he began was quite

sympathetic to the TS.

However, 1884-85 became probably the most controversial of H.P. Blavatsky's
controversial sixty years. A treacherous conspiracy against a noble woman, theosophisis
say. Helena's exposure as a fraud, their opponents state. After more than a century, the
two views (and various 'sub-views' within each) have still not reached common ground.

In 1884. an old acquaintance of Madame Blavatsky's Egyptian days and TS Assistant
Corresponding Secretary, 1 Mrs Emma Coulomb* ran away from the Adyar estate. She
claimed HPB had faked the Masters' letters, their miraculous appearance in the shrine
was due to trap doors made by her husband, and dolls and various people, including a
police inspector, 1 had posed as 'Mahatma apparitions',

Hodgson's opinion was that several theosophisis at Headquarters had tried to deceive
him. That there was deception, by Subba Row. Dr. Franz Martmann, and others: this
iheosophisi defenders of Madame Blavatsky 4 admit. That there was some deception by
HPB: this TS President Olcott, Vice President Sinncti, and Martmann alleged later, much
lo many theosophisis' indignation."

After private circulation of a pteliminary report in December 1884. Hodgson's final
report was published in 1885. amid much publicity. Opinions in the full committee had

differed. Member Slack wrote:

Everybody suspecls the mediums or conjurors and surrounds them with severe conditions. Hie

Theosophisis on the contrary require 10 be approached with respect and ll.ey perform their

marvels where (hey like, when they like, and before whom (hey like,"
About Stacks allcganon that the TS had purchased' witnesses, other members said
TRUE BUT 7 RELEVANT. POINT IS RESPECTABLE PERSONS INVOLVED.' 7

Hodgson's report was very unfavourable to HPB. He considered her a fraud and 'I
cannot profess myself, after my personal experiences of Madame Blavatsky, to feel much

'CAMPBELL 88 In the I9(h ccnltirv, many thought of noble penaas, as more credible than
.ervanis certainly if dismissed. ROE, 83 Mrs Cooper-Oakley asked sharply if (he queslioner
took ihc word of dismissed servams ' WLSSINCERU99I). 97 disgruntled servant, hi her own
view Emma Coulomb was not a servant, but a 'lady' in her own right, wife of a former hotel
owner who had helped HPB when she was in need in Egypt. She was not paid a salary;
FUl LER(I987) 2 In an earlier conflict, in 1880. TS leaders had laken her side agamsi Rosa
Bates who accused her of a poisoning attempt". MURPHET. 120. Olco.t's reae.ion io .he Coulomb
accusations was as quoted THNt. 12: We have a lady |HPB] of sue), social position as to be
incapable of eniering into a vulgar conspiracy widi any pair of tricksters to deceive the public ,
BCW, 11, 137; 'Our correspondent is perfectly trustworthy and has a place in ihe highest social
circle'.

'No. 'Coloumb'. as in N.M.C. Tideman, 'H. P. B.\ WW 1920, 429-34, passim

'inspectot Pillai: PR1CE(1986A), 29.
s lbid., 29.

S CRUMP(1923>, 66f.
6 PRfCE(1986A), 39.
'ibid,, 40,

//./

doubt that her real object has been the furtherance of Russian interests,' 1 He did not prove
this, secret agent theory then. It would reincarnate thirty-four years later, when Annie
Besant accused ex-German TS leader Rudolf Steiner (see p. 80),

Theosophisi Leslie Price tries to shield Madame Blavatsky by pointing to her occult,
as opposed to political, outlook. Price admits this distinction was not total:

It is idle to deny that H.P.B, had some political interests, for she claimed after all to have

fought for the Italian Nationalists, and to have been shot for her efforts. Although I understand

she may be mentioned in the files of the India office that deal with subversives -she was kept

under observation after her arrival with Olcott ... 2

H.P. Blavatsky's Secret Doctrine and other writings show one can call neither her nor
her organization apolitical. Her views obviously had influences from her Russian ruling
class background. Whether she had links to the 'Third Section", the secret police, is still
unsolved. 1 Both she and Olcott had public contacts with Russian government
representatives; unwise for non-public agents. Olcott repeatedly received Russian princes,
including future Czar Nicholas II. Blavatsky wrote on British Indian politics in the
Russkiy Vestnik of the czarist Katkov, and on Russian politics in Sinnctt's Allahabad
Pioneer. 4

Madame Blavatsky, who had moved from Adyar to Europe earlier in 1885, reacted

Ibid., I. According to materia! in Washmgion archives, Olcoll did gather information on ihc
British Indian Army for the US government. MURPHET. 110

! lbid., 28, US official of the TS Coues. 77, Oct. 1888. suppl., IV, foresaw a role tor his
organization as a potential great power in US politics.

i BCW, vol. 1, 262f. in 1877 she defended czarism in ihc US press against charges thai it was
anii-Semilic; and in 1880 in Allahabad daily the Pioneer against charges of the Economist thai it
was anti-Armenian; ibid., 11, 263f. A Pioneer article by her on Russia's foreign relations: 8CW,
111. 75f. P. JOHNSGNfs.d,}, 99: 'The issue of HPB's political involvement has never received the
serious consideration it deserves ... UPB could have been a Russian 'spy'... in the very limited
sense of being a free-lance explorer who may have gained some financial support by writing
reports of her findings to the government of her native country ... Her connections with ihc
aristocracy and the military would easily have provided opportunities for such employment ...'
Ibid.. 101: 'Theosophisls have tended to regard HPB's mission ... as transcending any possible
political goals. This seems naive and ill-informed in light of the clear in.en. of bolh HPB and her
Masters ... to revive the national identity and pride of India and Ceylon. Bui to have objectives
related to political change and connections with Russian intelligence does noi make one a spy '
MURPHET, 109: British intelligence in India thought Madame Blavatsky: 'a Russian of the ruling
class, and therefore suspect*, Madame Novikoff, who did work for the czar's intelligence, though!
HPB 'a greai Russian patriot* in her London days: TAYLOR(l992), 239. Maria Carlson. 'To Spy
or not 10 Spy: "The Letter" of Mme Blavatsky to the Third Section', TH July 1995, 225-31: in
1988. a Soviet magazine published a letter of 26 Dec. 1872 from HPB, asking for employment as
secret agent of the czar. Maria Carlson was not sure if this was genuine or communisl anti-
theosophy.

*BCW, Ii,294f:263f;351f.

HP. Biavatsky. 1831-1891

furiously to 'the two miserable Coulomb people, who had eaten her bread for years'. 1 She
wanted to sue die TS' opponents. However, the majority of the leadership, including
lawyers Olcott and Subba Row, did not want a court case, to Helena Petrovna's anger.
Some FTS, like Myers, reacted by resigning,

Subba Row quarrelled with HPB after 1885. They agreed that, besides the visible
body 'principle', there were more invisible 'principles' in man, than only the soul. But
they disagreed on the number of principles. Madame Blavatsky discarded Subba Row's
idea of four as mystic number, 1 in favour of severr*r Nevertheless, he had pretty much
influence on the TS. It still calls its highest award of honour the T. Subba Row Medal/
Row died in 1890. 5

The 'Mahatma-Coulomb-SPR" crisis shook the TS, but did not break it. Bad
publicity is publicity too. Besides, missionaries joined the attack. In the eyes of many
Hindus and other Indians this made HPB a martyr. Certainly so in the eyes of Price:

Madame Blavatsky may have been officially unveiled by the 1885 report, just as Jesus of

Nazareih. another 'impostor' was decisively dealt with by physical crucifixion.

'7T July 1907, 794, In weekly De TaaK 23 and 24 from 1918, GS for Indonesia, D, van
Hinloopen Ubberton, called the Coulombs 'inslrumcnis of the British Indian Jesuit fathers',
(hough (hey. after their break with (he TS, had worked with Proieslam missionaries, VAN DUN
HF.UVEL, 5.

'in Subba Row's 1881 7T article lne Snenfokl Principle m Man, the controversy was iwi
evident yei. BCW. Ill, 400f,

'These seven, with Sanskru names, ranging from the highest Alma (ihc Divine soul) 10 Hie
lowest the Rupa or body, also were in ihe introduction by Prof lillio.i Coues, ihen one Of ihe two
mam US iheosophists. io a book under the pseudonym of 'F T S': Cm >mmr ilunk? Bomoh. The
Biogen Series, no. 4, 1886. Dwell author Prcdenk van Eeden based his philosophical views in De
Kruetters {Tile Brothers), written in 1894, on ii Me thought thai, in spiie of the Sanskrit names.
incicm Indian philosophy 'did not have such a scheme .. But though ihis is a modern fantasy,
nevertheless it seems io me io be wise and fruitful and for ilie time being, agreeing with what we
discover through study and self-reflection*; VAN EEDEN, 195-6 to 1M1, he considered De
Bmatm his 'most important work': VAN EEDEN, 2! Van Endcn (1860-1932. no. '1830-1930'
as in DJAJADININGRAT-NIEUWENMUIS. 43) was typical of many who. (hough critical of some
aspecis of theosophy. ye. were fairly deeply influenced by ii. On appreciation of Van Eeden by
llKosophisls. see for instance (he editorial of TMNI. 1917, 53. lie was successful as an author and
unsuccessful as the founder of an Utopian socialist community and later, in 1918, as a liberal
splinter group [Algemeene Staatspartij) parliamentary candidate.

■TlLLETTCiaSl). 303: Rudolf Steiner won (he medal in 1900, RANSOM(1938). 190; that
was in 1909, is probably right here. TllXETTs {ibid.) awards lisi is incomplete; see
RANSOM(1950), 224. TILUETT (ibid.) says (tie medal is 'in memory of Subba Row It is bj
now; bui it was first resolved upon in 1883, when Subba Row was still alive.

"■One year before HPB, So he could never, as MIERS, 76, claims, have 'seen her appear as a
ghost at seances after her deadi'.

'New lodges admitted io the TS: 42 in 1883. 1 1 in 1884, 17 in 1885. 15 in 1886, 22 in 1887
LucLvo\. VI. 1890, 165.
7 PRICE(1986A), 31.

60 //-/

E.FROM LONDON TO NIBBANA, 1 1888-1891

Theosophy got more publicity in 1888, 1 when H.P. Blavatsky's Tiie Secret Doctrine, all
1571 pages of it,' came out. She saw it as an improved version of isis Unveiled. Us
contents are central to later iheosophist theorists: 'Everyone should read that book." Not
even a!l theosophists did. In 1922 in Indonesia, of 1600 FTS less than 250 owned copies.

young people ... turn away from The Secret Doctrine because its style is nineteenth century

and repugnant to them ... Even among older members ... The Secret Doctrine is pronounced

unreadable. 1

Tillett thinks it 'irrelevant' whether or not Leadbcater derived his best-seiling books
from The Secret Doctrine: 'her works remain obscure and largely unread outside a select
circle."

In weighing irrelevancy, however, one should remember that obscurity may noi only
repel. It may attract as well, especially in religion. Dange pointed out the part played by
ununderstood, or half-understood language in religions: Latin with Roman Catholics,
Pahlavi with Parsis, and so on. 1 One might also think of Sanskrit in nineteenth century
Hinduism, or, still more clearly, in nineteenth and twentieth century theosophy in North
America. 8

To some extent, the part of the SD in the TS parallels that of [lie Bible in medieval
Europe. Then, the authority of the clergy was supposed to rest on it. they quoted from it

'Pali equivalent of Sanskrit Nirvana

2 Not '1889' as in BESANT(IVI2A), 16 and Shirley J. Nitliolson. Theosophical Society" in
EUADE(I9R7), vol. 14, 464

J ln two volumes: 'Cosmogenesis' and Anthropogcnesis'. In IK97, Mrs Bcsant brouglu oui a
third volume: 'Occultism' from unpublished manuscripls. Theosophisls disagree on whether or noi
lliis volume contains materials [hat HPB wanted in the volume three she did plan Boris dc ZtrkolT
in his preface io BCW, XIV, p XXVI-XXVI1, thinks parts of it were not intended for the reading
public, but were 'given under a solemn pledge of secrecy which was blatantly violated by their
publication'.

'DEPURUCKER(1947). 15.

^TMNI 1922. 621. J. MILLER, 190. PRICE(1986A). 25: 'Theosophisls have a favourite and
perhaps not entirely fair way of responding to superficial observations about their movement. -
Havt you read 'The Secrei Doctrine'?' they enquire ..,'

< T[LLETT{1982), 4.

7 DANGE, vol. 3. 151: history shows that God has never ordained (hat his devotees must
understand the language of his divine utterance ... the practice has been thai all the iransactions
between God and his devotees have been carried on in something like a code language.' See also
BCW, II, 43.

*OELC March-Apr. 1935: 'Youngsters to shoot Sanskrit'. U.S. primary school children of the
TS (Point Loma) which had very few Indian members, were taught Sanskrit. Daily Saatita
Varihamani reported that Annie Besant defended Sanskrit in religion, [hough most Hindus did noi
understand it, from 'die science of sounds'; quoted TtEMERSMA(1907), 21 1 .

H.P. Biavatsky, 183 1-189 1

Ma^neB^otsky in iter bath-chair in , lle %ar(i en of Annie Besanfs l mtse
19 Avenae Road, London, in 1890. From. CLEATHER(!92i)

in their writings, or in sermons to the illiterate '

The firs, printing of the Stem Doctrine was soon sold out; a year later a second

Z7ZT ra °'' 0,,£ ^ W ° nder h ° W ™y «** * these and la ,r c
served merely as ornaments on bookshelves. One SD reviewer Annie Besam h,™
-pressed that she joined the TS in ,889 > How import this wa^ew^ ^ *
In Mrs Bcsanfs London house, HPB died in 1891 . leaving her ring ,o AB.> Studems

^Z°ZZ^- "" ■*"— - **» ■ « - — and often also the
J So she certainly was noi 'one of the founders of the Society" as VARFNWF ->ik

boss. n. » m . « ,„ .^rJ^JL^r^'X'm " **" CM '

//./

of a religious movement always ask: will it survive its charismatic 1 originator? It did, as
the next chapters will show.

2. REINCARNATION OF KING ASHOKA: 1 H.S. OLCOTT, 1891-1907

A.IMPHEE, PAPERS. BULLETS, INSURANCE AND GHOSTS, 1832-1875

Some seventy years before Leadbeater examined his earlier lives, on 2 August 1832.
Henry Steel Olcott' was born into a Protestant business family in Orange, New Jersey,
USA. In 5857, he wrote a book Sorgho and imphee on Asian and African sugar-canes. In
the United Slates up to then, one could only grow sugar in the southern slave states, and
northern sugar processors were interested in possibilities of lessening their dependence on
the South. State legislatures asked Olcott to lecture to them about the canes, s Mainly on
agriculture, he wrote for the New York Tribune.

Horace Greeley owned this paper. He was most famous for the publicity he had given
the Fox family when (hey started spiritualism. 6 And for his slogan 'Go West, young
man': as 'Manifest Destiny' of the US he saw supplanting the Amerindians. The paper
opposed slavery in the South.

In 1861 . the United States civil war broke out. Marx called it slave-owners' rebellion,
Otcoti 'the slaveholders rebel I ion *' and rose to colonel in the Union (northern) Army

'T, M1LLLR(1991). According to WILSON(I970). I9f the role o( charismatic leader* m
religion in industrial societies is smaller than earlier on. the fields of politics and entertainment
differ in iliis

■ Some twelve years ago [about 1901) the present writers [CWL and AB] engaged in an
examination of some of the earlier lives of Colonel H S. Olcott !n the incarnation preceding the
last one he was the great Buddhist King Ashoka." LEADBEaTER< 1971 1. 1. see also TMNI, 1919,
142 Ashoka ruled mosi of India, 272-231 B C. Since 19-)? independence, his Ashoka chakra
| = wheel] symbol is in die Indian Pag. It is said his family introduced Buddhism 10 ihc Sinhalese or
Ceylon

Sometimes misspell: Steele: Adellha Peterson: 'The making of a President of the
Theosophical Society', JTAug. 1936, 394, LEADBEATER(I909), G Olcon". PROKOFJEFF.
17: K.S. Olcolf, H0UK£S(I995), 31: Allcol'. VAN DEDEM. 466: Alcott', YADAV, 80. and
LEGGE(1972>. 24; Olcol', FREDERIC (1984), vol. IX, 122 Nor was he, as ibid., a 'British
colonel': or born in '1830'; PARR1NDER. 208.

*0BEYESEKERA(1992B) calls his faiher 'a Protestant minister': not confirmed elsewhere
His ancestors were seventeenth century Puritan immigrants from England, Olcott considered that a
better heritage than even a share of the blood royal": MURPHET, 1.

5 MURPHET. 7,

6 NANNINGA,23.

'7T1898: report on 1897, 3.

e WEBB(1971), 44: Olcott 'whose military rank proved when examined to be rather less
impressive than his imposing beard'; based on Webb, OTTERSPEER()991), 42: rank less
'genuine,' Webb does not elaborate on this. If he suggests a fake rank: General Abner Doubleday

H.S. Otcoit, 1891-1907

Before the war ended in 1865, he worked in the Washington War Department, later in the
Navy Department (both not yet known as 'Department of Defense', or housed in the
Pentagon).

Later he became a lawyer. He wrote the official report, as Director, of the US
National Insurance Convention (New York 1871). l

For a long time, be had been interested in spiritualism. In 1874, he went to the New
York state Eddy farm, 3 which had a reputation for being haunted. There he met for the
first time Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, one year older, as interested in spirits, but a good
deal more experienced than he was. And 'of noble birth"; the American Revolution had
abolished royalty and nobility in the States a century ago. Even today, though, (hey still
fascinate many Americans in countries, other than their own.

B. PRESIDENT-FOUNDER AND OCCULT PUPIL, 1875-1891

From 1875 onwards, Olcott was TS president for life: not H.P. Blavatsky. We have
already written on respectable New York opinion about non-male chairpersons. Also,
HPB did not like addressing big meetings; though she strongly impressed many who mei
her in small gatherings.

So public speaking was left to Olcott; it would take him to nearly all continents. HSO
also felt more at home in down to earth administrative and organizational work.

There was an inner, as opposed to a merely outer, hierarchy, however.

Smneil .. mentions her rough language' to. and tyranny Over', Colonel Oleoil. otiiii(in;; id
add thai he was her occult pupil, and. as such, his vers strong and iroublesomc personality had
to be severely disciplined if he was io be of any use for real work. 1
In 1882, Blavatsky and Olcott stated:

Before wc came to India, ihc word Politics liad never been pronounced in connection with our

names: for ihc idea was too absurd to be even cmenained. much less expressed

One should sec this statement, as Van Hinloopen Labbcrton wrote later, as of

course, nothing but a concession to existing problems and the distrust of the |British

India] Government'; there were accusations of spying, in the repressive colonial political

context.* The statement limited 'Politics' to a narrow area, including spying. It excluded

or other officer llieosophisis might have exposed (hat. Or is it just a reference lo Col. Olcott seeing
more Washington ink than battlefield blood? Then he was not the only one.

'RANSOM(I938), 39. Was his Report by then really still the standard work on Insurance in
ihe United Stales'?

-This was not the farmhouse of Christian Science Founder Mary Baker Eddy', as in Info
India. Madras. Athens, Tourist publications, 1990; 66.

, CRUMP(1923), 71. THNL 3; 'Colonel Olcott is only a lieutenant in this organisation '

1 CLEATHERU922A),6l.

S VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(1916E), 151. Thai was also the view of AB's "The Wider
Outlook'. JTNov. 1916: reprinted TMNI, 1917,4.

11.2

for instance, journalism with Horace Greeley; war as a 'continuation of politics by other
means', whether in the US, or at Mentana, 1 where H.P. Blavatsky claimed she received a
gunshot wound; HPB's claims for herself in the international politics field; 2 HSO's War
Department work; a claimed near-appointment by United Slates President Johnson to a
leading position at the US Treasury, which went wrong because Olcott was said 1 to have
sided against Johnson in a political crisis; post-1865 employment as insurance industry
lobbyist to New York State legislature; 1878 pro-Mazzini activity by the TS ia New
York.' 1 It excluded talks with future Russian czars; it excluded views on the situation of
India and Ceylon.

Indian Brahmanas held a ceremony to admit the TS founders into their caste. Most
Hindus saw this more as friendly gesture than as legally binding. 5 Olcott, in spite of his
aversion to the 'aura' of 'low-caste people', 6 continued to support reforms of at least the
caste system's excesses. Later, this would sometimes lead to disagreements with Annie
Besant. He also supported political criticism of excesses of colonialism, as expressed in
the Indian National Congress then. He certainly was not as politically active as Mrs
Besant would be later, though.

HPB and HSO did not always agree. Certainly not after Blavatsky left 7 for Europe,
never to return, after the 1884-1885 Coulomb shrine scandal. Later, she, and Olcott's
theosophist opponents, would charge he did not defend her enough then,*

Olcott was much interested in Buddhism, in Ceylon and elsewhere. He had written a
Buddhist catechism, with Sumangala and Mogittuwatic advising him,' It went through
many printings, both in its original form and as abridged by Lcadbeater, for instance for
the expanding network of TS- managed Ceylon Buddhist schools. Olcott now helped (o

'An 1867 battle between Garibaldi and the Papal slate, plus Trench military.

*8CW, vol 1, 388. reprinted her letter to the Tiflis [ = Tblisi] Messenger. ' ... it wouldn't be a
bad thing for Ihe Russian government to flirt wuli me a Mule, as I might have some influence upon
the forthcoming Russian American progressive and defensive alliance,*

} RANS0M(I938), 39. According to documents quoted by MURPHET. 316, politicians and
businessmen like New York banker Le Grand Lockwood, recommended him to President Johnson
for the job ofAssisianl Secretary of the Treasury. Unfortunately, Murphel, to improve readabihly
like others writing on history sometimes do, does not name sources; nor does he have footnotes.

'Letter HPB (see p. 49, note S; 141, note 4): 'Our President, as representing the opinion of
our Society is taking a prominent part with the Republicans ..."

5 OLCOTT(1904). 638; he thought the only foreigner thus honoured before was Warren
Hastings.

'Olcott, ODL, 7TDec. 1898, 132.

'ENCYCLOPEDIA UNIVERSALIS says she left India in 1887; 2 years' late.

S CLEATHER(1922A), 2f: 'the shameful way in which she was thrown overboard, like a
second Jonah, by Colonel Olcott and the TS council at Adyar in their cowardly panic during the
crisis of 1884-S5, H.P.B. says ...'

9 OBEYESEK£RA(1992A): 'The role of the monks was to effectively and uncompromisingly
throw out overt or hidden elements of Theosophy',

H.S. Olcott, 1891-1907

design an international Buddhist flaj. His efforts to set up TS branches in Buddhist
countries, other than Ceylon, were nowhere as successful. He managed to found some
lodges in Burma, recently annexed to British India.

However, Olcott's 1889 journey to Japan, much publicized in the theosophist press,
and given three chapters of over sixty pages in Old Diary Leaves,' led to just one lodge,
which fizzled out a few years later. 1 Unlike Buddhism in Ceylon, Japan's non-Christian
religions did not need support against a Christian colonial government (though some
Buddhists might feel apprehensive about the government's newly-emphasized Shintoism).

C POISON, MARS, TAROT, AND GROWTH, 1891 1507

In spite of disputes with Olcott and some other FTS. during H.P. Blavatsky's last years
her position had been central. After 1891, one could expect pushing to fill the empty spot
at the top. Annie Besant and William Judge. HPB-appointed European and American ES
leaders, respectively, boih said the First Lodge, (he superhuman Masters, continued to
appear and to write letters. But were Judge's and Besani's Mahatmas the same ones? J One
version accused Judge (another version, Annie Besanf 1 ) of forgery; getting himself a stock
of special ink. blank Adept paper, and a seal he had found among Madame Blavatsky's
belonging after her death, training himself in Transhimalayan hand-writing (showing
influence of having learned writing originally in Cyrillic script, and English spelling in
America^) to mail letters lo himself and others.

Which way would the pendulum swing? What was Olcott's position in the power
struggle between the two? Or would they join against the president for life?

Al first, the latter seemed lo conic about. Under Besanf and Judge pressure, Olcott
resigned, 21 January 1892;* but was told by Mahaima KM on 10 February to resume
office as President- Founder. Then, (the same'?) Mnhatma Kll wrote to Judge that Olcott
plotted to poison Annie Besani.' Judge obligingly informed Ali. AB (hough, us
obligingly, informed Olcott, Ihe (wo joining forces againsl Judge. Judge then accused

'OLCOTf(l954). IV. 92ff. Chapicrs 'Visit to Japan', 'Successful crusade in Japan'. ■Further
triumphs in Japan".

'James Cousins had lo sian from sciatch in Japan in 1920. iwelve people, including Koreans
and an Indian, joining. COUSINS and COUSINS, 363. Later, army captain Kon led Tokyo's
Miroku Lodge; he died 1936. 7TJau 1937. 291.

'CAMPBELL, I05ff. NETHERCOT<1963), 29f. LUNS. 12. wrongly claims HPB was slill
alive when Judge was accused of faking Masters' letters.

"CLEATHER(I923), 30 accuses both of using forged Masicr's messages,

SMITH, 154. L. A. Shepard, Encyclopedia of occultism and papapsychology . London, Gale,
1978, 927,

*JINARAJADASA(1925), 226.

^Olcott on 1892, ODL, TT Apr. 1902. 387: '1 certainly never did anyihing to warrani him
(Judge] in making, in a forged letter, my own Teacher and adored Guru seem to say that, if Mrs
Besani should carry out her intention of visiting India, she might run ihe risk of my poisoning her!'

It. 2

Besant of black magic.

[n 1895, a split occurred. In the Inner Group (six men, six women, formed by
Madame Blavaisky in 1890 as 'non-sexist' equivalent of Christ's Twelve Apostles), 1
secret at the time, but of which Alice Leighton Cleather felt free to divulge the
membership thirty-two years later, an eight agairtst four majority sided against Judge.

Countess Wachtmeister, Emily Kislingbury, Annie Besant, Isabel Cooper -Oak ley, her
sister Laura Cooper, George R.S. Mead' (these two would marry later), and Messrs, Old
and Sturdy supported Oicott. One woman, Alice Leighton Cleather, and the three men
Archibald Keightley, Herbert Coryn, and Claude Wright of the Dublin lodge, supported
Judge.

The majority of the US membership,' and quite a number in other countries, left the
TS {Adyar). From ihen on, there would be at least two bodies calling themselves
Theosophical Society. 5 Judge established one of his own, headquartered in New York
City. This had the advantage of being both where he lived and the TS' 1875 city of
origin.

In Ireland* most, like Dick (Irish Astronomer Royal) sided with Judge. Like Besam.
Judge was of Irish ancestry; he was born in Dublin; not London, unlike her. In 1904,
most Irish ihcosophisis split back to Besant. only to split away from her again soon
afterwards. If one knows about (he long-standing mutual influence of Irish and Indian
national movements, then the schismatic, always numerically weak, character of theos-
Opby in Ireland is not totally irrelevant for Asian politics.

After the split. Judge got both an astral and a card-reading backstab from his
opponents. London magazine Modern Astrology 1 , edited by 'Alan Leo' [ps. of William
Frederick Allen]. FTS (Adyar), pointed out: 'Judge who had Mars there |in his
horoscope; the planet was named after the Roman god of war] and caused a secession

In bis Old Diary Leaves. Olcolt remembered:

Mr [S.V.| Edge . . and I. amused ourselves at this time with die Taroi cards, and ccnainly

got some strange prognostications, in one memorandum of the 26th June which at my request.

Mr, Edge put itno writing and signed, and which is pasted in my Diary- I f' n d a prophecy

1 WACHTMC1STER(1989), S8

: CLEATHF.R<1923), 22ff,

Spelling AHMAD SUBARDJO DJOYOAD1SURYO. 84. 'G.F.S. Macad'.

'including one Mr Rambo; ODL. TV March 1904, 324.

'For Dutch speakers, confusion was less. The TS (Adyar) called themselves; Theosofischc
Vereeniging; Judge's TS: Theosofisch Genoolschap. One can translate 'Society' both as
Vereeniging (or Verenigmg, new spelling) and Genootscftap . Under Tingley. Judge's TS was
called 'Universal Brotherhood and Theosophical Society'. To make things easy for historians,
Adyar theosophists sometimes called themselves 'Theosophical Society and Universal
Brotherhood', For example: Annual Report on 1903, 67.

'CAMPBELL, 167f.

'Oct. 1907, quoted TTOcl. 1907. 180. It offered Mr Leo's horoscopes: fifty French francs or
more for 'rigorously scientific' ones, under fifty for 'science combined with intuition*.
GUENON(1921), 232.

rV.5. Olcolt, 1891)907

"inch seems to have pointed directly to the action of Mr. Judge. What other interpretation can
be given to these ,ords: 'There is serious trouble and danger from somewhere, 1 a „ Z

™,h,T '" " "' f0 " y iWd deCep ' i0n 10 te feared Which '*" ^ ™ <° snnury and

trouble-iliis seems sertous; there is moral death for some one; perhaps a foolish affair on the
part of a leading member; at all events, some act of suicidal folly '

The woman to whom the cards alluded was (Catherine Tingley. She had been some
said, an actress, and, certainly, leader of the Christian 'Do Good Mission'. Weeks after
udge dted tn 1896, one year after the start of his own TS, she inherited' his Esoteric
Society Outer Head office; according to her interpretation of Judge's will As with H P
Blavatsky before, with Oicott and Besant later, there was unclarity and conflict over thai
interpretation.

Oicott called Tingley: - m American spiritualistic medium'/ who had played no nan
while HPB lived, though claiming contact with her spirit now.

Mrs Tingley, however, called herself 'Second successor to HP. Blavatsky Leader
and Official Head'; or (on bills for a Bombay public meeting) 'Leader of the entire
theosophical Movement throughout the World'. 5

'JT Dec. 1901 , I36f. Tkr only official himn of the IKemoplucai Scam, The cover of ,1m
second ser.es, London, TPH, ,900 The true history of the Theosophical Society ' Olcot, il»d
I 37 admnted to 'a great deal of nonsense ,„ these divinations, by cards, coffee-grounds and other
fences, but there ,s also a great deal of the other sort .. For instance, a. this moment in Paris ,
lady who earns a very handsome living by reading fortunes in co (Tec -grounds, and the noble army
of card-rcadmg fortunetellers. would never have been kept in profitable pract.ee if their prognos
iic.iuons had not been often verified.'

^CAMPBELL, 132 She *« horn ,„ | M T. , lot W2 as one mighJ pucK fr(>n ,
N . ntLRCOR.%3). 3S7 The low status of ibe acting protean in d„ eves of Vp^^
of decency may have caused her later silence afcou, it. Snll, she had the Isis theatre buil, a, Pom,
louia. The time some could make millions acting in souihern California was still a few years
away ,. ,|ie working lives of Victorian actresses broughl not wealth arul fame hut social and
economic margmahtv'; Martha Vicinus. rev.ew of T. Davis A area's as iVMwg VW, 7he,r
W Mmuty ,« Victors G.hure. London. Routledge. 1991; ,„ Rouiledge's Gentler and
Women s Studies 1991/1992 catalogue. 16

W,i,u,ion of Tingley", TS. Art. 4.4: The person, invested with this office (of Leader and
uiiiual Uead| appoints his or her successor.' Quoted: RABBIE( I898A). 1

'ODL. TT, Aug. 1906, 809 'Spiritualist' was not a friendly word by then * TS It had

gone some way since Oicott praised Mrs Britten in 1875. see p. 49.

'ODL. TT May 1905, 454. AB's title as leader of Co-Masonry was- 'The V !llus
hm^?^""* BCSam Jr ' hfS( Sov « e ^' Lieutenant Grand Commander of the' Order :
J NARAJADASA(I986), 44. Both Mrs Besan, and Mrs Tingley were remarkably modes, and to
the point, ,f one compares them to Aleister Crowley, 1875-1947. He saw himself, among many
other things, e.g. as a reincarnation of Lao Tse, as a defender of HPTJ's 'pure' theosophy against
Leadbeater, TILLET1. 204. Crowley's tules were { OELC. Aug. 1935): The Most ,Uy, Mo
Illustrious, Most lllummated, and Most Puissant Baphome, X». Re, Summus Sanctions (Most
High and Holy King) 33", 90°, 96° [mason's high degrees]. Pas, Grand Master of the United
Slales of America, Grand Master of Ireland, lona, and All the Britains; Grand Master of the

IL2

KT in 1896 Lried 10 expand her TS by a Theosophist Crusade around that world.
Apart from herself, Mrs Leighton Cleather and other speakers, this included travelling
musicians. In Germany and The Netherlands, she had some success.

Not so in India. Tingley and Hargrove, president of her Society, left the others
behind to go to Darjeeling, close to the Himalayas, to meet the Masters. Early in the
Darjeeling morning. President Hargrove found out his Official Head had slipped away.
When she came back, she told she had had a private exclusive talk with Master M. 1

The Times of India, 30-10-1896 reported on Tingley's Crusaders' meeting of the
previous evening in Bombay Town Hall:

, . . although seating accommodation had been provided for some five hundred, of the general

public only about seventy five persons, principally Parsis. attended the meeting ... Mr, Claude

Falls Wright ... hoped a branch would be started in India, when things were less disturbed

than now.

Kaihcrine Tingley held a meeting in Ceylon, in the Floral Hall of Colombo, on 12
December 1896. As in India though, this did not lead lo much support for her. Olcott
commented: 'Something went wrong before the lour was finished, for Mr. Wright and his
wife left Mrs. Tingley on the way h,onie.' :

More rifts appeared in her TS: Hargrove slatted what he called The Theosophical
Society; Dr. J. Salisbury started (he TS (Ni;w York).' In 1899, Mrs Uighwn Cleather.
iiol amused by the flop in mystically all-important India, and later accusing Tingley of
'Vampirism'/ resigned During the following years, Mrs Clcather wrote on Celtic and
Germanic myths in Wagner's operas. It would be sonic twenty scars before she would
influence Asian, mostly Ceylon, politics

Mrs Tingley centred her organi7,atior>'s activities on its new headquarters in Point
l.oma. California, built on cleared sagebrush country. 5 Annie Besanl, Olcoll's successor,
held roughly the same opinion as he ahoui Judge, his TS, and KT

Mosi or Ins colleagues have separated themselves from the leader he chose when his insight

was clouded by physical disease ''

Knights of llic Holy Ghost: Sovereign Grand Commander of die Order ot the Temple, Most Wise
Sovereign of the Order of the Rosy Cross. Grand Zei uhbabcl of ihe Order of uV Holy Royal Arch
of Enoch, etc, eje. etc. National Grand Master ad vitam |for life J of ihe O.T.O. Also, Supreme
and Holy King of Ireland, fona ..' I STOP" My fingers should rest from typing

'CAMPBELL, I34f.

■ODL. TTMay 1905, 454-6, ODL. TT. June 1906. 517. Mrs Tingley travelled again in Asia
in 1920. VA. May 1921, 94.

^CAMPBELL, I35f r<W(l951). 302.

4 CLEATHER(I922A), 48: ' Vampirism , pure and simple, on the psychic plane (I found ihai
Mrs. Tingley well understood this form of Sorcery)'.

5 VAN MATER, 88.

6 BESANT(1909B), 353. BESANT(1910C), 285 claimed Judge had rejoined the Adyar TS
posthumously . 'winning clearer vision on (he other side'. In the July 1931 Canadian Theosophist,
James Pryse (TS printing press manager in HPB's time) called Tingley a malodorous charlatan . .

Olcott was a fairly good public speaker and organizer, though not on die level of
Annie Besant. When he died in 1907. from the consequences of falling down a staircase,
like Mrs Besant later, his Theosophical Society had grown from 16 in an 1875 New York
drawing room, to: 'almost 10,000' in 1902.' 14,863 in 1907. 3 !n 1904, Olcott wrote:

Thus, litile by little, our Society is acquiring, by the advancement of its members, more and

more influence in the conduct of public affairs. 3

Olcott though was as unable as his successor would be later to prevent internal
conflicts. At the end of his, and the beginning of Besanl 's, presidency, the Leadbeater
controversy, one of the Leadbeater controversies, led to resignations and expulsions.

Not only growth, also a high membership turnover rate," characterized TS
membership statistics. In Olcott's day, the number of charters issued to lodges had risen
from 1 in 1878 lo958 in 1907. Only 567 of these 958 lodges still existed in 1907 though,
so 391 had withdrawn, been expelled, or fizzled out. 5

It is not fair to compare this turnover rate to age-old established institutions like the
Roman Catholic Church in Ireland (part of its English counterpart, in 'our' period
consisted of religiously fashion-conscious people, and might be compared). A comparison
with turnover rates of political parties -then a pretty recent phenomenon as well- would he
interesting.

3. REINCARNATION OK HERAKLES:* ANNIE BESANT, 1907-19.13

To hei die science of politics was an aspect of ihe Divine Wisdom whose principles are firmly
based on (he bedrock of humanity's spiritual oneness, and not on expediency, which, alas, so
largely dominates world |X>liucs today

A. EMPTY CHURCHES AND MATCHES, 1847-1891

Annie Besanl 1 * was the politically most interesting PI'S She had a very good voice for

the dugp.i- (see p -14| inspired Purple Mother,' I'urple was Tingley's favourite clothes colour when
speechifying.

'7TJuly 1903, 631.

J JINARAJADASA(1925), 264

J 7TJune 1904. 573: 'Theosophist Vice-Chancellors', when a PrS became Vice-Chancellor of
Punjab University.

*AdB Nov. 1909, 359: out ol the 2400 US members, per year 300's membership finished.

TINARAJADASA0925). 264.

^According lo C.W. Leadbeater. C LEATHER! 1 922 A), 16.

7 77)p Besant Spirit Series, vol. 3, quoted: KUMAR, frontispiece.

"Not 'Ammie'; FR£DERIC(1984), vol, IX, 122: not 'Besanson': KORZEC. 50; 'Basent' as
on a Madras road sign; 'Besom', Semaoen in SM, 25-8-1917; 'Ikesant', AHMAD SUBARDIO
DJOYOADISURYO, 84: 'Bcssanf. TSUCHIYA(1987), 142 and 150. EO TV program De
geheime agenten von New Age (The Secret Agents of New Age) of I Jan. 1592 iranslated 'Besant
Theosophical Lodge' as Byiantijns theosofisch gebouw. Naming the TS the first New Agers, the

n.3

speaking in public. We should remember the extensive spread of the microphone,
levelling chances in this aspect of public life, came only during her last years, 1 She had
the reputation of having silenced, on her own, a big workers' demonstration in London in
1881: thus she prevented a fight between them and police. She tells of training, while a
vicar's wife, by preaching at pews in an empty church. 1

On 1 October 1847, she was bom in London, as the daughter of a doctor active in
trade, of mixed English-Irish ancestry: and an Irish mother. 3 Her father died when she
was five. Annie grew up without family money of her own, in a politically liberal,
religiously pious Protestant* environment. Such a background was not a recommendation
for some well-off Tories who became theosophists before her, like Isabelle dc Steiger:

As an Irish woman, she [AB] was. of course, 'agin' a!) government and 'agin' everything

that did not meet with her approbation, 6

Later, she would be known as Dr. Besant. That was because of an honorary degree in
law, conferred in 192) by Benares Hindu University, When she was about 18, English
universities were inaccessible to women; and she lacked formal grammar school
education. She would Seam much in the classes of Bradlaugh's Secular Society later.

Young Annie Wood was very interested in religion. In 1867, she married Anglican
vicar Bcsant; a priest's wife was the closest she could get to becoming a priest '

The more she investigated Christianity, the more inconsistencies she found. Frank
Bcsant as a person did not prove to be as appealing as his office as a parson. Behind
Vicionan 'don't wash dirty linen in public' sentences in her autobiography, are turns she

program associated them wiih (he medieval Easiern Roman empire, raider than u.iih their 2<)ih
cciilury president. The concept of a New Age originates from European aerology. Ii believes Die
con sic I la lion of Aquarius is about to influence humanity; this is supposed to hring greai bciicfns.
'NLTHERC0T(I963), 370: she had India's firsi PA system inslalled in 1925
2 BESANT(I893). 115 MUTHANNA, 36 'While alone and in her teens, she often lectured m
Ihe empty benches ai the Sisby church ' She did it only once, while 25 in Sibsey
WESSINGERG989), 46

BAIG, 15 calls Mrs Bcsant and her follower Margaret Cousins ■English women . as do CHI,
347. SCHWA RTZRERG, 219 and L. FISHER (1984), 108 on AB, Irish', cenamly Tor Mix
Cousins would be correct; she wrote, COUSlNS<194l ), 10. her views differed from most British
in India. 'Being Irish'. For AB, BESANT(1893), 13. 'ihrce-quarlcrs of my blood and all of my
heart are Irish.' Si/ S. Subramania Ayar. in his leuer to president Wilson: "iliat noble Irish woman
who has done so much for India.' VARENNE. 226. KRJSHNASWAMM963) and WEBB(I971),
31, who -paranormal ly?- prolongs her life till at least 1920. call Margaret Noble (Sister Nivedna),
Irish follower of Swami Vivekananda. 'English". Compare NETHERC0T(I960), 327 calling
Sinhalese Buddhist Jinarajadasa 'Indian'; JONES(1989>, 176. calling htm 'the first Indian
president'; and Dutch Indies D.L.N, Vink, FTS: 'the Hindu Jinarajadasa': TMNI. 1918. 557,

"which, like the Orthodoxy of HPB's youth, included belief in beings like banshees and fairies
BESANT(1893), 27,

r>e Sieiger's moiher was an Irish Protestam too! BURF1ELD, 42. Afier leaving the TS. de
Steiger would become one of comparatively few Britons(') in Stciner's Anmroposophical Society,
in the 1920's.

•Quoted BURHELD, 48,
? BESANT(1893), 70.

Annie Besant, 1907-1933

was abused and ill-treated. 1

Legal divorce was not possible, Separation was; losing the children she loved, first
one, then the other, to her husband. With her ex?-husbands' employer, there was divorce.
Financially not immediately: she got into poor circumstances even worse than after her
father's death and had to make a living cooking and sweeping floors at a vicarage in
Folkestone. 2 Soon afterwards, she became a well-known journalist and public speaker for
atheism. Working closely with radical liberal M.P. Charles Bradlaugh, she was interested
in both domestic and foreign politics. Annie Besant wrote on women's rights, and for
strong opposition to the excesses of British rule in Ireland. Sudan, and India.

After opposing socialism, in 1885 she joined the social democrat Fabian Society.'
The Fabians aimed to bring about socialism gradually, without an all-out attack on the
ruling class (gradualism had been the tactics Roman military leader Fabius Cunctator.
Fabius the Waverer, used with some success against the Carthaginian invasion of Italy in
the 3rd century B.C.).

Bradlaugh, non-social isf 1 though born poor and in favour of trade union rights, did
not like this Step. But she could Still write for his paper. So far, her views had moved to
the left. She took steps further left: to the Marxist Social Democratic Federation (where
ihe quality of her Marxism was questioned though 1 ); and by her leading part in the 1888
Easi End London strike of female match factory workers. Isabelle de Steiger, whom she
would join in the TS next year, did not like ii:

I remember especially (he Speech 10 ineiic ihe maicli girls u> their firsi suike. Wh.u j cruel and

sccond-raic policy dial was 6

Socialism in Britain was much smaller than in, say. Germany. Too small? And were
there not other ways, apart from her cx?-husband's C of E.. to satisfy her interest in
religion?

Time for one of Annie licsam's many changes. George Bernard Shaw, her fellow
Fabian in the I880's, in 1917 quoted British sceptics: She will die a Roman Catholic.' 7

This change was towards the Theosophical Society. Besant had aitackcd theosopliy
earlier; reading books by A P. Sinnett had not convinced her * Madame Blavatsky had
reacted more mildly to that criticism than to others. After the journalist W T. Stead* h:id

'BE5ANT(1893), 88. NETHERCOT(I960), 43 he threaiened 10 sliooi her more itian once.
2 TAYLOR(J992), 75.

The Grow Nederlaiidse Larousse Encyctopedie . Scheltens & Gillay, s^G rave nil age. set., vol.
IV, 554, wrongly implies socialist ideas had played a role in her 1873 separation from the
Reverend Besant.

4 Though WEBB(I97I), 17 speaks of the Socialist Charles Bradlaugh'

S BE3ANT and NAIRN, See p. 140

''De Sieigcr, quoted BURFIELD, 48. Actually, ihcir first sinke was in 1885, with no leading
role for Annie Bcsani; TAYLOR(1993), 207. JINARAJADASA(I986), 9: 1885' may conhise the
two strikes,

7 SHAW. 10. VON PLATO, 14 wrongly says she was Roman Caiholic before she was atheisi.

e DEV[(1972)'s remark that she read them already in 1866 is undoubtedly a misprint.
v TAYLOR(1992), 240. William T. Siead was a propagandist for imperialism and for die
paranormal, a friend and fellow-worker of both Cecil Modes (NEDERVEEN P1ETERSE, 257)

11.3

Annie Besant, 1907-1933

introduced tier in 1889, Annie Besant liieraiiy went down on her knees to HPB. 1 She
compared her change to a child's which 'has out-grown its baby-clothes' 1 .

Within a year, she was one of (he twelve apostles of the Inner Group. Within one
more year, on 1 April 1891, H.P. Blavatsky, five weeks before she died, 'in the name of
the Master' appointed Mrs Besani 'Chief Secretary of the Inner Group of the Esoteric
Section and Recorder of the Teachings'. 5 This made her the equal 1 in Europe to Judge in
America, who had joined at the start. Only during the first 14 years of Theosophical
Society history, and the last 14 years, after 1933, of this book's history, Annie Besant
was not a leading TS member.

The theosophists were in Victorian terms a society of, mostly, her 'betters'. How
would one of petty bourgeois background react to this new environment; though her
qualities obviously were greater in many fields than those of many in that environment?
She put off some older members: but her later arch-enemy Alice Cleather waxed lyrical. 5
Spectacular conversions always bring publicity, and a brilliant speaker, tirelessly fast-
writing journalist, and determined organizer like her was clearly an asset,

Bradlaugh's secularists broke with her. Madame Blavatsky compelled her to change
some of her earlier progressive opinions rightwards.''

Annie Besanls adoption of Theosophy necessitated a retreat from several of her positions on
women's rights, and from many of her socialisi activities. 7

The break with socialise was not fast and instant; yet, complete within two years

'Her political activities, however, did not cease." A biographer like Catherine
Wessinger" stresses continuity in her ideas, and Nethcrcoj discontinuity. Not just
Spiritual, also political dichotomy showed, (hough from opponent to supporter of the

01)1.

and Annie Besani, wiio had been in love wiili him. TAYLOR(1992), I97f. Engds on Siead,
loially crazy fellow, but brilliant businessman'; MJ;\V, vol. 38, 191 .

'BLSANT(ISSO). 344. Olcoir 'she burst out of the iron Cage of Maieiiahsiit Atheism'
TTFcb 1903, 264 The NCE lets AB join in 1890. NOID{ 1 97S) . 142 in 1887

-]'ESANT(1889). 3.

3 CLEATHER(I922A), §5.

'Disputed by CLEATHERU922A), 85ff

S 7T March 1890, 346. NETHERCOT(I960). 299: AB was a 'rough outsider' m the
'aristocratic social group where her conversion had taken her.' DINNAGE(1986), 79 quotes Olcoit
on fears 'her fads ... into our respectable body ... might keep influential women away.' This
contradicis the last part of Diruiagc's ibid.. 77 theory: 'She was perhaps simply bored with trade
unionism with her socialisi colleagues and with her growing respectability '

*CLEATHER(I922A), 64

'POLLOCK CREENBURG. 18.

"BAYLEN/GOSSMAN. 88

, WESSiNGER(1989); however. WESSINGER(1990), 32: 'complete reversal' on feminism.
Dora Kunz, 'Annie Besani' in EL1ADE(I987). vol. 2, 1 17: 'Throughout her life she remained
devoted to social and educational reform.' Was that always from the same perspective on society,
though?

British and Russian monarchies, the House of Lords, and the British army; from
supporter to opponent of birth control and universal suffrage. Rather than explaining that
by a few men's influence, 1 one might argue she had moved from environmental influence
of one class to another. Laura Oren wrote: 'Her attraction to ritualism and an authori-
tarian structure remain to be explained adequately by future biographers,' 1

Some of the explanation may be her general post-1889 rightward trend, as her new
surroundings influenced her. In this, the future PTS was not the only FTS. In a still wider
sense, also outside of the theosophists, the French proverb that a Jacobin who becomes a
minister is not a Jacobin minister, points to this mostly subtle pressure to conform in an
environment that is new to an individual: also if that individual is, according to that
environment's formal rules, in a superior position.

B. ESOTERIC AUTOCRAT, 1891-1907

The Exoteric Society [the TS as ihe outside public knows ii] is purely democratic [?] . On the other
side we have an Esoteric Body which is practically autocratic in its constitution. TTtf greatest
power will always be in the hands of the E.S., and not in the head of (he Society. I know that I
exercise a quite unwarrantable power. But you caimoi help us eiisience. 1

After her American counterpart Judge had broken away. Annie Besant was only LS
leader. Her relationship with exoteric president Oleon was reasonably good.' in spile ol
some differences. On 16 November 1893, she landed in India for the first time.

Especially early on in India. Annie Besani was uncritical of caste. This brought her
into conflict with Indian social reformers, for whom, with her sharp oratorical attacks,
she made life difficult in Madras presidency.' It brought her into alliance with
conservative Brahmanas, However, she was not Indian-boru, so she could not enicr
temples Even in her early days in India, sonic interpreted her teas as rdigious
ceremonies: an Indian ITS crawled under her tea-iahle to worship her feet She did not
appreciate it much; the movement of his back threatened to shower her with hot lea.' 1

'NETHERC0T(I963), 111. Seep, 372.

-OREN, 90.

J Annie Besani in Tlieosophy in India magazine, quoted KHANDALVALAf 1907), 33

'Most accounts say. But not BROOKS09I4A). 133. who reported Olcoti saying: 'THAT HE
WOULD NEVER, AS ME LIVED, LET THAT WOMAN BECOME PRESIDENT OP THE
TS.'

S HEIMSATH, 327ff. Her chief targets for ridicule were the social reformers, whose
influence she regarded as debilitating,*

6 BR00KS(19I4A), 79. MUTHANNA, 114: She was a saintess and also an incarnation of
Kaali or Durgi.'

II. 3

Many theosophists outside India also worshipped
Annie Besant. Editor A. van Leeuwen of the Dutch
East Indies TS monthly recalled the first time when
he heard her speak in Amsterdam:

Before she carae, the whole overcrowded church was
in a state of tension, as if something sacred and
awesome was about to happen, and when she appeared
in her white aairc, striding like a priestess through the
human masses, then we all arose amidst the deepest
silence and the whole wide space was filled with
currents of reverence and love, which in their intensity
became nearly material, and forced the greatest
blasphemer to practise awe and silent reverence. We
do not undersund die greatness of (his woman, we
only sec as high as our spiritual eye can reach, but
higher still her spiritual greatness towers above thai'.'
W.B. Fricke, former Dutch CS, said

A/lnlc Bezant; photo
Die Tlieosophical Society

The TS is a hierarchical society. The General

Secretary is directly linked to Mrs Besanl, and through

her 10 the Masiers of Wisdom. 2

Annie Bcsani founded Central Hindu College in Benares in 1898.' Some of its Indian
pupils were less reverent sometimes. Once, 'naturally sceptical 1 boys hung bunches of
keys, connected by strings, from windows. At night, they pulled the strings. 'All over ihe
compound' people heard the keys jangling. Drawing scared faces, the boys (old college
authorities of the ghosts' sounds. Mrs Besani treated (hem (o a lecture on wha( to do and
not do in the presence of evil spirits." Uicr. after a conflict about promotion of (he Order
of the Siar in the Easi (see p. 76} by Hindu College's authorities, she would help to
expand it inio Hindu Universily, She presided over its Board of Control. To (his day. it is
an important focus of dcnominaiionalism in Indian life, including political life

When ihe Boer War raged < 1899- 1902), most socialists and Indian, or Irish, anii-
impcriahsis (like James Connolly, who filled into boih categories) sided against it; wiih
the Boers,* or definitely not with (he British. Like Maud Gonne, who had joined die
thcosophisis ai roughly the same lime as Annie Besanl, but had left soon, and now
organized an ami-war women's march. Like the Annie Besanl of 1881, when she wrote
Tim Transvaal.

The Annie Besanl of 1899 interpreted the Bhagavad GTta, deriving a docirine of 'jusi

*TMNI, 1918.488,

*TB 1917, 133.

3 COLE, 227, wrongly says the CHC was a model for (earlier) schools and colleges in Ceylon.

*SRI PRAKASA, 69-70

5 Subhas Chandra BOSE, 24: and small Jawaharlal Nehru: J. NEHRU(19S8), 12.

Annie Besant, 1907-1933

war' from it. In the Boer War, and in later wars, she saw the British army as fighting on
the side of higher spiritual evolution. 1

On 25 January 1906, a war, bloodless this time, broke out in the TS over
C,W. Leadbeater, CWL was, with Besant. one of the Society's most popular public
speakers, writer of best-selling books and pamphlets, frequent contributor to magazines.
And now, on that January day, Mrs Helen Dennis, Corresponding Secretary of the United
States ES, accused him of advising boys to masturbate. Many joined the attack.

Olcott forced Leadbeater to resign. Olcott expelled Jinarajadasa for supporting
Leadbeater too enthusiastically; then reinstated him on 3 January 1907. Olcott wrote a
letter from his deathbed to Leadbeater 'at the Masters' request', opening possibilities for
rehabilitation. The Masters, and a reappearing H.P. Blavaisky, wanted Besant to succeed
as PTS. !

She was the only candidate. There was no opposition candidate;' but still, there was
opposition. G.R.S. Mead in March 1906 had writien: Whoever succeeds in this high
office [of president] in the Theosophical Society musi be a man of the most tolerant
views ...'. 4 He, and others, were afraid that Annie Besant would prove to be a woman of
views loo tolerant on Leadbeater. As president, she might reinstate him; and bring
psychic tyranny'. 1

C.STARS AND SPLITS, 1907-1913

Opposition lo Mrs Bcsani was most marked in die United Stales and England. 6 Slill she
won, ihanks lo solid support from new US general secreiary Van Hook. India (ihough nol
GS Upendranath Basu), Sleiner's Germany, 1 The Netherlands, and olher scciions.

She did rcinsialc Ixadbeaier, as she told an Esoteric Section meeting on 6 Scpiember
1908, in Adyar, because Madame Blavaisky had urged her so when ihcy met ai ihe
Maslcis' abode. s Like many ihcosophisi opponents of l^eadbeaicr. Tilled sees Annie
Besant as completely under CWL's influence. Cleailier blames this on 'sheer femininity

'BliSANTOSQSC). 75.

■'Deaihbed dialogue, recorded by Mary Russak. quoied VREEDE and MAYER. 98 and
MURPNET. 305f: (Olcott]; 'Whai is your Divine Will in reference lo my successor- whom shall 1
appoint? Answer: (Masier M.): Annie Besant." Besanl herself, in 7T March 1907, 425-6. was more
implicit. Bui in 7T. July 1912. 503. 'The growih of ihe TS.', she wroie of herself as 'ihe Masters'
nominee*. See NETI1ERC0T(I963), 103, on HPB's appearing. Contrary to NAGAZUMI(1972),
192, AB was nol Ihe (bird president of the Sociely'.

^Contrary 10 whai ROE. 137 'aliernaiivc candidates' says.

'TR. March 1906, WT. Quoted 77", Apt, 1906, 553

5 Mead. quoied WESSINGER(I99I). 103.

6 Ai a TS congress, 'Two English ladies said ihey could not live long enough to undo the bad
Karma of voting against A.B.' 77". July 1907, 794.

'Steiner was President, his future wife Marie von Sievers Secretary, of Berlin's Annie Besant
Lodge of die TS, which they had started in 1905. Annual Repon on 1905, 56; 148.
"Tiie Link magazine [of the ES], as quoied THOMPSON! 1913). 25.

11.3

... just simple woman , relying upon male guidance and authority." That simple? Roe
disputes it. :

Besant had the all-powerful positions of President and ES Outer Head. Leadbeater
during some of her presidency, officially just had the position of Corresponding ES
Secretary for Australia; and the experience of failing from grace (including, briefly,
Annie Besant's) ooce. His unofficial position of rising star depended on Annie's official
one, on her goodwill. Dependence was at least mutual. It does not make a very good im-
pression if, as President, you admit accusations against the best-selling author and well-
known propagandist of your organization.

Was Besant not more dependent on the ideology, created by H.P. Blavatsky.
developed by Olcott, Leadbeater and herself, in a certain social setting, than on
Leadbeater personally?

The Adyar Bulletin of May 1909, 231 , wrote:

There is a friendly competition going on in our ranks as who is going to hold the record for

frequent lecfuring, Mrs. Besant and Dr. Sterner stood first in our estimation, but we find them

totally eclipsed by Mr, F T. Brooks, who has been an active worker in India for many years.

Between November 1st, 1908 and April 30ih. 1909 he held 361 meetings (in 1 18 days!)...

FT. Brooks had gone over to the TS while living in Belgium in 1896; along with

other local Ordre Martinisie members, 1 A few years later, Brooks got a place in world

history as lulor to young Jawaharlal Nehru. A few years after 1909. two out of the three

above-mentioned lecturers were no longer in Annie Besant's TS. Brooks' parting was not

too friendly; see his writings T)ie neosophical Society and its Esoteric Bogeydom. and

My resignation.

Steiner's parting was not loo friendly either. In both cases, a major factor had been
the founding of the Order of the Star in the East. After non-public preparation under
names like 'Lieutenants of the Lord'/ it went public on January the 1 Jih 191 1, and got its

1 CLEATHER(I922A). 19-20. MIERS, 248: he held her 'in a kind of occult imprisonment.'

! ROE, 275; 284. See p. 372 on AB and men.

'BROOKS0914A), 46. For the Ordre Morttmste see p. 7 of Uiis book.

'NETHERCOTdS^J, 148. TILL£TT(1982), 138, 302: 'One could presume only the wealthy
could join [the Purple Order] if regalia of this quality were obligatory." Members wore gold and
silver insignia. A. KOK. 577 errs; so does the NCE. saying (he OSE's 1911 founding was at an
Ommen congress.

Jlddu Krishnamuni at Eerde

castle in Ommen in July 1926;

photo Tiie Theosophical Society

Annie Besom, 1907-1933 77

best known name in July 1911. In theory it was
separate (the OSE had non-Theosophical Society
members), 1 in practice it was not easy to distinguish
from the TS. It taught the coming of a World
Teacher, both Christ and Maitreya, 1 who would bring
a new World Religion, fit for the coming Sixth Aryan
sub-race, and eventually the Sixth Root-Race, This
World Teacher was said to inhabit the body of young
Jiddu Krishnamurti, son of a Telugu Brahmin ES
official. 3

George Arundaie, Headmaster of Centraf Hindu
College, put his coming in also a political
perspective:

the great Aryan empire will stand revealed. In
preparation for that Flower of (he Future, for centuries
hence, will come in ihe very near future ... (he
Bodhisativa Maitreya. clothed in Indian form, to carry
the great uniting message through the world, the Heart
of the East and ihc Head of the West. J
Krishnamurti advanced rapidly on the spiritual
paih: in 1912 he got his Second Initiation 5 in Taormma on Sicily. Tim, place was dear to
Annie Besant, as there Pytha goras had taught ancient Greeks 'their duty as citizens to the

■LEAD8EATER(,922), S83: 'Even me Order of the Star in the East, which i s an offshoot of
ihe Theosophical Society. CAMPBELL. 128: 30.00) members. NETHERCOTriyw) 344-
claims of 60,000 |M] to 100.000. E. LUTYENS. 1 67: 16,000 a, a Hollywood Bow, (US, meeting

MK8TD 99-101 , clatmed many Proliant preachers in The Netherlands had joined the OSE In
Indonesia^ the OSE had 613 members on I Jul, ,9.3. more than «hc TS the,,- Mrs C VAN
H1NLOOPENLABBERTON09I3), 470. VAN

'In Sanskri, sacral language of nt , n hcni (Mahays) Buddhism. U,e ™,e of the successor to
he historic Buddha Gautama. In Pa., (everyday language in the days of the Buddha, and sacral
language ,n Theravada Buddhism) die word is Meueyya. Co mpofa ,ion S on his coming differ (as
with Christians on the time of the return of the Christ). MB. 1933. 10 estimated he would come in
a million years' time.

*N« Khnshnamurti, as in CE. vol, V, 420; or 'Chrishnamurti" as in VAN DEN HEUVEL

M, LLN YENS 1975), 1-2) he was of course not 15 years old in 1925; as the Grate Nederiandse
Lanuise Encyclopedic Scheltens & Ciltay, VGrawnhage. s.d . vol. IV. 554, has it.
*CHC Magazine, Oct, 1910, quoted TTNov. 1910, 314.

r J'wS TT'^T 7* ^ In " ia,i0rlS °° the ** 10 m > Divine - ™mbership of the

It. 3

Stale*. 1

This mcssianism repelled and attracted many. It first attracted, but soon repelled
Krishnamurti's father. In 1913, he fought a custody court case against the TS leaders over
the Lord Maitreya's vehicle-designate and his brother. In the Madras High Court, he
won: should Annie Besant have then come to India without returning the two boys to their
father, she would have been jailed, 1 But in the appeal before the London Privy Council in
May 1914, Krishnamurti's father lost.

A German speaker, Count Hermann Keyserling from Czar Nicholas II's Baltic lands,
for a short time believed in Krishnamurti as 'the Messiah of the future ... I was loth to
give it up again; for it gives joy to live under such a supposition'. 1

Rudolf Steiner's ideas about 1900 had moved in a way somewhat similar to Annie
Besant's a decade earlier: from some sympathy for the social democrats, less deep than
AB's, to occultism and Slite theories. He had been appointed Esoteric Society Arch
Warden for Austria and Germany in 1904. Later, he had put himself, in effect. On the
same level as the president of the Theosophical Society; that was a problem for long-term
peaceful coexistence in an authoritarian organization.' 1 Some saw him as a reincarnation of
St. Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle,' Now, he objected to the reincarnation of Herakles'
Order of the Star in the East. 6 Hiibbe-Schleiden and Dr, Hugo Vollrath, German OSE
leaders, clashed with Steiner, Steiner expelled Vollrath: Annie Besant reinstated him
Stcincr catted for Besant's resignation; instead, she expelled Steiner. who formed his own
Anthroposophical Society in 1913. its impact was noi equal in all eouniries: in Indonesia.

'WT, TT, Aug 1912, 642 Sec for Pythagoras our p 25

-WOf. 98.

*KEYSERLING(J921), 558.

J ',.. there arc now two equivalent schools, one in the cask the oilier in die west . Every one
lias i(s own l*o Masters Mahalma Kool Hoonii and Mahatma Morya. (he Masier Jesus of
Nazareth and the Master Christian Rosenkreutz The one school is ltd hy Mrs, Besant, the oilier
by Dr Sidncr'. Steiner at Munich ES meeting, 1-6- 1907, quoied SPIERENBURG(1987). 23-4

5 Self styled according to H, Wimbauer Die tndividuaiual Rudolf Siemers, das offetihare
Gchcinuiis der Anthroposophie . St. Ulrich 1984; quoled SP[ERENBURG(19S7|, 30.

*VRE£DE and MEYER. 34 Steiner said AB offered him recognition as St. John ilie
Evangelist reincarnate, if he would accept Krtshnarmmi as Clirist reincarnate. Sieiner refused
(many of his followers see him as the 20Lh ceniury Bodhisatlva At the 1935 anthroposophical
congress, those disbelieving this were expelled from office: ibid.. 204) Ibid.: (litre were
objections to Sicily as the place of Krishnamuni's Second Initiation, as it was haunted by Klingsor
(known from Wagner's operas) and his black magic colleagues. Ibid., passim. Steiner did not
really 'protest againsl millenarianism': ROE, 313. He protested against Krishnanutnt-centred
millenarianism. but did expect the return of the Christ; a World Teacher, but in a different body.
His body? Anthroposophisis still discuss this. How compatible are these claims of august previous
lives {NETHERCOT(1963), 203} with theosophical doctrine that, by and large, the human soul,
incarnation to incarnation, edges, from a relatively low level, closer to divinity? OELC. Oct, 1932.
Dr. Arundale looks forward', knew of at least 27 reincamauons of Mary, Queen of Scots, alive at
that lime. La Dudiesse de Pomar, FTS, nee (in Cuba; MURPHET. 180) Princess de Manategui.
also known as Lady Caithness (1832-1895), already claimed to be one fifty years earlier.

Annie Besant, 1907-1933

only 'five Steirterians' were said to have resigned from the TS. 1

1912 was a year of movement. In England, a strike movement, denounced by Mrs
Besant; 1 and a fast growing women's suffrage movement, led by Mrs Emmeline
Pankhurst (an old acquaintance of Besant), and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia.
Ireland was stirring. In India, 'extremist' nationalists became more and more active in
universities and elsewhere. Even czarist autocracy could not stop social movements in the
Russian empire.

Would Annie Besant go to the right again, like in the 1890's, and as her attack on the
English strikers suggested? Or would she go the other way around? Along what lines
would the new Commonweal weekly write?

As far as caste in India is concerned, Hcimsath suggests a pretty linear development
from conservatism to reformism. 1 This may lose sight a linte of AB's flexibility.

D. WATCH -TOWER" IN THE STORM, 1913-1918

The Leftward turn was noi unequivocal. 1913 saw Annie Besant in conflict wiih
Bhagavan Das, ex-general secretary of the Indian TS, about her authoritarianism, about
her, and Headmaster George Arundalc's. involving of Central Hindu College in the
OSE, 5 and about what Das saw as Besant's paranoia concerning 'political scditionists and
extremists' at CMC."

According to the Vseosophisl? she then had a meeting in the supernatural city of
Sharohalla, There, the Lord of the World, 6 three occuli degrees higher still than the
Maslers. gave her political instruciions to work for Indian autonomy.

'WERB<I974A).236. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(I9I 3E). 451
: BESANT(I9I3A), 67 1 ff . Reprinted from AdB, 1-9)912.
J IIE1MSATH, 328ff

'Erom (he Watch-Tower' [abridged: WT\ was the name of AB's editorials, in (he 1890's for
Ijicifcr, then for TR. then for 77i<> Tlteosopliist

5 TILKEMA(I932). II. Arundale gave pupils marks on iheir school reports for unusual
subjects: 'discrimination, desirelessness, affection. ... devotion, rccogninon of ideals (like the
OSE's), purity'.

"CLEATHER(1922A). 43f.

7 Dr. Bcsanr's Occult Life', TTApr. 1933, 145.

Contrary lo 7M(I95I), 293. Krishnamurti was not claimed to be that Lord of the World'.
Sometimes also known as Sanai Kumars (SD\ son of Brahma in Hinduism) Sanai: 'eiernal' in
Sanskrit: not = 'Saian', as in CUM BEY, 238. Sanai Kumara was said to have come from Venus
millions of years ago. wiih the Lords of the Flame; RANSOM(1938), 47. TS 'Lotus circle'
children sang a song to litem: 7T March 1907, 472. BESANT092II), 74: 'I am notable logo far
enough and tell you anything aboul the leaving of Venus, but I happen lo have seen [paranormally)
iheir arrival here. Venus is more advanced than we.' 'Wheal, bees and ams were brought from
Venus by the Lords of the Flame': but Atlantean scicntisis 'produced wasps from bees, and while
ants from ams.' BESANT and LEADBEATER(1913>, 137. Non-Initiate biologists think wasps arc
older than bees; and lermites (who are not white ants) much older than, and not much related to,
ants.

a. 3

Soon, two papers spread Besant's, and her TS's, re-emphasized (not totally new)
interest in Indian politics. The Commonweal weekly first came out on 2 January 1914. '
On August the 1st 1914, three days before World War I, started her daily New India}

Tillett claimed that for every theosophist

who, like George Arundale, threw himself into political work at the Hierarchy's command,

there were a dozen who claimed that Mrs Besant was misguided and misleading the TS into a

sphere of activity from which it ought to be specifically protected. 3

Even allowing for hyperbole in style, several points contradict this. In India, Besant's
Home Rule political activities made the TS more attractive. Even higher strata of Indian
society, whom one might see, from a radically pro- independence viewpoint, as
collaborators, saw Britain's military and economic dependence in the First World War as
an opportunity to re-balance power between 'central' and 'sateiiite' elites. If Besant's
views were as unpopular as Tillett claims, then why did worldwide, not just Indian,
membership rise, in spite of the difficult wartime circumstances?

The world war deepened Mrs Besant's conflict with Rudolf Steiner's
arahroposophists. They look sides opposite her in the conflict between British and
German rulers, which cost millions of non-ruling lives. To Annie Besant, her own war
against Steiner's 'forces of darkness' and the world war fused. She wrote that Steiner had
tried to take over from her in order to have a German spy network, including Christian
missionaries, harming the interests of the British empire. 4 Of Steiner pre- 1914, she wrote

'Not in 1917, as one might think from SITARAMAYYA(1%9), 131.

"SENGUPTA. 113, incorrectly wrote that 'flic Common Weal' came out first aflt-r M-u
indict.

TILLETTf 1982). 159. Arundale saw his President as: 'lo become one of the greatest Rulers
of Hie World, of Gods and men.' Mis letter, 25 10-1912. quoted CI.EATHER(1922A). 47;
TH0MPS0N(I913), 9 ROE, 284, rightly says AB, unlike other religious leaders, did not herself
claim to be the World Teacher But she considered herself the future Manu (Crcaior) of llic Sixlh
Root Race. RANS0M(I938). 386. Margaret COLE, 225; her political aenvny in India 'came
directly out of her theosophical interest'.

Tier WT. TT, Dec. 1914, 197-8 'The object of it all was lo make Germany dominant in (lie
T.S.. and to force upon die whole Society (he peculiar form of Sleinenan Thcosopliy. ... Now,
looking back, in (he light of the German methods revealed by the war, 1 realise that the long
continued efforts to capture the Theosophical organisation, and put a German at its head, the anger
against myself for foiling these efforts, the complaint dial I had spoken of (he late King Edward
VII as the Protector or the Peace of Europe, instead of giving that honour to the Kaiser (Wilhclm
II], was all part of ihe widespread campaign against England, and that the missionaries [who had
attacked her on (he Krishnamurti custody court case] were tools skilfully used by the German
agents here to further their plans. If ihey could have turned the T,S in India, with die large
number in it of Government servants, into a weapon against British Rule, and have taught it to look
to Germany for spiritual leadership, instead of standing, as ii has ever done, for the equal union of
two Free Nations [Britain and India], it might gradually have become a channel for poison in India.
To do this it was first necessary to destroy its President {AB], known to stand for union between
the two Peoples during the last twenty years [so, from shortly after joining the TS on, excluding

Annie Besant, 1907-1933

the German aggression of two years ago ... Then, as now, the campaign was directed against

England, but we did not know that it was a pan of a world-wide organization, intended to

destroy (he Island Empire. There was an outburst of hatred, following on a subde invasion of

other countries which had been going on for years. 1

E. Schure had contributed to both the French TS and French nationalist ideology
before 1914. : He, and Mabel Collins, editor of Lucifer before Madame Blavatsky fired
her in Feb. 1889, J had taken Steiner's side in the TS civil war. They had to adjust to find
themselves on AB's side of the world civil war.

From 1916 till 1919, the TS had no functioning German section. That was because
Annie Besant had also come into conflict with Germans who had stayed loyal to her
againsi Steiner, like Vollrath and Hiibbe-Schleiden, ex-planter in West Africa and
colonial lobby leader. Hiibbe-Schleiden in 1882 had defined his aim as 'a German India in
Africa', a big colony 'which would be the cornerstone of the German colonial empire'.''
Now it had turned oui that Britain was unwilling to let Germany have an 'India' of its
own without a fight.

Mrs Besant and Leadbeaier saw the War as a conflici between Divine and Dark
Powers, with the British empire leading the 'right' side. However, Besant thought
fighting Tor that empire should go hand in hand with fighting its excesses in India,

Annie Besant worked hard, in spile of advanced age, beginning as early as four or
five in the morning. s In 1915. she started mass meetings on a large scale, as a way to put
pressure on the authorities, for one of the first times in India. 4

Daniel O'Connell had 'invented' mass meetings in the country of her ancestors.
Ireland, in the 1820's, in support of claims that mainly benefited the politically
handicapped Roman Catholic sub-eliie. Cobdcn and Bright had developed Ihcm in her
native England, in the 1850's; Marx and others in the I860's. international socialism, her
political homeland from 1885 till 1889, developed them further.

Mrs Besant's left turn was not only about India's social or Home Rule problems, bui
also about whose solidarity in Britain she looked for for her views. A few years earlier,
that had primarily been the king, ihe House of Lords and 'all who appreciate the
responsibility of ruling an Empire. These are comparatively a small minority, and the

her more radical earlier years].' In 'The Wider View', 77", Nov. 1916, Annie Besant thought thai
Steiner had goi the money for his propaganda againsi her from the German secret service.

'WT, TT Dec. 1914, 196f Also IVTof TTOct 1915, 15; and Jan. 1916, 350-1.
2 Schure resigned from (he TS on 3 March 1913; VAN DEN HEUVEL. 17.
J 7M(I951), 148. GUENON092I), 47 has her resigning in 1883. B. Lievegoed. in DEN
DULK c.s,, 81, suggests Steiner only had followers on the European continent; which is not true.
"STOECKER, 239.
^SEMAOENUSn^GS.

'Often Gandhi is credited with making Congress a mass movement. True; but on a smaller
scale Tilak and Besant had done the groundwork. In 1876, when diere was famine in southern
India, poor people held mass protest meetings in places like Salem: VREEDE(19)7B), 6.

a. 3

Annie Besant, 1907-1933

majority care more for football -matches and horse-races'. 1 Now, in the Theosophist
editorial, she advised looking for support among British workers in view of 'upper and
middle classes" vested interest in a subjected India. 1 This went deeper than just one of
Besant's, and her supporters', flirtations with her socialist past, which happened at times
when it seemed opportune like the 1930's world crisis.

Sir C.P. Ramaswami Ayar, the future dewan of Travancore principality, who had
been the lawyer opposing Annie Besant for Krishmmurti's father in the 1913 custody
court case, later said on his ex-opponent:

She made politics a live and practical thing, as much discussed in the villages as in the

drawing rooms and cloistered places. 3
In practice, she no longer applied her idea of a few years ago: 'the great mass of the
population, they are ignorant ... they care nothing for changes of the Government'/ She
did not speak any Indian language except some Sanskrit, though; she could speechify to
them only in English, which made for a barrier. Still, Mrs Besant and those around her
formulated the demands. Still, ii prepared die masses to formulate their own later.

One may say the widening of political interest in the 1910s, furthered by Annie
Besant, contributed to her later decline, now not only Home Rule became a matter of
discussion, but also issues like her Brahman supporters' privileges, especially in Tamil
Nadu i The political non-Brahmin movement, growing in South India about 1917,
attacked Besant in a pamphlet for refusing to introduce inter-dining between people of
different castes in her organisations because she regarded the Sudras as mere 'younger
brothers' *

1916 saw Mrs Besant's agitation take organizational form in the Home Rule league
It grew fasi Non-FTS became the majority of its members. Among them were Molilal
and Jawaharlal Nehru, and the future first governor-general of Pakistan, Jinnah.

Irish movements had for a long lime been an influence on India. In 1916, the faster
uprising in Ireland by Connolly's Irish Citizen Army, and part of the Irish Volunteers,
re-focused world attention on Ireland. The rebellion appealed to Jawaharlal Nehru.'

Inarticulate wrongs'. 77" Sept. 1912, 856

J 7TJan 1916,354-5

^RAMASWAMI AYAR, 616. GANDHI(1940), 324 'Dr. Besant's brilliant Home Rule
agnation had certainly touched the peasants': affirmed by WAD1A(1917), 6; but J. NEHRU(I958),
32, contradicts this. According to a British official then, who mentioned delta villages in the Tesali
region. 'New India has a very wide circulation in rural areas generally': quoted
MORTiMER(1983), 72.

4 BESANT(1914A), 109.

^RSCHIK, 37,

6 !RSCH1K<!969>, 51. BESANT(1917A), 25: '! know you call a man a servant, whose time,
whose body, you buy for so many rupees a month; that is the lower service, the service of those
who are in the stage symbolized by the Shudra-the younger souls. But the higher service ,,.'.
D!NNAGE(1986), 107: AB 'attacked caste', puts it too strongly; her views differed according to
time, but she mostly attacked excesses.

Y NEHRU(1958). 35

Trotsky applauded it; but regretted it look place 'under an archaic flag', 1 Lenin applauded
it, and disagreed on the 'archaic flag',

George Russell, 'AE', former supporter of first Katherine Tingley, later Annie
Besant, wrote about uprising leaders Connolly and Pearse with a mixture of setting at a
distance and admiration:

Their dream had left me numb and cold.

But yet my spirit rose in pride ...

Here's to you, Pearse, your dream not mine.

But yet the thought for this you fell

Has turned life's waters into wine, 2

'Easter Week' got sympathy from Irish theosophist James Cousins in New India.
Annie Besant had to sack him, 1 and Madras governor Lord PenllanS slapped securities
on her daily. Censors opened her private mail; and cut articles out of copies of The
Theosophist? Police spies infiltrated the TS headquarters* It became illegal, first for civil
servants, later also for govemmenl pensioners, lo join Mrs Besani's Home Rule League. 7
In June 1917, 8 the governor interned her with iwo fellow League and TS officials,
Arundale and B.P. Wadia. He banned the writings of all three of (hem. Hastily, iheir
articles, already printed, and bound for die July Tlieosopliist . were cut out; only I 5
centimetres at the margin was left.'

One hour before internment came into effect, Peniland had a final personal talk wiih
Annie Besant. lie offered her a way out: leaving India for Britain. She refused. He
refused to answer her question why exactly she was inierned.'" Secretary of State for
India Joseph Austen Chamberlain" later also refused such an answer to British Mi's.
Annie Besant's last words of the interview with Lord Pcntland were. I believe your hand
deals the deaih blow to the British Empire in India'. 11

Opinion on her internment varied. Her ally Ramaswami Ayar wrote:

l Noxhr Slvvo, 4 July 1916: quoled RAFTERY, 4.
Quoted DUDLEY EDWARDS, 336.

'TAYLOR! 1992), 302 M0RT1MER(I983>, 71 'she supponed Hie Easter Rebellion' is too
Strong.

"Not Lord Ponland, as in M0RTIMER(I983), 73

5 BAKSHl,88. WT. JTApr. 1917, 7; for instances copies seni 10 Java.

6 Annic Besant, TMNl, 1918. 290.

'GROVER0967). 289.

s So noi '1916' as in VARENNE, 225.

''TMNl 1918. 286. WT, TT July 1917. 358-9. 1.5 cm in Leiden universny library copy.

lu Tti. Vreede, 'Annie Besant geinterneerd', LOC, 27-7-1917. Also iranslaied inio Malay as
'P.J.M. Njonjah Annie Besant di bawa ke lahanan', PT 191617 (10), 113-8. Based on the
Commonweal.

"Known as Austen Chamberlain; 1863-1937. He joined the Conservatives after earlier Liberal
Unionism.

l: TAYLOR(1992), 305.

13 Th. Vreede, 'Annie Besant geinterneerd', LOC. 27-7-1917.

11.3

She was conscious of running ihe risk of being regarded with suspicion by the Indians, so she

courted inurnment '

Rabindranath Tagore thought: 'This internment will do more towards obtaining Home
Rule, than all her political work'. 1 The editorial of The Theosophisi expected final victory
and stated its view on the relationship between theosophy and politics:

For the first lime, in the modem world, politics have been lifted [by Annie Besant] from die
domain of mere earthly political arrangements, and an attempt made to realise something of
the occult basis underlying them ... Philosophy and Politics are ever inseparable ... If politics
in most countries are uninspiring, it is the lack of statesmen that is at fault; the cure is not to
put an end to politics and keep them away from philosophers, but to bring philosophy and
spirituality into them, Theosophy has so far served the world in several fundamental ways, it
has shown the basis of religion, the basis of education, and ihc basis of true social reform; the
era has surely begun when Theosophy will show the world the ciemal basis of statecraft also
For true statecraft is Theosophy. Pythagoras at Crolona proclaimed that message; Plato carried
on ihe tradition. Marcus Aurelius [philosophically interested Roman emperor of ihe second
century A D.) showed how it could be lived. 5
During Annie Besant's confinement, in the l.ondon government the more flexible

Edwin Montagu succeeded the conservative and Conservative Chamberlain. 1 Montagu

was reminded of the myth of:

... Shiva who cut his wife into fifty-two pieces, only to discover that he had fifty. two wives'

This is really what happens to the Government of India when it interns Mrs. Besani, 5

The daily De Inciter of Indonesia thought of a story from another religion. a-; n

'RAMASWAMI AYAR, 616. GUENON(192l ), 292 mock internment' (mutually agreed
upon by AB and authorities, lo trick Indians) is unsubstantiated The version of Indijn communis!
M.N. ROV(197l), 216, (hough unfriendly, is not such a conspiracy theory. 'Mrs Besanl rendered
a valuable service to ihe imperial cause so dear lo her. although the bureaucratic government did
not seem to appreciale her metits and made a pseudo- martyr of her'. The 'M' in Roy's name
stands for Manabendra; not Manabtenda. as in VAN BERGEN, 156, 161; etc. From among
Marxists in Indonesia, A Baars wrote, in 'Natioualisine in Briisch-liidic, (Shu)', HVW, 10-y-
1917, 224 British authorities now have even gone as far as to intern Mis BESANT, certainly nui
a revolutionary fighter. Her only sin was to believe in the sincerity of the English' objections,
which ate thai the Indians are supposed to be unable to rule their country. She fought that opinion
strongly, but in a childish way [with a 'moot Parliament' in Madras] ... But the English rulers do
not even tolerate her sincerely meant propaganda'.

^Quoted LOC. 27-9-1917. le blad, 'De inierncering van mevr. Besant'. Famous Bengal poet
Tagore was not a member of the Theosophical Society, though he occasionally worked with ihem

>WT, 7TJuly 1917, 360-1.

'jamnadas Dwarkadas in Nt. 25-8-1924, 28, attributed the appointment of Montagu to the
'unique agitation not only in India but in Great Britain and also in America' against Besant's
internment. TAYL0R(I992), 305-6, suggests pressure by US president Wilson may have
contributed to AB's release.

5 Edwin S. Montagu An Indian Diary, quoted TTJan. 1931, 278,

Annie Besanl, 1907-1933

compared Annie Besant's internment to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. 1 Indonesian
Marxist Semaoen compared her to his fellow Social Democrat Society executive member
Henk Sneevliet. then also facing government persecution for sympathy with the
movement of colonially ruled people. 1 Though not religious like the other comparisons,
Semaoen's was also very complimentary, as Semaoen himself then had a sharp political
conflict with Indonesia's TS leaders.

All this showed Annie Besant's prestige, also outside India and outside her
Theosophical Society. It also disproved Gregory Tillett's claim that opposition to Besant's
politics was general. As far away as Iceland, 3 the TS started a campaign to free her. In
the USA. this brought theosophists into conflict with the Department of Justice.' In
Australia, convention decisions of "theosophists supported her' politically. 5

Internment raised her already great popularity with Indians to its highest point ever. 6
She had to be freed on 16 September J9I7. 1 On 26 December, the Indian National
Congress elected her president. Practically unanimously: she got 45 voles. Ironically, her
rival who would soon push her into the background, Gandhi, got only one vole."

'Quoted TMNl, 1917. 338 The Java Bode, from Jakarta, quoted LOC. 27-9-1917, !e blad.
De interneenng van mevr. Besant', thought it strange of the government to iniern her. Wherever
we read about her political, work in India, we keep finding in it thai spirit of loyally lo England and
the British government, which she tries to drive home in her speeches lo Rruish Indians loo'. The
editorial of Indonesia's TS monthly, VAN LF,EUWEN<19I7B). 341-2, asked support Tor Besanc
'But. brothers, maintain vigilance, do not weaken in your struggle against the satanic being which
sels ii traps with seemingly beautiful promises, keep (he ranks closed. In the limes of danger unity
is everything, divisions bring us defeat. Jusi one doublfu) ihoughl of the grealncss and sincerity of
her whom we elected lo lead us at the head of ihe army which wants to fighl for divine ideals or
evolulion and fraternization, and then llic snake of darkness will gnaw its way to your heart before
you suspect ii "BE STRONG, BE COURAGEOUS, BE TRUE", lei ihis motto of our president
be ours in the hours of irial and struggle.'

\SEMA0EN(I917), 68,

J 7T, June 1918. 396f.

4 0£7XJuly/Aug. 1939.

5 ROE, 233.
if the British government had wanted to give an impulse to reach ihe ideal which ihc
awakening Brilish Indian has set before himself, it could have done no bcuer dian ihis*. A van
Lecuwen, 'Uil de pen der redactie'. TMNt, 1917. 338. TJIFTO MANG0£NK0ES0EM0(1928).
15: the internment 'of course, merely added fuel 10 the fire.'

^According (0 Montagu's diary, quoted SITARAMAYYA{1969), 137, AB violated her
pledges' 10 ihe government which were linked lo release. Sitaramayya's comments, ibid,: 'What
these pledges may be, when they were given, and to whom, we do not know!'

BAIG, 215. MECHAN1CUS wrote of five objections by opponents to AB's presidency. He
named only four: 1. Annie Besant was not Indian. 2, She might mix her religion wiih politics.
3. Her Home Rule league as an organisation mighi compete with Congress, 4, She 'did not take
into account the country's real needs', Mechanicus identified the opponents, perhaps simplistically,
with the Moderate wing of Congress, When Moderates later broke away, to form the National
Liberals jointly with Mrs Besant, these objections were not repeated

11.3

Annie Besant was the first woman Congress president, 1 the first one active as such
during the whole year of office, 1 not just at the once a year session. We saw she was die
first president to introduce resolutions on social issues in Congress. 3

But 1917-18 was the highest that Besant's, and her TS'. political influence in India
would ever get, 1917 was the year of the October revolution in Russia, which she
abhorred: and which would inspire many of her rivals in Indian politics, and of B.P.
Wadia's rivals in trade unionism. 1918 brought the end of the War, and with it, a dip in
the fortunes of theosophists' supporters in politics.

Indian national movement and British empire were on a collision course; India's side
needed a new leadership. In the view of one historian,' 1 during 1918, Annie Besant 'blew
hot and cold on the question of opposing the government, thereby alienating the Home
Rulers, who had hitherto looked to her for leadership'. In the years after 1918, her
blowing would become colder.

E.AFTERTHE WORLD WAR, THE WORLD TEACHER, 1918-1933

Congress rapidly became a mass movement. Annie Besant and her 'Mylaporc clique'
supporters {sometimes in alliance with unorthodox Muslim Jinnah and orthodox Hindu
Pandit Mohan Malaviya) isolated themselves from its majority, when (hey basically
accepted the British government's Montagu -Chelmsford proposals in September 1918;
and opposed Gandhi's satyagraha strategy of passive resistance to (he
f^saujKEjjy: . repressive Rowlatt Act. That act became law on 18 March 1919.

j In Delhi, protesters were shot. Mrs Besani isolated herself

further. She reacted:

as a Government's first duly is (o slop violencc-as in Glasgow the older
day-beforc a riot becomes unmanageable, brickbats must inevitably be

txJjZ,:^ .75

Gandhi, as
portrayed on a
Sri Lanka stamp

'Not Sarojini Naidu (who was really second), as in MURUGESAN and SUBRAMANYAN.
244. Margaret COLE, 230. says AB's presidency was 'an honour which had never been accorded
before to any woman, and probably will never be accorded again'. Two more women, Naidu
among them, had already been presidents when Cole wrote this, Annie Besani was not the first
Irish Congress president: in 1894 Irish MP Alfred Webb presided: VAN DEDEM, 482

^ITARAMAYYAflSo ), 350. So Mrs Besant was nol 'president or ihe Indian National
Congress from 1917 to 1923', UGLOW, 57; nor 'At the beginning or 1917' elected 'chairman';
HUSSEY, 377. To pay the travelling costs of AB as Congress president, and other purposes which
she might think fit, the TS inaugurated "The President's Fund', as its members 'know that to her
all work is sacred', Jinarajadasa in TMNi, 1918, 46.

3 See p. 3, note 6. Though AL1, 7 implies the contrary

4 OWEN(1971), 66.

Annie Besant, 1907-1933

answered by bullets in every civilised country. 1

Many more bullets: on April 13lh. led by General Dyer, the British army massacred a
thousand 2 unarmed protesters in Amritsar. Besant's ambiguous reaction to this: 'the
battle-cry at Amritsar. as the mob murders and bums, is "Gandhi ki jai'" 3 made her
critics even angrier.' 1 When, in the 1920's, as a National Liberal Federation leader, she
attempted to speak in public, hostile audiences often made this impossible. 5

In trade unions. Besant lost influence in 1922 when B.P. Wadia left both her TS and

trade unionism, 6

Annie Besani tended after encountering problems in the field of religion, to turn to
politics, and after failures in politics to increase emphasis on religion. Failures there
were; like when she spent much time trying to make her constitutional views on India into
law. The Coming of the World Teacher, which had not been so absolutely central to her
while Kristwamurti, me Vehicle, was in England during the war, became very central
again.

1928 was a high water mark of TS influence: in terms of overall membership,
45.098. Not in Indonesian or Indian politics, that had been ten years earlier. In British
politics though, the May 1929 general election was a climax; six FTS became MPs."

'Ni, 31-3-1919; reprinted B£SANT(19I9A). 52 Glasgow' referred to violence against the
Scois labour movement; an instance of ihe link in imperialism between domestic class and overseas
colonial oppression.

2 ALI, 25, There is a dispute over the exact number, Sarojini Naidu on Dyer's forces' 'My
sisters (Amritsar women] were stripped naked, they were flogged, they were outraged'.
SENGUPTA. 161.

3 *Viciory to Gandhi'; BESANT(I9I9A). 63.
1 TAYLOR(1992),317.

*The National Liberal Federation had been founded after a suggestion by Edwin Moniagu.
Secretary of State for India, in talks with Indians in Jan. 1918; MAJUMDAR{1969), 271.
DANGE. vol. I, 52. written in die twenties, considered 'Beasantine' [sic) as a synonym for
'ireacherous'. In early 1920. certainly in Madras she sull had goodwill lefi from earlier years
when she reiurncd io Adyar. 30.000 to 40.000 people came to welcome her. according to New
India, quoted TMNI 1920, 98-9.

6 PALME DUTT. 379 gives V/adia losing a court case as cause foi his leaving trade unionism
7 T1LLETT(1982}. 242. The ENI, vol. VI. 763. figure of 'more than 50.000' for 1930 is
incorrect. Figures in NUGRAHA(1989), 63 differ slighily.

8 T1NGAY. 221: the six were Peter Freeman. George Lansbury. David Graham Pole, John
Scurr. Ben Tilled, and Henry Charles Charleion; misspell ibid, once 'Charleston'. So roughly I %
of British MPs were theosophisls, vs. far less than 1% of the electorate. Ibid.. 225: (he I920's ..
has not been paralleled before or since in its (TS) history.' Tingay adds major Leslie Haden Guest,

II. 3

50000

40000

J0O0O

20000 i

toooo

1875

1902

1928

1W3

Total Theosophical Society membership, 1875-1933

Some Roman Catholics saw (his growth as a danger. Dutch poet Ernest Michel attacked
Krishnamurti and the TS:

thou, reincarnalors of Christ, polluters of Christ; thou, uranic rats; thou, infertile adulterers.

diou, poofy pooches; diou, lesbian curs; ... Christ ... thou hast degraded now into a little Indian

homosexual, into a nancy boy ... thou who has! castrated Christ, polluted and soiled him into the

filthy catamite ... these violators of children's innocence . these dirty animals, should not they

in this 'liberal' country be beaten to death with sewer pipes 1 '

Keen observers could see Krishnamurti fell ever more uncomfortable about his
Messiah-like pan. 3 August 1929 Krishnamurti disbanded (he Order of the Star, by then
the name of the former OSE. Weeks later, a world economic crisis broke out,

*lt seems (hat theosophy has impinged most on society at times of anxiety and
reorientation'. 1 These were times like that. Writers in The Tlieosophist expected so.
Rightly?

The thirties saw many people interested in new, untried political ideas. They were not
(hat different from the 1912-1918 period in this. Could Annie Besant, could the TS, like
then, increase iLS political influence by a new turn? A turn to the left? As

active in the British TS and MP from 1923-7; then, for Labour as were the others, though he later
stood as an Independent and as a Conservative. In 1950, he was created First Baron Haden-Guest of
Sailing.

'MICHEL, 7; 31.
! ROE, XII.

Annie Besani, 1907-1933

AS. Wickremasinghe, Ceylon general secretary, suggested?'

The membership of many organizations, active in very different fields, dependent on
members' contributions, shrank in the early 30's. 1 Some organizations went through an
upturn though (like the Swedish Social Democrat and the Dutch Communist parties). 5
Why not so the TS?

Annie Besani responded in 1929 by increased involvement in Congress politics. In
1930, there seemed to be signs of reconciliation with the Point Loma TS, now that her
old opponent (Catherine Tingley was dead. Her successor de Purucker invited an Adyar
delegation lo the 1931 celebration of H.P. Blavatsky's birth centenary. Besant accepted
for herself, and for Leadbeater, De Purucker accepted AB: but noi Leadbeater. And the
whole plan was off.

Annie Besani. after a tiring 1930 European lour, after falling down a staircase, and
after a long illness in Adyar, died there. 20 September 1933. Leadbeater succeeded her as
ES Outer Head, bui died in 1934.

So there had lo be a new President, and a new ES leader.

The sixth volume of the Cambridge History of India, on the 1858-1918 period, which
had appeared one year before her death, gave her only three brief mentions in lis 660
pages. That hardly did justice to her historical importance. But it was symbolic of the
decline in her political influence afler 1918

During the twenty-six years of Bcsani's presidency, 1 I 1 ,682 new members joined. J
She had obviously been a good propagandist In 1933 (hough, of ihc total 143.439 who
had joined in both Olcon's and her days, only 30,836 remained. Undoubtedly, this was
due to deaths as well. Theosophists, however, did not recruit most of their members from
income groups who died relatively young. Many musl have left preliy soon, 5

4. REINCARNATION AS REPRINT: GEORGE ARUNDALE, 1934-1945

She is the one person in our Society who commands love and reverence of both (be members and

the outsiders."

hi Molwani's 1933 view on Annie Besani, her successor, no mailer how popular with

, W1CKREMASINGHE(I932),

"Just an example: the membership of the Utrecht branch of the Dutch Society for the
Protection of Birds from 1931 till 1934 dropped from 427 till 315; Jaarverslage/i en bijdragen
Amsterdam, Nederlandsche vereeniging lot bescherming van vogels, 1937, 146; 152.

5 CPN membership went from 1,100 in 1930 to 5.500 in 1933. Circulation of De Tribune, their
daily, from some 3.000 in 1929. to 20,000 in 1933. L. DEJONG, vol. I, 101.

■"Calculated from the figures in: 7T Feb 1934, 698,

''No member, whether prominent or insignificant, has ever left us without becoming our bilter
enemy.' BLAVATSKY(I987), 253. That is too much of a generalization. The GS for Indonesia,
quoted TiNl July 1936, 109: It is not difficult to make people theosophists; but it is to keep them
(hat way.'

6 Kewal Moiwani. 'Theosophy and the Theosophical Society'. 7TOct. 1933, 75.

II 4

theosophists, would not have her influence on politics, outside ihe Society. In a laier
Indian historians' view, 'Most of its [the TS] importance in Indian life was due more to
the personality of Mrs. Besant than to any inherent strength of the movement'. 1

The presidency went 10 George Arundale. First, we will look at his life 2 before his
election.

A. HOME RULER, BOY SCOUT AND BiSHOP, 1878-1933

George Sidney Arundale was bom on the 1st of December 1878, the son of an English
congregational preacher. As his mother died in childbirth, his aunt, long-standing
theosophist Francesca Arundale, adopted him. So he was the first PTS to get a
theosophist upbringing from early childhood; maybe that was not a good preparation for
daring innovations.

In 1909, he became Principal of Central Hindu College. The Acting Chief Secretary
to the government of Madras wrote to the Home Secretary of Arundale in 1916, as
secretary of the Home Rule League; 'his name is mooted as possible political successor lo
Mrs. Besani', - 1 In 1917, he was interned with his President

He married Srirnati Rukmini Devi in 1920. She was Hie 16 year old daughter of TS
Brahmin parents. The marriage caused some stir: Arundale was a iheosophical Initiate.
And Annie Besant at (he Krishnamurti court case had stated (hat Initiates do not have sex.
So. new explanations had to be found (also when Jinarajadasa married later). 4

Rukmini Devi Arundale became well known as leader of (he Kalaksheira dance
group, and of the Young Theosophists. In 1953 she was a candidate for the TS
presidency; 5 in 1977 for the presidency of the Republic of India. This was a son ol
afterglow, long after the political prestige maximum thai Annie Besant had given (he TS.
Rukmini lost on both occasions, but sal in the Indian Senate, 6

In 1921. Lord Baden-Powell appointed George Arundale Provincial Commissioner oT
the Indian Coy Scouts Association. 1

'MAJUMDAR/RAYCHAUDHURI/DAITA, 887. K.P S. Menon. looking back ai his studeni
days in Madras in Many worlds revisited, Bombay. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1981, 43:
'Mrs Besant was my political idol. . . (Bui) I always had a discrust of the mumbo-jumbo of the
Theosophical Society'.

'Not his 'Lives', in previous incarnations, as described in: BESANT and
LEADBEATER(1913). 'Star name': Fides: ibid.. 7, He was promised a future as Buddha on the
planet Mercury; an offer withdrawn later; E, LUTYENS. 70.

'Utter of 17-11-1916. quoted BAKSHI, 49.

4 TILLETT{1982), 186.

; NETHERCOT(1963), 457. She ran against her brother Sri Ram

*NETHERCOT(1963), 406.

1 RANS0M(1938), 442.

C W- Leadbeaier as a Liberal

Catholic Church bishop; photo

T)\e Theosophical Society

George Arundale. 1934-1945 91

In August 1925, Dr. 1 Arundale was consecrated
bishop of the Liberal Catholic Church, closely lied lo
(he TS (Leadbeaier was Presiding Bishop}. 5 He often
went to The Netherlands: an important LCC centre
was in Huizen. and in Ommen the OSE held its Star
Camp 1 mass meetings. Dutch theosophists had some
influence in newly emerging radio broadcasting.

Arundale also founded a commercially successful
theosophical radio station in Australia, called 2GB
(=reincarnation of Giordano Bruno= Annie Besani).

B.MEN AND GERMANS, 1933-1945

In 1933. membership was 14,262 lower than five
years earlier. Members spoke of 'crisis in the
Theosophical Society'; 5 though in his 1931
convention leclure, Hircndra Nalh Datta said'

I cannot feci any alarm' aboul its future, for 11 is not a
mere human irisuiution li was founded under (he
orders of the Mailers. 11 is therefore Their societv and

II caunoi die

Mrs Besam's death broughl the TS iis first presidential election with more than one
candidate. With two candidates; Arundale produced letlcrs in which (he Masters
appointed him as rightful heir, and heavily dcfeaied opponent Ernest Wood. The
TheoxophiH had refused 10 print Wood's election manifesto.

Differences had not been aboul the Fiihrcr who had started his Thousand Years
German Empire earlier (hat year. Reacting lo a letter in the 1933 Tlteosophisi from
Germany's ex-Order of (he Star in (he Easi leader and translator ot A( the Feet of ihe

'ROE. 296' Docior 'honoris causa, from Ihe would-be Iheosophical world university' (which
never col off ihe ground) Contrary 10 ihis, "De nieuuc Vooriutcr tier 1 heosofisehc Vcreenigiug',
TiNI Nov 1934. 152 chimed he was a Cambridge LI..D. M. LUTYENS<1975), 42 and 214:
Arundale had a Cambridge Moral Science honours degree lie himself was principal of the World
University, of which he wrote: 'Wc shall not ask someone to grant us a charter, so as 10 make our
degrees respectable and approved by the world , ihe degrees that are conferred in the name of the
Master-lhosc shall be recognised by the world, as no degrees conferred by human agency can ever
be'. Arundale wrote: 'The World Universiiy is an embodiment of part of Krishnamurti's nature '
Herald oj the Star. Sept 1 925; quoted T1LKEMA( 1 932), 27.

%' 'the Lord Manreya himself; NETHERC0T(I963). 364.

J VAN ZEYTVELD, vol, [I. 428, incorrectly says ihe LCC separated from' lire TS.

J T1LLETT(1982), 238; Huizen is 'about iwelve miles from Ommen.' Actually, ii is more than
seventy miles. During the Second World War, nazis used Star Camp premises as a concentration
camp.

5 7T May 1930. 97f. NETHERCOT(1963), 448 quotes lire English section: 'the general loss of
ihe Society's influence in the community.'

11. 4

Master. Hugo Vollrath, defending nazi persecution of Jews as "racial hygiene', non-
candidate Jinarajadasa denounced anti-Semitism. 1 Arundale in the early years of Hitler's
career as Leader and Reich Chancellor tended to give him the benefit of doubt:

I wonder, by the way. how many Theosophical brethren perceive in this swerving of Europe
in the direction of dictatorship the first beginnings of a real United States of Europe. We must
(earn to be able to discern great forces at work even in forms which are distasteful to our own
individual temperaments. Hitler and Mussolini are Men whether we approve of their methods
or not. They could not have reached their pre-eminence had they not in them the stuff of
which Men are made, and be it remembered dial Men are by no means necessarily confined to
the stuff of which we personally think they should be made ... If they love Utile children and
are tender towards them almost all else may not only be forgiven but may even be justified, 3
One of Arundale's early presidential decisions was banning former World Teacher
Krishnamurti from the Adyar grounds; from the site of many memories of his youth. The
TS lifted that ban only in 1980, a few years before Krishnamurti 's death i

Arundale was popular with many theosophists. He retained popularity with some non-
TS Indians from his CHC and Home Rule League days. He was not less interested in
politics than Annie Bcsant, proposing to change the Objecls of the TS, to expressly
include 'politics'," In 1937, he campaigned

to show thai Theosophy is the veritable Key to every situation, to every impasse, to every
conflict . in nationalism, in internationalism, in all (he sciences in politics. 5
He did not have Besanl's personal and political prestige, inside and outside of India,
though. Mainly for India, he founded the short-lived political fortnightly Conscience on 2
February 1939.* That year, he also became president of the New India League.

T!ie Tfieosopltist now reprinted old articles by H.P. Blavatsky; it had done that very
rarely twenty years earlier.' Already during Annie Besanl's illness, the monthly had
reprinted old articles by her, without noting differences between the times when (hey
were written and the limes when ihey were reprinted.

Arundale did that especially after the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, On

' W. TTJune 1912, 327. VOLLRATH(1933). Jinarajadasa's reaction TTOci 1933. 1 1 1
: ARUNDALE(1933A)

J WESS[NGER(I989), 97, A few years before the ban, Arundale had written fCmlmaji; Light-
bringer; not included in the Bibliography of works by Dr. Arundale in: PERSONAL MEMORIES,
82. Neither was his 1912 pamphlet Alcyone and Mizar, on his first meeting with Krishnamurti in
1910: 'never had I looked upon such a face as his-it was the face of the Boy Christ in incarnation
before me'. Quoted M, LUTYENS(1975), 310.

'PMA. 77" Sept, 1939, 501, Ibid.. 504: we do not talk nearly enough about Theosophy in
polities'.

5 GSA in TTVOct. 1937, 221, quoted: OELC, Oct, -Nov, 1937 'At the periscope',
''PMA, S39ff. In a speech on 22 July 1934, Arundale said that 'his personal duty as President
of the Theosophical Society was to stand for India and see that she won Home Rule and become a
self-governing nation in the Commonwealth'. Quoted OELC Jan. -Feb. 1935.
'See tables, p. 39lf.

George Arundale, 1934-1945

India, before, during, and after ihe war Arundale had stuck to Annie Besant's 'tested and
tried' line. As Gandhi frankly admitted, 1 from the Boer War till about 1918. that line,
apart from smaller political and personal differences with Besant, had been basically his
line, and that of other Indian politicians too: India as an equal partner within the British
Empire, Indian military support for Britain in wartime.

Annie Besant's stand was becoming art anachronism to sharp-eyed observers in World
War I; when reprinted by Arundale in World War II, it was even more so.

George Sidney Arundale died in Adyar, 12 August 1945; 1 just at a time when the TS
re-established contacts with cut-off sections on the European continent. Total worldwide
membership was a little above 30,000. TS historical self-portraits like RANSOM(1938),
RANSOM(1950); contrary to the earlier JINARAJADASA(1925). gave no figures on
members. Would they contrast with Arundale's claim 'Our membership is steadily on the
increase'?' At least one 1945 writer to the editor of the Tlieosophisi. H.C. Samuels,
thought that the defeat of fascism that year also necessitated a critical took at the TS' own
history and ideology, from HPB on/

5. REINCARNATION FROM BRAZIL: C. JINARAJADASA, 1945-1947

Curuppumulagge Jinarajadasa* was the first Asia-born ITS from 1946 till 1953,
succeeding Arundale as only candidate in the election. The last six years of liis presidency
are no concern of Ihis book, as they are after the political independence of his country oT
birth, Ceylon, and his country of long-time residence, India.

A. FROM COLOMBO TO HIROSHIMA. 1875-1945

Jinarajadasa was born in 1875, ihe second son of parents he later described as poor and
simple-minded. 1 ' Leadbeater first met CI in 1888. when he was 13 years old, and one of
only 55 pupils in his Colombo Buddhist Boys' school, later to develop into Ananda
College.' He joined Leadbeater when he went back to England in 1889

An eminent Singhalese who was well acquainted with Leadueater\ true character, even at that
time, in Ceylon, told me he was in the house when die boy's |CJ's| rather came with a
revolver, intending to shoot Leadbeater unless he gave up Ins son. My informant, being a
devout Buddhist, feared violence, and persuaded him to desist, with (he result that he lost his

'ALl, 36f

J 77rf(l951), 295. Though the 1954 KATHOL1EKE ENCYCLOPED1E. vol 23, 69f. called
'H. Arundale' and de Purucker [| 1942] 'current leaders'.

'TTFeb. 1939, WT. RANSOM(1938), I: 'ever -expanding. ' But see figures OELC March-Apr.
1939.

"'Jews-Race or Nationality?' by H.C. Samuels, 7T, Dec. 1945, 120. denying there was a
Jewish 'race', contrary to official TS views.

spelling 'Jinarajadrasi' only found in NCE.

6 JiNARAJADASA(1938). H8f.

7 LEADBEATER(1933B), 197.

son, who was removed to a ship by his determined mentor [CWL). '

In London, he went to live with Leadbeater. Leadbeater told Jinarajadasa there that
he considered him the reincarnation of his own brother Gerald, who had been killed by
Brazilian Indians. It is improbable, 1 though, that Leadbeater ever lived in Brazil or had a
brother named Gerald.

Jinarajadasa graduated in Sanskrit and philology at St. John's College, Cambridge, in
1899. He helped Leadbeater in his clairvoyant investigations of leading theosophists'
previous lives, and of occult chemistry. Though an Initiate, in J916 Jinarajadasa too
married: English Dorothy Graham.

Jinarajadasa became TS vice president in 1921, succeeding A. P. Sinnett who had
died. In 1928 Annie Besant sidetracked him, and American Warrington 1 took over the
office. In 1934, he succeeded Leadbeater as ES Outer Head,

B.FROM ARYAN EMPIRE TO INDEPENDENCE. 1946-1947

1945. Neither defeated nazi Germany nor 'victorious' Britain turned out to be the nucleus
of any world empire, Aryan or otherwise (though it took Suez 1956 for some politicians
to find out).

Once again, after the war, a TS president could travel to continents far away from
Adyar. Jinarajadasa was formally installed as PTS on 17 February 1946. Then, Vice
President N. Sri Ram, Mrs Arundale's brother, put the ring that HPB had left to Annie
Besant, on his finger.' 1

Jinarajadasa marked the modifying of TS views to fit better into an era in which ideas
of democracy were more, and ideas of racial superiority were less accepted than before
A former leader of the Buddhist Theosophical Society and editor of its paper. Baron
D.B. Jayatileke, became minister of soon to become independent Ceylon. Jinarajadasa
marked India's independence by presenting Jawaharlal Nehru, ex-FTS, first prime
minister, with a copy of an edition of Ashoka's edicts. But the vision of an Aryan world
empire, much greater than Ashoka's, had died quietly.

PART III.WHOM DID THEOSOPHY ATTRACT?

Another great merit about Theosophy is the insight it has shown from the beginning mio die value
of our caste system as a preservative of the nation's spirituality, and as preventing Hindus From
disappearing as a nation from the face of the earth.'

This quote by the prime minister (dewan) of Mysore princedom, apart from seeing
nations as based on religions, sees a form of social stratification as conditional to both
nation and religion. We too will discuss caste, class and related issues, as they figured in
the history of theosophists, before we get to matters like nations in later pans.

The next chapters are on social stratification and social conflicts. First, about from
which social categories people joined the Theosophical Society, Then, on criteria for
recruitment to it. The TS rose at a time when caste or class as principles in societies were
increasingly challenged. So, this part is also a preparation for Part IV, which will look at
where they stood in these controversies, and at how they related to political currents thai
focused on these problems.

1. SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF THEOSOPHISTS

A.THF AMERICAS AND EUROPE

From what social backgrounds did the TS attract people 10 its branches in many
countries? In the Americas and Europe, one can say they were front the higher social
strata. That the Theosophical Society in England

was an overwhelmingly upper and middle-class preserve needs, no further demonstration than

to note lhal ils London meetings in ihe iRSOs closed al the end of the Season.

At London lodge in (he 1890's, and in Hargrove's US breakaway TS from Judge-

Tingley's breakaway, evening dress was mandatory at meetings.' At the 1936 TS Geneva

Congress, the Duchess of Hamilton 1 , with long-time FTS Miss L. Lind-af-Mageby, co-

'CRUMP(1923>. 56.

I T[LLETT(I982), U-1S, versus LEADBEATER(191 1)

'See OELC June 1939.
4 RANSOM(1950), 163.

'RAO09J3), 152.

3 BURHELD. 28. NETHERCOT(1960), 292; id. (1963), 348. Season when those thought
important enough lo meet Queen Victoria were presented al Court.

i OELC Dec. 1938, T1LLETT0982), 54. HPB advised to ward off evil by wearing rings with
jewels matching one's 'planet of (he day' on successive days. Few working class men or women
were able to arford a set of at least seven jewelled rings. In all 1930 issues of Tlie Tlieosophisi
Emma C. Fleming from Los Angeles advertised: 'Precious and Semi- Precious Stones, suited to
your birth date, temperament, and occupation'. She also had real estate for sale near the theosophic
centre for the new race in Ojai.

4 Wifeof Rudojf Hess' 1941 would-be negotiations partner. N£THERC0T(1963), 333: she was
a friend of Mrs Besant. VAN BOSBEKE, 72: Hess was a member of the 'Golden Dawn' (rounded
in the 1880's by people from the TS orbit hke Wesicott and Yeais); and of its spinoff OTO.

officials of British anti-vivisectionists, jointly entertained the delegates, 1

The Antwerp branch paper was in French. 2 Then, less than 4% of the city's
population was French speaking,' virtually coinciding with the highest income groups.

The Theosophist 1903-04 reported, suppl. XVHI, on the Panchama education fund:
'E. Empain, Brussels Branch: 59 Rps, II anna.' Edouaxd-Louis-Joseph Empain. [852-
1929, was one of his country's richest bankers. He owned businesses in many fields, for
instance in Paris Metro construction and Chinese railways. When many Belgian bankers
were cautious about financing King Leopold H's Congo colony adventure, he was not.
For his contribution to colonial activities, the monarch awarded him the title of Baron.
The next king, Albert !, appointed him a colonel in 1914, and in 1918 a general and royal
aide de camp. After the First World War, he acquired German chemical industry interests
and founded Progil. 4

Support for Adyar iheosophy in the Americas varied; from Surinam's lone
Paramaribo lodge, with the military Fort Zeelandia as its address and attached to the
Dutch TS, to Cuba which had the world's highest per capita FTS % in 1942,' and the
Society's naiive US with its numerous lodges.

In Brazil, a great many of the relatively well-off were spiritualists in the mould of
Frenchman Kardec." The relationship of Brazilian Kardecists to the TS was 7 good.
Remarkably, then, TS membership numbers there were low.*

In South America's second largest country. Argentina, TS membership was not large
cither. Though when Olcoll lectured in 1900 at the Government Palace, he noted.

Very distinguished audience of 400 Senators. Deputies, Judges of High Courl, Ministers of

Cabinet, Professors, etc , and many ladies. Spoke over an hour in French fluently. Mud)

'7T Oct 1936, 4 Miss Lind was related to Swedish industrial isls, owners of Liljchohnen
stearin factory, and a sawmill; they were friends of cugenist Ellen Key: NORLAND!: R. 44K

'TT March 1902, 376. Later, in ihc I940's. a 'Flemish-speaking Lodge' was there:
RANSOM(I950), 157.

Percentage of Antwerp 1900 population over 15 years of age, speaking French only, or Frendi
plus German only. 3,96. There, a large majority spoke Dutch only, also, a smaller category whose
mother longuc was Duich, had learni some French ai school Computed from: Statistique dr in
Betgique Population. Renseignement General du Jl deceinbre 1900 Brussels. Ministerc de
llnterieur ct de I'lnstrucuon Publiquc, 1903, Vol. 3, Repartition des Habiianis, 374f.
BESANT(1893), 48 was unaware or all ihis

J Paul Jeanjot. Empain', Biographie Nalionale de Belgique. vol. 34. Brussels. Bruylant, 1968.
265-9, This does not mention the TS; only Empain's interest in Egypt: he was buried in a
Heltopoliscrypi

i RANSOM(1950). 127, A. H[eymans].. 'De Uilkijk', 7"MAY 1927, 446.

6 WiLSON(l975), 1 1 7 ff .

7 RANS0M<I938), 466; writing of 1924.

8 The TS Brazil Section started in 1920; General R. Pinto Seidl was its GS. To have its own
section, a country must have at least 7 lodges, with at least 7 members each.
J1NARAJADASA0925), 260.

Social background of theosopiusts

praise and applause.

l.Nobility

British TS executive member H.O. Wolfe Murray, among others, linked the hierarchy of
the nobility of the visible world to the invisible spiritual hierarchy. 2 The nobility was
over-represented among members: 1 Russian and Italian princes, Russian Princess Ada
Troubetzkoy living in Italy." British Countess Muriel De La Warr, Viscountess Verena
Maud Churchill,' and (he Earl of Crawford^ German Countess Schacli. [n Spain, there
was the 'Due de Plasencia'."

Countess Constance Wachimeister was the widow of the Swedish foreign minister.
She and her son were prominent TS members. She was one of Annie Besajit's main
supporters in the conflict with Judge. The Countess, however, got a conflict of her Own
with her later. General Secretary in the early 1920's or the combined Denmark and
Iceland section was Countess Bille Brahe Sclby. 9 The Dutch East Indies theosophical
monthly described Countess ME. de Prozor, wife of a czar 1 s ambassador:

Madame Prozor is one of the most reforming Russian theosopiusts, who endeavours to spread
the theosophical teachings and ideas, mainly within the "haute voice" of intellectuals. Before
the war. she had a very aelive part in spreading ihe theosophical thoughts. Hrsi in Geneva, and
later in Nizza |Niee], where she had a villa in the most splendid quarter, which she opened for
the reprcsentalives of Art and Science
James Webb did not base lib remark: 'Out there was nothing aristocratic about

'QuoiedMURPIILT, 28K.

'The Occult Origin of Nobility', TT Dec. 1910, 349-358 Ibid. 354 a (able with ADEPT-KING'
aiihciop, and ■ Probationary disciples-Knights' ,u the bottom. .Sec IT Nov 1910, IfV*

J See for (his (Crm p. 6. it 2.

'TT. Jan. 1890. Ixx. The aum of Prince Wolkoiisky had already joined in IKK4. in Nice, ai
Lady Caithness' palace GDI.. TTQa, 1905. 5.

5 NETI1ERC0T(I963>, 197. She was a daughter of (he (bird Earl of Lonsdale. Leadbcatcr
called her Roxana in bis clairvoyant writings; TILLEITf 1982), 116 Her husband Vieior Alben
was Conservative Whip in (he House of Lords, Lord Chamberlain a( (he coronaiion of Edward
VII, and director of numerous companies. M. LUTYENS0975). 115. Wl.o was Wlw Vol. 111.
London, Adam. 1947; 252-3.

6 NETHERCOT(I960).29I.

1 NET)1ERC0T()963). 117,

"ODL, Tf Jan. 1904. 198. Due (French) = duq*e (Spanish). The founder of (wo Spanish TS
magazines* was Marquis Francisco Moniohu y de Togores; TT, Aug. 1905, 693. Don Jose Xifre
(not: Xifre], Spanish GS, was an 'aristocrat'; R1CHARDU5. 15; of the royal court:
BESANT(1920B), 107.

, 7T1920. cover.

l0 rMA//(1921), 81. On her husband, see p. 147.

111. I

Theosophy' 1 on quantitative data, 'Ft attracted the same sort of recruit which such
movements have always attracted', he said, quoting about the medieval lower strata
intelligentsia.

May one transplant categories from 19th century Russia centuries back in time and
many wersts west, then centuries forward again? Webb names examples: Wedgwood as
'frustrated clergyman'; he was not a poor village preacher, though, but a scion of rich
ceramics factory owners,' And 'lawyer Bail lie- Weaver' became a judge.

2, Business

Theosophy often sees as its predecessor hermetic philosophy, called after writings
ascribed to Greek god Hermes,' He was not just the god of deep philosophical mysteries,
but also of business.

In Bryan Wilson's view, 'manjpulatiomst' movements, as he considers I
the TS, pattern their organization after institutions of industrial society:
educational institutions, 'business corporations and mail-order companies',
rather than after older religious bodies' types.' 'Doing business plus occult-
ism certainly is more interesting than only doing business'. 5 Lecturing in I
Benares in 1912, Annie Besant said she adopted the methods oTthe American |
Trusts for her World Teacher mission.

Businessmen were well represented in the Theosophical Society. Thomas
Alva Edison was an early, (hough not long-time, member. Later ITS from
the US business world were Mary Dodge, of the car faciory
family, 7 Alice Dupont 'of gunpowder fame". Colonel Lauder, and Henry
Hoicliener. manager of thirties Hollywood film star John lkrrymorc. v

Dupont logo

'WEBB(I971). 65. Bui ibid., 64: 'Wbai son oi person joined Hie Theosuphists"' ... Ttiosc . to
whom every lick of their drawing-room clock spell boredom . '

He was James Wedgwood; not Josiau, as with CAMPBELL, I25T

3 See p. 25. The equivalent of Roman god Mercurius (Mercury).

*W]LSON(1975), 15; 42,

*The Vienna correspondent of daily De Awndpmt in 1921; as reprinted TMN1, 1921, 428-33,
433.

6 BROOKS(l914A), hi.

1 TINGAY,222.

s Dupom de Nemours; SANTUCCI, 9.

'7T May 1925, 144. Movie stars Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford joined the TS-linkcd
Order of the Round Table; J, Kruisheer, 'Redact to nee le Aanleckemngen', TMNI 1927. 2 TS-like
movements had much support in southern California. Had this anything to do with fast up-and-
down movements, not just financially, but also emotionally, of the movie business? A so far
successful actor whose new movie flops, may not become poor, but may still become depressed

Social background of Iheosophisls

In England, import merchant John Yarker (1833-1914) helped to found the TS; later,
industrialist Bibby was a prominent FTS, Daniel N, Dunlop 1 was long-time director of
(he British Electrical and Manufacturers Association. In (he 1890's he was editor of the
Irish Theosophist. 2 After the Judge split, he followed first Point Lotna, then ArJyar.
From !910 till 1914 he had his own theosophical magazine, The Path. Finally, he led the
British anthroposo phists .

Theosophist Selleger was the Dutch Paper Manufacturers Association's chairman.*
TS leader Cochius was presiding director of (he Leerdam glass-works. Another director
of that firm, the Hilvcrsum industrialist F,E. Farwerck. figured prominently in the Dutch
TS and co-masonry linked (0 it, 5

3, Military, clergy, and judiciary

Officers and their wives and children were strongly represented in Theosophical Society
membership. 'It is interesting to notice how many officers of the army we count among
our members. '* Quite some were colonels and their families. Like: Portugal's general
secretary Colonel Oscar Garcao,' Col. Boggiani, GS in Italy", president-founder Olcott.

Ideas claiming to bring order into chaos may become influential in such an environment
WILSON(I970J. 148, on Christian Scientists 'several prominent theatre and film actors and
aciresses have also been among their number'.

'0£7XOct-Nov. 1935.

1 TIRYAKIAN(1974), 165. 1895 Dublin lodge President: NETHERCGT(!963), 41.
In 1904. he was president of ihc Battcrsca lodge in London. Annual Keporl on 1904, 97

4 7T, August 1945, 183

S 77J Feb 1931. 102. In the Dutch TS' General Council since 1917; Tli March 1917, 25. He
was. apart from still other directorships, managing director of the Dutch carpels trust VENETA;
and wrote on occult Germanic archaeology (also ps B J. van Zuylen). He was the propaganda
leader of the Dutch National Socialists in the 1930s BRUGMANS(I938). 466.

''Annie Besant. 'Headquarters' Notes'. AdB Aug 1910, 227

1 77 Jan. 1931, back cover. Well known Portuguese author Fernando Pessoa was the grandson
of General Joaquin Pessoa and stepson of a eomaitdonte . GEP8, vol. xxi, 481. In 1915, he
translated LeadbcaLer's Manual of Tlteosoplty into Portuguese. From 1915-26 he translated
Leadbeater, Mrs Besant, and other theosophists. In a December 1915 letter to Mario de Sa-
Carneiro he expressed both admiration and doubt about theosophy. W1LLEMSEN(1983), 69-70.
BARAHONA & LEGL1SE-COSTA, 54. Ibid.. 37 claim influence from 'the Rosicrucian league';
I doubt their '1888' founding year. Pessoa was also influenced by HPB: LEGL1SE-COSTA , 161;
W. Old, FTS ('Sepharial'), ibid., 160-1: Let, Editions Adyar . ibid., 160; Alan Leo, ibid., 162; and
A. Crowley, ibid., 70; 156.

*JINARAJADASA(I925), 258. TT 1909, 397: major. HSO's Report to the Convention, 27-29
Dec. 1903. 7: [In Italy) 'among our recruits are a number belonging to the military and naval
services.*

100

;//./

corresponding secretary- founder Biavatsky. G.R S. Mead, 'son of an artillery colonel', 1
Co! A E. Powell/ Col Cleaiher and his wife Alice, 'the wife of Colonel Murray"', in
Australia Col. Prentice and Lieut -Col. Braund*.

With him, we come to officers a bit higher or lower than colonels. President of the
Vidya Lodge, Nice, France was 'Le General Bazaine-Hayter' . J There were General
Blasius von Schemua in Austria,' Rosa Frances Swjney, married to a major-gene?al;
Major-General MacKay in Australia:* and Major-General J.H. MacRae in the USA,
Lieut. -Col. A.G.B. Turner duly paid his 1915 membership dues. 10 Major Graham Pole
was Scots GS; Major Armstrong was in the Dublin lodge during the early 1890's." Also,
there were Captain Sidney Ransom, Captain Ma* Wardall (USA), 11 Captain Sellon of the
TS in New York, 13 Captain Adalbcrth de Bourbon " Captain Lloyd Jones of Australia 1 ?
'capitaine Ftilchefr, president of the only Bulgarian lodge at the time." US warrant

'MEADE, 404 US Col. Arthur Conger, successor to de Purucker, had joined in Judge's lime
He served in the Spanish, Philippine, an J First World Wars: then became military attache to
Germany and Switzerland. OELC, March 1932.

; 7TJan. 1931, 278ff. He wrote Tlte Rationale of Reincarnation

J RANSOM(l93S), 140 'General Murray' flCW, II, 503.

'ROE, 219

s 7TFcb I9M, 791

*GOODRlCK-CLARKE(1985). 44 Von Schemua was also a member of die Ust-Geselkckaft , a
fan club of occultist and anti-Semiie Ejuidn von List, of which the Vienna TS was a corporate
member, G00DRICK-C[.ARKF_(I9S6). 107.

'HOE, 173

*ROI:, 218 He visual Adyar in the 30s: died 1936 TTJan. 1937, 291

'NirniERCOT(1963). 3X4.

10 77~ supp! Pcb 1915.

"77/AV, 7

u 7TAtig, 1930,654,

"ibid , 653- He succeeded Hamersler as TS ireasurer. Married to TS Publicity Officer, ex-N Y
lecturer in (he history of art Barbara Sellon, who died 1936. 7TNov. 1936, 160.

H He had somewhat dubious claims of being grandson of King Louis XVI and Queen Mane
Antoinette of France He founded the first Dulcli lodge 'Post Nubila Lux', in The Hague in 1881 .
R1CHARDUS, 5. His death in 1887 caused much trouble for that lodge. His successor as its
president was Mrs Hcrmance De Neufville-van Karnebeek, 1845-1937: KLE1N(1983), 89, She
joined Tingley's TS later; HOUK£S(1995), 33. She was related to the 1885-1891 Dutch Liberal
foreign affairs minister Abraham PC. van Karnebeek, whose son Herman Adriaan also became
foreign affairs minister from 1918 to 1927

l5 Of the Royal Field Artillery; DAS(I947>, V, 11; VII.

"TS Annual report on 1903, 111.

Social background of theosophists

101

officer Captain G. Ragan started the Philippines TS.' Vice -Admiral Prince Fabrizio
Ruspoli represented his navy at the post-World War I Versailles conference, and in 1921
was Italy's League of Nations representative. 2 Last, Argentine naval Commandant
Fernandez,' French Commander Courmes; and Mrs Gebhard, H.P. Blavatsky's host in
Germany; married to a businessman, but 'widow of an army officer'. 4

Also well represented were (sometimes ex-) Christian clergymen, and their wives and
children. Generally speaking, in the late nineteenth cenrury, the clergy had relatively
higher positions on the ladders of pay and social prestige than they have now. 3 Clergy
(family) background TS examples: Leadbeater. Besant, de Punrcker (a parson's son),
parson's ex-wife Alice A. Bailey, former self-styled 'Fundamentalist' manager of
Christian British soldiers' homes in India, 6 Alice Leighton Cleaiher, 1880s London lodge
president Anna Kingsford, G.S. Arundale, Schoenmaekers (Dutch ex-Roman Catholic
priest). Sir Robert Kotze, 7 Woodward? James Pryse\ United States general secretary
A. Fullerton, 10 US episcopal priest Rev. Dr. Currie," an ex-Mother Superior of a Spanish
nunnery, 13 a Dutch ex-Salvation Army officer.

our Branch in Washington, D.C., is rapidly growing, and receiving into Us membership

men of note in the political and scientific world."
We will meet politicians in various chapters.

Judges and their families joined in several countries (Russack, Musaeus, Humphreys.

'TTJune 1933. 261. He proposed a Phillipines-ludonesia federauon for the TS with English
and Malay as languages: TiNS Nov. 1934. 122.

; M. LUTYENS(1975), 111; 131. He died 1936. 7T Jan. 1937. 291. OELC * At the periscope*,
March 1936. Star name 'Leo': BESANT and LEADBEATER<1913), 7.
•'TS Annual report on 1 901 . 30.
J CRUMP(1923), 63.

1 T1LLETT(I982), I9f. In the Anglican diocese of Winchester, about 1878, candidates for
priesthood had to be graduates of one of the four prestigious universities of Oxford, Cambridge,
Durham or Dublin; or pass a special examination. In Uadbeater's parish of Bramshoii, he was the
only rector or curate who was not a graduate of Queens College in Oxford (but his uncle by
marriage, the Rector, was).
*BAU,EY(I95I), 80.

'Son of a minister in the South African NG (Reformed) church.
*BAC, 1920, 10,

9 WE8B(19'7l), 210: son ofa US Presbyterian minister.
'"IT 1905-1906, suppl., XXXIX.
"TTJuly 1904.637.

[I ODL, TT Apr. 1904. 386: French-born Madame Le Roux.
l3 7TSept. 1904,758.

I4 TS Annual Report on 1903. 37: Italian senator, FTS, Count Gamba, had died. TTNov. 1936.
189: Madame Cosma 'widow ofa Rumanian statesman.'

102 IT- 1

Desider Szentmariay, 1 Cimon Prinaris, 1 Woodroffe, 5 Khandalvala, Subramanfya Iyer).

B.INDIA

The three last named bring us to India. One can gather something about the social back-
ground of those interested in theosophy when it started in that country, from the Pioneer
of 8-12-1879. It wrote on a Bombay TS meeting:

several hundred of the most influential natives of the city -bankers, merchants, mill-owners,

pundits, pleaders, etc.

Indian society has four main caste divisions. These four have numerous subdivisions,
differing from region to region. Contrary to many foreign -and its own conservative
Hindu- theorists, India in practice has always had some social mobility. We know some
of the ways in which this happened as 'Sanskritiiaiion', used for upward mobility of
sub-castes in their entirety,' Cases of mobility for individuals or families occurred as
well: (he name Gandhi means 'grocer'; Mahatma Gandhi's ancestors' occupation for
generations. But his grandfather managed to become prime minister of a small
principality (which in theory was a hereditary job again}.

Class differs from caste, as ii refers to the relationships of groups of people, of social
caiegories, lo contemporary means of social production. Every individual everywhere has
a direct or indirect relationship (o (hose means of produciion.

Caste in south Asia has coexisted for centuries with class. One might call caste the
ghost of an earlier society's class divisions, 6 haunting iis offspring, sometimes long aficr
the economic and social forces thai generated it, disappeared or changed; propped up,
sanctified, by orthodox Brahmanic interpretation of Hindu religion, sometimes also
sanctioned by other religions in the subcontinent.

An example of ihe co-existcncc of caste and class in India is ihc social category of
Brahman cooks. Orthodox Brahmans may' only eat food cooked by fellow Brahmans (in-
cluding themselves, or their families). If a Brahman happens to belong to a rich class,
deriving a relatively high income from his relationship to (he means o( social produciion.
then he can afford to hire another Brahman as a cook. Thus, he frees himself and Ins
family from kitchen labour. In class terms, one can categorize Brahman cooks as
workers, not always the best paid of the working class. In a way, they are comparable (o

'FEKJETE, 88: 1906 Hungarian High Court judge and TS chairman. Marie Loke was die
granddaughter of a Dutch Higli Court judge; DE WELDE. 9.

; GS for Greece; TTNov, 1936. 192.

J Of the Calcutta High Court RJCHARDUS, 2A.

"Quoted TT Dec, 1937,

J JALALI, 172.

'RAMABA1 SARASVAT1, 6: 'Without douli, "caste" originated in die economical division
of labour'.

'Based more on custom than on religious law texts, which sometimes expressly allow die
contrary; RAMABA1 SARASVATI, 5.

Social background of theosophists

103

Annie Besant during the hard times in ihe Folkestone vicarage, just after her separation.'

The main caste divisions are the four varnas: literally: 'colours'. According to many,
this refers to the days after about 1500 B.C., when light-cornplexioncd invaders from
beyond the Himalayas^ attacked, and partly subjugated, darker skinned people retreating
southwards. Or was 1500 B.C. too recent? '... the primeval Brahmans ... had been
initialed in Central Asia" ^ according to Blavatsky, ai least 850,000 B.C.

Below these four divisions are the numerous casteless. Orthodox tradition sees them
as illegal offspring of parenis, differing in caste. Historians see many of them as
descendants of those who were not immediately conquered by the invaders, so noi
included in the four varnas when they arose. Buddhists see many as Buddhists who came
under Hindu rule, and as losers in a conflict were put at the bottom of the social ladder.

The idea of casteless persons had influence in Europe. Lanz von Liebenfels thought
his lower class opponents were hereditarily inferior; he called them Tschandalen 1 (from
Sanskrit; Candala).

The Brahman Maharajahs of Benares gave to the theosophists their family motto,
which the TS translated as 'There is no religion higher than truth', and land to build
Central Hindu College on. Bhagavan Das, son of a Brahman rich landlord' and
prominent TS member, was from the same region.'

Later, membership centred in south India, especially Tamil Nadu. According to
Kenneth W. Jones, Theosophical Society members in the Telugu-speaking districts north
of Madras were 'aristocrats, officials, and members of the educated middle class' "
Washbrook calls Annie fiesani's supporters in Tamil Nadu (he 'Mylapore clique',' aficr
the suburb bclween Adyar and Madras city centre. Her associates in south India were
almost all Brahmans, 6 In 1912, Brahmans were only 3.2% of Madras presidency's male
population. Vet. they had 55% of (he region's appointment for the highest offices to

'See p 71 Adyar TS headquarters employed a Brahman cook; TS Genera) Report on 1905, 5.
; JINARAJADASA(I923), 49 they 'gradually became browned by die Indian sun' K Motwani,
India's message (0 ihc World', TT Oct 1937: '!( was also ihraugti the medium of (Ins Varna-
ashraiua-dtiarma (hat India assimilated the non-Aryans into her body politic and averted racial
discurd and disaster ' Not all agree on (Ins. Early 20ili century Indian politician and religious
leader Sri Aurobindo; and later SETHNA(I980) argued (here had been no 'Aryan invasion', and
thai Aryans and Dravidians were basically (he same. Romila Thapar, in her Sardar Paiel Memorial
leciuies, quoted KRISHNA, 285, stated: The historian ... cannot but doubi the theory Iliac a large
number of Aryans conquered northern India, enslaved ihe existing population and thereby
established their language and culture, both entirely alien io the indigenous tradiiion'.

3 BLAVATSKY{1908), 596.
"G00DRICK-CLARKE(I985), 242.
5 A. MiSRA.
'J0NES(19S9), 178.
'WASHBROOK, 239ff,
S IRSCH1K, 44.

104

///./

which Indians could rise under the British raj.'

Sri Prakasa described TS membership as largely 'orthodox Hindus in the professions
of law and Government service'. Olcott wrote in 1906: "the preponderating number of
our Indian members are Government employees'. 1 If he was right, then membership as a
whole differed from those branch secretaries of whom the profession is known. For
among those, lawyers, not government employees, were the biggest category. Lawyers,
though depending on government-established courts of law, are not government
employees. The medical profession was less represented than the legal one, as Brahmans
usually rejected it as connected to body fluids. 3 If a secretary gave only an educational
institution as his address, we have presumed he was a teacher or assistant headmaster, not
a headmaster. Even so, the proportion of headmasters versus teachers and assistant
headmasters within the TS seemed to be higher than on schools in general.

Annie Besant did not mind over -representation of lawyers in her Indian organization:

Whenever 1 have needed people ready to sacrifice, 1 have found ihem in the vakil [lawyer|

class.

Not only Brahmans were thcosophists. British in India aiso joined. i In 19)2 in
Madras presidency, 'Europeans and Eurasians' were 0,1% of the male population and
held 8% of selected government jobs.' Contrary to Dutch in Indonesia, they were
definitely a minority in the Indian TS, though certainly more than 0.1% of members. 7
Early on, General Morgan, and future Major-General" Gordon, laier Lady Emily
Lutyens,'' daughter of Viceroy Lord Lytton, became members Lieut, -Col, Lane,

Professions of India 75 branch secretaries, 1898

As fir as given in General Report on 1 898, 58-7 1
Absolute numbers and %

lawyer 4S% 46

zemindar 1% 1
business/banking 3% 3

headmaster 9% 9

(eacher/assistant roaster 4% 4
pensioner 3% 3

doctor 4% 4

government official 30% 31

IRSCHIK, I 3-4. There were geographic concentrations of Brahmans wiilim (he presidency in
and around Madras and Tanjore ciiics. SCHWARTZBERG. 107 An estimate foi all Hindus in
Ornish India in 1941 was 3 7% Brahmans; COUSINS* 1941), 101

"'ODL, TT, May 1906. 565. SRI PRAKASA, 145.

5 BESANT(I921B). 215 wrote of 'classes' within the Brahmana caste, 'lawyers, exceedingly
numerous, ministers of Stales; medical men, a good many'. The last remark may be an
exaggeration

4 BESANT(I917A), 62.

5 'the good company of a number of English and other European aristocrats and men of science
and high Indian officials-Generals, Colonels, Deputy Collectors, Magistrates, English Editors
(many of them with their wives), who have also joined our Society.' KPB in the Ceylon Observer,
3 1 -S- 1 880: BCW, 11.394

6 IRSCHIK, 14.

1 Q. I % would have meant five people for the whole of India I estimate die percentage of India's
TS membership of non-Indian ancestry was in the order or 5 to 10.

*7T, June 1931, 279. On liis wife Alice, when he was still a I t. Col. and police Super-
intendent BCW, 11,260.

'She was also related by her sister's marriage to Conservative prime minister Arthur Balfour;
M. LUTYENSf,1975),225.

Professions of India TS branch secretaries, 1905

From General Rtpon on IPOS, 96(.

lawyer 48% 80

zemindar 4% 7
business/banking 4% 6

headmaster 5% 9

teacher/assistant master 8% 13

pensioner 2% 4

doctor/apothecary 5% 8

government official 23% 38

106

///.;

Inspector- Genera) of prisons in India's Central Provinces, 'was certainly a honour to the
TS'. 1

Indian princes 2 and their minister^ also gave support. In an important principality
within British India, Jammu and Kashmir, the Maharajah, a Hindu prince, though the
majority of his subjects were Muslim, joined the TS. He also was the main fuiancia!
backer of Central Hindu College which Annie Besant had set up. 1 Landlords joined.
Among them Byomkesh Chakravarti, in 1910 secretary of the Bengal Landholders
Association, who lobbied against abolition of the zamindar system, which gave certain
privileges to Indian landlords. 5 Also, the president of Bellary lodge in south India, Rai
Bahadur A, Sabhapathy Mudaliar, owning sugar mills as well.'

From start of the Indian TS in 1879, it had Bombay merchants like Moolji
Thackersey as members; there still were in 1917. 1 Businessmen came from various castes
and faiths. Some were Parsi, like Pestonji Khan, 8 others were Hindu, Tookaram Tatya,
though a rich businessman, was sudra by caste; he asked Olcott to confirm him as a
Buddhist first, but returned to Hinduism while remaining a theosophist later.'

In 1893, a separate TS lodge for vaisyas was founded. 10 Gautama Lodge was its name
(Gautama Buddha had not been the best friend of caste divisions). Annie Besant said in
her Lectures on Political Science 10 business school students in 1918:

li may be well to begin this Introductory Lecture by saying why, in a College of Commerce,
you should be asked to study such a subject as Political Science li is hoped that from this
college, men go out, who will be Captains of Commerce, capable of organizing and directing
great commercial undertakings. These must be carried on within States, within Nations, thai

Social background of theosophists

107

'Annie Besant, Headquarters' Notes', AdB Aug 1910, 227.

'They were also popular with Kafherine MAYO, 275f.. whose views on India differed much
from theosophisis. As Annie Besant came to India in 1893, Mysore slate closed all offices io allow
employees 10 hear her. NETHERC0T(I963). 16f. DaS(I922). 33. then closer to Gandhi then AB
was, was much less positive about the princes.

J Like the Mysore Dewan (prime minister); RA0(19I3). The Prime Minister of Travancorc
Siaic in 1904 honoured Besant 'as a goddess, as the living incarnation of the goddess Saravatie': if
(he reporting of LUNS. 19 is correct: the spelling 'Saravatie' for Sarasvati is not.

"TS General Report on 1904. 62.

5 S.J. Bosc, 'Byomkesh Chakravarti', in S.P. SEN, 248f. He was also involved in Swadeshi
textile manufacture. Bose claims he. like others,, was not conservative in all fields; he was for
emancipation of women'. OWEN(1968), 172 calls him 'non-Theosophist'.

*ODL, TT. July 1906,725.

J 0WEN(1968), 170.

8 BESANT(1920A). 210: he was a millionaire and a paruier of the Khan & Co. firm of
Colombo. He joined the TS in 1888 and died in 1920.

'ODL, TT, Dec. 1898, 135; 'in later years, when Mrs. Besam's open profession of Hinduism
and defence of the Aryan caste system, turned the tide backward, I believe he reverted to his
hereditary faith with much zeal'.

'"ODL, 77 Oct. 1902. 3.

have relationships with each o^er. and for their successful direction, knowledge of Nauonal
and international conditions and laws, not only artificial but natural laws, must be acqu.red
and assimilated. Moreover, it may be that, hereafter, a man tra.ned here, may become a
Minister of Commerce in a Provincial, or in the Supreme Government, and a very poor
Minister would he make were he ignorant of Political Science.

C.INDONESIA

In June 1906. the TS in the Dutch East Indies was said to have 200 members. In 1913
there were 533. 'Of whom Europeans: 331, Natives: 177, Chinese. 25. ' In 1925 out of
1735 FTS 448 were women, 25.82%. As to age groups then: 20.20% was under 21,
55 89% from 21-40 years old; 36,87% 41-60: 5.2% over 60' (Dutch pensioners often
went back io The Netherlands; rather few Indonesians reached that age).

In 1930 of 2090' members, 1006 were European. This was nearly 0.5% of all Dulch
in Indonesia; the highest proportion anywhere in the world! See p. 110, 876 were
Indonesian, at least in name nearly all Islamic. So, more Muslim members than in the res.
of the world together, 208 were 'Foreign Oriental', as most Asians of non- Indonesian
ancestry were categorized. Probably about 190 of those were Chinese; also more Chinese
members than in ihe res. of the world put together.

■Foreign Oriental', 'European', and other categories, 1 use here as m Dutch Las.
Indies law and Theosophical Society membership statistics then; not tied to actual country
of birth.

LChincsc and Indians

People of (partially at least) Chinese ancestry made up by fat most 'Foreign Orientals.
The major ty were -. penmtan. whose ancestors had been immigrating since the Middle
Ages. Often .hey L intermarried wuh locals. A minority were totok. these had come

from China recently. „ „ „„„,u.

Probably, Chinese first joined the Theosophical Society in Surakacu A report on th,

'BESANTt^^B). 1 Also reprinted TMNI. 1921, 538.

:T.EMERSMA(.907), 2,4. Mrs C, VAN H1NLOOPEN LABBERTON(.9l3), 469. For a
more chronological approach than in this chapter, p. 281 f.

'NUGRAHAt^Bg), 277.

'rr Anr 1931 24 EN! VI 763. 1300 members in 1919: P. Fournier, 'Occulte
Wer^heid', TMNI, .919, 51*. . Tfi*. Tfiioe, May 19.6. quoted 'Persoverzieh, , kot. 1916-

Chinese and 120 Native members : 7T Apr. 1917, suppi,, "in i"->, 3
March 1935, 63

I OS

III. I

local lodge speaks of 59 members in 1905, 'of whom tweJve were Chinese", 1 Of Chinese
TS members, most may have been peranakan; as the TS was very weak in China, mosi
1010k Chinese lived outside Java,* and peranakan tended to adapt to other groups in
Indonesia.

Which factors in Indonesia's history helped or hindered its reception of theosophy?
As we will sec with Indians, Dutch, and Javanese, both social strati ficat ion arid religious
factors were among them. So it was with Chinese.

Secretary Van Hinloopen Labberton thought that, in contrast with Christians, the TS
attracted 'the better' Chinese.' The Theosophist wrote: 'Among the native members there
are some Chinamen, chiefly priests," 1 Religious views among Chinese were changing
then. Earlier on, Confucianism had been more of a philosophical strand. Since the
I900's, the Confucian league Khong Kaitw Hwee sought to change it to an organized
religion, with Confucius as a prophet of God. 'The Confucian movement had been
associated with members of the officer class.' These were people, to whom the
government had given titles like major, or lieutenant, of the Chinese: and privileges.
Newly emerging groups among Chinese challenged them. Khong Kauw Hwee had
personal links 10 the TS, which also served as its organizational model. 5

In the 1930s, there came also a Buddhist revival among Chinese. It had links to the
TS as well. It spread beyond the Chinese community; sec p. 365.

With Arabs, the second largest 'Foreign Oriental' group, their orthodox Islam made
TS membership improbable; but the TS' Arjuna schools had at least one Arab pupil *

The third largest 'Oriental' group were people from British India. The census in 1930
counted 30.000 Indians. 2 1 ,000, mostly of Hindu or Sikh faith, lived in Sumatra, Most
were low paid agriculture workers in (he Deli region around Medan; so. unlikely
candidates fot TS membership. 5500 lived in Java and Madura, of whom 600 in Jakarta
Especially in Cemral and East Java, most were Muslim, so, like India's Muslims,
unlikely to join.' Of immigrants in Jakarta from the Gujarat region, 70% were also
Muslim, from Sind (where (he Thcosophical Society had support, until it became part of

'COPPEL(l9KI). m. TIEMERSMA<1907). 214, on the contrary, said (hat there were no
Chinese FTS yet in 1 906

i AJgMietn Hsndehbiad 14-1 1-1912. 'De waarde der iheosophie voor Indie', quoted IG 1913,
MR8TD, 99-101. named Chinese TS members in Bogor. Semarang. Surabaya. Malang and
Surakarta

VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON09I3D), 56: 'As the missions find [heir proselytes mainly
among the lesser people (in British India almost exclusively ihe Pariah's, m Java the inhabitants of
mountain regions, and in the Chinatowns very many who failed in the struggle for life)'.

J 7TNov. 1910, 314. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1913E), 450: including 'Chinese priest
Jap Bing King'. NUGRAHA(1989), 246: some Chinese members in 19)5 were 'trader'.

5 COPPEL(!98l), 190-2; COPPEL(1986), 34-5, See Sncevliei's remark on Chinese FTS p
173

6, Ardjoenascholen', TMNI 1927, 42; claim on the Gambir school

'MAN 1(A), 48-9.

Social background oftheosophists

109

Pakistan) though, most were Hindu, including many Brahmans and businessmen. 1 Some
of these may have joined the TS in Jakarta. 1 In the capital, the TS may have had some ten
Indian members; as in probably the only other case. Medan. 3 There, D. Kumaraswamy
joined the local TS lodge at 25 years of age in 1931. He worked at the office of an
English firm exporting Deli plantation products. So his income was higher than of most
fellow Indians there. He had prestige as religious and community leader. Becoming an
FTS, 'Here he learned more about Hinduism from Europeans who attended the Society's
meetings.' 4 One should not explain Indian influences in Indonesia's politics, or in
Indonesia's TS, mainly from the few Indian inhabitants, respectively members: see p.
294.

2.Dutch

People considered three 'European' categories: 1. Not very numerous groups of
foreigners like English and Germans, a!so Americans and Japanese. 2. Betanda totok,
recent immigrants intending to go back to The Netherlands. They were most represented
in high level jobs of government and big business. Totok were roughly one fifth of all
Dutch in Indonesia in 1930 (more among adult men). Most TS members on whom I have
found biographical data fall under this category. If these data are representative, then the
Dutch peranakan to totok ralio may have been the opposite of Chinese FTS. 3. The
biggesi group: Belanda peranakan, Indies Dutch, or Indo-Europeans. Generally, they
were economically less well off than the totoks. They had lived in Indonesia for
generations, and most had Indonesian as well as Dutch ancestors. Like Chinese
peranakan, many were better ai local languages than, in their case, the Dutch language.
K.A. James, prominent theosopliist and later Resident of Western Borneo, opposed this
much.*

Absolutely and proportionally more Dutch joined the Theosophica! Society in
Indonesia than did British in India. One point here: the Dutch share of the total population

'MANI(B), 99; 104; 125. Ibid.. 105: before the Second World War, Tamil Hindu
businessmen controlled 90% of batik textile wholesale trade of Bandung.

■'VAN LEEUWEN(I921B), 170, mentions 'British Indian' TS members at a Jakarta meeting.
VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(19I3E), 447 mentions 'Hindhoe's', probably from India, at a
celebration in Bogor of Mrs Besant's victory in her first court case against Krishnamurti's father.

'See p, 330. See TIN/ )932f. for 'Foreign Oriental' membership numbers in Medan.

4 MANI(A), 67.

S TICHELAAR<1977), 74; RANI. 1919, 215: Resident 1918-20. K.A. JAMES, 378: 'I have
heard so-called European children, coming straight from school, speak Malay to one another.
Malay should be banned from every family calling itself Dutch and not Native. 1 mean, between
parents and children and children mutually, with servants, of course, Malay is to stay as the
medium.'

TS membership as a percentage

of total population in some countries

Social background of theosophists

111

In or tboui I 930
Soufces:TT Apt. 1 931 , 1 8-33; OELC July-Aug. 1 939; L, DE JONG, vols. 1 . 1 66: 11 sl.1 02,
ROE, 286; TH0RSTEINSSON, 11

0.03

0.025

Ceylon India England Australia USA World

In or about 1 930; scale differs from upper graph

was bigger.' Why was TS-mindedness among Dutch in Indonesia higher than with Dutch
in The Netherlands (see p. 110)? One factor may be that in The Netherlands all social
groups, both privileged and underprivileged, were mainly Dutch. Jn the Dutch East
Indies, Dutch tended to be comparatively privileged/

Among them, traditionally Christian institutions were weaker than in The
Netherlands. The Vredebode, a Protestant missionary paper of Garut in Java, called the
TS 'representatives of the ANTI-CHRIST'. It did not impress many Dutch there. 3

Abraham Kuyper, ex-prime minister, was the leader of the Anti-Revoiutionaire Panij,
the main Protestant political group of The Netherlands. !n De Standaard. his daily, in
1917 he announced the birth of a small sister party in the East Indies colony. Kuyper
thought so far, the 'not very numerous Christians, wandering aimlessly' had been a poor
second to 'the Theosophists' on the political stage there.' 1

Kuyper had a personal stake. His son Frederik had gone to the Indies. In the Bandung
expatriate environment, 'Theosophy poisoned' young Kuyper in 1912. His father attacked
theosophy at a party public meeting, and in many leiters to his friend, A.W.F, idenburg.
Idenburg was the only Anti-Rewluiionair governor -genera I, from 1909-16. Their
correspondence showed worries about the TS in general, and in particular about Frederik
Kuyper. and Surabaya Chinese Affairs official Henri Borel, FTS, Borel was an ally
against Idenburg of M. van Geuns, editor of right wing liberal daily Soerabaiasch
Handeisblad, Kuyper wrote 'li is so horrible how, also in this country, ihc civilized elite
abjure Christianity and wallow in Theosophy'. The Indies worried him still more.
Idenburg wrote to Kuyper: 'This theosophy progresses terribly here. 1 really consider it
as still more dangerous {in our times) than Islam.' 'So, this will be the future religion of
our poor Indies.'

1 l.OCHER-SCHOLTEN(l994) Britons were 005% of India's population, Duich 0.34% of
Dulch East Indies population in 1930

; LOCHnR-SCHOLTEN(1994) points oul another difference between Dulch in Indonesia and in
The Netherlands; in I860. 50% of professionally active Europeans in Indonesia were civil
servants. In 1930. this was 28%; in The Netherlands, it was 6%. ligures in STEVENS{1994),
148; I860. 80%, 1930, 30%. One should add relatively highly paid civil servants, as here
Indonesians had many of the lower ranking government jobs CADY<1964), 538; in 1938, 42% of
government administration were Indonesians (far less than Indians in India; see p. 104),
FASSEUR(I995), 44; then, of high level officials less than 7% were Indonesian,
TILKEMA(I932), 58, estimated that 50 among theosophists in Indonesia were teachers; 18 at
theosophical schools, others at government schools.

VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(19I6E), 148.

'Quoted IC, 1918 (40). 898; DE BRUHN/PUCHINGER, 587. In 1918-1940. Christian parties
always got a majority in Dutch parliament. Then, of seats for 'Europeans' in the Votksraad (the
closest Indonesia had to a parliament), very much a minority was Christian parties'. The Politick-
Economische Bond and later the Vaderlandsclie Club were big parties among Dutch voters in
Indonesia. Their allies in The Netherlands, like them linked to big business and not to a Christian
church, the Economiscfie Bond and Verbond voor Nationaat Heme!, respectively, got only 1-2%
of the vote at (heir maximum.

112

///./

in 1915, Idenburg went to Protestant divine service in Bogor, where he resided, to a
congregation 'very far from being the Bogor elite'. That year, he felt uncomfortable
about the 'theosophical tendency, fashionable nowadays'; as he did on masonry. 1
\J Freemasonry and spiritualism, both strong before the TS came, provided a
springboard for it. I could investigate whether memberships overlapped only for Javanese
Masons; see p. 117. Co-masonry, with links to the TS, started in Indonesia in Jakarta in
1911. In 1925, it had si* branches; Jakarta, Surabaya, Semarang. Bandung, Bogor and
Yogyakarta. 1 More than half of European TS Fellows had also joined the Liberal Catholic

Church in 1930. J

Government official A.J. Hamerster later became international TS Treasurer in
Adyar." 1 Like K.A. James, he also was a prominent LCC member. Other members were:
P.W. van den Broek, assistent resident of Probolinggo in Java; the ex-director of the
Native Prison in Surabaya, later in Mojokerto. W. Elderenbosch. 6

Cornelia Rensina van Mook-Bouwman, according to her membership number,
probably joined the TS in 1907 or shortly afterwards. In 1922, she was secretary of the
Surabaya lodge. She published a poem on reincarnation and karma. 'Do not mourn!', in
TMNI 1922. 51. Mrs Van Mook was also a member of co-masonry. Her husband was
A. van Mook, of men-only masonry, and alderman of Surabaya. Her son was trie future

'DE BRUIJN/PUCHINGER. 202; 285: 296: 301-2; 374-5. SCHOUTEN. 42: 59. Noi 'van
Idenburg*. as in G.E. HALUI968). 936. VAN H1NLOOPEN LABBERT0N(19I3D), 53

'Spiritualism: ROMEIN-VERSCHOOR, 64f: KART1NI. 184-5. Masonry: RICHARDUS. I6f
TSUCHIYA(1987). 42; Semarang masonic lodge 'played a major part' starring TMNI. Thcosophy
ouijumped the masonic springboard: STEVENS(1994), 177; 259: in 1900. there were 714 masons:
in 1930, 1402; less than FTS then. Masons, all male apart from co-masons, had fewer recruiting
possibilities. In Indonesia, among Dutch in general and ihcosophists, women were a minoriiy.
unlike the TS in some countries. VAN DER VEUR<1968), 41-2. not naming [he TS. memiutis
strong attraction' to masonry for some Eurasians ' Co-masonry De algcmecne
Gemcenschappelijke Vrijmetselarij', by Abr , TMNI 1926. 311-8

J £jV7. vol. Vlll, 1890: at the 1930 census, 615 identified themselves as LCC members.
Presumably, few of these were Asians or non-TS Europeans.
'Ik lectured in The Netherlands on 'C.W. Uadbeater as Hero. Sage and Sann.' TB Eeb. 1931 . 91
5 D. van Hinloopen Labberton. 'Soenan Bonang's leeringen'. TMNI. 1917, 507; VAN DEN
D0EL(I995). 251. Assistant resident was a rank in colonial administration, roughly equivalent to
Javanese bupati below governor-general, governor, and resident, and above 'controleur'. Van den
Brock co-founded TMNI in 1901; VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTONU913B), 2. He wrote
Leerboek der Exoterische Theoscfie; out by 1918.

'His 'Toesianden in de inlandsche gevangenis te Modjokeno*. TMNI 1920, 590-2, favoured
prison reform on US lines, on which Governor Hunt of Arizona had written in TS papers;
A. Bcsam, WT, 77", July 1921, 313. Indonesian prison doctor Joedo and public prosecutor Radcn
SoemijaringprodjO at Mojokerto, both also theosophists, were angry with Elderenbosch as (hey
rhought he had not been a good director, and had depicted condiuons as worse than they were. See
articles by M.B. van der Jagt. D. van Hinloopen Labbcrton, R.P. SoemijaringprodjO, and A. van
Leeuwen in TMNI. 1921, 47-55.

Social background of theosophists

governor-general, H. van Mook. 1

HJ. Kiewiet de Jonge, 'from a v-dl-known patrician family', was an active member
of the Algemeen Nederlandsch Verbond, which promoted contacts between Dutch
speakers in The Netherlands, the Indies, Flanders, and South Africa, as well. His father,
also H.J., chaired it. In 1916, he was adjunct referendary in the governor-general's
secretariat and sat in Bogor local council.

He then wrote De Politiek der Toekomst [The Politics of the Future}. He gave as this
book's 'claim ... an objective doctrine of the social processes in their inter-relaiionship, a
system of objective political norms, to cut a long story short, a political system.' And a
contribution to the 'science of ideology. La science des idees considdrees comme simple
phenomenes de 1'esprit humain {the science of ideas, considered simply as phenomena of
the human spirit].' After work at papers in Indonesia, Kiewiet de Jonge in 1924-6 was
editor in chief of Dutch daily De Telegraaf: it had promoted Dutch theosophists in their
early days. From 1928 to 1933 he represented (he Dutch East Indies government to the
Volksraad}

A.G. Vreede was secretary to the government in 1917-1918, later head of the
government Labour Office and Liberal Catholic Church bishop, eventuaUy Presiding
Bishop, 1 In the army. Major Kooy was one of numerous FTS.'

Indonesia's first TS general secretary until 1922 was Dirk van Hinloopen Labbcrton*
Labberton. 1876-1961, born in Doesburg, had been in the Indiei since 1894. at first as
technician and manager in a sugar processing plant. He claimed he had joined the TS in
1899. Ik married Fredcrique Henriette J. [mostly abridged as C[oos].] van Motman,
from a plantation director's family; she was a thcosophist too.

In 1905, Tf>e Thcosophist slill misspelled: 'C.V. Hcinloopen Labberton'. They would
gc( (0 know him belter soon. In 1910, he was in Adyar for eight months, studying both
Sanskrit, which 'cannol be explained save in a Theosophica! way', and occuk colour
doctrine, then still quoting Rudolf Sleiner. Labberton (here was in nearly daily' contact

1 NUGRAHA(I989), 246; 256; 272 STEVENS<1994), 234 Ibid: anoihcr co-mason was Mrs
A.J. Resink-Wilkens. wife of Yogyakana sugar entrepreneur Th.G.J. Resink.

IRANI, I917, 7I9. BAX(199l), 49. HER1NG<I992). I; Vll. DE graaf, 34:. VAN der
WAL(1963), 717; BROEZE, 24. KiEWIET DE JONG£(l9l7fJ), 3; 17 The KITLV's copy in
Leiden of De Politiek der Toekomst was formerly property of fellow theosophisl Mrs Corporaal-
van Achterbcrgh; it had cost her 10,000 Dutch East Indies rupiahs.

'Referendary since 1910; government secretary since 3-1-1917. RANI, 1917: 1918.
KOCH0956), 198; TILLETT(1982), 260. He also was a 'Very Illustrious Brother 30" in co-
masonry; T1CHELAAR(1977), 72; and a contributor 10 Koioniole Siudieen magazine on social and
political affairs; KIEWIET DE J0NGE(I917A), 186. Marxist Soearo Rajot, 25-5-1919. 3.
'Pergerakan Ra'iat': KS was by 'very clever and very rich people, in Dutch Wetenschappelijke
kapiialisten [scientific capitalists].'

'TMNI, 1916, 101.

S VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1913A), 118. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1910).
DVH. 2-3. T1CHELMAN0994).

114

in.i

with Leadbeater, who stayed with him on a later tour of Indonesia. As a good follower of
Annie Besant, he did not realty separate his theosophy from his politics; as we will see,
he. The Theosophist in 1919, and others remarked so.

' Labberton was secretary of the Dutcb East Indies committee for the 1910 Brussels
World Fair, and wrote the catalogue of the Indies exhibits. For some time, he became
Batavia Society of Arts and Sciences 1 director. In 1915, he educated future officials at the
government school; and was one of the four highest ranking officials of the Department
of Education and Religion. 1 In the 1920's, he went back to The Netherlands and became
headmaster of the "Theosofisch Lyceum', a TS secondary school in Naarden. He became
a D. Lin. at Amsterdam University in 1931, after writing a thesis on constitutional

history.

In. 1915 in Malang. the Krebet sugar factory was also the address of the TS lodge:
members, including its president, Mrs M. van Celder-van Motman, related by marriage
to Labberton, and G. Miiller, its secretary, were linked to the factory management. Quite
a few others' addresses on membership lists had the abbreviation 'sf , sugar factory.

Several officials of the Koninklijke Pakketvaan Maaischappij , a private company with
a virtual shipping monopoly between Indonesian islands, were FTS in 1916. 1 Jonkheer
N.J. Wesipalm van Hoom van Burgh was secretary and treasurer of the Rubber Planters"
League at Bandung, deputy manager of the Dutch Indies Commercial Bank, and sat in the
executive of the Indies agribusiness syndicate. 1 TS membership also included tea estate
managers, like C.R. Krijgsman and HE. Noothout of West Java/

J. van der Leeuw was director and major shareholder of the big Van Nelle coffee and
tea company, based on plantations in Indonesia. Annie Besant awarded him the T. Subba
Row Medal. He also was an LCC priest. He spent lime in Australia with Leadbeaier, in
the Indies, in The Netherlands where he became TS General Secretary; and in South
Africa, where he died, flying his plane, 5

'VAN H1NLOOPEN LABBERTON(1913A), 1 16-7. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON()9l 1).
SCHOUTEN. 167. RANI 1915, 290. TTSept. 1905, suppl. lit.

! NUGRAHA(1989), 252; 256: 263.

'VAN HINLOOPEN LAB8£RT0N<1913A), 8. SCHOUTEN. 186; he married the daughter of
tbe manager of the governor- general's palaces. RANI 1915. 498; 501. Jonkheer is the lowest Dutch
title of nobility.

1 MANGOENPOERWOTO<1916-17),

! ROE, 243. TMN1 1927, 45. K0ES0EM0D1N1NGRAT(1921). 358. HARMSEN. 227.
M. LUTYENSC1975), 203. J. de Munck Mortier, 'Bij net hecngaan van Dr. J.J, van der Leeuw',
TiNI Nov. 1934, 131, DE RAAT; the company was also involved in tobacco, groceries, and
provisioning of ships.

Social background of theosophists

115

3. Javanese

Indonesia's most densely populated island was Java. There, especially in its centre and
east, the eclectic or syncretic position of theosophy had potential appeal 1 among the
nobles with links to the princely courts, the priyayi} The theosophical monthly used
satrija (from Sanskrit kshattriya) as a synonym.' Indian influences on society had been
strong in the early Middle Ages.

In Indonesia's late Middle Ages, gradually, from the northwest, Islamic coastal
states, based on trade, arose.* The agriculture-based Hindu kingdom in the interior of
West Java in the 16th century was conquered by the sultan of north coast Banten,

Rulers of the great East and Central Java realm, at odds with Muslims of Surabaya
and Demak near their north coasts, decided on a forward defence. They became sultans of
Mataram. political as well as spiritual leaders of the Islamic faithful. In Java, the
Brahman caste practically ceased to exist. The priyayi now topped the social ladder.
Princes, though Muslim now, also kept alive prc-Islam, even pre-Hindu. traditions. Many
Javanese continued to see the Mahabharata as deeply significant. That the Maiaram
monarchs later had to recognize Dutch suzerainty did not change this.

The realm was divided among different branches of the family; eventually, there were
four ruling princes. Of those, the sultan and the Paku Alam resided in Yogyakarta. The
two others, the most prestigious one. the sustthunan (roughly, king or emperor], and the
Mangku Negoro. lived in Surakarta.

Indonesian FTS mainly came from Javanese princely families and 'others from the
priyayi class.'* Several, like Raden Mas Aryo Woerjaningrai in Surakarta, and some in
West Java, were bupaii, traditionally, a hereditary job within the higher aristocracy*

'SOERIOKOESOEMO0920B). 10: The Javanese usually wants to have nothing to do with
theosophy and yet lie thinks theosophical ly, in a general sense.' TMN1 1916. 534: 'Every
civilized Javanese recognizes Theosophy's value '

3 This social category was also the most accessible to Dutch influences, like theosophy as it
came to Indonesia; CEERTZ(I960), 235-6 Javanese religious ideas also influenced Dutch
inhabitants.

'Warga Oepasaka, "Wewahan katrangan bab oetamaning koerban toemraping darmanpjoen
Brahmana', PT 1920-1 (14), 102: 'Satrija (prijaji)'. WED. Oct.-Nov. 1921, 176-7: 'In daily life,
one becomes a satrija by birth. One who is bom the child of a sudra, cannot possibly be a satrija.'
Sairija is not completely a synonym of priyayi though; it may have the wider meaning of (not
necessarily noble) 'fighter'.

''PL. Narasimham on Indonesian medieval history, 'The ancient Hindu colonies'. 77" Oct. 1915.
61; not very complimenlarily: Islam with all its terrors appeared."

*Algemeen Handelsblad 14-11-1912. 'De waarde der theosophie voor Indie', quoted IG 1913,
MRBTD. 99-101,

*Dutch: 'regent'; the highest position Indonesians might have in Dutch colonial
administration. NUGRAHA(1989), 261; NAGAZUMI(1972), 192. In 1930, there were 76 bupaii
on Java and Madura islands; L. DE JONG. vol. 1 la), 183.

116

///.;

Raden Mas Toemenggoeng Pandji {a high title of court nobility] Djajeng Irawan presided
over Djokdjakarta' lodge. He was the patih [prime minister] of the Paku Alam
principality. 1 Prince Pakoe Alam VII (official name before his 40th birthday:
Soerjodilogo) himself was also a member; and wrote the libretto for a wayang play at a
TS congress.

Pakoe Alam VII was one of three Javanese who certainly joined both the TS and
freemasonry. 5 Though three is not a big overlap, these were all prominent, both in
politics and in the TS. The other two were Radjiman and Sarwoko Mangoenkoesoerao.

Raden Mas T. Sarwoko Mangoenkoesoerao was the bupati patih, the prime minister,
of Prince Mangkoe Negoro VII. He joined the Indies TS executive in 1934. The TS
congress of 1936 was at his residence.* Raden Radjiman Wediodipoero was the court
physician of Susuhunan Pakoe Bocwono X Witjaksana of Surakarta*. This prince would
later grant him the higher nobiiily name Wediodiningrat, Like Woerjaningrat, Radjiman
was an important leader of the Javanese league Budi Uiomo,

The oldest son of the susuhunan and special military aide to the governor-general,
Prince Ngabehi IV (also spelt Hangabehi), joined in 1913. From 193944, he would rule
as Pakoe Boewono XI. 7

Notable was the elder brother of Pakoe Boewono X. The ruler gave him a title no one
had held since the seventeenth century, of higher rank than other pangeran. This Prince
Aryo Koesocmodiningrai was a major at the Roya! Netherlands Indies Army's general
staff.* 'Influenced by Mr D, van Hinloopen Labberton, B. K. P. H. Koesoemodiningrat,
besides the ngelmus [doctrines], learnt in his youth from then well known gurus, had

'Old style spelling for Yogyakarta.

*PT 1917-18 (11), 32. TS Annual Report on 1905, 137. Misspell 'Trawan' in die 1903 ami
1904 Annual Reports; Irawan in Javanese tradition is die name of one of Arjunas sons.

3 NUGRAHA(I989), 260. A. van Leeuwen. 'Uitdc pen der redactie'. TMNI 1922, 218. VAN
DER VEUR(1976), 34-6 LIGOU. 610: 'Few Chinese and Malays had joined [ masonry |.' Never
more than a few score at the same time: Th. Stevens, personal communication. They included Paku
Alam V and VI though: STEVENS(1994), 209 TSUCHIYA(1987). 53: 50 Indonesian and 14 Chinese
masons in 1940.

"RANSOMU938), 535. TiNl Nov. 1934, 126.

J NAGAZUMl(1972). 192: he joined before 1909. TICHELMAN{1985). 617-8. court
physician 1906-36,

'Born 1866. he ruled 1893-1939; DE GRAAF, 483. This realm was abolished politically after
1945 independence, unlike the Yogyakana sultanaie. In TMNI, 1916, 455-64. 'Avondfeest in de
Kraton', Annie H. v. V. described her presentation at the Surakarla palace, w which she had been
invited along with the Resident, in October 1914. Witjaksana in Javanese here means 'the wise', h
may mean (human or divine) 'wisdom' or 'government policy'. TSUCHIYA(I987). If. See p.
315. According to RADJIMAN(1939), 84. he had been 'witjaksana in spiritual sense, so in die true
sense.'

'LARSON(1987). Mrs C. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1913), 460. SCHOUTEN, 65.

*LOC, 1-5-1917, leblad, 'Comite Indil Weerbaar in Nederland.' 77/vYJan. 1933, 15-6.

Social background of theosophiscs

117

Prince Koesoemodiningrat, from: Djawd 12 (1932), 318

embraced the thcosophical doctrine'. 1 Leadbeater, George and Rukmini Arundalc stayed
at his palace. In 1924, he addressed the TS world congress in Adyar. As an 'ardent
tlieosophist', 'completely absorbed by thcosophy', he often wore the TS seal cast into
diamonds and other precious jewels. He died in 1932. ;

Another aristocrat officer, Raden Mas Pandji Brototcnojo, rose to lieutenant-colonel,
In the 1900's. he co-founded Surakarta TS lodge; he was often its president. 3 Shiraishi
describes this lodge in 1916 as

'SASTRASOEWIGNJA, 318. Ibid.. 319: in 1923. he established a dancing school with Jong-
Java, of which his son-in-law Djaksodipoero was national chairman; LARSON(1987), 137. He helped
to establish, and sponsored, ilie Arjuna school in Surakarla; VAN LEEUWEN(1921D), 344-5. He
wrote on traditional Java textiles; ENl, vol. 11. 248. Pewana Tlieosofie advertised his writings Rasa
Djawa {The Javanese Idea; in Malay] and Kenwdjoean iahir balin (Outer and inner progress;
Javanese],

1 TT, Jan. 1933, 3%. V. Zimmermann. 'Een zeklzaam feest in den kraton van Soerakarta',
Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- land en Volkenkunde. I919'21 (59), 480-5; 481, TiNl Jan. 1933,
15-6.

3 7TAV Jan. 1937, 32, 'In memorjam Br. R. M. Pandji Brotoienojo '

113

m.i

a prestigious meeting place of Dutch, Indo[-Europeanjs. Chinese, Kasunanan [susuhunan's

realm] and Mangkunegara princes, aristocrats, and high-ranking officials.

Prince of the Paku Alam dynasty, Soecatmo Soeriokoesoemo, FTS. thought:

The division of tasks is not alien to the Javanese society. The darma [special duty] of the
Brahmana. the Ksatrya, the Vaisha, and the Soedra, they have learned to understand. They
look after rank and station remarkably. 1
Soeriokoesoemo' s magazine Wederopbouw wrote:

What, then, is the aim of the caste system? To point out to the people the four-fold

Path of Discipleship. 3

Soeriokoesoemo. however, thought this purposeful stability was under threat as

industrial workers rose:

And with Dr. Radjiman. we protest sirongly against an endeavour: to make the Javanese tiller
into a factory-slave as soon as possible. Very impertinently irresponsible is he who dares ro
utter such a thought. For a factory-slave with a j i m a t -we already da/e to predict it
now after the Garul 4 affair- becomes a danger to society, like an anarchist, who walks around
everywhere with a bomb and threatens society. Not the jimat makes a person into an anarchist,
but the factory-slave in the Orieni is the hotbed and the focus of anarchy itself. It only takes a
small push to make ihe Javanese factory-slave a full-fledged "degenerate Samin".
Jimat in (he quote means amulet. Though Indonesia's theosophists and leftists agreed

that jimats did not cause this Carui conflict, they disagreed on effects of amulets as on

causes of class conflicts.*

1 SHIRAISHI(I990A). 120.

! SOER10KOESO£M00923A). 15. His Wederopbouw referred not only to workers, but also
to Indonesian non-noble businessmen, as soedro (see p. 327. Sanskrit: sudra\. In a debaic versus
Soeriokoesoemo, J.B. Wens, supporter of secular Indonesian nationalist Tjipto Mangoenkoesocmo.
said: 'It will be the task of this and the next generation of Javanese to finish off once and for all the
old Hindu caste system.' SOERIOKOESOEMO et al.(l9l8). 39. Former Dutch Resident H.E.
Steinmctz, in 'Reisindrukken-herinncringen-beschouwingen*, NIE. May 1922, l63f., wrote: 'And
how the Theosophists work and win followers! By continually pointing out the ancient high
civilization on Java -mostly based on the Hindus- they have the sympathies of the higher classes.'
Article 'Het kastenstelsel in het licht der democratie', WED, 1920. 234f; ibid.. 23S.
'Region of Java where an anti-government protest had been stifled at the cost of lives. See p,
233.

J Soeriokoesoemo in WED. 1919, 158. Samin: see p. 123. Dutch right-wing liberal and
'advocate of colonial business'. Balthasar Heldring, in his 1925 book Van Calcutta naar Ceylon
also opposed industrialization because of political effects. He thought it would change the Javanese
from a 'vegetable sleeping person' into a 'ferocious lion'. Quoted VAN BERGEN, 32.

'Radcn Mas Noto Soeroto in The Hague daily Het Vaderland extensively quoted
Soeriokoesoemo' s article, and added: 'For those believing in the power of prayer, like the
Christian Scientists, or in thought power, like the Theosophists. and in general for those who admit
the possibility of ensouling of "dead" objects under certain circumstances, belief in a jimat is not

Social background of theosophists

1)9

As social factors might attract part of the priyayi category to theosophy, so mighi
religious factors. The TS was less successful with Javanese than with Hindus in India; but
far more successful than with Muslims in India. Many priyayis' religious views were in
between these two.

Clifford Geeru, in an influential, though not universally accepted, 1 study, divided
Javanese society into three categories. He saw those three roughly as both social groups
and as groups with different views on religion. I have summarized that view 1 in this table.
As Geertz himself wrote, not all individuals fit neatly; like nobles or poor peasants who
are strict Muslims.

SOCIAL CATEGORY

VIEWS on RELIGION

Prijaji

nobles

syncretism with Hindu tendency

Santri

traders; upper and middle
income peasants

Islam

Abangan

poor peasants and workers

syncretism with tendency towards
animism and/or secularism

The religious make-up of middle level categories differed from, for instance, India; thai
made recruitment to the TS in principle less likely than there.

According to Ricklefs. theosophy arose in Indonesia at a crucial time for its
aristocrats. J Writing of some twenty years later. Reeve put the TS in the content of:

nonsensical at all.' Quoted /C, 1920 (42), 161. Leftist Soekimo, in KM 24-7-1919.
quoted IPO 3CV1919, 'Het gebeurde te Leies, Garoet", 2: 'The government is really
wrong, if it links the jimat issue to this affair. Indeed, people call our nation superstitious.
Before incidents happened in Leles, many of us, those who still are stupid, believed in
nonsensical things bordering on the miraculous. This belief decreases now though, as our
countrymen understand more and more that jimats are useless . .. The rice [which peasants
who were killed had refused to sell to the government] has killed the people, not the
jimat.' Old spelling: djimat.

'For instance NOF.R, 19, objected, seeing social and religious categories of people as quite
different. Sec for the various views: J. P.M. van dc Pasch. 'De criticus wikt, Clifford beschikt.
Recensies van 'The Religion of Java': een kriiische beschouwing' . Jantbatan 9(1991), 1, 3-30.

! GEERTZ(1960), 6; 117.

'RICKLEI^WS), 129: 'The higher aristocratic elite of Java was, by 1900, at a low point in
prestige, authority and self-assurance, ... Many of the younger generation left administrative
service and sought careers in law or medicine. Others produced intellectual movements which had
a clearly anti-Islamic content, and which were linked to Theosophy. Such movements auribuied
Java's unhappy state to the spread of Islam ,..' As for 'Others': there was some overlap, like
Radjiman, On 'careers in law', see p. 121, n. 1.

120

/;/./

the aggressive promotion by other Indonesians [largely santri, respectively abangan] of
reformist Islam and Marxism suggested the possibility of the creation of a future state hostile
to the \priyayi] tradition and lo the people who came from it. '

Van Hinloopen Labberton in 1913 had a 'trickle down' theory on theosophy in
Javanese society:

... so far wc are very exclusive in accepting people as TS members. Exclusively priyayi want
to be inscribed in our books; a very good policy, as the survey is easier that way, and still in
the end the common man benefits, if true religiosity and strong sense of duty and altruism
adorn the powerful. If the higher level people practice the Theosophical lifestyle, the lesser
ones will follow automatically. 1
Recently, a Javanese of just below the nobility level had joined; at least according to

Labberton then. He was Soemotjitro, a retired village headman from (he Purworejo

region, who had disagreements with Muslim clerics. 1

Professional categories of TS members in Indonesia. 1 925
Computed from NUGRAHA(1989), 277

others 16% 271

indusiry 5S 88

education 14% 248

'no profession' 17% 294

trade 16% 273

medical 2% 33

government 30% 528

As for professions, the role of lawyers in early twentieth century Indonesian theosophy.

'REEVE(19S5). 8.

2 VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(1913D). 54.

J VAN HINLOOPEN LA8B£RTON<1913D). 49-50. NUGRAHA(1989), 263, though, has
'Mas Soemotjitro'; the lowest title of nobility. Also, ibid., 34: SoemoEJitto was a 'priyayi'.

Social background of theosophisis

121

and politics, was less than in India.' Probably, the reverse was true for doctors in politics,
though not in theosophy. 1 The table shows occupational sectors for all nationalities
together. It is unclear to what category for instance plantation managers were assigned:
'industry' as there was sugar processing with many plantations? 'trade'? 'No profession'
probably includes housewives and rentiers.

Leadbeater. lecturing in Ujung Pandang, saw race differences behind class differences
in Indonesia. Many of the upper classes of 'those whom people consider to be Chinese or
Malays really belong to the Aryan race ... One finds the purely Atlantic types among the
lower people.' 5 An article in the TS' Indies monthly staled that classes of Java differed
according lo origin in the theosophical race doctrine:

It is mostly presumed that three layers of nations have reached Java. In the hoariest antiquity,
ihc Polynesians inhabited Java. These probably belong, or are closely related io, the 3rd root-
race, the race without a sense of taste' 1 from the great southern continent (Lemuria], h was this
race iliac commuted the terrible sin [supposed sex with animals, which had evolved from
humans earlier on], of which the monkeys arc the silent witnesses. ... Next, there seems to
have been an influx of Malays, maybe from Cambodia, according to Professor Veth. After
(hat, Java was colonized for a long time by a family of the while race from Kalinga (India], of
which Java slill bears the marks. The Aryan colonists all Ihe time tried lo keep separate from
the native people, in which ihey did not succeed completely, but cenainly more or less, and up
to today ihey have their own language [aristocrai form of Javanese] and llieir own iradiiions. A
comparison of a noble family from the kralons |pa!aces] of ihe principalities, and one from lite
goenoeng 5 proves lhai strikingly. The latter stare wilh bovine eyes and open mouih towards the
world, only half-conscious of the crass material spheres. The educated European will immedi-
aiely recognise his equal, maybe even his superior, in ihe Javanese nobleman with his culture
and refinement. That which is nonsense to demand for ihe wong dessa (village inhabitants] (the
vote, influence on government decisions, etc.), is not so for the nobiliiy. That is why there ts
much misunderstanding. ... One should understand the Asian situ ji ions, which are very
different from the European ones, more And dial may only be done wilh knowledge, love and

'Contrary to what one may think from Ricklefs; sec p. 1 19, n. 3. Only since 1906 were ihere
Indonesian law sludents in universities; K0NING()968), 4; and later also in Jakaria law school.
L DE JONG, vol. Mai, 143: in 1940, a total of 160 Indonesians had finished their law studies;
including those not working as lawyers. Ketnadjoean Hindia 17/22-3-1924, quoted IPO 1, 1924,
560: 'only 12' Indonesian jurists. FASSEUR(1995). 145; 40 Indonesian lawyers in 1939. Daniel S.
Lev. 'Origins of the Indonesian Advocacy'. Indonesia Apr. 1976, 135-70; 136: in the late 1950s,
ihe re were 189 lawyers per million people in India; in Indonesia, 17 lawyers only.

J LARS0N(I987), 90: to many priyayi, doctor was a low prestige profession (as with Brahmans).

''Vragen. Mgr. C. W. Lcadbeaier tc Makasser*. TMN1 1926, 595.

''Theosophisis believed only Aryans, the fifth root-race, had five senses; ihe third one
('Lemurians') only three, lacking tasie (and smell). BLAVATSKY(190S), 113,

'Mountainous back-country. Mountains on Java are volcanic; see Leadbeater on volcanoes,
p. 311. As Prince Mangkoe Negoro VII acknowledged, in fact Javanese princes often intermarried
with non-nobles. Quoted E. LOCHER-SCHOLTEN/A. N1EHOF, Indonesian women in focus.
Past and present notions. Leiden, KITLV. 1992.

122

///.;

goodwill, that is. with the help of theosophy!'

This article led to an angry letter to the editor, speaking of 'the most intolerant
bigotry, or racial or social nonsense,' It thought that the editor should reprimand 'Een
Indische Stem' [An Indies Voice], especially on his 'bovine eyes and open mouth' clause.
'I, too, do not want to risk that I will have to call to arms my fellow party members
against the theosophists, against whom I have nothing, can have nothing,' 2

'Een Indische Stem' may have been C.A.H. von Wotzogen Kuhr, former assistent
resident. His critic may have been Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo of the Naiionaal Indische
Partij. I have no conclusive evidence for this. I base it on a similar polemic ihey had
earlier on; see p. 303; and the Indische Gids referring to Kiihr writing in 1921 in
Theosofisch Maandbtad; it then had no articles under his name, so possibly under an
alias. Editor Anton van Leeuwen did not mention which reader, or from what political
party, the letter's author was: or to whom he reacted. Van Leeuwen replied:

We believe that this [letter to (he editor] is a wrong view. The person who writes under the
pseudonym "An Indies Voice" is someone who (being in Holland now) already more than
once, both in the (Theosophical) monthly and elsewhere, has pu< his pen at (he service of the
indies' evolution, and certainly does not try to do thai by bringing discord,'
Van Leeuwen pointed out, on, also Indonesian, (pre-) history:

Thanks to the occult data, which were given to us by the Leaders of ihc TS and by its
workers, our historical knowledge is based on a very much greater body of facts and embraces
infinitely more extensive periods in time than [hose which official science has at its disposal
... So. one should no[ be surprised that, if they are relict, also in our Insulinde [Indonesia!
some traces of these Lemurian races are left, who peopled our earth 10 or 1 1 million years
ago. .. Though not explained [by British theosophist author Scott Elliott), still one can gather
ihat also in our Indies there are still such scattered Lemurian leftovers, and probably one can
find these with the still so little developed tribes in Central Borneo, Celebes and on New
Guinea. It is difficult to decide now if it is correct that such tribes stilt live also in the
mountains of Java*
This racial and social doctrine on Indonesia, while theosophists saw India as sacred

Aryan land, may be one aspect of why the Dutch East Indies TS section was mainly

European, contrary to the Indian one.

Yet, sometimes the section tried to influence peasants. By permission of the Dutch

Resident of Rembang. in September 1915 Van Hinloopen Labberton, another prominent

theosophist, Raden Djojosoediro, and two others, attempted to persuade the Samin

movement. 5

'EEN LNDISCHE STEM(192l), 508-9.

Quoted VAN LEEUWEN(1921F), 535.

*VAN LEEUWEN(1921F), 535,

4 VAN LEEUWEN(1921F), 536.

^emitran, 43, March 1916; quoted 'Persoverzicht. De Inlandsche pers', KOT, 1916, 784f

Social background of theosophists

123

About 1890, in northern Central Java, Soerontiko Samin, a peasant like most of his
followers, had founded this non-violent anti -government movement. They spoke ngoko
(Javanese as between equals) to priyayi, shocking them. They refused to pay taxes, or to
work at unpaid labour like auxiliary police service. The local bupasi imposed harsh
penalties. This did not work, though. Worried officials thought one might try convincing
as an alternative to force.

Saminism was definitely not Muslim in the orthodox sense. 'Nor does it seem to have
been Hindu-Buddhist in inspiration.' 1 According to Dutch official A.J.N. Engelenberg,
they were as opposed to theosophy as orthodox Islam was. 1 The theosophical delegates
thought that Samin's movement had on the one hand 'some undesirable aspects, which
presumably arose through stupidity; yet, really many good things too,'

When the sides met. 'Mr van Hinloopen Labberton had tried to convince them
[Saminists] of the fairness of the auxiliary police service which the authorities demanded.
He wanted to try to undermine their doctrine, by making them a present of a different
faith, as a substitute. ' They remained unconvinced. 1

An international attempt to instill Hie simplest of theosophical tenets into 'simple'
people, the Karma and Reincarnation Legion, had an Indies branch for some time.
'But there, it willed away and petered out quieliy through lack of effort and lack of
interest from the class for whom it was intended.' Later, in 1926, a rc-founded Legion
had 200 members; 'few' of them were Indonesian.'

Still, later, in Java and the islands immediately to the east, as the only instance in the
worldwide TS, hundreds of peasants became involved. In 1932, the Indies executive
wanted to have an auxiliary organization {Dutch: nevenorganisalie). First plans were to
call it Kawan Tlieosofte, Friends of Theosophy. Eventually, Peinitran Tjahja, the
Association of (he Light, was founded for 'the workers and the peasants'. 1 1 found no
further mention of workers. The I930's were the years of mass membership drives,
mainly among peasants, of Subjects' Leagues of the Central Java principalities. Their
slogan was 'The prince and people at one.''

'R!CKLEFS(1993). 167; it still exists. KORVER, 132, 1LETO, 225-6.

J VAN DER WAL(1967), 461 To A. Baars. 'Maar een Javaan. Het schandaal der particuliere
landerijen van Socrabaja', HVW, 10-1-1916, 53, Saminism was a 'religious communisl
movement.* The Dutch government considered it 'anarchist communisl'; ^Von 1919 (1920), 9.

y Pemiiran, 43, March 1916; quoted ' Persoverzicht. Dc Inlandsche pers'. KOT, )9J6, 7S4f.

J A. van Leeuwen, 'Het Parijsche Paasch-Congres' , TMNI 1923, 350-1. L. Mangelaar
Meertens, 'Karma en Reincarnatie legiocn', TMNI 1926, 419-20 The Legion had various
publications of its own; T1LLETT (1982), 226, Reincarnation was its English language-,
Remcomatie was its Dutch paper. TiNl 1932. 72.

S RANS0M(1938), 507, on Utis 'simple presentation of Theosophy among the illiterate,'
misspells Premitran Thahja; and ibid,, 559: Pemitram. TtNI 1932, 162; 1933, 134.

TJJAJADININGRAT-NIEUWENHUIS, 64. They all had tens of thousands of members. The
biggest one, Pakoempoelan Kawoelo Ngajogjakarta, Yogyakarta Subjects' League, had 22S.000 at
its maximum.

124

///.;

Pemitran Tjafija held its first meeting in Cikondo village near Leles in West Java.
300 were present; twelve joined. The entrance-fee was f. 0.25; the (monthly?) fee was
f. 0.05. So members paid less than full-fiedged FTS. They had also fewer rights; neither
voting, nor electing officials. Clause 6 of Pemitran Tjahja's rules said Oie main subject of
meetings should be At the Feet of the Master, officially by Krishnamurti, some say by
Leadbeater. 'This booklet should be read out and explained slowly and word for word.'
In August 1933, branches existed in Ciamis, Banjar, and Delanggu. 1 The Pemitran had
14 branches in 1934. TS General Secretary Van Leeuwen wrote then 900 people in all
went to its fortnightly meetings.

Once, we had a very obnoxious conflict with some orthodox and fanatical Muhammadans,
who worked against our endeavours and tried to keep the people from going to the meetings
At the same time, whenever (here was a theosophical meeting, they made lots of noise. After
we had complained about this to the local authorities, and after one of the high Javanese
officials had joined the TS as a Fellow, we overcame the problems, and our success
increased.

These peasants probably were abangan. In 1935. Pemitran members from largely
Hindu islands joined full TS members in besi wishes for

the Mother [T] Society, which has become a torch on our way to the great Aim, to us.
inhabitants of Bali and Lombok, who until recently have lived in ignorance's darkness.
Van Leeuwen claimed about 1000 Pemitran Tjahja members in 1935," Tlieosofie in
Nederlandsch-lndie after that scarcely mentioned it ever again.

D.OTHER ASIAN COUNTRIES

Though TT wrote: 'it may be thai we are making the link in Java to propagate Thcosophy
in China', the TS never won many adherents in China. 5 Finally, in 1922, nine Chinese
and ihree English people founded the Shanghai lodge. Its president, Wu Ting Fang, was
three limes Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs, (he last time in 1921, in the Canton
military government. He died also in 1922 though 6 .

In 1920, the French Theosophical Society section founded a lodge in Vietnam, The
TS always had few members there, many less than in colonial 'motherland' France. Still,

'TiNl 1932, 168; 206, TlNi 1933, 91. TiNl Nov. 1934: 'big interest* in the villages around
Tasikmalaya.

*VAN LEEUWEN(1934), 146. He did not say where the conflict was

3 77A7Nov. 1935, 198.

"TirWJan. 1936, 17.

s 7TNov. 1910, 314, Van Leeuwen, TiNl, July 1937. Ill: 'It is remarkable that Japan and China
appear to be so link open to our ideas, though so often exertions have been made to make theosophy
find acceptance there,'

i THA Sept. 1922, 193. TT, Aug. 1936. GUENON (1921), 273. Wu Ting Fang had formerly been
Chinese diplomatic representative in the USA.

Social background of theosophists

125

Hutin 1 ascribes to it important and direct influence, for instance on karma doctrine, upon
the syncretist religious Vietnamese movement Cao Dai ('Great House'). This movement
would win millions of adherents, and considerably influence twentieth century
Vietnamese politics, since its t920's start in the country's southernmost area.

The king of Siam joined the Theosophical Society in 1880, J but no section was
founded there then.

In Ceylon, among the first to join were Buddhist priests.' Many rich Sinhalese lay
families also joined.' Buultjens as one of few prominent FTS came from a Burgher
(traditionally mainly Protestant) background. 1 As for other groups, there were few
contacts with Tamils and Muslims.'

Peter de Abrew, FTS, furnished the land for building the Musaeus school. He
remained involved with ii later. He was

a big capitalist; he gave money for building temples. He was a prominent member of the
Ceylon National Congress; not of the Council though, he was not much interested in politics. 7
He was a long lime broker for Volkan Bros. , the Winienhur (Switzcrland)-owned
coconut coir firm whose all-imponam branches were in Ceylon, including Galle fort.

From Colombo, Albert Schwarz* managed Volkan Bros, In 1893, he heard Bcsant
lecture in Colombo. In 1895, he was recruited to the TS by fellow German speaker Mrs
Musaeus. and helped Annie Besant buy her Benares home. When Olcon came to Ceylon,
he stayed in Schwarz' bungalow, Schwari was international TS treasurer from 1907 till
his death in 1933, arriving in Adyar Feb. 1908, named vice president of the local Adyar
lodge. 9 In the Golden Book of the TS, his was one of the four photographs in the gallery

'HUTIN. 1377.

! RANSOM(1938), 143 From 186R-1910, Rama V Chulalongkorn was king of Siam
(Thailand). He visited Borobudur on Java in 1896: PL. Narasimham, 'The ancient Hindu
colonies', 7TOct 1915, 61.

'MALALGODA.

"Theosophical authors were not always clear on ihc island's social categories: Caroline
Corner-OhlmOs {TR vol. XXIX, 1901 - 1 902, 260), writing about a Sinhalese environment, speaks
of 'the Vclalah casie'; a Tamil term. Olcott, ODL, II, 320, also wrote of Sinhalese 'Willallas'; and
'VellalJas' in TT, April 1890, 350.

J VAN DEDCM, 103. spelling Bruiltjens. spoke to him while visiting a Buddhist school in
Colombo.

''The Muhammadan fire bath', TTJuly 1906, 742ff, on Ceylon. Written by F. Pieters. clearly
not over-familiar with Islam.

Interview by the author with Dr. Harichandra Kaviralna.

s AdB. March 1908, 95f. DE ABREWU933), 'Star name' (name valid for more than one
incarnation), in Leadbeater's occult prehistorical research: Sappho; BROOKS(l914A), xv. misspelt
Schwartz.

''AdB Oct. 1908,292,

126

of honour.

///./

E.OCEANIA AND CONCLUSIONS

Theosoplust A.F. Knudsen was the manager of his family's big cattle ranching and rice
growing estate on Hawaii. 2

In Australia arose one of the most numerous TS sections, with political connections.
One of the first members in the 1880's, Professor John Smith, sat in the New South
Wales Legislate Council. 1 At the first meeting that Olcott spoke at in the continent in
1891. an MP presided."

Colonel Olcoti was invited to lecture in the capitals of Australia, where he founded Branches,
die membership of which were the best, both as to social position, influence and education.

A. Deakin was president of the Victoria Association of Spiritualists in 1877. Later,
he was a TS official." When Olcou visited Australia in 1897, he had lunch at the house of
this best known of Australia's fellows. ' Deakin kept up a lifelong iniercst in. and
sometimes membership of, the Theosophical Society. He visited, and wrote on Ceylon,
and on India. The temple and the tomb. In the 1900's he was three times prime minister,
and came to an Annie Besant lecture. 8 At first, he was a Liberal, later he contributed to
union between liberal and conservative parties

T.H. Martyn (Australia's £S and OSE leader and General Secretary 1917-1921) was
one of the richest Australians* Leading businessman Martyn, after contributing his ideas
against Chinese immigrants in Australia, 10 later got into conflict with the Adyar leaders
because of Leadbeaier's homosexuality. He formed his own Theosophical Society, which

•jlNARAJADASA^S), 218.

i 1Wil, 1921. 445-6.

y BCW vol V (1883), L.A., Philosophical Research Society. 1950; II. Michael Hoare and
Joan T Reid, 'John Smith, (1821-1885)'. 148-50 in G. Serle/R. Ward, Australian Dictionary of
Biography. Melbourne. Melbourne University Press. 1976; vol. 6; 1851-1890. R-Z: Smith had
been Young Mens Christian Association vice president m the 1860's; was in the Legislative
Council since 1874. and met Madame Blavaisky and Olcott in Bombay in 1882, joining the TS.

'MURPHET, 246.
5 Lud-, March-August 1891, 436.
'Secretary of the Ibis branch; ROE, 94.
7 7T, ODL, Jan. 1906.243

*Ad8. Aug. 1908, 227. ROE, 68: E, Barton, first prime minister of Australia, Deakin's
immediate predecessor, also went to hear her.

'ROE, 185.

I0 MARTYN(1919). On him, see ROE, T1LLETT(1982), M. LUTYENS,
CLEATHER(1922A).

Social background of theosophists

127

Alice Leighion Cleaiher joined. When in 1938 power in the Hobart (Tasmania) lodge
changed hands from Manyn followers to Arundale followers, the new executive burned
lodge library books by Mrs Cleaiher. 1

The 1933 Australia census found as % of breadwinners in the top income bracket
with fheosophists 20, vs. 1 1 for Anglicans, and 8 for Roman Catholics. 2

New Zealand had a relatively numerous TS section. Among them were Lilian Edger,
one of New Zealand's first woman university graduates; and leading politicians.
Conservative Premier Sir Harry Atkinson joined the first TS lodge in Wellington in
1888. > Olcott mentioned the Hon. William McCullough, FTS, a Member of the
Legislative Council in 1893.*

We may conclude from this chapter that on all continents, groups above the average
level in wealth and in social prestige were represented more among Theosophical Society
members thu.. ;:r,;r.g the general pcpuistiui. An individual fror" rhr*» jr~jp: rr?y b^
politically indifferent; or leftist. So may, already more unlikely, small organizations
consisting of such individuals. With thousands of such people, one has a potential for
controversies wilh labour movements; and with national and women's movements, if
these have a radical, mass character.

In Indonesia, a Javanese Raden Mas certainly differed from a captain of Chinese; or
from a Dutch plantation owner. A Brahman in India was different again; as was a US
businessman. All had individual reasons for joining the TS. But rising mass movements
threatened the various privileges of all. One might expeel a philosophy both going along
wilh (he tide of emancipation by its tend of Brotherhood, and rendering it harmless by
ihe 'older and younger brothers' doctrine, to have some success among groups like these.

2.THEOSOPHY FOR WHOM?

From the 1875 beginning, 6 there had been a dilemma for the Theosophical Society; how
to expand?

A. It appealed, and wanted to appeal, lo people from real, or would-be, elites in

'OELC Jan /Feb. 1939, Sepi. 1939.

! ROE. 386 (ihosc with f 260 or higher income),

^Dictionary of National Biography. Thanks to R. Ellwood.

'ODL, 77", Nov. 1902, 68.

5 Besides questions of social stratification, there is ihe question of age groups in the potential
attraction of a movement like thcosophy. Certainly among higher income groups in the late nine-
teenth century, average age was already rising due to longer life expectancies. More people lived
to an age where conventional medicine could not solve their health problems; so there might have
been a tendency to seek miraculous solutions. DOORMAN in a discussion of the attraction of
esotericism in the 1990's saw this as one factor. Much of this is applicable to the TS even in the
19th century.

*The TS then temporarily expelled one founder member for giving it newspaper publicity,
contrary to its semi-secret character. RANSOM(1938), 84,

128

111.2

various countries.

B. Like most organizations, it wanted to become big. 1 That might conflict with A, as
philosopher Bolland remarked 1 .

In the Dutch East Indies TS monthly, Humphry Hillary voiced the dilemma:

Here, the [theosophical] society seems to be at the parting of the ways. It seems to have this in
common with hundreds of other organizations, from empires down to the most negligible little
groups. Should it remain an elite body of those who prepare to go forward on the hard and
dangerous path, or should it become a powerful worldly organization with hundreds of
thousands of supporters who hardly know what mysticism means. We shall see what the
consequences of that approach are.

Hillary was apprehensive about a possible influx of intermediate social categories. In
The Netherlands ('all that 1 tell here is no fantasy'), he had been at a theosophical public
meeting in a big hall. There, he found many male office employees 'who happened to
have read the announcement of the lecture and were at a loss about how to waste their
time', and 'giggling girls'. At another meeting. Hillary met a shop employee, 'a
iheosophist in his spare time. ... And he talks about his shop business, his body bent,
gesticulating with his arms. And it never stops. Not ait of the night. Trouble with
employers, problems with junior employees. Shaking his head and shoulders, he finishes:
1 don't trouble myself with these problems between those reds and the employers. One
could so easily be trapped into an extreme ,.,",'

for the TS, point A suggested organizing as a secret or semi-secret, occult, esoteric
society: reluctant to enrol members en masse; requiring of applicants for membership
nomination and seconding by already initiated members: appearance before a ballot
committee. 4 elaborate, mysterious initiation rituals, giving the new member the idea that
he or she had to do something special, be someone special, to deserve this: that the door
to becoming even more special was unlocked for just a moment. Mysterious procedures
may limit growth; but they also may attract quite some people. 5 Jawaharlal Nehru, who

Anarchist RABBIE( I898A) saw the TS' Universal Brotherhood object as the wish to "control
ihe whole lot*; like Roman Catholic or other churches. TRUZZ1(I974), 252: Wider audiences of
believers mean greater power and better status for the existing occult believers in the form of money,
prestige, and general social acceptance'.

I BOLLAND(I9IO), 145, quoted Mrs Besant: 'Theosophy is not only for the learned, it is for
all ' To elitist Bolland, from a non-elite family background, the TS was not esoteric enough: That
means the secret Doctrine is an open Doctrine.' He also quoted (misunderstood?) 'The doclrine of
ihe eye [merely exoteric doclrine] is for the multitude.*

5 HILLARY(I921), 153, The last senlence often appeared in TMNI and other TS magazines.

"T)LLETT(1982), 29f.; on Leadbeater's 1883-1884 joining. See also BESANT(1907B). 65f
Lady Caithness in France was very exclusive; GU£NON()92l), 185.

i BROOKS(l914A). 35: 'What a comment, by die way, on the moral calibre of the average
'esotericisl', who values instruction more ,,., if he knows his neighbours are deprived of il!'
Jawaharlal NEHRU(1958), 15, on his joining: '[ did not understand much that was said but it all

Theosophy for whom?
joined the TS as a thirteen year old, later looked back:

129

1 was smug, with a feeling of being one-of-dte-elect, and altogether i must have been a
thoroughly undesirable and unpleasant companion for any boy or girl of my age. '

The histories of Hinduism and Christianity might seem to support approach A to
theosophtsts.

For in Hindflsthan. all religious and philosophical teaching from time immemorial has been
divided into two pans: that for (he multitude and that for the Dwija's. i.e., the 'twice-born,' 2
the initialed. The inner, secret, sacred, holy teaching, properly withheld from the thoughtless
multitude, given only lo worthy deposilarics ,..'

The lower castes do not have the philosophic religion of the higher casics, but worship God
under the name of '-Rama." The Hindu religion provides, as Si. Paul expressed it "the meat
for strong men and the milk for babes.' Therefore (he more ignorant (younger souls) among
them are not burdened wiih all sorts of questions which would disturb their minds ... they look
upon Him very much as the early Jews looked upon Jehovah.' 1

Even the Syrian Sage, Jesus the Avatara ,., is said lo have taught certain things to his disciples
in private, whereas lo the mulntude the same irullis, or at leasi pans of them as the case may
have been, were taught not openly . ,. !

Point A fitted in with theosophic views on history: which saw Initiates of sccrei
Urotherhoods, as largely guiding il from behind the scenes. A much earlier example of a
hard-to-join organization -if it existed at all as more than a hoax- had been the
Rosicrucians." Such an approach is well known (!) from (semi-) secret societies, like

sounded very mysterious and fascinating and I fell (hat here was the key to the secrets of the
universe'.

'J, NGHRU(I958). 16.

^nterprelcd here as Brahmans; but others (LIDDLE and JOSH1. 58): the three highest castes,
also kshatriyas and vaisyas.

*DE PURUCKER(1940), 37-8.

Jennie Douglas 'India, The Motherland'; 7TAug. 1930, 711.

S DEPURUCKER(1940). 54f.

6 ln 1623 in Paris [VAN BOSBEKE. 17. LIGOU, 1040: in 1622] they put up wall-posters
saying: 'If someone warns to see us just out of curiosity he shall never meet us; but if he really
wants to inscribe himself on the iists of our brotherhood, then we, who judge the thinking, shall
show them the veracity of our promises; so we do not give our address in this city [It would have
been dangerous in Catholic France, for an organization founded by Ludierans, considering the
pope an impostor, a viper and Anti-chrisf. VAN BOSBEKE, 17J, because the thoughts, joined to
the real desire, will suffice to make us recognizable to him, and him to us,' Don't call us: we'll
calf you, by telepathic telephone. It obviously limits membership growth. German nobleman

130

III. 2

Masonry, Rotary, the Benevolent Order of Elks, the Ancient Order of Hibernians, the
Ku Klux Klan. Many of these, like the Theosophical Society, originated in the nineteenth
century United States, 1 At least one point differed: the TS was one of the few to admit
women members,

Lucifer wrote that 'for the multitude ... Theosophy could not supply the place of a
religion'. 1 This suggested point A for recruitment. The TS, though, mostly did not base
itself consistently on the exclusivity of point A, That would mean that Madame Blavatsky
would have spoken on the Secret Doctrine only to small audiences, instead of, as she did,
writing a publicly available book of that title.' 1

Point B suggested a 'theosophy for the masses', 5 Hie Key lo Theosophy chapter of
that name' says, in catechism- 1 ike form:

Christian Roscnkrcutz (not Rosencranz, as in BCW. vol. 1, 105f; 7*M(!951>. 31; 1378^-1484?; if
he ever lived) is said to have founded them. Annie Besant said Rosenkreutz reincarnated as the
Count de Si. Germain (1696? 17007-I784); VAN BOSBEKE, 16: LIGOU. In 1912. Annie Besant
and J. Wedgwood founded the Order of the Temple of the Rosy Cross, which F.J W.S., 57
confused with Co-Masons. T1LLETT(1982), 167. Some 20th century Rosicrucians claim the real
founders were ancient Egyptian Pharaohs, or some millions of years more ancieni still Most
historians attribute its founding (maybe as a hoax) to 17th century Germans. VAN BOSBEKE, 14-
6. M1ERS, 383: only one of today's Rosicrucian organizations, ihc English SRI A, is from (lie I9lh
century (Bulwer-Lylton); the other, later, major ones derive from TS splits. In the 20lh century,
many Orders of Knighthood', claiming to represent medieval chivalry traditions, arose (VAN
BOSBEKE). like Lanz von Liebenfels' (GOOD R1CK-CLARKE( 1985), 106f ) and Gucnon's
'revivals of ihe Templars': LIGOU, 887; 547: resp. with 1908 and 1909 as starting years They
attracted both 'real' nobles and chevaliers d'mdustrie (fake ones). A real one was Prince
Marescotti Ruspoli di Poggio Suazo, in 1982 leader of the Order of St. Laiarus; VAN BOSBEKE.
393; related to Italian Vice-Admiral Fabrizio Ruspoli, FTS, who helped CWL in Adyar.

l MEEUSE(1983). 18, writes of 'secret societies like Thcosophists'. but die Theosophical
Socieiy in its non-ES aspects was not a secret society in the strict sense TIRYAKIAN(I974). 270,
summing up some of these societies, wrongly includes Ireland s open political party Sinn Fein,
which participated in elections from its early twentieih cenlury beginning on, though later, it got
sometimes banned, like the German Social Democrat Parly and Mazzim's Young Italy had been
earlier

2 BLEE: when the Klan siarted in the 1860s, it admitted no women. Later, in the 1920s,
many from (he Women's Christian Temperance Union joined ihe numerous Women of (he Ku Klux
Klan.

'Open letter 10 Archbishop of Canterbury, 1887: RANSOM(1938), 240.

4 On the contradictions of secrecy, for instance TRUZZl, 251.

S EESANT(1894), 21: 'our brotherhood ... accepts into its sphere both the lowest and most
degenerated and the saint and the hero'. In the 1940's, the few dozen of the recently formed
Philippine TS saw the country's non-members as '18 million people to thcosophize';
RANSOM(1950), 128.

*BLAVATSKY(1987), 245f. Contrary to HUT1N, 1375, Besant did not write 77ie Key to
Tlieosophy.

Theosophy for whom?

131

ENQ. How? Do you expect thai your doctrines could ever take hold of the uneducated masses,
when they are so abstruse and difficult that well-educated people can hardly understand them?
TH EO. ... It does not require metaphysics or education to make a man understand the broad truths
of Karma and Re -i near nation. Look at the millions of poor and uneducated Buddhists and Hindoos,
to whom Karma and re- incarnation are solid realities, simply because their minds have never been
cramped and distorted by bcing > Jorfcett > inio an unnatural groove ... And the Buddhists, note well,
live up to their beliefs witjjout i mjjrmuj; ajajnjt Karma, or what they regard as a just punishment;
whereas the Qhrfjlian. pO^ulace^iwith&Mives up to its moral ideal, nor ajcgpls its Ijjt cgn[c[jtcdiy.
Hence mu.r[nu[iog and dissatisfaction, and the intensity of the struggle for existence in Western
lands.

ENQ. But this contentedness, which you praise so much, would do away with all motive for
enenion and bring progress to a stand-still.

THEO. And we. Thcosophists. say that your vaunted progress and civilization are no belter than a
host of will-o'-the-wisps, flickering over a marsh which exhales a poisonous and deadly miasma.
This because we see selfishness, crime, immorality, and all the evils imaginable, pouncing upon
unfortunate mankind from this Pandora's box which you call an age of progress ... At such a price,
belter (he inertia and inactivity of Buddhist countries ...

ENQ. Then is all the metaphysics and mysticism widi which you occupy yourself so much, of no
importance?

THEO To the masses, who need only practical guidance and support, <)icy are not or much
consequence; but for the educated, ihe natural leaders of the masses, (hose whose modes of thought
and action will sooner or later be adopted by diosc masses, they arc of the greatest importance ...
ENQ. Do you hope 10 impart this enthusiasm, one day. to the masses?

THEO. Why not? since history tells us thai the masses adopied Buddhism with enthusiasm ... The
chief point is. to uproot that most fertile source of all crime and immorality-the belief that it is
possible for them 10 escape ihe consequences of ihcir own actions. Once teach ihem the greaiesi of
all laws. Karma and Re-incarnation , and besides feeling in themselves the true dignity of human
nature, Ihey will turn from evil and eschew it as (hey would a physical danger.
According to The Theasop/ua in 1898.

The Editor of Tlic Buddhist [Ceylon Buddlusi theosophical English language paper), at the
close of a good ednorial on 'Anarchism in Europe' says. '... if they arc taught to look upon
their present condition, not as (he result of an arbitrary divine interference, bul as. to a very
great extent, of their own making, being mainly due lo their actions in die past: .. then
indeed, it may be hoped (hat ihey will show more contentment in their lot in life, greater
patience in misfortune, more forbearance towards others, and stronger efforts lo restrain their
passions'." 1

'IT Sept. 1904, 764' the vulgar multitude of Christians '

2 MARX(1968), 68: nobles 'object more to the bourgeoisie creating a revolutionary proletariat,
lhan to creating a proletariat in general'.

3 JT, Dec. 1898, 190. 'Anarchism in Europe* TT, Feb. 1906, 'What Humanity Needs', by
Seeker'. 360: 'Spread (he two axiomatic truths of Theosophy -Karma and Re-incamalion-
mulually dependent on each other, as widely as possible amongst the masses, show ihem the
mechanism and chemistry of these two. but above all, prove to them the Righteousness of (he
Father of all, dial every inch of His cosmos is a mirror of law and love, and within a few years our
slums will be abodes of content and happiness, drunkenness and immorality will be things of the

132

III. 2

So, one theosophisc objection to Christianity was it lacked effectiveness in stopping
'murmuring' among the workers of 'its' countries, Leadbeater saw the problem with
Christianity as that the poor had corrupted Jesus' original esoteric views to fit their own
materialist ends; and that they still had too much influence on it. 1

To a United States audience. Leadbeater said:

You have in the immediate future the possibility of serious struggle; you have all the elements

of a possible social upheaval, and you have no religion with sufficient hold upon the people 10

check what may develop into a wild and dangerous movement.' 3

Might theosophy do better than Christianity? Then, how about theosophic influence
on the poor? How to do better than Christians like the Salvation Army, just beginning
then, in this? How to set up Theosophy for the masses which point B, and HPB,
suggested? Printing publicly available magazines, starting libraries, 'Harbour Missions',
propaganda among workers, using radio after its invention.

Elites, in the long run, can only stay on as elites, if the multitude, the non-elite
accepts their 'superiority', actively or passively. That is, if non-elites accept at least large
pans of the same ideology, though not in the same way, as the elite. J

Theosophists often labelled the masses as ignorant.* {Anarchist Constandse, though,
wrote of theTS: 'Ihe stupidity of the better classes' has found its idol!') 5 This would not
do for winning them over. For that, you must have at least something to offer them.

From 1894 on, Olcott helped found the Olcott Pariah or Panchama Schools, for
casteless children, financed by (mostly) theosophists. To Olcoll's disappointment,* Indian
Fellows o( the TS contributed but little financially (an exception was Allahabad teenager
Jawaharlal Nehru). 7 After 1933, only one school, then mostly for children of the lower-
paid Adyar estate employees, 8 was left of an all time maximum of five So. compared to

past, while order and self-respect will take the place or scurrility and distrust'

'The Christian Creed: paraphrased by Ernest Wood, TB. July 1931, 313-4
LEADBEATER(1920A). 423 denied Joseph. Jesus' father, had been a carpenter in a literal, nut
religiously symbolic, sense

; LEADBEATER(I905I1).95.

Annie Besant, quoted CAMPBELL. 70. 'in countries where reincarnation and karma art
taken for granted by every peasant and labourer, (he belief spreads a certain quiet acceptance of
inevitable (roubles thai conduces much to ihe calm and contentment of ordinary life'

"Olcott: 'sin-burdened and ignorant masses'. ODL. TT Feb. 1908, 264. rM(l951), 89.
'ignorant masses'. VAN H1NLOOPEN LABBERTON(1909), 5: 'the stupid hoi polloi'. 'Imbecile
majority': BLAVATSKY(I883B). 'Jesus, who reminds his disciples that the Mysteries of Heaven
arc not for the unintelligent masses, but lor the elect alone ...' BLAVATSKY0987), 8).

s CONSTANDSE(1929). 22.

''ODL, TT July 1904, 582f.

See p. 271. J, H, Cordes. working with Gandhi in South Africa then, also sent money.

! 7TFeb. 1934, 588. TT, Apr. 1928. 99. MURPHET, 279. On 15 December 1903. the four
Panchama schools had 567 pupils between ihem; TS General Report on 1904, 57 The maximum of
five schools was reached in May 1906: N. Almee Counright, 'The fifth Olcott Panchama free school'.

TJieosophy for whom?

133

Ceylon, numerical success was low. That may have had something to do with their
Buddhist character, which was emphasized early on, during Olcott's presidency; in Tamil
Nadu, which by then had been mostly Hindu for centuries; or with the parents' poverty,
or with easier communication for theosophists with 'respectable' parents, like Sinhalese
planters' than with Panchamas (or harijans, as the TS, after Gandhi, came to call them
later, in the 1930's). In spite of paternalistic ideas, 5 of Annie Besant's objections to
untouchable children going to touchable schools, 3 in practice the Panchama schools also
criticized the status quo.

Criticisms of some obvious consequences of conservatism did appear in The
Theosophist. It claimed in 1903 some categories of sudras should have more rights, 4
Annie Besant gradually after 1904 began to criticize more aspects of caste as it worked in
practice. However, Indian social reformers still attacked the TS in 1910; J and in 1914.
Brooks named 'Failure to tackle (he Caste Evil in right earnest'* as one cause for his
resignation as FTS. in 1917, one of Besant's more leftist phases. TT wrote:

TT, June 1906, 692f. The fifth school was in the village of Krishnampet, pan of Madras municipality.
Earlier on in Krishnampet. there had been a missionary school, which had closed as the children did
go to the school, but not one of them had converted to Christianity; ibid., 692. Ibid.. 693: contrary
to (he four other schools, not only Tamil, but also Telugu was (he language of that school TS Annual
Report 1903, 41, Counright' the bulk of pupils of HPB Panchama School are children of 'coolies' of
a large tannery and several brickyards, that is, from a clearly urban-industrial background. From the
I890's on. the Arya Saniaj and other reformers from a Hindu background, had also founded schools
for casteless: MAJUMDAR0969), 1000-1

l NETHERCOT(1960). 327: Tiuddlusi schools for poor children', and M LUTYENS<I975). 13'
■poor Buddhist boys' give the inaccurate impression that the Ceylon schools were especially (or the
poor Nethercot is spell 'Ncihereotc' in MORTIMER* 1 983), and M. LUTYENS0975).

"N.A, Courtriglit. superintendent of the Olcott Panchama Free Schools wrote in the Madras
Mail, as quoted TT, Mar. 1905, 383-4. 'Mrs. Counright begins by adopting the biological
standpoint that "the limitations and possibiluies for mental training of ilie child are almost entirely
a niaiter of the child's ancestry." In accordance with this principle ihe schools do not aim at ma
high a mark or culture. The children are mostly destined (O be servants and are therefore Uuglu
just as much as will qualify them for their lot of servitude under modern conditions.' Contrary to
this 'biological' standpoint, and though the children were sometimes very hungry, examination
results were 20% better for the casteless children than for the average for caste children in Madras
presidency: TS General Repon on 1905. 67.

5 S. PANKHL)RST(1926), 152-3 quotes Annie Besant 'It will need generations of purer food
and living io make their [untouchables') bodies fit to sit in the close neighbourhood of a
schoolroom with children who have received bodies from an ancestry trained in the habits of an
exquisite personal cleanliness and fed upon pure foodstuffs' .

J Sris Chandra Bose 'Patanjalion S'u'dras', TT Dec. 1903, I60ff.

5 7T Dec. 1910, 458. On the other hand, breakaway ex-FTS and political right-winger
GUENON(1921), 289 thought her too anti-caste.

6 BR00KS(I9)4A). 26: '... nay, rank desertion of the few public-spirited Indians who did so.'
He then denied his TS opponents' charges that he had joined the Arya Samaj, which was more
critical on caste; but TAYLOR, 362: 'He became a niembet of the Arya Somaj [sic] ...'

134

in. 2

But at Adyar, we are trusied by die poor and the needy.'

That year, the Theosophical Publishing House' also published Annies presidential
speech of the end of 1916 Lucknow TS convention. She urged her audience, if a casteless
person saluted them on a street, to return the salute, 1

In J936. Bhagavan Das introduced a bill to validate inter-caste marriages in the Delhi
Leg.slaave Assembly; while still defending caste as he saw it had been originally 'based
on science of social organization. **

Theosophist propaganda among the 'lower' classes never was very successful any-
where. In this, it might just be an example of much religion. At least for the post 1940
USA and Britain, R. Stark argued:

Survey, have invariably found out thai contrary to the expectations of traditional soc,ai
theory, the lower classes are leas., rather than most, likely to be involved m religion
The proposed explanation of these findings is that the lower classes find radical politics a more
aitracnvc outlet than religion for their stalus dissatisfaction.'

U would be interesting to compare Stark's findings to earlier time, and other
countries. Others found simiiar data* R. Stark himself states that since eighteenth
century Weslcya n Methodism there have been no more big Western working class

'WT, TTOcl. 1917,8.
'BESANT<t9l7A). 36,

'7TNuv. 1930, 152. DAS(I930>, 11 saw the ww as an universal, not jliSI Indian law ,„■
social naiurc: 'even M go-ahead U.S. America, a .cry large majority of the school-going children
are congenially unfit, by ihc low quahty of their intelligence .o usefully pursue studies beyond (he

QAi<l947). 467. The very sound scicnufic reason for avoidant* of indbcnininaur iriierdmin* ,,,d
miermarrymg „, of course, obvious. If wc are ,« preserve and promo* mdmdual and r,d,d
health, we mm. cat pure food, drink pure drink, breath, pure air. ,„ company win, clea„.,,v lfli ,
sympathetic friendly people of similar habits, and marry w„h persons of namy of temperament and
compatibility of tasies, imerests. likes and dislikes'.

J STARK, 698. Ibid , 703: one of the surveys he named, in 1957 ,q IJn.a.n. found of sdf-

»T thT^r ^ PlC ^ W£m '° ChUfCh a ' kaS ' «"^"«»y: ^ the sel.-styk-d working cl,,
39%. Ibid., 704: of Conservaiivc Pany voters, 62% were church-goers; for Labour 36% Of the

Uppe ' **■ 85 * MKVed ^ lifC af ' er dial11 ' ° f " ,e WOrkin S cl3SS 49% *** of (he upper class
vs. 70% of ihe working class, believed in Christ's divinity. In influential theones hke A
Toynbee s A Study of History, and Ems, Troeltsch'. one finds the idea that 'sects recruited from
Ihe lower class ; WlLSON(i970). 25 rejected this form of the idea of a posittve link between lower
income groups and religion for industrial societies

J Stark's findings arc mainly on Christian kinds of belief and praciice Closer to ihe TS is belief
in astrology, on which we have figures from 1963 France; quoted FISCHLER 288-9 Thoueh
d.flermg in country time and type of belief from Stark's, the figures are remarkably similar in
finding a relatively high rate of belief in astrology in 'higher', and a relatively high rate of unbelief
in lower soao-economic strata. FISCHLER, 288: of the French as a whole. 30% believed in
astrology. For 'Professionals, managers, executives' ii was 34%; for small business owners 36%
for mdusmal workers, 'ouvriers', it was 29%; for farmers plus farm workers, it was 15%.

6 STARK, 702.

Theosophy for whom?

135

religious movements, and that politics have replaced them.

Yet, even if Stark's findings are also true for 1875-1940, and for countries other than
France, Britain, or the US: theosophic working class support was low if compared to
support for some other ideologies, both religious and non-religious, of non-working class
origin, among workers. Look for instance at the hundreds of thousands of Dutch workers
who joined Protestant or Catholic organizations. Or to British (or even to Dutch) 19th
century political liberalism and the links to trade unions which it had then.

'Hewers of wood and drawers of water', to use Christian terminology, were not very
fast in taking their places on the TS spiritual ladder as sudras or untouchables, as younger
brothers. The Theosophical Society had too many would-be generals and colonels, too
few fool soldiers. 1 The theosophical pyramid under construction turned out to be more
top-heavy than Madame Blavatsky, or Annie Besam. envisaged.

Exceptions to the rule surprised Olcott. He reported on a visit to:

... Northern Sweden, and within the Arctic Circle. Besides the native Esquimaux 1 there were

very few inhabiianis save ihosc working in the mines, and one would hardly expect that our

Ancient Wisdom would appeal very strongly to the hcaris and minds of a class so completely

occupied in severe manual labour.
Still, some miners there were FTS, an engineer from Kiruna had recruited them.

The Dutch Indies TS did not sound like ii wanted to attract workers:

The rapilatist as a rule symbolizes lo (he world the esoteric satisfied, personally strong.

independence-conscious, individuality. The worker, on the other hand, is the symbol of the

exoteric miserable, weak, dependence -conscious mass human *

When Arundalc in 1937 discussed benefits various categories might gel from
theosophy. he mentioned

The artist ... The businessman will realize through Theosophy ihe inherent nobility of business

as a channel of growth. The industrialist ..
and omitted* workers or peasanls.

Still, tension between approach A and approach B existed. 6 The TS tried to resolve ii
by having a Society within a society. Within the TS, ihe Esoteric Society, further
subdivided into different hierarchical levels, was for the real elite For joining the ES,

''There are soldiers and officers in (he TS'; A v[an| L|ccuwenl, 'Uit de pen dcr rcdactie'.
TMN! 1920. 51. Nothing more was heard of a Theosophical League of Workers soon after its 1891
start; NETHERCOT(1960). 380; 392. GUEN0N(I921), 254: in Paris (here was ■L'Uaian
Fraterneiie, io spread theosophy among the working classes'; and. ibid., 257, a special
organization for propaganda among Toulon arsenal workers. But: iheosophy 'nevet became a
grassroot movement'; CEI, 347.

'Who went thousands of miles cast by kayak? Or (heir astral bodies?

^General Report 27th Anniversary Convention, 25-12-1902 Benares, 2.

"VAN LEEUWEN(1920B), 102.

J 7TOct. 1937, Wf, 3; comrary to Annie Besam in 1922: NETHERCOT(1963), 343

*ln a letter to Olcott, Judge proposed having a separate lodge 'of mere common men of the
working classes ... but we have lo at the same time reach the belter classes'. Published 77", Nov.
1931, 199. I have found no lodge for 'mere common men', actually founded according 10 this idea.

136 nu

one should have been a member of [he ordinary TS for at least three years {this did not
apply to Annie Besaru; or to Krishna muni later). Around it was the exoteric Society,
which also attracted somewhat less august (though rarely truly 'proletarian') people.
To become an ordinary member of the outer TS, contrary to the inner ES, one was not
required to hold beliefs, apart from supporting the idea of Brotherhood. Annie Besant
said on this point in her acceptance speech as president in 1907:

It [the TSJ admits into its ranks men and women from any religion, from any conviction, and,
if only they recognize the Brotherhood as a general principle, ii does noi require of ihem a
belief in any fact, however certain it is, in any leaching, however important it is. With a
splendid faith in the victorious power of irudi, it disregards all the divisions, which
superficially divide Mankind ... and welcomes even those as Brothers, who deny those very
(ruths upon which the Brodierhood is based, and who even reject the Rcvealers [die Masicrs],
who make possible its realization to Mankind, lis field of work is as vast as thought is. ii*
omnipresent love is like die sun, who gives warmih and light 10 all. even to (hose who an:
blind 10 iis lighi. 1

Just after he broke with the TS, in 1930, Krishnamurti said in a speech against
elitism: 'Are you the specially chosen few? Then 1 am sorry, for I will not speak 10 the
chosen people ... Whai 1 am saying is for everyone, including (he unfortunate
Theosophisis.'*

'Quoted TMNf. 1918, 288. According to J, Giles, 'Mixed musings on Theosophy', TT, May
1917, 177, 'no sensible person would be attracted to a Society by the bare proclamation that ii
stood for the "Brotherhood of Man".'

2 M. LUTYENS(1975),279.

138

Social democracy and communism

139

PART IV.THE LABOUR MOVEMENT

The Theosophical Society was born at the time of the rise of the labour movement. We
will look at how the TS related to it. Especially to its political components social
democracy, communism, and anarchism. We should note, though, that actions for certain
reforms, unionization, strikes, and revolutions, may be, but are not necessarily, linked to
one or more of those three political currents. We focus on Indonesia in the 1915-1918
period. Then, and there, war was the main issue between the TS and labour. Earlier and
later, and in India, economic labour disputes were more in the foreground.

l.SOCIAL DEMOCRACY AND COMMUNISM

Some 35 years before the Theosophical Society included Universal Brotherhood in lis
Objects, in the 1840's the Communist 1 League had as its motio 'All people are brothers.'
This soon changed to the better known 'Workers of all countries, unite'. The Communist
League was an international organi2auon, in which migrant. German workers in England
were heavily represented. Its best known members were Karl Marx (1818-1883) and
Friedrich Engels (L820-1895).

When what one may call the first transcontinental, though stiil mainly West
European, organization based on workers' militancy, the International Workingmen's
Association (First International), arose in the 1860's, ihey had a sympathizing weekly,
Samprakash, in Bengal, and a small scciion in the U.S.

A.MARX AND ENGELS ON SPIRITUALISM AND THEOSOPHY*'

First, we will look at Marx' and Engels' ideas about spiritualism and theosophy. They
wrote more on the former than on (he latter. For only since the I880's. the decade when
Marx died and Engels was in his sixties, the Theosophical Society became sizable, first in
south Asia, laier in the U.S. and Europe, lis predecessor, spiritualism, then had been
going for decades.

The pre- 1918 labour movement did noi differentiate between social democrat' and
'communis!' as later. 'Communist' was more used earlier, 'social democrat' laier in the nineteenth
century, 'Communist* was sometimes a name for a curreni within anarchism. Supporters or
anarchisL Bakunin. when they were in the First International, also called ihemselves 'social
democrats*. Only after die militant curreni of (he Russian Social Democrats changed its name to
Communist Pany in 1918, and militants in other countries followed suit, a distinct communist
identity arose.

2 This chapter is re-written from DE T0LLENAERE(I992). CAMPBELL, 13 observed:
'Esoteric and mystical sources have been identified as part of the intellectual background for
Hegelian and Marxist thought.' He did not elaborate on this observation, however, and neither will
we. The statement relates to indirect influence of pre-1800 ideas via Hegel. This concerns,
however, an earlier age than our subjeet.

1. Spiritual ism

Marx and Engels, tn their voluminous works, often referred to Spiritualism. On
examination, all these references are brief to very brief. Some of them do not mention
Spiritualism by name, but are jokes (for instance, by Marx in Das (Capital; see p. 45)
about dancing tables, 'ghost -rappers, ghost-rapping shakers'. 1

Engels in a letter briefly put this movement into the perspective of U.S. society:

though the Americans ... have not copied medieval institutions from Europe, they did copy
lots of medieval tradition, religion, English common (feudal) law, superstition, spiritualism, in
short, all nonsense thai was not directly harmful to business, and now is very useful to dull the

So he thought modem spiritualism was unmodern. He tried to explain its recent rise only
when using the word 'now', as he wrote about usefulness to the rich in (heir batde againsi
the poor.

Longest was a ten-page article by Engels, called Die Naturforschung in der
CeiTterwelt, 'Natural Science in the World of Ghosts'. 1 Probably written in 1878, it was
not printed during his lifetime. It first came out in an 1898 Hamburg social democrat
calendar. It resembled T. Huxley's belter known observations on credibility, or lack of i(,
cl spiritualist mediums. The article ended with a Huxley quote. English zoologisis from
the sphere of Darwin and Huxley were prominent among the adversaries of spiritualism.
One of ihcm, Ray Lankesier (1847-1929), had American medium Slade, whom Olcoti and
Blavatsky had sent to Europe in 1876, sued in court for fraud." Later, LankeSter was one
of (he speakers at Marx' burial.

Engels thought, thai 'modern spiritualism was the emptiest of all superstitions." As an
example of fraud, he ciled the Holmeses of Philadelphia. They had evoked the spirit of
Katey King', an action lhat H.P. Blavatsky defended in the US press.

Engels' article aimed at a sociological explanation only in thai ii asked whai kind of
scientist spiritualism was mos( likely to attract. Paradoxically, ii concluded that the

'MEW, vol. 18 (Berlin. Dietz. 1%2), 99 (Engels, Die Internationale in Ameuka': 97-103).
This article originally appeared in die German social deinocrai paper Der Votksstaat. #57, 17 July
1872- 'Shakers' refers 10 a U.S. Christian sect.

3 M£W, vol. 36 (Berlin: Dietz, 1%7), 579. Leuer lo Friedrich Adolph Sorge in Hoboken.
London. 29 November 1886; ibid., 578-81.

>MEW. vol. 20 (Berlin: Dielz, l%2). 337-17.

"Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Tlie History of Spiritualism; vol. I. London, Cassell. 1926: 289f.
HPB referred to ihis Lankesier in her '(New) York against Lankesier', which appeared m ihe
Banner of Light on 14 Oct., 1876; H.P. Blavatsky Collected Writings: 1&74-1878. First edition.
Compiled by Boris de Zirkoff. Volume I (Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Publishing House, 1966),
221-5. Ibid., II, 217: HPB saw especially 'Western biologists' as opponents. Ibid,, 111, 20: British
theosophist G. Massey was Slade's lawyer in England.

140

TV.}

empiricist kind was more likely to than a priori theorists like German nature
philosophers. Engels cited Alfred Wallace and Sir William Crookes 1 as examples of the
former.

2. Annie Besant before theosophy

For four years prior to her joining the Theosophical Society in 1889, Annie Besant was.
like Engels, active in the English socialist labour movement. She had evolved from a
radical liberal to a Social Democrat. She joined the Fabian Society, and later the Social
Democratic Federation besides. The Fabian Society was too moderate for Engels;
Hyndman's S D.F. was officially Marxist, 1 but was under fire for sectishness.

Although Annie Besant's biographer Nethercot did not quote from Engels' works, he
did mention him several times. He wrote:

Certainly Mrs. Besanl never darkened Ihe doors of Engels' home, though she was the Fabian
for whom he had the grealesl respect, because of her influential pamphlets.'
Engels did not forgive her lier earlier anti-socialism. 4 He saw her as one of 'all those
'dummy men and women", 5 who played a part only while British workers were not con-
fident enough for leadership from their own midst yet.

Engels complained thai Bcsani's Our Corner magazine, to which he sent a review
copy of Ihe new English translation of his The condition of ihe Working-class in England
in 1844, ignored it * Like Annie's supporters later, when she played a major part in India,
Engels spoke of 'Mother' Besanl; bui noi in (heir complimentary sense

3. Theosophy

The only time Engels meniioned HP, Blavaisky was in an IS9I letier. From London, he
wroie to Kauisky:

Do you know Moiher Besanl has joined the theosophisis or Grandinoiher Blowatskv
(Blamatsky) On her garden gale. 19. Avenue Road, now is in big gold lellers: Theosophical

'Botli would briefly become members of (he Theosophical Society; RANS0M(I938). 19.

J Sheila Rowbotham, Hidden from History: Rediscovering Women in History, NY., Pantheon,
1974, 95: the 'so-called 'marxist" SDF leaders. The Grote Nederlandse Larousse Encyclopedie,
Schcltens & Gihay, 's-Gravenhage, s.d., vol, IV, 554, claimed Besant was ihe first woman 10
propagate 'alheist Marxism". But for instance Marx' daughters had preceded her in this.

3 NETHERCOT(1960),235.

*MEW, vol. 36, 101. Letter to Laura Lafargue (Paris). London, 5 February 1884; 101-3.

5 lbid,, 710. Letter to Laura Lafargue (Paris), London, 11 October 1887; (708-710),

''MEW, vol. 37 (Berlin: Dieiz, 1967), 58. Letter to Florence Kelley-Wischnewetzky (New
York). London, 2 May 1888; (58-59).

Social democracy and communism
Head Quaners. Herbert Burrows has caused this by his love. 1

141

These few lines in a private letter are all Engels (or Marx) ever wrote on the
Theosophical Society. If he had thought it important, then he would have written more.
Engels never wrote explicitly on the relationship of theosophisis to politics. From what he
wrote on religion in general, one may suppose ii would not have been positive. 1 One may
conclude Marx and Engels rejected spiritualism and theosophy. This rejection, though,
they did not think of as important enough to waste much ammunition, in the form of
writing-ink, on,

B.THEOSOPHY ON CLASSLESS OR HIERARCHICAL SOCIALISM, 1875-1918

1,18754905

In 1875, four years afier ihe Paris Commune, in New York the just founded Theosophical
Society faced the question of compaiibility with socialism. C. Sotheran, the first TS
librarian

made some inflammatory speeches a( a political street meeting (of strikers], to which H.P.B.

strongly objected: ... 'A Theosophisl becoming a rioter, encouraging revolution and

MURDER, a friend of Communists is no fit member of our Society, HE HAS TO GO'. 5
He went. HP. Blavatsky in 1878 sent a letier lo the Italian newspaper Fanfula, attacking
'Communism' . J One year laicr, Madame Blavatsky wrole in ihe first issue of Tiw
Tlwosophist on her Society:

Unconcerned aboul politics; hostile to ihe insane dreams of Socialism and of Communism.

which u abhors- as bolh are but disguised conspiracies of brutal force and sluggishness against

honest labour ...

The first three words of the above quotation seem to bear out widespread ideas that
ihcosophy and other 'Oilier World' movements are apolitical. Does noi ihe rest, though,
explicitly naming some political ideas, implicitly Tavour other political ideas?

In 1888 in Lucifer, the opponent of socialism T.B, Harbottle saw it as interference
with Karma, as materialism, opposition lo spiritual Hierarchy and 'an innate hatred of
domination.' The 'socialist studem of theosophy', who feared ihat he was 'still far from

'MEW, vol. 38. 88. Letier to Karl Kauisky (Sluttgan). 30 April 1891 (86-88). The last
sentence paraphrases Heinnch Heine's poem Die Lorelei. H. Burrows was a SDF member as was
Mrs Besanl; he joined the TS shortly before her. He lefi after the 1907 controversy on Leadbeatcr
Compare Engels' view to (hat of Sylvia Pankhurst, see p. 373. Pankhurst's father's views, like
Besani's, had gone from liberal lo socialist; unlike Engels, he had worked closely with Besani's
labour Tree speech Law and Liberty League.

!, The essence of the stale, as of religion, is humanity's fear of itself, ' Engels. quoied BLOCH,
162.

3 P, JOHNSON099O). 46. Sotheran then was in the N.Y. Liberal Club; later he was in the
Knights of Labor and Socialist Labor Party; in 1896, a Democrat convention delegate.

*Lelter reprinted TTMay 1932, 234f.

142

rv.i

being a perfeel Theosophist'. J. Brailsford Bright defended socialism against Harboule's
charges. '

Undeterred by her former associate G.W. Foote's remark, 'that the socialist, and
every social reformer, is fighting against Karma [doctrine]', 1 Annie Besant joined the TS.
Just afterwards in 1889, she still was a delegate from the Fideraiion Radicate de la
metropole de Londres and of the match -workers to a Paris socialist congress. There were
two rival socialist congresses in Paris then. Their participants: the moderates, called in
French Possibilistes, and the revolutionaries, would join forces in the Second
International only later, Annie Bcsanl joined, and defended, the Possibilists.'

She had also gone to France to meet H.P, Blavatsky. Her new contacts with HPB and
W.T. Stead, who were both seen as close to the czar's government, aroused suspicion in
British socialist paper the Labour Elector. 4 Mrs Besant before becoming a theosophist had
supported the illegal democratic opposition to czarism, known as Nihilism. HP.
Blavatsky had attacked it. In the Pioneer, she called it a

black Tungus ... Trade unions, infected with the notions of (he Inlemational, sprang up like
mushrooms; and demagogues ranted to social clubs upon the conflici between labour and
capital ... the ranting spectre of ihe Nihilist delirium, the red-handed socialist '
Madame Blavatsky was not only sceptical on socialism, as were other thcosophists
influencing Annie Bcsant's new surroundings, but also on smaller reforms like social

'LucL, 11.232.

-Quoted BESANT(IS89). 24.

*Le congres mamste de 1SS9/!j- congres possibiitsie de ISH9. Geneve. Minkorf, 1976
MEADE. 432. NETMERCOT(I960). 280 Louis Dramard. co-writer with Bcnoit Malou in the
possibilisi Herat Sotuilwt, was FTS. GUENON(192l ). 75. Dramard. born in 184H, lived in
Algeria for some lime. His writings on il were unsympathetic lo French colonizers and Jews, and
sympathetic to Muslims, Diaiormaire de Biographic fraiifatse, vol. VI, Paris, Lctouzey ct Anil,
1967. 730. RANSOM0938). 245 in his TS lodge, entrance fees were low. 'In order to spread the
truths of Theosophy among all classes' He died in March 1888; ibid., 249.

"TAYLOR* 1992), 250.

l BCW. It. 359f The history of a 'book". See also ibid., 264, Ibid.. 111. 199: 'armies of
Socialise and red-handed Nihilists obscure (he sun of the political horizon in Europe.* Ibid., Ill,
207: 'the savagest production of this, our most savage and cruel century-the Nihilist-Socialists.*
When the underground opposition killed Czar Alexander II in 1881, HPB was deeply shocked and
became ill; BCW, vol. Ill, XXIV; ibid.. 12lff, Ibid., HI, 155f., in "Hie Stale of Russia', she
described (hose involved with the successful auempt on Alexander H's life as 'four men, from the
scum of Russian socieiy, and one woman belonging to the nobility*; and in quotes to corroboraic
her view: 'the most dishonourable sc< of ruffians (hat ever trod die earth'; 'venomous reptiles'. The
'one woman', Sophia Perovskaja (Perovsky). was executed. When later that year a US
cJairvoyante. Mrs Cornelia Gardner, claimed she had seen Perovslcaja's spirit, HPB denied the
vision was really one of 'that wretched, heartless creature"s spirit; or of that of another Nihilisi;
'the Jewess, Jessie Gelffman', who had 'just been pardoned by the Emperor, [Alexander 111. Tor
pregnancy] and her death sentence commuted into deportation for life ... her worthless liTc was
spared.' 7T; BCW, III, 359f.

Social democracy and communism

143

insurance. She preferred private alms. In Tfie Key to Theosophy, the chapter On Charity.
she wrote about giving money to poor people:

Act individually and not collectively ... As done now a good portion ... gets into the hands of
professional beggars, who are too lazy to work. 1

A gentleman had given Blavatsky £ 1000 to spend for the benefit of poor women,
Annie Besant wanted to spend it on a club for the London match girls she knew from
their strike. Then, HPB wrote to Annie, warning her against a trade union link for this
club. That would bring the TS into conflict with 'police and the whole of the conservative
party'. 1

Col. Olcott wrote on the 1894 end to her contacts with the match wotkers:
On Ihe previous evening I went with Mrs. Besant to Bow Si. 10 officially close the Women's
Club. The experiment had proved a failure, probably because ils moral tone was too high and
there were no male fellows, poicntial lovers, to fill ihe lime wiilt courtship and kisses. We had
a very pleasant evening, however, and the girls were amusingly enthusiastic over my singing
of some Irish songs 1 -tilings ihey could easily understand, being on their own intellectual
level 4

HP. Blavtusky's last 1891 (clc^rum before she died lo Annie Bcsanl ran: 'Their
[Masters'] blessing, my love. Beware socialism'.' Soon afterwards, Annie Besant cut all
remaining lies with the SDF, which already had become less since 1889,

l-aicr, she slill had occasional cunlacis with the Fabian Socieiy as a gucsl speaker.
Her views now were.

itui . Socialist Movement . is making a tremendous blunder . I shall dwell on to morrow
night in addressing a Socialist Society, llicy arc forgetting die very root of progress ... Tlicy
flunk ihai the fuiurc depends on economic conditions ... For society grows out of men. and not
men oul of society.''

hi her laier years, she became .sceptical on Ihe lypc of reforms she had fought fot
during ihe I RSO's in the Fabians:

not in lhal way by small reforms wrung out by I lie cMjencies of party strife . a mere attack

on privilege, by a tax here and a lax (here ...
that was not voluntary on the side of the privileged

By ihe self-sacrifice of those who have, and not by the revolution and (lie uprising of those

who have not. Revolution can desiroy; u cannot build The igtiorani can rise up; they cannot

'BLAVATSKY(I987). 244. HPB did not like beggars much: BCW. Ill, 243-4. 'Indiscriminate
charity, said Sir W(illiam). Harcoun [Briush Home Secretary in the 1880s]. benefits only ihe
sturdy beggars and becomes a great evil.' A.S.I. [ = A. Subramaniya Iyer?), 657.

"Letters published TTFeb, 1932. 512.

'Probably many of ihe girls were of Irish background.

'ODL. JTtvlay 1903,454.

'Reprinted TT May 1932,232.

S BESANT(1907B), 149.

144 IV. I

construct. Not by the starving and the miserable can a social order be established .,.'

Besant's German TS colleague Hubbe-Schleiden had never been a socialist. He
thought that 'rising crime and Social Democracy' were symptoms of decay, which
showed German society needed colonial expansion policy as a safety valve. 2

In his magazine Broad Views, TS Vice President A. P. Sinnert wrote on 'Socialism in
the Light of Occult Science by an Occult Student'. He saw socialism as a derivation of
Christianity of a Utopian type which he rejected, an exoteric type, ignorant about karma
and reincarnation:

dreamers' fancies, begotten in minds which arc quite ignorant of the law of human
development, and suppose thai there is such a thing as uniformity of character among masses
of men. He [Sinnclt] says: "All writers of (he Tolstoi or Bellamy type start with the
assumption, as if it were an undeniable axiom, that every child is born, comes into the world
on equal terms with every other, free of all previous claims or re sponsibi lilies, a new divine
creation in each case set up by Providence with a slock in trade of limbs, appetites and
capacities, identically the same throughout Uic race, and constituting an equal credit on the
accumulated reserves of the race, if the selfishness of individual magnates had not enabled
them to absorb their proper share." He explains Utis stupid conception as the outgrowth of
Christian theological teachings during the last doien or so centuries. He then proceeds to
elucidate the grand theory of human development, in which il is shown that both the human
body and spirit are equally the outcome of evolutionary agencies. 5

Sinnett wrote this as in Tolstoy's homeland revolution had broken out.

2. Workers, peasants, and landlords of Latvia in 190S

Reacting to the 1905 revolution in the Russian empire, Olcott wrote a Theosopliist article
'The awful karma of Russia'. 4 Most of it were parts of a letter from a lady theosopliist
whom Olcoit called 'one of the purest, sweetest and most cultured of our members'.' He
did not identify her. The letter, however, strongly suggests she was a landed proprietress
in Kurland. Or rather, she had been a proprietress until recent expropriation: 'The little
income that still remains to me does not get paid ,..' 6 And Olcott spoke of her family:

'BESANT(I911C). 91. Compare BESANT<19I2A), 74-5: 'happy life ... must be ... brought
about by the love and sacrifice of the higher, and not by the uprising of (he lower. Mobs can make
revolutions; but they cannot build a State'.

Quoted WEHLER, 144.

J BV, Sept. 1905, quoted TT. Oct. 1905. 73.

"OLCOTT(l 905), S6f. Tlieosophy in Australasia reprinted the article in 1905; TT, Jan. 1906,
311.

J OLCOTT(1905), 56.

6 OLCOTT(1905), 58.

Social democracy and communism

145

'Their property virtually gone ...*'

Kurland today is independent Latvia's western part. Then, it was a subject territory of
the char's realm. Most workers in Latvia's cities were Latvian, Russian, or Jewish, Most
peasants were Latvian, And most of the landed aristocracy, as in Estonia, and lo a lesser
extent also in Lithuania, was of German -Baltic German- ancestry.

Division along nationality lines coincided with division along social lines more closely than

perhaps anywhere else in Europe. 1

The 'Baltic barons' played an important role as officers in the imperial army, and as
officials. By (he empire's standards, St. Petersburg, the capital, was not far from their
estates. 5 Many of the empire's theosophists, like Marie von Sievcrs, the future Mrs
Steiner, were from Iheir ranks."

The lady writing from Kurland to Adyar described, from observations, newspaper
reports, and grapevine rumours, how Latvian peasants in revolt, aiming at expropriating
big property, threatened these estates in the late summer of 1905. She and her family
themselves had suffered financially, not bodily, from the peasants' movement. But the
future worried them

In i he capita! town, a few miles away, they have tragedies happening every now and then-
strikes, street revolts, murders, and ihen ihere is shooting by volleys ... bui (he country is
quiet and more beautiful ihan ever ... As the breath of roses and mignonettes conies 10 me
through the open windows. I wonder whether the next summer will find us snll on this plane. 5

'OLCOTT( 1 905), 59

"STRUVE, 274. Ibid. 'These German Balis who were not noblemen . were, for ihc most
part, businessmen, craftsmen and professionals'.

^hc imperial Romanov family had often intermarried with German princely dynasties

1 WQrjH()974A). 236: RudolT Steiner cancelled a lecture lour of the czar's empire when it
turned out thai most Of his prospective audience had fled from the 1905 revolution At least one
Baltic noble. Count Hermann Keyserling. born in north Latvia, visited Adyar headquarters before
the First World War. His Travel Diary of a Philosopher was favourably considered and partly
published in instalments in three 1915 issues of The Tlieosophisf, to which he also contributed
'Reflections on Indian Thought and Life', TT, 1913, 48lf In the 1920s, newly independent
Latvia's government, though it was far from Bolshevist, took away from big German landowners
all property over fifty hectares without compensation; (his led to (rouble with the German
government. STRUVE, 293: after Latvia had expropriated Keyserling's estate, he had (o go to
Germany, where he founded the School of Wisdom, much influenced by theosophical and
'Oriental' ideas. The School also considered political and social questions; Keyserling admired
Horthy's Hungary, where aristocracy still was strong (ibid., 295); sometimes he expressed himself
for a 'new caste system'; ibid,, 293; and against the Versailles weary. He hoped for an anti-
Bolshevik 'Internationale of the really Best, the most Enlightened, the most Well -mean ing-in one
word the Internationale of gentlemen'; quoted TT, June 1921, 306.

5 OLCOTT(1905), 57. In theosophy, an individual's death does not mean its end; only the end
of the lowest of Us seven 'principles', of the physical body. Its invisible aspects then move away

146 rv.j

In this connection I wish to ask you [Olcott] a question; ifour house should be besieged by
some hundreds of howling ruffians -human beasts shrieking for murder- have 1 not the right to
shoot my daughters, to break the fairest of my flowers, lest they should fall into the hands of
those maddened fiends? 1 suppose one is not to kill oneself, as it may be the karma one has to
endure, but may one not help others? In Odessa ihey have done such unspeakable horrors on
lovely young girls, poor things belonging to their own socialistic party; unhappy creatures who
went on board the rebel ships to take "proclamations to the brethren". The sea brought back
their bodies: and tow! 1

Olcott' s correspondent denied that the Latvian revolutionaries had a case, also
because the standard of living in the Baltic lands was higher than in the rest of the
empire:

And here in our ... provinces the workmen are so well off. so well paid and well fed- every
family having its cow arid two sheep, not to count swine and poultry- whilst the farmers are all
wealthy ... but the anarchistic propaganda has blinded all the best instincts and upset all sound
thinking

Olcott reacted to the letter:

I ask my readers if they ever saw as striking a case of true Theosophy practically applied Was
it not for the comfort and helping of such souls that our movement begun? Put yourselves, you
mothers and wives, in the place of (his lady . with the fiery circle of savagery contracting
about their peaceful country village day by day.

Though the letter contained no call for financial help {'for they arc gentles and self-
respect keeps them tongue-tied') 3 Olcott responded with a call for a collection for [hose
whom the revolution harmed. The Tfieosophist published receipt accounts 5

In an ironic twist, only the relative relaxation of autocracy after 1905 made it possible
for the Russian TS to come 'aboveg round'.'' Czar Nicholas II was interested in non-
(officially) Orthodox occultism; about 1901, French occullist Papus, expelled from the TS
for indiscipline, was his adviser; and Rasputin. The official head of Orthodoxy, though.

from the earthly 'plane' to another plane (like Devachan, the realm of the gods), 10 wail for future
reincarnation. The Kurland lady's sentence expresses her idea that earthh life might not last much
longer.

'OLCOTT(1905), 58, Lower-ranking sailors of the warship Potemkin and other vessels of the
imperial Black Sea fleet had laken control of their ships in 1905,

*OLCOTTU905). 59.

3 'The "Russian Karma" Fund', TT, Nov. 1905. suppl,, xii; Olcott, Sir S. Subramaniem, and
others contributed. A railway strike in the Russian empire caused problems in transferring the
contributions.

* According to OLCOTT(1905). 56; 'But they [theosophists in the Russian empire] have never
dared to openly form themselves into chartered Branches, so pitiless and powerful has been the
influence of the Orthodox Church and-the-offieials who are dominated by its authority'.

Social democracy and communism

147

only after the 1905 revolution made occultism legal, along with some other malters which
so far had been not. 1

3.1908-1917

In spite of objections to revolution, TS 'missionary work' started in various Social
Democrat parties, for spiritual and against materialist socialism. The Adyar Bulletin in
1908-9 mentioned Dutch, Finnish, and US cases. In The Netherlands

some members of the socialistic party, who are at the same ilritc i" . i .j. ate uiuu„ e .;.; ^1...

in such an order and will in that way help this party with iheosopbical ideas as a basis for

economic change. There will also be formed Christian order will on the same plan [of the TS

Order of Service] to influence theological ideas. 7

Dutch physician A. J. Resink in his writings of about 1908 was the only case I found
of someone wishing to reconcile iheosophy with Marxism, and Marxist with revisionist
socialism too. 5 Resink thought the TS would have to discard esoterism and democratize
U:>eif. Only thus it might attract socialists. * For a Tew years a small group of Dutch social
democrat theosophists kept going. J Later, Resink would link religion and politics

Nicholas Us brother-in-law. Grand Duke Alexander, was a 'convinced spiritualist' and after
exile a friend of Alice Bailey's: BAILEY(1951 ). 208, The Russian Minister Plenipotentiary
(roughly Ambassador| to Brazil, Argentina, and other South American slaics. Count Maurice de
Prozor, was a TS member at large. In 1905, he visiied the Buenos Aires Vi-Dliarma lodge, along
with Baron Pilar from Pillau (today: Ballijsk, a Gallic port]; TT. Sept. 1905. 756; 7T, Mar. 1905.
Suppl,, xviti

: AdB Aug. 1908, 252

! RESINK(A). 24. Also Nicaragua's Sandino had both theosophisi and Marxist influences; but
Sandino never joined the TS. or, as far as 1 am aware, explicitly discussed the relationship between
those two sets of ideas. See ARIAS GOMEZ. 54-6; J1NARAJADASA0930A). 394.

J RESINK(A). 31 ' | bold type his| 'The discarding of esoterism is one side of the enormous
social-psychological problem of democratizing it all'.

S VAN DER ZEE( 19 ISA): 'Besides Resink, we should name of the group the secretary. Mrs
C. G. dc Vos, and Messrs. A J. J. de Muta and G. H. Bertrand [a doctor; THA Dec. 1920, 287).
Though they hardly published anylhing ... the theosophical social democrat association in (he years
1910, 1911, and 1912 had a certain zenith, even though that zenith consisted more, as one of them
writes to me, in a rich inner life.' H. van Kol, parly right winger especially on decolonization of
Indonesia, often went there on business. He practised spiritualism and said that he 'got many good
advices from the spirit world'; KARTiNI. 184-5. He was 'attracted to theosophy'; in 1920, he
founded De Wicheiroede society to apply divining-rods to geology and earth rays; F.G, van
Baardewijk, 'Kol, Hendrik Hubertus van', Biografisch Woordenbaek van Nederland, III, 348.
Later. Dr. G.H. Ketner believed in ghosts and occultism, though he suspected 'he had many oppo-
nents on (his within ihe [SDAP] party'. KETNER(1925), 3. See also TMN!, 1920, 543-4. Van
Ravesteyn in DNT 1917, 226, accused Kemer of 'theoretically and practically repudiating
Marxism'. Social democrat FTS G. Zwenbroek later became a nazi. TB Sept. 1932, 359. VAN
DER MERWE. , —

COMPARATIVE RELIGIOUS STUDIES

LIBRARY

148

P/.l

differently: in the Religieus Socialistisch Verbond, a mainly Protestant socialist
organization. He had convinced few fellow theosophists and few Fellow socialists: 'the
word 'occult' makes a Marxist run away.' 1

An example of that in The Netherlands was astronomer A. Pannekoek, fighting for
'the new proletarian philosophy, leaving no space anywhere any longer for mysticism,' 1
Also Pannekoek's co-editor of De Nieuwe Tljd magazine, W. van Ravesteyn, who knew
Engels' works well. There was a similarity in his own writings to Engels': on theosophy
he only wrote briefly and sarcastically. Once in Engels' case, twice with Van Ravesteyn,
He described in 1917 'theosophist or Bollandist' views as variants of

This bourgeois wisdom ... this nauseous, disgusting mentality, which so characteristically
belongs to a decaying and completely corrupt class without ideals, that one cannot find it in
any earlier age of history, this specifically 19th century product, hateful and stupid like a
modem Protestant or Catholic church building, a bourgeois drawing-room, or a bourgeois
ladies' tea-party: to see this once again, dressed up in 'philosophical' clothes, and being
proclaimed as the modern's most modern thing; really, we are not tolerani enough for this.'

When he accused his colleague Henriette Roland Hoist of philosophical idealism six years
later, he compared her views to theosophists',' 1

Also like Engels, Van Ravesteyn wrote somewhat more on spiritualism, 'If
spiritualism ... would only have its adherents among people of property large and small
... there really would be no point' in writing on it in a socialist magazine (Should no!
socialists know about ihcir opponents' various ideas?] However, also workers, though,
as we hope, not many', were spiritualists Still less were FTS: which may explain
differences in sizes of Van Ravestcyn's writings.

To him. spiritualism was to the labour movement 'as dangerous as the most fanatical
orthodox faith.* Its attraction was presenting itself as science, rather than as the religion it
was. Spiritualism was 'ami- or unsocial views'; with a 'social cause' in 'grown
capitalism' though. It was; 'Only since the mid-l9(h century the separation of the
individual from the old social lies in the Western countries (also the US) has gone that
far, that great numbers of people get conscious of. and get completely desperate from, the

Social democracy and communism

149

'RESINK(A). 17. In the long run. he was more optimistic then; ibid.. 27. Because: 'Neither
Marxists nor Christian Socialists knoiv exactly what they want* [bold type Resink'sj. Ibid , 28
'The propaganda [for theosophy] among social democrats will not take 30 years without bearing
fruit!' He warned though, ibid.. 6: 'So the Theosophical Society does have the right to look at
class struggle in its way. but it does not have the right to wish itself above class struggle, for this
in practice means sanctioning bourgeois defense of private capitalist interests and fighting the
Proletariat ...'

^PANNEKOEK, 303.

3 VAN RAVESTEYN(1917), 632.

"VAN RAVESTEYN(1923), Roland Hoist's religion was not the TS; radier, she had never
broken with the liberal Protestant Remonstrant faith into which she was bom; Carolien Boon/Ger
Harmsen, 'Een poging tot bekering van Henriette Roland Hoist', BNA, 32, Dec. 1993, 5.

feeling of becoming absolutely lonely resulting from it,' 1

De Nieuwe Tijd then was popular with Sneevliet and other socialists in Indonesia,
who asked Van Ravesteyn for advice. 2 Van Ravesteyn became one of few voices in Dutch
parliament of immediate independence for Indonesia, In 1922. communist MPs Van
Ravesteyn and Wijnkoop made the first, defeated, proposal to use the name Indonesia
instead of 'Netherlands Indies' in government publications. 3

In 1908, Pekka Ervast wrote of the Finnish TS' history. From 1901 on, they had
regularly had lectures, at first in a building owned by socialists, later in Helsinki
headquarters of their own. There still was, though, 'a fraction of the Socialist party,
which recognises Theosophy as the ideal religion, and would reform Society on the base
of love and mutual understanding between the classes'.' 1

In 1909 in the United Stales, the New York Lodge's Mission League, part of the
Order of Service,

has undertaken the quite interesting experiment of propaganding among the socialists. The
president. Mr M J. Whitty addressed them in a scries of lectures which arc said to be well
received and fairly well attended. Some propaganda literature has been printed 5
However, 'Only a minority of occultists wanted reconciliation with socialists.''
The reverse was also often true, in Denmark, suffragist Johanne Marie Meyer (1838-
1915) was editor of the Social Democrat women's paper until there was a conflict. In the
1900s, she joined ihc small Danish TS for (he lasi years of her life. This made her

relations lo ... |llie Danish Social Democrat] party leadership more complicaicd ... afier she in

her laicr years became more engaged in theosophy, which hardly had any working class

support in Copenhagen.

Annie Besant spoke in an Australian trade union hall in 1908 To her surprise, her
speech went down well* Legislation had improved the position of labour in early 20th
century Australia. To the discontent of Annie Besant, who said the death-rate of the

'VAN RAVESTEYN(19I7>, 628-30. Van Ravesteyn in DAT 1917, 223 accused Hie minister
practising dictatorship' in Liberal Con van dcr Linden's cabinet of being 'addicted to table-
dancing and spiritualism.'

J T!CHELMAN(I98S!, 211; 364-5

*HPQ, Apr. 1922. 4-5, 'De naam "Indonesia"'.

4P|ekka] E[rvast], 'Finland', AdB May 1908. 158-9.

^AdB, Oct. 1909, 326 'An interesting experiment'.

'ROM El N( 1976), 638.

'DAHLSGARD. Letter from Tinnc Vammen. Copenhagen, to me. 20-8-1991. TS Annual
Repon on 1904. 103. and 1905, 131: Meyer was president of Copenhagen's Maria Lodge, founded
in 1904,

s 7TOct, 1908, I. ROE, 142f. Annie Besant "Theosophy and the workers'; TinA 2-11-1908,
175.

150

rv.i

children' went up due lo trade union rights. 1 In 1912, she attacked British Liberal Prime
Minister Asquith for concessions to striking miners' 'callousness and irresponsibility':

Trade Unions can thus not only conspire for the starvation of the public, and for forcibly

depriving the non-Unionist of the right to labour to gain bread for himself and his family, but

can also libel at will those who are struggling against its tyranny. To such a pass has Mr.

Asquith reduced the public by his subserviency to organized labour. 1

John Earle, FTS, became Tasmania's first Labor PM, for one week in 1909; he

regained office in 1914-I6. 3 Another Australian politician, M. Reid, joined the TS at

about the same time, the 1910's, that he went from his earlier Labor to the conservative

National party .* He was an example, like Mrs Besant, Maharadja (see p. 331), and

others, of convergence between a rightward shift in political views, and a TS-ward shift

in philosophy. With some individuals, this convergence had mainly to do with a new TS

social environment influencing their ideas; with others, with moving right anyway, and

then choosing theosophy among existing philosophies that might match this shift.

4. From czar to soviet. 1917 and after

In 1917, people like described in H. P. Blavatsky's quote (p. 142) toppled the czar's rule.
The Soviets, workers', peasants', and soldiers' councils with increasing Bolshevik party
influence, took over for their headquarters near Petrograd (St. Petersburg) the building of
the Smolny school, the Institute for Girls of the Nobility; 5 they turned out its pupils and
management. Its director's daughter was leading theosophist and Russia's Order of the
Star in the East representative. Barbara Poushkine. nee Princess Galitzine. She was
related to Prince Galitzine, the czar's last prime minister, deposed in March 1917."
Before the year ended, the Soviets took over the government. Soon Madame Blavatsky's
distant relations, the imperial family, were killed.

in the spring of 1917. when the Bolsheviks were not yet in the government, Russian

'BESAKT{1910C), 41.

; WT, 7T May 1912, I59f. WT, TTJune 1912. 322.

] ROE. 192.

'SULLIVAN, 356, An ex-trade unionist himself, in a 1921 official report he described
shipyard union activists as 'loafing'. Justin C. MacCartie, 'The Karma of Money', 77", Dec. 1920.
231, was not satisfied with Australia's demographic and political development: 'the spending of
large sums of borrowed money caused a large influx of the labouring element; so that now
Australia is suffering from centralisation of the population in cities, where they produce nothing,
and from an overplus of iabour voters, who sway the political power of the country in directions
which many think hazardous,' Relations of the Labor Party to the TS's 'Who's for Australia'
poiiiica) league were bad in the 1920's. ROE, 345,

J C. PORTER, 278-9, Catherine the Great had originally established it.

6 KAMENSKY(1932).

Social democracy and communism

S5I

TS General Secretary Anna Kamensky had travelled from Adyar back to Russia. 1
According to Annie Besant's 1920 Convention speech, in which she based herself not on
Russian theosophists, but on 'a person who was in Russia at the time';

the Society was closed down by the Bolsheviks in December, 1919; it was offered liberty if it

would spread among the populace the teaching that noi only was there no God, but that

religion was the primary cause of ignorance and injustice. ... Our noble Anna Kamensky

boldly refused, after being subjected lo long interrogation and insult, ... Communication with

the outer world is forbidden by the Tyranny, and we have heard nothing since October last.

When I bade her farewell in London, when she took up the work of the T.S. under the Tsar's

regime, I said to her in the words of the Christ: "Behold. I send you forth as sheep in the

midsi or wolves," but the far worse wolves of Bolshevism were then undreamt of, !

Anna Kamensky, 3 Barbara Poushkine, and most other theosophists emigrated.

Why had the worst of the 19!0's 'two world disasters: war and revolution" 1 occurred?

Rudolf Steincr in 1922 knew the answer: bad mathematics education at schools had

caused Bolshevism in eastern Europe. 5 Alice Bailey, who then had just broken with the

TS, claimed she had received a letter from Mahatma Djwal Kul. It was comparatively

positive on the Bolshcviki. 6 Bhagavan Das from India held up the caste system as an

example to Lenin.'

Three years after October 1917, J. Kruisheer wrote an article, hi it, he argued thai

'WT. 77", June 1917, 240-1.

! BESANT(I921E), 501-2. Did the post-October regime ban the TS because of religious views?
or were us members individually, as linked 10 ihe former rulers, suspect lo the new ones, and did
ihey ditrefore emigrate? As far as I could find oul, neither Lenin, nor Stalin, nor Trotsky ever
wruic eiihcr for or against (he Tticosophical Society (LENIN(n,d ) before the Rrsl World War did
criticize ihe philosophy of US sympathiser of Buddhism Paul Carus. who invited Dtiarinapala lo
his country in (lie 1890's). Though communist governments bier came to Cuba and Yugoslavia,
TS (Adyar) sections there worked and published iheir magazines.

J Annie Besanl niel her in 1921 in Belgium, and reported in WT, 77, Sept. 1921, 514. 'She is
looking. I am glad 10 say, very well, and is full of indomitable courage, despite (be persecution she
has undergone from the atheistic Bolshevik Government'.

J VAN OCR LEEUW(1920), 5. CLL r ATUER(l922B), 38: Bolshevism was worse than world
war (I).

*Die geistig-seelisclien Grwidkrafle der Erziehungskimst , quoted 1MELMAN and VAN HOEK,
61.

'BAILEY(1922B), 1 15. She (He?) summed up various groups, 'definitely united for work of
an occult and spiritual nature*. They might be in churches, labour movements, politics, the TS.
Christian Science, New Thought or Spiritualism. T would add to this, one branch of endeavor that
may surprise you,-l mean the movement of the Soviet in Russia and all the aggressive radical
bodies that sincerely serve under their leaders (even when misguided and unbalanced) for the
betterment of the condition of the masses,'

7 DAS(1922), ) 13. DAS(1947), 546f: 'the four natural Types, which cannot be abolished; the
non-recognition of which, and of corollaries, is the very serious flaw in the Russian Experiment'.

i52

rv.i

democratic 'rule by the masses' was an impossibility anywhere. He saw signs that Lenin's
associates were moving away from earlier errors:

Thai which we see happening in Russia now is very remarkable in this respect, where
Bolshevism at first showed itself as an exclusively democratic institution and treated the
intellect with contempt, oppressed it, and many times murdered it, but where, according lo the
latest news, the state organization once again is going to be more and more hierarchical and
government power now once more, automatically, moves away towards the hands of the
intellectually most developed.'
Kmisheer then already was the major shareholder of the theosophisi printing business

in Indonesia. 5 Two years later, he became General Secretary of the Dutch East Indies

section, later of the Dutch section.

C. CONSCRIPTION IN INDONESIA? THEOSOPHISTS AGAINST SOCIALISTS

Before we go on, to a detailed account of the relationship of theo sophists and socialists in
Indonesia, 1915-1918. we must look at (he views of both on war: as war was the main,
though not only, issue in that relationship. Dutch Foumier wrote in 1917 in Indonesia
about one who got lo know theosophy:

Pain, suffering, wars, etc.. etc. lake on a completely different meaning to him. as he sees
ihem as factors of spiritual evolution. 1

We will see in what context Founder's views fitted. First, briefly, general ideas on
causes of and remedy for war. Then, individual wars.

l.Theosophists and war up to 1918

What causes war? According to Argentine's naval Comandante F.W. Fernandez.

President of the TS' Vi-Dharma Branch:

the Western world which is always rushing through its experiences at headlong speed, always
ascribes war lo a material cause or to human initiative with (he objeel of acquiring fresh
territory or making permanent conquests as yet not fully perfected, those of ihe Orient who
have inherited the traditions of the great teachings of the ancient wisdom as to ihe logical
consequences of precedent actions [karma] as mingling with the great course of evolution,
directed from above by those who have received the mission to regulaie its progress (ihe
Masters of ihe Greai While Lodge] view ii from a higher standpoint. Theirs is the duty lo
supervise not only the spiritual but the physical progress of the race. To such as have become
familiar with this great fact these clashes of arms between nations, these displacements of
populations, and these expansions of peoples all come under the action of the one immanent
and eternal law of Karma.

Fernandez gave the 1905 Japanese-Russian and British-Tibetan wars as examples of how

'ICRTJ1SHE£R( 19-20,, 207.
'NUGRAHAOgSS). 240,
3 F0URNIER(!917). 32.

Social democracy and communism

153

armed conflicts fit in with Karma and Superhuman direciion.'

Leadbeatcr, also in 1905, expected world peace from theosophy's expansion:

1 1 is impossible to avoid the conclusion that if Theosophy spread gradually among these

various naiions, if the majority, or even a large minority, of each nation understood and

accepted ihe Theosophical ideas, anything like war between such nations would be wholly

impossible,

l.l.FromKurukshetratill 1904

Kurukshetra was the name of a paper for the military, which the TS distributed in battle
zones of the First World War. 3 Originally, it was the name of a field. There, according to
the ancient Indian epic the Mahabharata, of which the Bhagavad Gila forms part, two sets
of brothers, cousins to one another, fought the decisive bloody battle over who would
succeed to the royal throne. Poison gas had already been used there, as in 1914-18,
according to Annie Bcsant."

How to interpret the Mahabharata religiously and politically has been (he subject of
many discussions throughout the ages. Symbolic interpretations exist, which interpret (he
poem only in terms of a struggle between good and evil spiritual forces wilhin
individuals; like FT. Brooks' Holy War.

Annie Bcsanl though, (he initial superior and later opponent of Brooks, writing on the
Mahabharata, did relate it lo non-symbolic military events. According to her Hie Story of
the Great War (also translated as a series in the 1916 Dulch East Indies TS monthly).

Sometimes a whole naiion goes wrong. Then (lie Gods place in us way a great war, or a
famine, oi a plague. ... And ihe Great War. the story of which we are about lo study, was
brought about by the Gods, because it was necessary for the evolution of (he naiion We see
many meti and animals killed in a war, and say: "How terrible! how shocking 1 " Bui men and
aiiimali are only killed when the bodies they arc in i.rc of no more use: when a man cannot do
more in a particular body, (he Gods Strike ii away, so dial the man may have a better one.
Instead of regarding a God as cruel when he strikes away a body, you should ihink of him as
kind, selling ihe men free to grow. 5
In the Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna wavers about killing his cousins, but is told by Krishna

'La Verdad. July 1905, as quoted 77". Sept. 1905, 755. On Fernandez, TS Annual report on
1901, 30. He founded and edited the Argentine TS magazine La Verdad. 7T, Oci. 1905, 72. 7T.
Dec. 1905, 229. 'Commandant Fernandez has placed us all under an obligation by suppressing the
Tai, naked woman diat he had on the cover of thai magazine [La Verdad)'.

H.EADBEATERtigOSB). 91.

i TMNi. 1918, 304-5. J.J.W.B.P.. 'De Nieuwe Era. Eene asirologische verhandeling', TMNi.
1917. 521: the Mahabharata war was between die '4th and 5th Root-race, and ended with victory
for the fifth ' See also BLAVATSKY(1908). 155,

"WT, 7T Oct. 1915, 2. She also published a Bhagavad Gita translation: BROOKS(19l4A),
175, claims Bhagavan Das, who was noi on the cover, did most real translating,

; BESANT(I927), 10-1.

154

rv.i

to do so nevertheless. In Indonesia about the time of the First World War, both
theosophists like Van Ganswijk and Van Hinloopen Labbenon (see p. 192), and
socialists, saw Arjuna as a hero. They differed, though, on what side of his inner conflict
made him a hero.

With the Dutch East Indies TS, it was allowing soldierly duty to prevail over personal
feelings. To S. Partoatmodjo, editor of daily Sinar Hind'ta, though, 'Arjuna may have had
feelings like a socialist, so he shrunk from killing a fellow human' in his age of warriors.
'Maybe people then did not yet know about socialism, so people could be incited easily to
go to war. ' '

Indonesians often retold the other famous epic poem from India, the Ramayana, as
well. It also includes a war, which King Rama fought to get his abducted wife Sita (Sinta
in Indonesia) back. The Indonesian TS congress of 20 April 1919 included a wayang
theatre show of the Ramayana 'comparing it to the present world war. Both wars had as
their aim: creating a new civilisation.' 1

Now, we move from these ancient wars, to nineteenth and twentieth century ones.
During 1877-78 Blavatsky in the US press supported Russia against Turkey: 'I regard this
war as one of humanity and civilization against barbarism.'' 1 Britain's government then
opposed Russia; Annie Besant opposed that war itself. 4 This was before she joined the
Theosophical Society. We have seen that, besides non-pacifist civilians, many officers
(we hear less of non-commissioned ranks and privates) were active in the TS. S It might
have caused tension with these categories of members, had Mrs Besant continued to hold
the same views as before her joining.

Annie Besant's support of her government in the Boer War led to pacifist criticisms
by Australian Mayers. 4 Besant's reply to pacifists like her former self was:

What can be more inhuman than war ,,.? Aye. bui ihai is not all ... learning itius to sacrifice
himself for an ideal. 7

'SH 4-3-1919. quoted IPO 10/1919. MJB. 17-8. Partoaunodjo commenied on an ankle, by
Honggodidjojo on the Broto Judo, an Old Javanese retelling of the Mahabharata.

2 Ncratja 17-4-1919, quoted IPO 16/1919, MJB. 2

*BCW, vol. 1, 260. RUGE, 10,

, NETHERCOT(1960). 145: TAYLOR0992). 126.

'See p. 99f. 'Bertrand Russell pointed out that the act of an individual who kills another is
called murder, but when a whole group of people murder millions of others, we call it a glorious
war. There are many hypocracies [spelling sic] of mat kind.* President of the Theosophical
Society, Mrs Radha BURN iER( 1986). 13. LA GRANDE ENCYCLOPEDIE LAROUSSE, 9067:
the TS has 'pacifist and generous ethics. ' How does one define pacifism?

f, MAYERS(1902), 596-600. BESANTC1908C). Some moderate English social democrats
within the Fabian Society had an attitude similar to their ex-colleague AB; see VAN ARKEU1966)
stelling XIII.

7 BESANT(1900). 116.

Social democracy and communism
1. 2. From Russo-Japanese war till 1914

155

Already when Japan waged war on China. 1894-1895, it had sympathy in the TS; they
believed the Japanese general Nodzu was occultly protected. 1

When the Russo-Japanese war broke out in 1904, it interested people in India and
Indonesia. One of theosophjst reactions was an anonymous article: 'National
Brotherhood. Where is it?' It deplored the war, and took a neutral position:

... negotiations will be resorted to and some settlement made, such as might have been arrived

at before the war. had patience instead of passion been in the ascendant.
Ultimately, the US government mediated a peace settlement. Had Olcott written or
supported the article? 1 If so, then it was similar to his government's position.

Annie Besant also was, differently, similar to her government. Great Britain was
Japan's main ally.' Mrs Besant praised a Japanese mother. That mother, after one son's
death in battle, wished she had another son to die in the war. s In The Inner Government of
the World, she pointed out the higher world divine background:

Manu ... inspired and slimulaied the Japanese, flung ilicm against Russia.

A Japanese visitor to TS headquarters wrote an article in praise or the Bushido
mentality of his country's military l< had spread throughout society:

the Governmcni ... allowed even the Eta caste [former untouchables) to become the glorious

soldiers of our Emperor

Later, Annie Besant would sound less positive though Japan was still Britain's ally.
She wrote, based on TS race doctrine (seeing both Britons and Indians as 'Aryan' Fifth
Race'):

If the primacy of Asia falls cither to Japn or China -both Fourth-Race Nations- evolution will
suffer a serious set-back. Great Britain anil India together are the natural leaders of Asia."
In the period between the 1904 and 1914 wars, her ideas had not reverted to her
former pacifism:

For the conquest of one country by another is noi, as many people think, an evil thing. It

'ODLW. 155

2 7TApr. 1904, 446.

3 ln 7T, Aug. 1906, 828. Olcott memioncd how he, in order not to compromise TS political
neutrality, had reprobated a French resolution expressing sympathy with a Peace Society.

"in 1919, AB criticized the British government for having been too pro-Japan, without looking
back at her own earlier writings. BESANT()919A>, 54.

5 BESANT(1905), 366.

^Quoted TT Oct. 1937,54, TT also wrote on 'Occult protection of Admiral Togo.'

7 7T June 1905, 572f See in praise of Admiral Togo's Bushido in the 1904-05 Russian war
also: C. Stuart-Prince, an army captain FTS, TT, July 1905, 629: The religion of Japan'. 7T, Jan.
1905, 228-35.

"WT, IT Apr. 1917,4.

156

IV. i

mingles peoples, it gives the knowledge of one to the other.

In 1910, she suggested that Republican Theodore Roosevelt, who had fought, and
ordered to fight, wars to establish Pax Americana in Cuba, the Philippines, Panama, and
elsewhere, should be re-elected as US President; 'and perhaps given the powers of a
Dictator,' Then, 'we should see a nation committed to the cause of peace.' 3

One year before the First World War started, Besant and Leadbeater predicted
clairvoyantly:

Julius Caesar, who reincarnated some time in the twentieth century in connection with the

coming of the Christ ... persuades all the countries to give up war ... i
So the end of war would come from above, by someone known in his former life for wars
of conquest.

They thought world problems

... may be remedied by an offensive and defensive alliance between the severed halves |the

U.S. and England) and a similar alliance with Germany, the remaining great section of the

Teutonic sub-race [of Aryans], would weld the whole sufficiently into one to make a federated

Empire.'

1,3. World War 1: views and visions from Adyar

Even a World War is noi too bad against intellectual i&t stiffening.*

The two opposing alliances of the First World War have both been called imperialist.'

Even far away from the trenches, the war permeated everyday things like geographic
names in newspapers, or greeting someone on the street. The British press wrote 'Germ-
Huns'. In [lie land of Kaiser Wilhelm II and General von Moltke, saying Guien Tag made
one a suspect of anti-patriotism. It should have been Got! sirafe England; or Sieg tied

I BESANT(1911C), 20, In London's H P.B. Lodge, an army officer lectured on 'National
Defence', AdB, Feb. 1909, 71.

7 AdB, June 1910, 175,

J BESANT and LEADBEATER(I9I3). 454f. See also VAN DER LEEUW(1920). 135
ROMEIN-VERSCHOOR. 82; 93; The TS leaders predicted that the Balkan wars before 1914
would not escalate imo a world war. Argentine TS magazine La Verdad. of March 1906, quoted
7T, May 1906. 625-6, predicted, after reading on the Astral Plane, several wars, including a
bloody one between Germany and France on Alsace-Lorraine; but it predicted these wars would be
in 1906.

4 BESANT and LEADBEATER(1913), 322. Earlier, British politician Joseph Chamberlain,
and Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, had wanted a British -German alliance. Ten years after the
First, eleven years before the Second World War, AB revived the British-US-German Alliance
idea, 'because you are of the same race, and race is strong'. TT May I92S, 166.

s 'Een wereldoorlog zelfs is niet te erg' tegen 'verstandsversujving' . Dutch early twentieth
century Christosophist theosophist M. Schoenmaekers, quoted NRC, 23-3-1990,

6 AL(, 19.

Social democracy and communism

157

(which is older Uian many people think).

To get pacifists and revolutionaries within their ranks in line, German Social
Democrat leaders spoke about the horrors of czarist autocracy; their French and English
colleagues of Prussian horrors; in order to support their own rulers and their allies.

Adyar, and A. Vreede in Indonesia, saw Britain and its allies as fighting on the side
of Light, against darkness. 1 Annie Besant put forward a theory based on size: the British
empire was bigger than Germany and its few colonies. Therefore, it was a much better
base for the Aryan empire of the future, and it should win. 2

Lady Emily Lutyens recalled both her initial, and her later, reactions:

1 was full of patriotism ... and horror at the accounts of the German atrocities, but

Kiishna[murii] never believed them and was never carried away.

A few years later, Mrs Besani dismissed Lady Emily herself as Herald of the Star
editor as 'too pacifist'; the HOTS 'should declare uncompromisingly on the side of the
Brotherhood,' 1

So far about war against Germany. How about war Tor- what? for W/whom?

In Ausiralia, Mrs Bright, FTS. said of her son T gave him up to the Masters to go to
the War without a tear.' 4 And Senator M. Reid. FTS, supported not just the war, but
went farther, supporting conscription, 5

Unlike some other pro-aliies, Adyar theosophists saw the war not stridently as a 'war
fur democracy', as the TS did not have stridently pro-democratic traditions. Annie Besani
saw ii within a hierarchical framework.

war is a coiumually returning iaci in evolution, in a God-planned world, an opportunity to
acquire in few days, weeks, months, properties thai else would need lives to acquire

'TILLETT(I982). 162 'Dark Lord Bismarck.' Conuiiaiwenl 1/4'): 'Is ilic Kaiser Anti-Christ?'
Pro-allies Dutch FTS and leading astrologer Van Ginkcl wroic in a well sold booklet on occuh
truths behind wars: 'So, behind ihe present struggle we see ihe big legions of Dcvas, divided into
two camps, right one anoiher by way of ihe nations which have been allotted lo them. Here, a greai
fight is fought between God and Lucifer . It is ihe struggle between the Sun and Saturn, a crisis,
necessary lo (he development process of humanity. For, according 10 occult information, (he Deva^
who are on ihe Allies' side will absorb llic other ones.' VAN G1NKEL(I9I5), 47,
VREEDE(19I7A). 66' "It is not because she |AB1 is English, bui because she knows
lesotericism] and because she is a member of the White Lodge, thai she has proclaimed, that
justice is on the side of the Allies and thai the Central stales have become die lools of the powers,
which work against civilization and development',

'WT. 7TNov. 1914, 98f,

3 E. LUTYENS. 69.

5 ROE, 225.

'SULLIVAN, 356. Australians voted down conscription in 1917; see p. 213.

'Annie Besant, Broederschap en oorlog, from 1915: quoted C0NSTANDSE(1929), 24f.
Constandse called her views on war 'cruel and reactionary'. LIGOU, article on AB: 'she lets
people know about the theosophieal ideas ... opposes ihe military expenses' is not necessarily about
the same periods in her life.

158

IV. !

Annie Besam attacked American, including American theosophist, neutralism:
The United States, in her safe distance of the storm of battle while her sister Nations are
writhing in the agony of struggle. One cannot wonder if this isolation be not somewhat selfish,
somewhat harshly indifferent, a lotus-eating in a garden of peace ... How will her quiescence
work on her future status among the Nations? 1

She did not agree much wkb socialist anti-war activities, or the 1915 The Hague
peace congress, organized by American 1 feminists like Jane Addams, and Dutch ones like
Aletta Jacobs. Marie Loke, FTS from non-belligerent Holland, though, sympathized with
the The Hague congress. In August 1915. she was one of the 75 signatories of the
manifesto To the great Nations at War. An appeal to their common sense and their
conscience. 1

In The Theosophist, Helen Veale wrote against British Labourite Ramsay MacDonald
and his fellow pacifists. ' Ben Tillett, MP and FTS, was active in the British Labour
Party's pro-war wing.* In the times lowards the end of 1916, however, when India's
Home Rule action had become a mass movement. Annie Bcsant had shifted to the left.
That also made her sound less pro-war than one or two years earlier:

The youth of the naiions has been cast nuo the pit of slaughter. 1 hose who ought to have been
the fathers of die coming generation lie as corpses in bloody graves ... 6

Slill, she saw positive sides:

'WT, TTFeb. 1915, 385. As war began, a 'Letter from a Ncuiral' (Rangoon, Aug 23rd 1914)
by Dutch FTS A. Verhage supported non-belligerence. Finnish GS {up to 1918; he started his own
Ruusu Risti [Rosy Crossj in 1920) Ervasi thought 'War ... could never be sanctioned by the
Masters of Wisdom.' Parlancn, OELC Aug. 1937. BAILEY{1922A), 105, said the war
necessitated recalling the Buddha to earth {from Mars' see p. 40, note 2] 'employing the great
mantram [formula] whereby the Buddlia can be reached '

! A popular song in ihe USA in 1916 was I did not raise my son to be a soldier/1 brought him
up to be my pride and joy/Who dares lo put a musket on his shoulder/To kill some other mother's
darling boy?' Quoted A. Blonk/J. Romein/J.W, Oerlemans: Hoofdwegen der geschiedenis. Vol. II,
Groningen, Wolters-Noordhoff, 1969', 269. In 1918, U. S. feminist Carrie Chapman [spell
Chapmen in PT\ Can organized a conference in New York City, which Raden Djojosoediro
commented on in 'Pihak Perempoegn [misprint for Perempoean] Dalam Vredesconfercntie', PT,
1918-19 (12), 59-61. Djojosoediro sympathized with the conference's wish thai women should be
represented at a future peace conference. He did not mention pro- or anti-war, or pro- or ami- the
various warring parties, questions in the article

'DE WILDE, 29. Charlotte Despard was active in the Women's Peace Crusade.

*VEALE{1916), She based herself on AB's writings on the Mahabharata. Miss Helen Vealc,
astrologer, Madras National High School for Girls principal, lived at Adyar for many years: 7T
Oct. 1937, 7.

i NVW, 1915-16, 245.
6 BESANT(1917A), 14,

jfi'

'''.'OS iruDie:;
"i /

i.N.VERSJTY

Social democracy and communism

159

die young men who tended to criminality, who were rough, who were what they call
"hooligans." who recognised no social ties and no social duties-thosc have very often turned
into men of courage, of vigour, who have distinguished themselves in this terrible war ...
There were some men set free from gaol who had been punished for offences against Society,
who have won distinction on the field of battle ...
Also, bloody as the war was, it happened according to divine law:

It is inevitable, there is no blame on any. The Nations are in the grip of a terrible fate and they

are working out the natural fruit of materialism, which had put God outside human life, and

had tied Him into a steel framework of religion. 2

Looking back after the war, Bhagavan Das

wondered if dieosophists should not have led pacifist movements in all their respective

belligerent countries, and suffered the pains and penalties of conscientious objectors. ... We

have left OLhers to do our duty.'

1,4, World War I: the USA

In the USA, Katlierine Tingley in her Point Loma TS headquarters was then at quite 'safe
distance'. Like her government, she did not mind being away from 'this terrible war in
Europe'.*

In 1917, US president Wilson entered the war. Foster Bailey
(Alice's husband) paid Wilson (be compliment of calling him 'a
chela of the 6th Ray.' 5

Judge S. Subramaniya Iyer, ex-TS vice president and honorary
Home Rule League president, sent a telegram to Wilson through
American ihcosophists Mr and Mrs Hoichencr*. It asked to apply
his declaration on self-determination to India, In return, Indians
would increase their war effort and supply the Allies with millions
of soldiers.' Trench TS paper L'AJfranchi in 1918 depicted Wilson y s pres ^ er!! j a! sea {

'ULSANT(1917A>. 30f,

^BliSANTOgnA), 29,

J DAS<L934). 4. Das saw World War 1 differently from AB: 'Why did they rush into the Great
War ... and thereby so splendidly maintain law and order that they have slaughtered and mangled
millions of human beings ... -all ultimately for the benefit of a few capitalists?' DAS()922), 20f:
DAS{1947), VI.

J T1NGLEY(I915>, 14.

; MIERS. 62. Theosophists thought seven rays shone out from the Logos (roughly: God];
BAILEY11922B), 355. VAN LEEUWEN(I917A), 435: 'speeches of Wilson, America's great
president, who in these sounds a note of humanity and nationalism, which is close to unique in
history and would be worthy of a Theosophist .,.'

*S1TARAMAYYA(1969), (33, misspells 'Hotchner'.

7 Manoranjan Jha. Katherine Mayo and India. New Delhi, People's Publishing House, 1971 . 5.
Edwin Montagu, though he was a reformer within the British government content, called this letter

160 fV.l

and Kerensky as precursors of the Order of the Star in the East's Messiah. 1

i. 5. World War I: Germany and Austria

German and Austrian theosophists' and anihroposophists' views on the war were a kind
of mirror image of Annie Besant's. Steiner, Guido von List, Lanz von Liebenfels, they
all, like Besam, saw the war as a holy war. 3 They opposed her 180°, however, as to who
were the holy and the unholy sides.

What were ideas about those killed in action? Leadbeater thought the allied killed in
action would be reborn into the new sixth sub-race. 1

Von List had the same theory; about those fallen for the German and Austrian
kaisers. 4

So, various clairvoyant Initiate leaders, rival representatives of the Inner Government
of the World, look the sides of their respective exoteric governments in the war. Ervast,
and Krishnamuni (who managed to convince Lady Emily Lutyens) were, as far as we
found, exceptions. In Ervast 's case, the Russian government; in Krishnamuni 's, the
British one, were foreign governments.

Though Dutch astrologer Van Ginkel, FTS, backed the Allies, he quoted in his
support Ludwig Frank, of the pro-war right wing of German social democrats. In ihe last
letter before he died at the front, Frank had written to his associate Albert Siidekum "thai
in this war the foundation is laid for an immense progress', s

Social democracy and communism
2,Sneevliet versus Van Hinloopen Labberton

161

io a non-Brmsh, iliougji allied, governmem ■disgraceful'; MAJMMDAR{1%9), 258 The 4-9
October 1917 US TS convention appealed io 'all naiions holding autocratic sway over subject
nations' to renounce their autocracy. Leader Warringion explained the resolution io Captain Ensor
of ihe Dublin TS. The resolution was 'in very general lerms', so io include noi only India, bui also
Ireland. D.P. S1NGH(1974), 201f. American theosophisis founded ihe League for World
Liberation then. Letter J. Sanmcci (o me. Henry Hotchener in ihe March 1918 issue of Young
India [a New York magazine; not to be confused with Gandhi's identically named one] wrote us
theme was 'the Allies' plan of democracy for all subject peoples.' Annie Besant was asked io, bui
declined, to become League president, ibid , 217-8.

1 GUENON(1921), 260.

! GOODRICK-CLARKE<1985), 47. Ibid.. 86 from a 1917 Guido von Lisi letter: 'the Holiest
War'.

3 7T, July 1916, 450; TILLETT(1982).

4 GOODRICK-CLARKE{1985), 88,

5 VAN GINKEL{1915), 51. Albert Siidekum was Prussian Minister of Finance 1918-1920. De
Locomotief, 7-9-1916, 'Een gouvernementeel socialist', wrote of him: 'Whai Siidekum said, did
not differ much of what a National Liberal professor, or even a conservative like Heydebrand,
would have said Jon the war].' Siidekum, ibid,, said 'A people is forced to make war by its racial
expansion force.'

Even before the war. in November 1913, there had already been a debate on military
expenditure in The Hague, at the Indische Vereeniging association of Indonesians in The
Netherlands. The three leaders of the pro -independence Indische Partij Tjipto
Mangoenkoesoemo, Soewardi Soerianingrat and E.F.E. Douwes Dekker, exiled from
Indonesia, came to the meeting. Raden Mas Noto Soeroto in his speech said The
Netherlands should defend the Indies. Reacting, Douwes Dekker 'deeply hurt' Nolo
Soeroto, by saying (he need was 'first and foremost' education; on diis, the colony's
government was 'too stingy in comparison with the expenditure on defense,' 1 In the
debate. Tjipto, later also of the Indonesian social democrats, supported Dekker, Noto
Soeroto got support from his uncle Raden Mas Ario Sooryopoetro, theosophicaily-minded
like himself.* During (he war, dial debate continued on a much bigger scale; and this
time, mainly in Indonesia itself.

Not only the debate got big and sharp, its debaters were also prominent. In 1921,
colonial official PJ. Getke looked back at Indonesia's political movements. 1 He thought
only three Dutch names' had been important to 'the Native movemeni'; Douwes
Dekker,' 'the political theosophist Van Hinloopen Labberton', and Henk Sneevliet. The
iwo last named, and their organizations, became sharp opponents rather soon after initial
comae ( .

The Dutch East Indies TS General Secrelary, Dirk van Hinloopen Labberton. then
was a teacher of the Javanese and Malay languages to future officials. A.J. Resink wroic
thai Labberton's relationship to authority earlier on had not been as close

Mr Labberlon belongs to (he renegades of socialism In his youth, lit was a "me too"

'POEZGU986). 94. DJAJADININGRAT-N1EUWENHUIS, 50. KONINGU968). 6. Nolo
Soeroto ihouglu Douwes Dekker 'unsympathetic' then. WANASITA, 109.

; Molo Soeroio. 1888-1951, grandson of (be fifili ruler of (he Paku Alam principal i(y. and ton
of Indies army major, Freemason, and ex-BMdi Uwmo chairman Pangeran Noto Dirodjo. wrote
poeiry which TMNI reviewed. He was a Duich army cavalry officer in World War I;
DJAJADINlNCRAT-NiEUWENHUlS, 47. In die early J920's, he contributed to Vrije Arbeid
monthly, close io (he Duich Dernocrarisdie Parti}. This liberal party to (he riglu of the Vrijiinnig
Dsmocraiisch? Bond and (o the left of the Vrijhtidsl>ond , never won a seat in parliament. He later
became secretary io Prince Mangkoe Negoro Vll, an old friend from the days when both had
siudied at Leiden university. CANN£G1ETER{1937), 118; 122, LOC, 22-5-1917, 'Prins
Noiodirodjo. f.' Sooryopoetro, 1892-1927, was the brother of ruling prince Pakoe Alam VI; see p.
345.

''De Inlandscheorganisaties', VA, Sepi. 1921, 185-8,

4 See p. 300f. Douwes Dekker was of both Dutch and Indonesian ancestry; related to famous
author Mullatuli. Gerke thought him the most jmportani one. WANASITA, 13. in a telegram,
Sukarno called 'DD' the father of Indonesia's political nationalism'; not 'one of the fathers', as in
VAN DER MARK, 202.

162

rv.i

socialist, 1 but since then he has become a convert to and worshipper of capitalism. This wenl

jointly with his evolution towards becoming a leader of the theosophjcal movement, which

took off then. 2

Though there had been socialist sympathizers in Indonesia at least since the 1890's,
they did not organize openly until 1914. Then, they founded the Indies Social Democrat
Society, ISDV. Already in 1908, Labberton felt this might happen. Then, the syndicate of
big European sugar entrepreneurs asked him to write against criticisms of their industry .
In his book, Labbenon feared that 'demagogic influences', inspired by, say, 'KARL
MARX', might influence 'eagerly copying Native public employees', and, already too
oppositional, 'Native newspapers." Labberton thought struggle between capital and labour
had no basis in the reality of the Indies; yet, it disquieted him. J

Early on, before theosoptusts and socialists in Indonesia tried to start mass
movements, for, respectively against, conscription, re 1 at ions hips were not yet
antagonistic. Sinar Djawa, the daily of the Sarekat Mam of Semarang, which would get
close contacts to socialists, praised Labberton in 1914 for plans to teach Islam at his
teachers' training school in Jakarta,"

This showed also on 23 and 24 May 1915, at a congress in Semarang on local
election law. Contradictions already were apparent, but participants still fell there also
was common ground. On the one hand, Van Hinloopen Labberton's proposals were more
democratic than the status quo, doing away with government-designated local councillors.
On the other hand, they fell short or universal suffrage. His educational and tax-paying
criteria to qualify as a voter excluded a 98% majority of Indonesians. 5 They limited
'Natives and other Muhammadans', so far more than 90% of people, to one third of local
council seats. Labberton said: 'The natives still do not see the public interest; they still
consider the group interest too much.'*

In 1917, the government would implement most of Labberton's proposals. 1 Not his
women's suffrage proposal though: at the congress, suffragist and socialist Mrs A. P.
Dekker-Groot thanked him for that 'chivalry'.*

Dutch: *"ook" socialist'. DEKKER(19I6): Labberton claimed to have studied Marx.

! R£S1NK(19!7). Resink then was much more critical of (he TS than a decade earlier. See p.
147.

J VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1908), 3-5.

*Sinar Djowa 1 10, 1914; quoted KOT 1914. 'Pcrsovcrzichf, 1253-4.

Education in the Dutch East Indies was then less widespread than in, say, India. K1EW1ET
DE JONGE(1920A), 142: 98% of Indonesians were illiterate. SEMAOEN(1966>, 61, estimate on
1921:95%.

6 'Varia. Vijfde decentralisatiecongres', IG 1915 {37), 1 130. SCHR1EKH. 86-7,

'TICHELMANU985), 213.

''Varia. Vijfde decentralisatiecongres', IG 1915 {37), 1135. Jakarta's public prosecutor
opposed women becoming councillors: meetings would get longer 'as the women talk so much.'
Raden Ajoe Siswodioardjo, the first Indonesian woman to speak at a local government congress,
opposed him. She said she did it shortly, to refute his long meetings argument. Ibid., 1133-4.

Social democracy and communism

163

Asser Baars of the Indies Social Democrat Society thought Van Hinloopen
Labberton's views fell short of necessary democratization. Baars supported Labberton's
proposal to do away with racial criteria in the electorate, but objected to his retaining
these criteria in allotting local council seats, 1 Replying at the congress on behalf of
Sarekat Islam, Raden Achmad, town-councillor in Surabaya, also disagreed with that pan
of Labberton's plans. 2 So did Teeuwen and Van de Kasteelc of Insulinde. successor
organization to the Indische Party. Contrary to Labberton, Teeuwen did not want to
speak of 'Europeans, Chinese and natives, but of human beings and citizens.' 3

Marxist militant Sneevliet, then two years after his arrival in Java, also opposed thai
division* He approved of much in Labberton's speech. However, ii lacked lhai the Indies
colony should be free from The Netherlands. Socialist B, Coster approved of extending
suffrage. 'Social democrats, though, do not see (Labberton's] vague public interest. They
do see the contradiction between capital and proletarian.' 5

Labberton replied that his principal difference wilh socialists was their wanting class
struggle. 6 He opposed Sneevliet's 'free from The Netherlands' view. The Indies should
become more autonomous, but 'would still need The Netherlands for a long time.' 7

J.C. Stam. Indonesia correspondeni of Dutch Marxist weekly De Tribune, reviewing
the congress under the pen name of Arocn, was rather positive about Van Hinloopen
Labberton. He Ihought of him as 'someone wilh much sympaihy for the Javanese' He
objected, though, like Van dc Kasteelc, to L-abbertoirs proposal lo have central govern-
ment appoint mayors and aldermen, as a brake on the democratic demands for suffrage.'*
The Tribune editors thought Stam should have emphasized Labberton's 'much sympathy'
lesi, and his 'brake on democratic suffrage' more."

'"Net Dcccmralisatic Kongres. het KicsreclH, en de Tribune', HVW, 25- 10- 191 5, 15-6.

: AR0EN(I9I5). 'Varia. Vijfde dccentralisatietongres'. IG 1915(37). 1130

*' Varia, Vijfde deccntralisaliccongres'. IC 19)5(37}, 1135-fi

J 'Varia Vijfde decentralisatiecongres', IC 1915 (37), 1133 llciik Sneevliet had been an
<,ifficial of [lie Duich transport workers union. SARDESA), 157 on him: 'the Tuturc leader of Itie
Dutch communist party'; 'the* should be replaced with 'a'. In ihe twenties, he would help lo found
the Chinese communist party: in the ihirlics. he sat in the Dutch parliament for the Revolutionary
Socialist Workers Party; in (he forties, nazi occupation forces killed him,

''Varia. Vijfde decenirahsaiiecongres'. IG 1915 (37), 1132, Ibid, lias 'Kostcr'; probably a
misspelling,

"The Order of (he Slar in the East, represented by Labberton, had as invocation: O Master of
(he Great White Lodge .. speak the Word of Brotherhood, Which shall make die warring classes
and castes lo know themselves as one.' RANS0M(I938), 390. Instead of 'prayer', 'invocaiion' is
moslly used.

7, Varia. Vijfde decentralisatiecongres'. IG 1915 (37), 1 138.

! AROEN( 1915), Labbenon said he opposed 'extreme democracy'; 'Varia. Vijfde
decentralisatie-congres'. IG 1915(37), 1130.

"Editorial note to AR0EN(1915). TICHELMAN(1985), 234,

16-4

rv.i

Sneevliet wanted to start a magazine linked to his (SDV. He wanted it to include also
articles by noa-socialist experts, 'with this reservation, of course, that both other contri-
butors and editors could object to their considerations.' 1 Just after the Setnarang congress,
he asked Van Hinioopen Labberton to be one of these external contributors, to what
eventually became Indonesian social democrat weekly Met Vrije Woord}

Labberton reacted in a letter to Sneevliet' that the magazine 'should not have a one-
sided S[ocial] Democrat) viewpoint, but advocate vrijzinnige [Dutch; liberal, especially
in the sense of non-clerical] politics in genera].' He added that he did not have much time
to contribute anyway, and as turned out later, never contributed.

Fellow social democrats Koperberg'' and Koch sent tetters to Sneevliet. In those, they
objected to Labberton's politics and theosophic ideas on economy and philosophy. These,
they wrote, would make him an unfit contributor to a socialist magazine. To Koch.
Sneevliet's request was a sign that he had come to Indonesia only recently. 5 Sneevliet's
Marxist associate Baars was also unhappy with Sneeviiel contacting the TS General
Secretary.*

So Sneevliet in 1915 saw Van Hinioopen Labberton as someone with ideas, different

'H, Sneevhci, editorial of Met Vrije Woord, vol. 1,1, 1-2; as reprinted TICHCLMAN(I985),
303,

2 TICHELMAN{19S5). 284,

'28-5-1915; published T1CHELMAN0985), 233-4

'Letter from S. Koperberg in Welievreden [today: Gambir, part of Jakana) m if. Sneevliet in
Semarang, 26-9-1915: as published TICHELMAN(198S). 283.

5 Koch though! Van Hinioopen Labberton's principles differed 180° from socialist ones, Leitcr
by D.M.C. Koch in Buiienzorg to H. Sneevliet in Semarang, 12-10-1915. Sneevliet archive, SISG,
Amsterdam, 1559/11-14. As published partly in T1CHELMAN(I985). 310 KOCHII9I5)
considered iheosophy 'a spiritual asylum for the psychically unbalanced'. Sociologists of religion
Charles Y. Clock and Rodney Stark laier, likewise, wrote in Religion and Society in Tension,
Chicago, Rand McNally, )969\ 254: "The entire occult milieu .. [of 'Theosophy, the 1 AM ... or
(lie varying Flying Saucer groups'] is made up of persons afflicted with psychic deprivations.'
Koch had debated against theosophisl Kiewiei de Jonge on Marx' theory of value. He thought
Kiewiet de Jonge, though able for a theosophist, knew nothing on Marx' or others' theories.
K1EW1ET DE JONGE(1917B), 111-4, based his criticism of Marx on Austrian economist and
government minister Eugen von Bohm-Bawerk. KOCH(l956>, 131, mentions a debate with
Kiewiei de Jonge in Bogor on Marxism in the ]920's. It is unclear if that was a different debate, or
if Koch at the time of writing his memoirs had forgotten that the debate was before or in 1915.
Meanwhile, at the end of 1919. Koch had had trouble with the government, after Kiewiei de Jonge
in his magazine Indische Stemmen had attacked Koch's sociological writings as Marxist. Other
papers, and officials, joined the attack; K0CH{1956), 112-5.

'Letter A, Baars, Bandjar, to H. Sneevliet, Semarang, 4-10-1915; in TICHELMAN(1985),
292-3.

Social democracy and communism

165

from his own, whom he respected. 1 From next year on, the relationship between social
democrats and theosophists in the Dutch East Indies soon became worse. In the 1916 and
1917 volumes of Met Vrije Woord, Van Hinioopen Labberton was probably the most
often criticized individual. Sneevliet would write on this change towards whom he called
ihen 'the high priest of indies theosophy':

Earlier on, we had seen this theosophisi as an idealist, whose ideals we could not make ours,
whose ideals we did no: need, but whom we respected as a man who truly loved brotherhood.
Unfortunately, we now must declare we have come to the conclusion lliat Mr v. H. L. now in
our eyes does no; differ from diesc propagandists of official religions, whose idealism is only
an expedient 10 maintain a social order, clashing with neighbourly love and brotherhood, and
making ihe personal pursuit of material success into ihe general rule. We admit readily that

our opponent is a clever man, thai he has influence [. ... in original] bui add without

any reserve, ihat we arc convinced ihat this cleverness and influence arc al the service of
oppressors and oppressors' interest, and that the political movement of the oppressed should
never forget this.'

Labberton and other theosophists founded in 1916 in Jakana a local electoral
association called Meiajoe.^ One exponent of it became Hadji Agocs Salim, since 1916 an
active TS member. Salim, wiih A.F Folkersma, translated Lcsdbeatcr's manual of
iheosophy into Malay as Kilab Tiwosofie ill 1916 Salim's membership did not last long
beyond early 19IS. 1 Soon after ils founding. Melajoe in March 1916 discussed the riahl

In De kolonialc begroting in dc Kamcr'. IfVW 25-1 1-1915, Sneevliet criticized Labberton's
proposal to add Mi's front colonies to Dutch parliament, as in France: '1 am afraid that such a
measure would only strengthen reaction. No makeshifts, but our own representation [in Indonesia,
not The Netherlands), with ^real powers.' Lsbbcrton later again wanted a 'constitutional chance,
which would make it possible io send Indies re presenla lives to the Dutch parliament ' 'Hct
standputii van den hcer v. Hinioopen Labberton', LOC 16-7-1916, le blad. Me proposed to add 20
deputies to the then 100 Dutch ones; interview, daily Dc Avondpost, quoted IG 1917 (39), 666-7,
MRBTD. LOC 20-9-1916, 2c blad, called the 1SDV s demand for a real parliament in Indonesia
'social-neurasthenic' 'import democracy*.

Postscript to DEKKER(1916).

^'Voorzitter Theosofie Verceeuiging Hindia dengao roepa-roepa perkoempoelan', FT 1916 (9),
01. 13-6. It existed at least till 1918; IV. 27-4, 8-6. 22-6-1918. Abdoel Moeis was N1VB and
Melajoe candidate for Jakarta city council; IV. 20-7-1918. HER1NG{1992), 3: M.H. Thamrin was
a Melajoe member.

YAW 1916, 195, IV, 16-2-1918. NOER, 110: he was born in 1884. 'the son of a government
official who belonged io the nobility as well as a religious family.' Ibid, on his TS membership. He
contributed to the theosophist monthly for instance 'Beschaving baroe' {New civilization) on the
First World War, and in praise of US president Wilson; FT, 1918-19 (12), 33-6. Had Salim
already left the TS when he apparently clashed with Djojosoediro on Sneevliet's exile in November
1915 (see p. 227)2 Salim wrote he had originally joined Sarekas Islam at the request of the Dutch
'political section of the police'; NOER, 1 10. but rose to its executive and after 1945 to Indonesian
Foreign Affairs minister; L. DE JONG, vol. Hal, 288. From 1921-4 he was Volksraad member;
the only Sarekat Islam one. as Moeis and Tjokroaminoio did not return, SH1RA1SHI(1990A). 342,

166

P/.l

to vote, and to be elected, at local elections. Some members thought at least half of local
councillors should be Indonesians.

The leader (Van Hinloopen Labberton] would consider a proposal like that unjust. Europeans,
Foreign Asians and Natives should have one third representation each; because of. respectively,
their knowledge, wealth, and numbers. 1

At another Meiqjoe meeting, 20 July 1916, Van Hinloopen Labberton said there
should be 'extension of the right to vote to the educated of all races,'

The lecturer [Van Hinloopen Labberton] really thought it superfluous lo say once more, that he
did not support giving the vote to baboes [Javanese children's nurses] or garden-boys.
As for the right to be elected:

The lecturer thinks knowledge of the Dutch language is an indispensable demand for the right to
be elected. Else, it is not sufficiently possible to understand the discussions, and to feel
sufficiently al home in this organ [local council] which is modelled in (he European way, to be
able to work for the community's interests.

At the meeting, Van der Veldc of the Bogor electoral association disagreed with
Labbenon's Dutch language demand. 2 Semarang daily De Locomotief also disagreed:
Labberton on the one hand wanted some extension of voting rights. He combined that,
though, with a 'really essentially reaciionary concept, by which Mr Labbenon right from
the Stan would want to stop the franchise to have its effects.' 3

Sneeviiet approved of Meiajoe'% non-racial members' admission policy, but of little
else, certainly not of theosophy as a basis for politics:

Theosophy, like Christianity and islam, has among us dovolecs people with very different

inierests in society: people who warn to go into very different political dtrcciions in virtue of

their social interests. ... So, let them [as TS] slay out of all politics

Snccvliet predicted that TS politics would end in 'bungling, as they started with
bungling.' 4 Could one note here that the social status of (licosophists was not as hetero-
geneous as that of Christians or Muslims; so it might bring some more, though hardly

in his conclusions criticises a widespread image of Indonesian history, where 'Soerjopranoto. a
(heosophist, became as Islamic as K.H. Dahlan, H. Fadrudin, and H. Agoes Salim ... Yet as wc
have seen, this is a fallacy.' He did not mention Salims TS membership though; nor Soerjopranolo's
laier criticism of theosophy; see p. 300.

*Pemiiran 38, March 1916; quoied 'Persoverzicht', KOT. 1916, 783f. Labbenon did not
mention that most Europeans' wealth surpassed most 'Foreign Asians" (mainly of Chinese ancestry).

debat'.

LOC, 21-7-1916, 2e blad, 'Associatie-politiek in de praktijk'. LOC, 22-7-1916, 'Een associate

'LOC, 12-8-1916, 'Licht en Duister. Politick in Indie. IV (Slot)'. Ibid: 'Labbenon's pany could
not be our party, because we do not believe in unity of interests between the dominator and the
domineered.'

- SNEEVLIET()916B), 1 10.

Social democracy and communism

167

monolithic, consistency as a basis for politics? Snccvliet suggested so months later, after
social democrat-TS contradictions had aggravated on the war question. He then described
Theosophical Society membership as 'in most cases locally ignorant about hardship, not
knowing it from experience, nor from observation'.' Not only in social being, but also in
social consciousness, theosophy differed from more numerous religions: "This is a
difference between Christianity and theosophy,' A minority among Christians still
'reproached the powerful with their crimes,' But 'from the iheosophisis' ranks, only
voices sound for support of militarism, which will bring humanity new disasters.* 3

In the editorial of the Indies ttieosopiiica! .monthly, V;n, "inioopen Labberton reacted
to Snecvliet's early 1916 separation of theosophy and politics. Thai i-par"^" was
correct for Sncevliet's view of what politics was:

There should be partisanship, there should be sirife. one class should be incited against the
other one. is what he [Sneeviiet] means. And dicrefore he cannot expect anything from die
work of our Electoral Association Melajoe. ,:l
However, a different view of what politics was existed:

The ancient poliucians were llie pupils of Pylhagoras who had learned lo serve the public
inicrest in a truly Theosophical way, doing Iheir duties for dulies' sake, and nol on account of
pcrional wages The statesmen, as Plato depicts ihem in his POLITHE1A |TII spelling sic),
had 10 lie Theosopliisls. J
Dc Locomotief i\ioag\\l of Labberton:

Bringing every social or political activity under direct or indirect influence or his philosophy is

noi one or Mr Van Hinloopen Usbher ion's least qualities. With him, action and organization

are Subject 10 his iheosophical convictions. 5

When Count van Limbure Stirum became governor -genera I, he received in audience
on 13 May 1916 Labberton and (hen still referendaris [under secretary), a few months
later government secretary. A.G. Vreede, as delegates of ihe TS executive,*

The question of bad housing for most of the urban population in Indonesia caused
another clash. Westerveld, a social democratic member of Semarang town-council, spoke
on this in June 1916 in Jakarta, and proposed inhabitants' action committees as a remedy.

'SNEEVLIETfmeE) H Sneeviiet, Een nieuwe onbeschaamdheid', WW. 20-12-1917,
called members of (heosophist Kiewiel de Jonge's local electoral association in Bogor 'well-
connected substantial citizens, though they are not especial I y firm in character.'

; SN£EVLI£T(I9I6E)

'VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(19I6B), 196. Also other religious people might see
Sneevlict's view as materialist, not taking into account spiritual unity even as social and economic
interests differed,

J VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(19I68), 196-7,

5 LOC, 27-9-1916, 'Naar van Deventers geesl?'

6 FT 9 (1916), #1, 12: 'T 8. G, G, baroe dengan theosofie' [The new Great Lord governor-
general and theosophy).

168

rv.i

Social democracy and communism

169

Van Hinloopen Labberton then from the floor sharply opposed this 'call for class
struggle. That was bringing division, where co-operation might be possible, that was
inciting one group of citizens against another one, etc. ' Westerveld commented:

But Mr Van Hinloopen Labberton abhors struggle, he does not want hatred and discord, he
wants neighbourly love. We [social democrats] want this too, that is why wc Tight against a
society which divides into two camps, those who own property and those who lack it, and
which causes wars, as we have one now. 1

3. Conscription, the 'axis of all political activity*

Dutch Minister of Colonies Th.B. Pleyte. introducing his 1916 budget, wanted 'to replace
the very expensive professional army [in Indonesia] by a bigger and cheaper one' of
conscripts. 2 The most important question, more so than housing, in the conflict between
(heosophists and socialists became whether conscription should be introduced for
Indonesians, That was (he 'axis around which all political activity in (his country'
revolved then, 5 De Lccomolief wrote : 'For the first time, in ilie Indies a political question
has been posed, on which truly general interest has come alive, among both European and
native groups.'" Minister Pleyte himself also recognized the central role of the
conscription debate in waking up (he earlier 'slumbering politica) life in the Netherlands
Indies'. 'Various fundamental questions' became linJced to it, like the relationship to
Dutch authority, awarding political rights ,,, the Indies and the Javanese nationalism, the
economical uplift, and others ,s

A month after the World War broke out, on 13 September 1914. six hundred people
had met in Semarang in the Sladsium (city park). They were of Sarekat Islam, of the
transport workers' union VSTP with many socialist members, and of moderate nationalist
organization Budi Uiomo. Radjiman of St/and the TS was chairman. Also present was 'a
brother of the susuhunan'; possibly Prince Koesoemodiningrat, prominent theosophist and
Indies army major. The meeting discussed whether Indonesians should help, as
Dwidjosewojo of BU proposed, the Dutch government's wartime effon. with either
military service, or other personal work, or money.

Views both for and against had support. Danoesoegondo, the bupaii of Magelang,
advocated a militia. The chairman since 13 April 1913 of the local Sareka! islam was
Soedjono, a clerk at the Semarang bupari's office. In 1913. he borrowed socialist books

'WESTERVELD(1916A). Labberton accused the ISDV of being against all government
measures whatsoever. To Westerveld, in HVW, 25-8-1916, 218, 'Drieerlei associatie'. (hat was a
generalization.

*B. B0UMAN(I995),69.

5 A, Baars, 'Mijn Ontslag', HVW, 10-11-1917. See also Kernkamps remark, p. 198.

'LOC, 1-9-1916, 2e blad, 'De wcerbaarheidsdag te Semarang.'

s KVon 1917(1918), (, See also KV on 1919(1920), I.

from Sneevliet, who considered him 'a bright guy'. Soedjono said 'The Javanese is the
Dutchman's slave.' It was useless for Lie meeting to decide 'freely' to help a government,
which would punish those unwilling to help anyway. Dwidjosewojo spoke of helping;
though Budi Utomo's rules did not mention military policy.

The meeting applauded Soedjono's speech. Soemarsono, a jurist and sceptic on
conscription in the BU leadership, added that only a parliament might decide. There was,
however, no 'Tweede Kamer' (Dutch: House of Commons} in Indonesia. And the
Colonial Council (name later changed to Volksraad], which the government planned to
have soon, was no parliament.

Tjokroaminoto, national Sarekat Islam chairman, said he was 'halfway' between
Dwidjosewojo and Soedjono, He did feel some sympathy for the government; Indonesians
certainly should not help an invading enemy. But should they fight enemies with arms?
Recently, civilians of Leuven [Louvain] in Flanders had tried that. The German invaders
had massacred them, Soedjono spoke again, poking fun at ideas of a militia. Next to the
Siadsiuiii was the Colonial Exhibition. Its management had invited the people at the
meeting to come and see it. h would, indeed, be a good decision to do that, right now.
The Budi Utomo executive accepted that the meciing would not decide to help (he
government, and closed i( '

From 1915, Budi Uivmcr answered the conscription question with a yes, but ...;

l Ojiimi Icnatili 207/R; Oil 177: both quoted KOC 1914, Tcrsovcrzicht'. 1677-83; LOC 14-9-
1914, le &. 2e bl.td. 'De Inlanders en de coring'. LOC did not mention Socdjono's sharp sentence
on slavery On biro, TJCHEl>fANU985), 169, 171; Idler of Resident De Vogel to Governor-
General Idenburg. 12 May 1913. in Sareknt Islam Ijokal. Jakarta, Arsip Nasional Repuhlik
Indonesia, 1975. 3; Sli 27-2/3-3-1924, quoted IPO 1, 1924. 415. On Soemarsono. VAN
M)i:RT(l995), 1SI-2; 37!j- he resigned from the BU executive, chaired by the future Mangkoc
Negnro VII, in 1915 'The coulliel was possibly on llie personal composition of the delegation to
The Netherlands of (he Indie Weerbaar Committee.'. Both Wand us delegation only arose in 1916
though Soemarsono' s 1914 and latei views make scepticism on conscription in 1915 more likely.
Sin' [Soemarsono | . in WED, Feb. 1920, 44-8, 'Lklidiliiig'. wrote sceptically on conscription

! Sec p. 2K4. VAN DHK WAL0967). 507. Among BU supporters, also quite some, especially
in Semarang, and students, doubled or opposed conscription; S0CRIAN1NGRAT(I916/17), 146,
NAGAZUMI(I972), 99-100. Ibid.. 101-2. at the S-6 Augusi 1915 Bandung BU general assembly,
i he delegates rejected (he executive s unqualifiedly pro-mihiia views, and established a linkage with
people's reprcseiiiaiion hi Boedt Ociomo'i Feb. 1916 issue, R, Sadikoen criticized miliiia plans;
HPO 1916, 84-5. BU had protcssional soldier; among its members though, who mighi gel better
posiiions if ibe army expanded. Also, many Javanese noble families had traditions of being officers
in princes' armies. Expanding Dutch authority had much reduced thai career opportunity; some in
BU saw World War I as a way of re-opening it. Sneevliet: 'All these long sabres, stars, gold
collars, awoke the cupidity of (he Indies armament propagandists.' SCHWIDDER/T1CHELMAN,
268. Opposition in BU to conscription gradually incteased: in their Darmo-Kondo, 14-2-1917,
quoied IPC 7/1917, JB, 4, ' An ti -Government' by 'Bululaws;-,g man' preferred compulsory
education to compulsory soldiering. In WED, 1918, 156f., 'De Indie Weerbaar fcesten', 'Jong-
Javaan' was rather critical. He linked support for conscription to 'founding of a school where our
children can be educated in order to become officers.' Founding such a school, though not iis

170

IV. I

conditional on the government establishing a representative institution. Van HinJoopen
Labberton. to the socialists' dismay, asked BU to drop that linkage, and support military
service unconditionally. Sneevliet thought Budi Uto/no's. was

a shilly-shally view on militarism. But even this seems to go too far for Mr v. Labbenon,
Surrender to the armed forces is what he wants the Javanese intellectuals to do, unconditional-
ly. And thus, (his gentleman shows thai he can make compatible with the "high ideals of
theosophy", can make compatible with sense of brotherhood, with loving one's neighbour,
action in favour of militarism, which here too, is on the increase; and which especially reaches
its goal if it unleashes a general butchery of people. Thus, this colonial ethician advocates
zealously not- that -ethical militarism, which should make possible ethical colonial political
reforms. Thus, this "friend of the Javanese" appears as an apostle of Dutch colonial
imperialism. We should point this out, as Mr v, H. L. has influence within the world of
Javanese intellectuals because of his (heosophical propaganda, and thus, his exhortation should
not pass unnoticed. 1

Later, in July 1916, the committee indie Weerbaar [Arm the Indies. Literally, 'able-
bodied Indies'] 1 was founded, promoting compulsory military service for eligible male
inhabitants of Ihe country. In the Dutch East Indies TS monthly. Van Hinloopen
Labberton, 'the father of Indie Weerbaar', 1 explained it: the rule of non-violence was in
the present age only valid for, il was only (he dharma for, a small minority of saintly
hermits. Even married priests of the Brahman caste had to defend their families The
dharma differed still more from non-violence for non-Brahmans:

I think that it is urgent to arm the Indies well to prevent threatening troubles, and that the
desirable defensive arms will be a strong contribution to Law and Order (Dutch: Rust en
Vrede),

The Netherlands deserves to stay on, to be (he Western teacher of Insulinde {Indonesia],
provided that The Netherlands realizes its task as Guardian/
Resink, who a decade earlier had anempted unsuccessfully to link TS and SDAP, also

linkage, had been in die Budi Utamo platform, as point 9b, in 1917; LOC, 6-7-1917. 'Het
programma van Boedi Oetomo,' The 1919 congress of (more or less] SU's youth organization
Jong-Java rejected conscription: WED, 1919, 107, In early 1924. Dwidjosewojo and his BU
executive proposed to the congress a program of 'Home Rule and introduction of a Native militia':
ME, Feb. 1924, 38,

'SNEEVLIET(1916A), 1 10: written, as some other articles, under the pen name -i.

^Spelling not 'Weerbar' as in McVEY(1965), passim. EM, vol. ill, 699, KORVER. 59-62.
Also translated as Indies Defence; Indies Home Defence. The adjective 'Weerbaar' was behind the
substantive, indicating a situation which the committee thought of as desirable, rather than actual.

] FATAH(1917). Captain Rhemrev and Labberton would later quarrel about who really was
'the father of Indie Weerbaar.' Labberton admitted that 'Mr Rhemrev first spoke to me on the
matter': but that was not enough for organizational fatherhood. VAN HINLOOPEN
LABBERT0N(1916/17), 612.

"VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(19I6D), 516.

Social democracy and communism

explained Indie Weerbaar. His explanation was critical,
Labberton's religious caste doctrine:

171

'materialist' social, not

For some years, in the theosophisis' ranks, the need has been fell for social work, that is. for
social prestige! They have such hobbies in "charily", "education", etcetera. Mr
LABBERTON for the first time, as a theosophist, has wanted to play a political role,
and is very successful at this within the ranks of the bourgeois iheosophists. The "Indie
Weerbaar" movement has been an excellent way to increase the social prestige of theosophy
.... [.... in original] in walks of life, which aim at something very different from wisdom! Bui
Mr LABBERTON and his supporters do not care at all about thai. If only success comes, if
only ihc socially powerful of these limes cast an approving [idle glance at the nice tinkering of
the ihcosophical ladies and gentlemen.'

Indie Weerbaar wanted To make the Indies able to defend themselves, by co-
operaiion of all people's caiegories, under the leadership of the Dutch government.' 2 Van
Hinloopen Labbenon advocated this not only from the !W and Theosophical Society
platforms, bui aLso in the Officers' League of the Royal Netherlands Indies Army. 1

Labberton's elecloral association Meiajoe soon discussed Indie Weerbaar. With
Notoatmodjo, eventually a major conscription opponent, in the chair, debates were

'RI-SINK(1917>.

; MOI:IS(1917A). MoeiS. ibid., also wrote of a living wall of armed forces, determined to sell
[heir lives as dear!) as possible.' LOC. 26-1-1917. ouoied daily Dc Weuwe Couraiu: 'to csiablisli a
strong Indies army, coupling of natives; in order that Hie people, primarily its nobility and us
isoable ones, will have more affection towards the (Duich] Empire, of which, then, ihey will really
undersland dial rhcy form part.' Professor 14 T. Colcnhrander wrole in De Cids, 1917. I. 560-1
'wnliout him I'lhe Nalivc'l we will never make it [defence] ' The original Inrtie Weerbanr
resolution for 3! August 1916 expliculy named conscription for Indonesians Insisiencc fiom ihe
Sarekat Islam executive changed (his to a more vague desire for stronger defence, leaving it 10 the
Dutch government whether conscripting Indonesians was ihe way lo ihis In the public discussion
between IW opponents and supponcrs, conscription, ihougli. remained ihe main point VAN
HINLOOPEN LABBERTQNfl9WI7), 610-4,

>LOC, 16-7-1916, 'Defensie-prijsvraag'; also published 1C, 1916 (38). 1406-7: the Officers-
League offered a 300 guilder prize in a contest for best '20-40 page pamphlet'. The pamphlets
should be 'preferably written as narratives' and would be translated into 'the main native
languages.' Their contents should be 'an overview, comprehensible to the native population, of ihe
great importance of strong armed forces to ihc Duich East Indies; and also showing ihe necessity
of founding a militia among people living in ihe Duich Easi Indies.' The three-man jury for the
contest were: Labberton, Major W.H. Holle, FTS (NUGRAHA(1989). 254); and Armed Police
Deputy Inspector J.C.A. Bannink. The League's magazine. Orgaan der Nedertandsch-lndische
OJJiciea-vereeniging, had reported on an Indies Military Science Society meeting on 6 March 1916
about introducing conscription. Also Indonesians had been invited to speak. The article was 'more
or less disappointed' in (heir speeches: 'We had hoped for and expecied ... more assent irom the
native side.' Some speakers, like Jong-Jaw leader Satiman, linked assent to conditions; Sasiro
Adimedjo was an outright opponeni. Meeiing chairman Captain Muorling had protested against the
criticism, S0ERIANINGRAT(1916/17), 148-52; !G. 1916 (38), 968-9 and 1408, MRBTD.

172

/v.;

Social democracy and communism

173

'lively'. 1 Members expressed at least two viewpoints. On the one hand, 'a fairly general
view', 2 accepting conscription only if linked to the coming of a parliament; unlike 'the
existing [/WJ committee's plans', on which that side's supporters had 'grave doubts'.
They pointed to Budi Utomo and Sarekat (slam as precedents. However,

From another side, people argued that one should consider especially that linkage to be a
major mistake, as it would take away the [Indie Weerbaar] campaign's value as in expression
of spontaneity, Peopie on that side pointed out that equal rights and all of the world's Colonial
Councils would be useless, if another sovereignty were 10 replace the Dutch one. From
another government one might not expect that it would continue the civilizing task, which
burden The Netherlands has taken upon its shoulders over the last decades.
The meeting that night did not reach a 'definite decision'. 3 Labbenon's pro-conscription
stance was said to have cost his Melajoe 'hundreds of members already immediately'.*

For 31 August, Queen Wilhelmina's birthday, Indie Weerbaar planned a public
demonstration. Ftom 1916 till 1918 that was its day of maximum activity. To prepare for
it, the committee met in Jakarta on Sunday morning 23 July 1916, The meeting was not
open to the public, though reporters of the friendly Locomoiief and Baiaviaascli
Handelsblad attended. Of the twenty commitiee members present, one was Chinese, the
local 'major of Chinese' (a government-appointed official): one, the local bupati's patili
(secretary) was 'native': two were women. At least four of those present, as far as the
Baiaviaasch Handelsblad named them, were active full time officers. AG- Vrcede and
L3bberton were pari lime officers. Several, including A.F. Folkersma, formerly a naval
lieutenant, ihen 'Native Affairs' official and Jakarta town-council member, were FTS.

Van Hinloopen Labberton, after his experiences with Budi Vwmo and recently wiih
Melajoe, worried about 'increasing linkage of the demand for more political rights as a
condiiion [to assent to conscription).' Dissidents might voice that at the 31 August public
meeiing; that 'danger ... might even cause the ruin of the demonstration * Was nol
sending an Indie Weerbaar delegation to (he queen in The Netherlands a good

{ LOC, 14-7-1916, 'Kiesvereeniging Melajoe.*

1 Pemiiran. « 133, quoted KOT. 1916, 'Persoverzichl', 1380-1.

y LOC, 14-7-1916, 'Kiesvereeniging Melajoe.' Pemilron. It 133. quoted KOT, 1916,
'Persoverzicht', 1380-1: the debaters had asked the press not to identify' them by name. Though
Noioatmodjo may have hid his personal views as meeting chairman, probably his supporters
criticized indie Weerbaar, and eventually left Melajoe- On Notoaimodjo, see p. 221.
TSUCHIYA(1987), 70 names a Notoaimodjo as Taman Siswa school founder in Mojokerto. That
me other view was Van Hinloopen Labberton s and his supporters' is very likely from what he said
of the Budi Utomo and Semarang Sarekat Islam views.

4Article by de R.: 'Misdadige verwording', IV, 14-9-1918. Labbenon said on 20 July 1916
Melajoe had 600 members: LOC, 22-7-1916. <Een associatie-debaf; compare SCHRIEKE, 88-9
Fifty showed up then, after the conscription debate: LOC, 21-7-1916, 2e blad, 'Associatie-politick
in deprakiijk.'

alternative?' Finally, as its theosophist executive member A.G. Vreede moved, indie
Weerbaar decided to do both. It would send the delegation, with Labbenon at its head.
The demonstration would also go ahead; as Vreede proposed, to prevent dissent from
hindering harmony and spontaneity, 'Debating would not be allowed, as is usual in
demonstrations like this.''

Both Douwes Dekker and Van Hinloopen Labbenon had linked up with Budi Utomo
in 1908, when it was founded, respectively its left and right wings. 3 Now, between
Sneevliet and Labbenon it was a matter of linking with not one organization, but many,
with many more members. Also among 'Europeans' and 'Chinese' political and social
associations had multiplied. Indie' Weerbaar tried to gel them all to back it, and did get
support; much opposition too though.

For instance, the Chinese community was virtually unanimously against. Sneevliet
sneeringly suggested to Van Hinloopen Labbenon a solution for this: enlisting 'theosophi-
cal Chinese'. 4 'A major pan of Ambonese [soldiers from the Moluccas; then in Jakarta]
are against* IW i Tjipto Mangoenkocsoemo also opposed it. The trade union of
Indonesian government pawnshop employees, the PPPB. rejected Indie Weerbaar.

as it thinks ihis is militarist propaganda. Besides, tins union thinks that militarism strengthens
capitalism. Againsi that, (he indigenous people, many uf whom are proletarians, should fight.

Daily Tjahaja- Timaer commenied on iW:

'NUGRA[)A<1989), 244. TICHELMAN(I985). 444. LOC. 23-7-1916, 'Ind.c Weerbaat".
LOC. 26-7-1916. 'Indie Weerbaar!' RANI 1917, 719. Folkersma later wenl (o The Netherlands,
and founded ihe Ommcn TS lodge there, close to the OSE centre; TMN! 1923. 615

'LOC. 26-7-1916. 'De wcerbaarheidsleuzc.' 1G. 1916 (38), Vcrgadcring Conine Indie
Weerbaar', IS58-9; rcprim from Baiaviaasch Handelsbiad: 'Mi Vreede proposes io ban political
debates ai (he big meeting and just to have ihc motion passed there. '

! SURYA N1NGRAT(I9I8). 34.

^Sneevliet. HVW, 25-9-1916. 250, 'De Chineescht btvolking en de Wecrbaariiuid': pro/H'
papers reported 'the aposllc of conscription v ian] Hinloopen Labbenon has nol succeeded in a
great meeiing of Chinese, in convincing the Chinese, that indie Weerbaar represents a Chinese
interest as well.' Already LOC, 25-8-1916. 2e blad, 'De Siang Boc en "Indie Weerbaar"' reported
on a Siang Boe league meeiing. Of 100 people present, only one supported indie Weerbaar. In
HVW, 6-10-1916, 'De Chineezen en de Deputatie'. Sneevliet wrote: 'The solution is obvious. Lei a
handful or thcosophical Chinese form some new association, form a league of [governmem-
appointed] majors, captains and lieutenants, maybe some will volunleer, and dien. one will be able
to swindle with the will of she people of the Chinese as well.' In his speech in The Hague to the
Military Science Society, Labberton mentioned the 'impure role' of the Chinese and Malay
language press. LOC, 24-8-1917, 1c blad, 'De militie in Indie.'

^Djawa Tengah, 203; quoted KOT, 1917, 'Persoverzichl', 1 12,

'VAN DER WAL(1967), 460.

''LOC, 24-8-1916. 'Indie Weerbaar,'

174 IV- 1

Now thai the Indies are in danger by the war in Europe, they contact the Indigenous and
Chinese associations, which they ignore at other times.
The paper predicted 'failure'. 1

4.Marco and the battle for Sarekat Islam

Winning the support of the country's biggest organization, the Sarekat Islam (see p. 294),
would be an asset to Indii Weerbaar; also, because Sarekat Islam had sympathies among
the left in The Netherlands, thus improving chances for conscription all over the political
spectrum.

Pantjaran-Wana, the daily of R. Goenawan, until November 1916 vice president of
Sarekat Islam, 2 opposed Indii Weerbaar strongly. One of its editors, Mas Marco
Kartodikromo, though not FTS, had some sympathy for theosophy, in early 1916 until IW
began. 5 He then was away to The Netherlands. There, he had contacts with ami-militarist
paper De Wapens Neder.

On the ship back to Jakarta, Marco wrote his well-known series of articles Sama rasa
dan sama rata [For solidarity and equality). In it, he proposed (hat if the government
were to introduce compulsory military service, conscripts should become conscientious
objectors. Marco there also published anti-ZW cartoons, and his poem against conscrip-
tion, named 'Indie Weerbaar Committee!!'

Marco thought a militia of Indonesians would be primarily for internal oppression.
Introducing the series, he quoted the famous story of Saidjah by 19th century Multatuli.
Peasant's son Saidjah, searching for his lost fiancee Adinda, came to a village 'which the
Dutch army had just conquered; so it was on fire, of course ' Saidjah found the bodies of
Adinda's relatives. Then, dead, naked and horribly mutilated Adinda herself. Saidjah
desperately tried to slop the soldiers with his bare hands, but got killed too. Marco
thought if the Indie Weerbaar plans went ahead, then the next Saidjah and the next

'19-2-1917, quoted IPO 8/1917, MCB. 19.

'LOC, 8-1 1-19)6, 'De leiding dcr 5,1,'; based on Oetoesan Hindia. Moeis accused Goenawan
in De Preangerbode of supporting the Jambi armed uprising; Tjaiiaja Timoer, 103, Sept. 1916,
quoted KOT. 1916, 'Persovenicht' by A.H.J. G. Walbeehm and Ch.P.J. Blok, 1674. In 1915-6.
the relationship between Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo and Goenawan was bad; 'De Javaansche Pers*,
'Persoverzichi'. KOT, 1916, 105. Still, both opposed IW. LOC. 3-7-1916, 'Uit de Maleische pers.
De militie', quoted a Pantjaran-Wana anti-conscription article by 'Semeroe' [ps], 'Do the
Javanese people need conscription?' Conscription was 'a taxation, which the Javanese has to pay
with his life.' 'Why do we need to shed our blood to fight an enemy, as we are not asked what we
think of what we want and like?'

J On his way to The Netherlands, a letter included a Krishnamurti quote; Marco, 'Dalam
pelajaran, Falmouth (Engeland), 21 Augustus 1916', PW, 12-10-1916. 1. SHIRAISH1(1990A),
302, writes of Marco in 1924, a PKI member then, as 'a tlieosophist' . Was he really at the same
time, then, both a PKI and TS member?

Social democracy and communism
Adinda would die at the hands of their own countrymen. 1

GEN GOEO VKKSTMNDER HEEFT MjUR EEN HKLF
WOORD KOODtG

175

dit wtprn d*n Wjind feu<l<n mijrt* tetLIUnftn
liriutttn *ull. £oo itt ""1 ** f 'C wootden ru. r

O F so? iifikat oring Jum, btrd|ind|llin
Wpjd* kirci. balivi drngjn kni icndjiu bpi
\aiiiot b^ningiofp meliwjfL mocrochkoe.
Toirocllah <ofmpiFi [ang kimi Juukld lnl :
5*|a bertoctnpJb ..,»,.,,

God ilkfliwMj!
~o —

Tothaa minu impoenl

—0 —

.Modir qol|olnl[» I to I limlittol dji(o«-
to aBiTjo* trowtl" kala prang ilia.

Cartoon with Marco's 'Sama rasa dan sama rata', IV, PW. 17-2-1917.

Text above it: VI word to the wise is enough. ' Below it: 'Black brother.

swear to me, that with this weapon thou wits keep the enemy out of my

possessions. So help nw ... ' Picture two. "God almighty!'

The government did not give Indonesians equal status, though that would cost it much
less than the IW delegation to The Netherlands.' On tW$ 'spontaneity', Marco wrote:

The Government has founded the Indie Weerbaar Committee, oh no. 1 beg your pardon! Not

l he Govcrnrncw has founded Ihe Commiitec, but ihe Government's followers, and capualisis.

Ha! ha! ha! This is ridiculous, 3

The public prosecutor wanted to close down the press of Pantjaran-Warta. Marco
could prevent that by saying he alone was responsible." He was put on trial. The public

PW, 14-2-1917, 1, 'Keterangan gambar di alas.' DEKKER(I916): 'They [Indie Weerbaar]
only speak of a foreign enemy, but they mean (he enemy at home [the trade unionsl as well.' Djawa
Tengahtt 192, of Aug. 1916. quoted KO T. 1916. Persoverzichi', wrote; 'So. the militia really is
intended as a weapon against the enemy at h o m e, so. against our own brothers.' SH, 8-5-1918,
quoted KOT. 1918, 1450; The Indies' only enemies are the money-bags.*
Marco, 'Sama rasa dan sama rata', I, PW. 14-2-1917, 1-4.
'Marco, 'Sama rasa dan sama rata', IV, pw, [7-2-1917, 1.
VW23-2-I917; quoted IPO 8/19)7, MJB. 9.

176
prosecutor said:

IV. I

Social democracy' and communism

177

Also, what the accused says, that the Indie Weerbaar delegation is a government invention and
not a manifestation of the country's inhabitants, clearly proves his criminal intent.
All this cost Marco a two years' jail sentence. 1

Throughout 1916-7, Muhammad Djoenaed, co-editor Abdullah Fatah (later chairman
of the Petroleum Workers Union), 2 and others wrote sharp attacks on the Theosophical
Society in Pantjaran-Warta. That angered supporters of pro-government Jakarta dailies
Pemitran first, Neratja later. One of them wrote an anonymous letter to PW, signing it
'Orang Bogor' [inhabitant of Bogor], He said that there were many crazy and 'koerang
adjar' [uncivilized] people, but none as bad as the Pantjaran-Warta editors. He accused
them of writing against Indie Weerbaar without attending its meetings. Editor R. M.
Prawira Ningrat replied:

I admit that, in all of my life. 1 have never been to a meeiing of the Electoral Association
Melajoc. the Theosophists, or the Order of ihe Star in the East.

Prawira Ningrat rather went to more interesting meetings. He concluded: 'If we have
to go to a lunatic asylum, wc will not do so voluntarily: for wc are sane people. p)
Three days later. Abdullah Patah wrote:

To conclude our article, we should not be surprised ihai Lord Raden Djojosocdiro. Editor-in-
chief of Pemitran, also still editor of Pewarta Theosofic, takes "Buddhism" as the basis for
our prosperity. .. Bui Muslims should fight thai "Buddhism", jointly with the Social
Democrat society
Fatah wrote that not only theosophy 'destroyed' Islam; it also did not square up with

"Marco, 'Sama rasa dan sama rata', PW, 14-2-1917, ff. 'Eenige beschouwingen over Marco's
aeuV. LOC. 6-3-1917, 2c blad. 'Marco'. LOC. 16-3-1917. 'Hct verhoor van Marco', LOC, 20-4-
1917, k blad. 'Persdelici Mas Marco', LOC, 21-4-1917. 2e blad. 'I'ersdclici Mas Marco', LOC.
25-4-1917 After an appeal, the sentence was commuted to one year; LOC, 5-71917, *De zaak-
mas Marco.' Lines from [lie poem Comti Indie Weerbaar!!. 'Our Government plays conjuring
iricks/The Indies' children are robbed/All our goods are embezzled/By blighters.' The poem also
wished the Al' committee members were dead. The cartoon with the series' first article depicied a
fat naive (?) imperialist'. While silting on (he back of a thin Indonesian, he said: 'Oh Lord, grant
that (his accursed native defends my beloved Ensulindc [Indies]!' The judge asked Marco: 'You
write: Were the natives to have to obey all of die govcrnmem's orders, then they would no longer
be humans, bui beasts.' Is that not an insult to the government?' Opinions on Marco varied widely:
right wing Preangerbode called him 'the notorious native loudmouth Marco'; quoted IG, 1917
(39), 959, MRBTD. Ibid., 1219, quoted the Sumatra Post: after he weni to jail, statues of Marco
were erected in many village squares,

1 Oetoesan H'mdia 15-1 1-1918, quoted IPO 46/1918, MJB, 23-4, On Fatah, see also Pewarta
Soerabaja, 9-10-1929, quoted IPO 43/1929, 127.

5, Bogorsche Causerie', PW2-10-1916, I.

4 'Alasan apakah jang mesti kita pakai?', PW 5-10-1916.

either Buddhism or Hinduism. There never was any news of Labberton 'meditating up in
the mountains to meet the Divine Teacher Vishnu.' Rather, Labberton 'every month lined
his pockets with money which also comes from Kromo [ no n -privileged Javanese].'
Labberton only got more power from theosophy, 'theosophy is just a tool to get gold.'

Due to the war in Europe, Mr Labberton has unmasked himself; as he asked the indigenous
people especially to draw die sword to chase away the enemies, whom he thought would
come, and would disregard his doctrine of magnanimity. Maybe he is scared that the people
lining his pockets will be free. Surprise!
Fatah concluded:

From Mr Labberion's exhortation to draw the sword against the enemy, we may infer lhat
theosophical doctrine is nothing but a way to keep die Indies under The Netherlands,
Fatah did not distrust all Dutch officials though, he saw D.A. Rinkes as an ally
against Van Hinloopen Labberton. The popular goodwill that Rinkes created, 'is constant-
ly destroyed by Mr Labberton and his Theosophy. This is not important (hough.' 1 If
Pantjaran-Warta cdiiors had really thought theosophy as uniinportanl in Indonesia as
Lngels thought it in England, they might have written just a paragraph on it, like hint; not
their many pages.

An unsigned leading article in Oetoesan Hindis, the paper of Sarekat Islam president
Tjoktoanimoio. said thai money for defence of the Indies could tiol come from the
natives, (he people are loo poor for that.' 'Finally, (he author advises die "Indie
Weerbaar '" committee, if it warns to gel Ihe native organizations to cooperate wilh it, to
first to lay to heart the points which he had mentioned.

Van Hinloopen Labberton 's supporter in the executive, and since November
Coenawan's successor, Abdoel Mods/ was 'unconditionally a partisan of making the
Indies able to defend themselves.' 4 He admiited, though:

'FATA 1 1(1917). VAN HINLOOPEN LABQERT0N(I916C), 247-8 accused Rinkes of 'dark
machinations' against ihe iheosophisi (eachers' training school Goenoeng Sari.

2 LOC, 3I-7-I9IG. Uil de Maleischc pcrs indie's weerbaar heid, ' Tjokroaminoio linked assent
io conditions; KORVER, 60. In KM, It 192, Aug. 1916, quoted KOT. 1916, 'Pcrsovcmchi'. 1658-
9, appeared an article by him, which assented to defence, bui noi io conscripiion The Baiaviaasch
ffiettwsbtad wrote on Tjokroaminoio 'The Si. in fact does not want anything of this military
defence, but it would not be politically clever lo say so clearly.' Quoted IC, 1918 (40), 470,
MRBTD.

'New spelling 'Muis'; 1890-1957; ENla, vol. 10, 393. He was from Sunge't Puar in Sumatra
/G, 1918 (40). 434, MRBTD. But: Padang-born; MOE1S0917A). His tide of nobility was gelar
soetan panghoeloe, EN!, VI. 352, KORVER, 238-9: he moved to Java, becoming a journalist after
earlier work as a civil servanl.

■"MOElSt^HA). Moeis added, not as a condition; 'The Indies should become mature and
auionomous. ... we recognize the need of guidance by The Neiherlands.' The editors of De
Locomotief, for which Moeis wrote, added a note to 'unconditionally'; to them, conscripiion
'seemed only io be admissible if at the same time Native education in all its forms was brought to a
higher level'

178 TJ

Not long ago, the general view of my fellow party members was: We are sold out 10

the B I a n d a's [Dutch] b y Abdoel Moeis! 1

He recalled one West Java meeting in an article for daily De Preangerbode:

1 was almost on my own, people cursed me and called me names like traitor to my country . . .
They did not want to become serdadoe [soldiers], and that was it!

Moeis' critics worried that 'anak bini (children and wife] would not be taken care
of.' ; Abdoel Moeis estimated that on 13 September 1916, of Sarekat Islam's 120 local
branches, only 20 supported conscription. 3 Months later in Amsterdam, he faced an
estimate by Soewardi Soerianingrat that 99% of SI members opposed Indie Weerbaar 1
Moeis called this 'definitely a lie.' He did not contrast his own earlier estimate to
Soewardi's, but now said that 'out of 120 branches on Java, only three were against. ,s

The majority of the Sarekat Islam executive finally, without enthusiasm and with
linkage, decided to support AV. 6 Tjokroaminoto was ill, though sometimes present.

Social democracy and communism

179

'MOEIS0917A). PLUV1ER, 23: ibid., 1 16, calls his supporters 'bourgeois-naiional Islamic'.
A 1915 Dulch government report on 5/ included 'Abdoelmoeis* with 'people ... aboul whose
attitude towards the Government ... one would not have lo worry in the near future 1 . VAN DER
WAL(1967).441.

! *Abdoel Moeis op rets'; reprinted LOC, 9-9-1916, le blad.

] He claimed this had risen to 80 out of 120 in January 1917. when he wrote MOElS(l9l7A>.
Moeis, a skilled speaker and debater, indeed may have changed some people's ideas; (hough he
maybe exaggerated here,

A LOC, 20-8-1917, le blad, 'Sarekai Islam en de SDAP.' In ihe Dulch parliament, social
democrat leader Troelstra quoted a telegram from Soewardi with the 99% estimate. LOC, 24-5-
1917. 'De mititie in de Tweede Kamer. I. Rede Mr. Troelstra.' Notowidjojo estimated at the ISDV
general meeting of 28-5-1917 that 'al least 90% of SI members' disagreed with IW.
TICHELMAN(1985), 510.

s LOC 20-8-1917, le blad, 'Sarekat Islam en de SDAP.' Sf also had many branches on other
islands. NOER, 1 19 did not mention Moeis' earlier figures and accepted for 1916 the 3 of 120
figure from Neratja 29-9-1917; then, for many it was a mailer of re-opening a divisive issue rather
than of contents.

'Surabaya SI leader Raden Achmad opposed it; VAN DER WAL0967), 460; 507, Moeis had
already joined the local AV committee in Bandung; HVW, 10-8-1916. 207. Finally, he did join the
all-Indies AV committee as 5/ representative; VAN DER WAL(1967), 501, At a public meeting,
Tjokroaminoto defended the executive's pro-conscription decision, Bui he also pointed out that
Indie Weerbaar's aims were 'first and foremost the protection of capitalism; so it would be only
jusi if capital owners would bear the majority of conscription's costs,' He then 'sarcastically'
mentioned big sugar business; LOC, 20-2-1917, 2e blad, 'De S.I. meeting te Tjilaljap." Socialist
Soeara Merdika, 25-4-1917, 5-6, 'Lagi hal Wcerbaarheid', took notice. Moeis, though, in a
interview with daily He: Volk, quoted LOC, 4-5-1917, 'Abdoel Moeis aan het woord', said: 'For
this [conscription], one needs money. And it seems that one will have to get that for a major, if
not, the major, part in the Indies, which boils down to direct or indirect taxation of the natives,'

around decision time. 1 Social democrats saw the resolution as the consequence of govern-
ment pressure, which the official Van Hinloopen Labberion, present at the non-public
executive meeting cf 29 August in Blitar, had applied. 2

Local branches never got a chance to vote on die decision at an SI national congress.
According to the Bandung daily Perrimbangan , Moeis, talking to Sarekat left-winger
Semaoen, admitted that in indie Weerbaar he did not represent Ute branches, but only the
national executive. By order of the government, that national executive had to keep
somewhat separate from the locals. Thus, the numerically few at national level were
easier to influence; 3 for instance from the Theosophical Society; than at local level, where
committed Muslims, leftists, or secular nationalists, might be tougher opposition.

In a letter to De Locomotief, Sarekat Islam member Prihatin thought that even if SI
leaders would get concessions from the Dutch government in return for conscription, that
would not be good for Indonesians or for Sarekat Islam. Only a small elite would benefit
from those concessions. The people would be split into 'the soldier caste (k s a t r y a s)
and the coolie caste (s o e d r a s).' 4

Indie Weerbaar founded local committees lo organize meetings on 31 August in cities
besides Jakarta. In Medan in Sumatra, W.H. van Ttjen, head administrator of Deli
Limited and chairman of (he Deli planters league, and H. Ketner, of the Dutch -American
Plantation Company, vice chairman of (he East Sumatra rubber planters' league, and
since 1918 Volksraad member, did that. 5 In Surabaya. Hirsch, chairman of the sugar
business svndicale, became IW chairman,''

Miwis" fellow delegate Dwidjosewojo said that 'under no circumstances the non-propcnied classes
Should be taxed lo pay for the defence budget'. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBGRT0N<I9I6/17), 603.
'MOEIS(1917A).

; A. Baars, 'De Ccmrale S.I. en "Indie Weerbaar'", HVW. 10-9-1916, 238-9 LOC. 30-8-
1916, 2e blad. 'De houding der Cenlraal Sarekai Islam'; and 1-9-1916. 'Te Bliiar' Sosrokardono
(in Malay) and Tjokroaminoto (in Javanese) read translations of ant \-IW articles by Sneevliei lo ihe
meeting, Moeis attacked their contenis. ile said the government spent 12 million guilders a year on
'native educalion', noi 6,5 million as Sneevliei wroie. Later, on 26-2-1917 in Geneva, Moeis said,
according to NRC daily, that government 'native educalion' expenditure was 7 million; quoted IG,
1917 (39), 490, MRBTD. The Blitar meeting weni on till 3.30 a.m. The Basaviaasch Nieuwsblad.
quoicd IG. 1917 (39), 922, MRBTD; which opposed Goenawan. and claimed inside information,
later wroie (hal of 14 executive members present . only Goenawan was completely an(i-/W, three (i(
named only Moeis) were completely in favour; ihe ten others (including Tjokroaminoto) fell in
between.

^Perumbangati, 23-3-1917; quoted IPO 12/1917. MCB, 6.

'LOC, 22-9-1916, 2e blad; Prihaiin, 'Heeft de C.S.I, hieraan gedacht?'

! /MW. 1917, 519. LOC, 1-8-1916, 'Indie Weerbaar.' Soon, Budi Utomo branch chairman,
Raden Aloewi Dhanoe Pamekas, also joined as the only non-Dutch member; LOC, 12-8-1916,
'Indie Weerbaar'; OVfW, 1918. 3, 14. At a public meeting meeting of a thousand indonesians in
the Oranje cinema in Medan, Pamekas faced much criticism for this though; IG, 1916 (38), 1684,
MRBTD.

''LOC, 21-8-1916, 2eblad, 'Uit Soerabaia. Indie Weerbaar.'

180

rv.i

In Semarang, the mayor and the bupati joined. The committee wrote Mohamed
Joesoef, local Sarekat islam chaimian, also supported them. By the time they published
that, 1 Joesoef s position had already changed, however. The SI branch met on 5 August.
Joesoef said he had assented to the request to join, as he thought that might make it
'easier to ask for rights to have influence in government matters.' So this view also was
not as 'spontaneous' as Van Hinloopen Labberton might have liked. Members argued
though, thai the Dutch East Indies budget already spent 62.1 million guilders on the
armed forces, and only 6.4 million on 'native' education. They voted that Joesoef should
resign from Indie Weerbaar; and he did. 5

The Indie Weerbaar delegation, led by Van Hinloopen Labberton, 3 included repre-
sentatives of organizations like Pangeran Aryo Koesoemodiningrat. the susuhunan of
Surakarta's elder brother, 4 of the Princes' League, According to various sources, they
were not the only two FTS here; 'some more Javanese members' were among the other
delegates.' Danoesoegondo went on behalf of the bupati'% union. Dwidjosewojo for Budi
Uiomo; army lieutenant Rhemrev also went. 6 The delegation was to bring the military
requests to Queen Wilhelmina of The Netherlands and her government. In attacking
Labberton, the socialist magazine questioned his Uieosophical philosophy:

Someone who speaks in favour of militarism, in a conquered country with a people heavily
burdened by taxes, whose mode of production enables only minor accumulation of capital in
this country, makes his own religion or morality a farce. Someone who does this and directs
the Indies movement towards militarism, abuses it. and puis it into direct service of

l LOC, 9-8-1916, 'Indie Weerbaar.'

2 LOC, 1 1-8-1916, 2e blad, 'S.I. vergadering ' C. van de Kamer, a Semarang IW supporter,
reacted to the opponents' education argument: 'You want schools -more schools- OK, but then iwo
machine-guns for each school, and one cannon for each five.' LOC, 14-8-1916, 'De propaganda
verga de ring van de l.D.P. teJogja.'

3 T1CHELMAN(1994), 187: Governor-General Van Limburg Stirum appointed him. LOC, 28-
3-1917, 'Politic en delegatie': the delegates were 'people, all tested for first class loyalty [to the
government],'

According to the Bandung correspondent of LOC, 6-10-1916. le blad, 'Bandoengsch en ander
nieuws', Koesoemodiningrat also undertook the journey to accompany some sons of his ruling
brother, on their way as students to 'negeri blanda (The Netherlands]'. "The sunan's children have
a house of their own there, in Oegstgeest [west of Leiden], where they live together.'

J 77J 1917. 125. See also p. 205,

6 W.V. Rhemrev, one of fWs two secretaries in the four member executive, a captain since
just before the delegates' departure, later a major, was army counter- insurgency specialist, in Aceh
in the 1900's and against communists in 1927; and in the 1930's-40's a leader of the Dutch East
indies National Socialists. LOC. 6-7-1916; 'India Weerbaar.' VAN LEEUWEN(1917A). 438; L.
DE JONG, vol. 1 laJ, 304; 366; 528,

Social democracy and communism
imperialism, of Dutch Colo nia I -Capital ism. '

181

Sneevliet also called people like Koesoemodiningrat, whom he did not name.
'Mendacious ... the Djocja [Yogyakarta] pangeran ... who on behalf of all of the people
of the Indies dare to ask for armament.' 2 In the daily De Locomotief, Surakarta court
physician Radjiman, a theosophist like his client Koesoemodiningrat, pointed out
Sneevliet's mistake in Yogyakarta vs. Surakarta. He also protested against words like
'mendacious', and defended Indie Weerbaar. Radjiman wrote it was not, as Sneevliet
said, 'only for capital, but for the people's right to exist,''

5.Semaoen and buffalo, tiger, and lion

in August 1916, the two fellow theosophists and designated members of the delegation to
Queen Wilhelmina, Van Hinloopen Labberton and Prince Koesoemodiningrat, went to
Semarang to reverse ihe local anti/lV mood. They wanted to do (hat before their own
public meetings on 31 August, the queen's birthday.

At a joint anti-conscription meeting of the iSDV, Insiilinde,' and Sarekat Islam local
branches, on the morning of 20 August, Labberton showed up. But a unanimous vote
immediately asked him to leave, as this was an internal action-organizing meeting, not a
meeting to debate wilh pro-conscriplionisis. Labberton claimed the right to attend, as he
said he was a Sarekat Islam member. His opponents, though, doubled that: being of
Muslim faith was a condition for membership. SI and social democrat papers repeatedly
wrote on that point during Ihe new months, 5

Labberton and Koesoemodiningrat now attempted to tum around views of anti-
conscripiionist organizations one by one, after ihe failure al the joint meeting. First, they
tried to get (he Semarang SI branch executive meeting on the afternoon of (he same day to
reverse their members' decision to oppose Indie Weerbaar. Of the two senior theosoph-
ists. Van Hinloopen Labberton was a high-ranking employee of Dutch government, which
for nearly three centuries local people had come to know as dangerous to oppose. To

'SN£EVUET(1916C). At (he /5DV general meeting in Semarang. 11-6-1916, Baars said that
real 'ablc-bodiedness' for the Indonesian people meant a real parliament, without racial or financial
limitaiions on the electorate, and not 'de wapenen det barbarcn [ = ihe weapons of the barbarians;
military weapons; quoic from Dutch song De Socialistenmars].' T1CHELMAN(1985), 441; 395.

! 'Bcderf van hci Inlandsch vereenigingsleven. Bewerking voor uecrbaarheid', HVW, 10-8-
1916. SNEEVLI£T(19I6D), 221, called Koesoemodiningrat correctly 'the Solo [Surakarta|
pangeran.'

'Radjiman, 'Indie Weerbaar', LOC, 19-8-1916. Pemitran 160, of Aug. 1916, also published
the letter; KOT, 1916, 'Persoverziclif, 1655.

"Successor organization to the Indische Partij; see p. 301 .

J in 'Een vraag aan de S,l. leiding', HVW, 10-10-1916, 9. Sneevliet asked the Sarekat
executive if Van Hinloopen Labberton's claim of membership was true The executive replied it
was not, confirming Sneevliet's theory; Sneevliet, 'Het antwoord', HVW, 10-12-1916.

182

rv.i

some Sarekai Isiam leaders, he also was the most trusted Dutchman. 1 He knew
Indonesian languages and culture well. J And he spoke in the first city where his Indies TS
had obtained a permanent foothold. Prince Kcesoemodiningrat was a leading member of &
family which for even longer than three centuries had represented supreme worldly
authority over most of Java. It had represented religious authority too, both pre-Muslim
and Muslim; a family very much revered, even within the emancipatory SI. 3

However, when these two asked the workers, low-ranking civil servants, and small
traders of the Semarang Sarekai islam, whether or not they renounced their opposition to
conscription, the humble people replied politely but clearly 'mboten [no]'.*

The third meeting that day was a public debate in the evening, at the Semarang
Military Club. First, Labberton spoke. Everyone noted he had put on a head-dress of the
Surakana type; 'clearly, to win the hearts of the Sarekai Islam people.' First, he protested
against Mohamed Joesoef, 'who had left him in the lurch', resigning from Indie
Weerbaar. Joesoef replied that, as elected chairman, he had to comply with
'quasi-universal' ideas in his branch. 5 His earlier views, based on tactical considerations,
had changed. Labberton said:

We live in very unusual (imcs. In normal circumstances, (here were enough armed forces to
maintain law and order, but now, ihe Indies' defence was inadequate.
He wanted a 'defensive militarism.' The Dutch government

no longer saw (he Indies as a conquered country, but as a colony, A conquered country is
compleiely exploited for the benefit of (he moiher couniry; a colony, (hough, is not seen thai
way; nor arc the Indies.'

Labberton said 'making the Indies able to defend themselves would also contribute to
more order and discipline [Dutch: orde en tuchi].' Who opposed defence? Socialists,
'who do not know what a fatherland is'; and old-style Dutch dichards.

fn the debate, Sneevliet replied first. He thanked Van Hinloopen Labberton for at

'Maybe along with die governor-general's adviser Hazeu.

'Semar' (pseudonym) in Soeriokocsoemo's Wederopbouw, 1918, 67. wrote of him: 'He may
be ihe only European, who has met the essence of the Javanese in his own cultural environment

and ( in original) has given it a handshake. There may be many Europeans who mean well

towards us, bu( we have not found so far another one like Mr. Labberton, who lets his light shine
and feels wiih us.'

\. DEJONG, vol. 11AI,25.

*SNEEVLIET(1916D). 221: 'De heer [Mr] Van Hinloopen Labberton heeft bot gevangen';
literally, 'caught flounder'; that is, 'has got his comeuppance'; did not get what he wanted.

*Pewana Soerabaia, § 189 and 190; quoted KOT, 1916, 'Persoverzicht', 1671 .
LOC, 21-8-1916, le blad, 'De vergaderjng Indie Weerbaar.' On 'conquered country' or
'colony' also VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(I916D), 517. HVW, 25-8-1916, 218-9,
Sneevliet's 'Het Japansche Gevaar' paraphrased Van Hinloopen: 'Holland had been a predator in
earlier times, but now the wolf had been reincarnated as a sheep!'

Social democracy and communism

183

least debating, while colonial officials banned ami -conscription meetings. Sneevliet's idea
of association differed from Labbenon's: 'In practice, Mr L. neglects brotherhood. He
does not differ from Christian propagandists for quick-firing cannons, Talma and Kuyper
[leaders of the Dutch Ami-Re vo luiionaire Parti]\.' The reality of the First World War had
shown that Van Hinloopen Labberton's line between 'offensive' and "defensive militar-
ism' was really fluid indeed. What was Indie Weerbaar^ Support for imperialist politics.
Count van Limburg Stirum, the new governor-general, was at its origin; not
'spontaneity' . '

Teeuwen of Insuiinde was the next debater. Men like Labberton

warned to impose more duties on the people, bin ihoughl we were still too immature for more

righis. Wc are considered maiure enough to do duly for cannon fodder, however. Ethical

gentlemen, give us that money [for die military) for schools, give us more education, give us

better houses. No couniry has ever prospered through militarism.

Next came Semarang socialist local councillor Westerveld. 'We should have the
means for learning, not for defence (Dutch: Iccrmiddelen, maar geen verwecr-middelen);
teachers, not military men.'

Telg asked Labberton why. as a theosophist, he promoted Indie Weerbaar. How
about theosophical doctrines 'of brotherhood and love'? 1

Then came Semaoen, a public transport worker and leading member of both ISDV
and Sarekai Islam. Soon, he would write the anti-conscription book indie Weerbaar. This
book, in Malay, was the best sold Marxisi one in Indonesia, at least until 1922.* Later, he
became the first chairman of Indonesia's communists, Semaoen said he opposed IW: 'His
people had no say at all in their own couniry.'

Labberton replied. 'Big sounding phrases', like Sneevliet's, were 'useless. We should
be practical.' Then, labberton tried to divide nationalist Insuiinde people from
internationalist social democrats, 'who do not understand nationalism at all,' He replied
to Telg: 'in practice, wc are not so far yet thai these [theosophical] ideals may already be
applied completely.'

To Van Hinloopen Labberton. 'the Javanese people' was a kerbau, a domestic
buffalo. The Dutch government was its faithful cowherd. An evil tiger was on the prowl,

'LOC, 21-8-19)6, 1c blad, 'De vergadering Indie Weerbaar.' Van Limburg Stirum had
emphasized the need Tor sironger armed forces in his inaugural address; IG, 1916 (38), 969,
MRBTD. Social democrat daily Het Volk. M-4-1917. quoted SCHW1DDER/T1CHELMAN, 265:
'In a non-official way, from (he [governor -general's) throne in Bogor, a committee was founded lo
make "Indie Weerbaar" popular. The comedy as a consequence of ihis was, to make a long story
short, disgusiing.'

2 In 1913, there was a branch in Indonesia of the dieosophist League for World Peace, led by
Miss H,E. van Motman, Labberton's sister-in-law, TMNI, 1913, 175.

^SEMAOENf^ee), 75: 3000 copies. Probably the same as his And Indie Weerbaar, Ami
Mililie, dan 3e Naiionaal Congres Sarekai Islam. Semarang 1918; McVEY(1965), 370. Spelling
ibid. 'Militie' probably a misprint.

184

rv.i

and the kerbau should support its herd. 1 The tiger was Japan. That remark by Ubberton
had repercussions which eventually sent Japanese journalist Yoroyoshi Minami to jail for
one year. 1 From the audience came a reaction: a lion is in the Dutch coat of arms; so, a
carnivorous animal as well. True, Ubberton and Djojosoediro's daily wrote later; but the
lion 'is magnanimous and the tiger is not.' 3 If people joined the army. Ubberton
continued, then the buffalo would get horns; that would be good for both animal and
herd. At this point, Semaoen interrupted the speech. He resented the kerbau metaphor;
and had a long argument about it in Javanese with Ubberton.

Semaoen, looking back at the incident weeks later, expected in the future 'the world
will not be divided into domestic buffaloes and "botjah-angon" [cowboys). Then, all
people will stand next to one another, free and with equal rights.'*

Ubberton said 'that at inner men rhc Semarang Sf people agreed with him, though
they asserted exactly the opposite. "* Semaoen reacted in the first article under his name in
Het Vrije Woord; as Darsono, Semaoen's future PKI executive colleague, sixteen months

*LOC. 21-8-1916, 2e blad, 'De vergadering "Indie Weerbaar",' HVW, 25-8-1916, 218: 'The
Javanese, thus he (Ubberton] said in bis Semarang speech, should be compared with a domestic
bulTalo. which cannot dispense with its cowherd, the Westerner ... and which with iis labour
power helps to sustain its master as well.'

1 LOC, 28-9-1916. 'Het artikel van Minami.' G(oenawan)., 'Berhoeboeng dengan tangkapan
loean Minami'. PW, 2-10-1916. T1CHELMAN(1985). 411. In Penimbangan, 18-9-1916, Mmami
wrote an article, 'Who is more cruel?' In it. he called Labbcrton a pmgasael [provoker] who,
'ordered to do so by the government, had blazed abroad that Japan was acting harshly in Taiwan
and Korea.' Why did he write it? 'The accused [Minami] says: the speech, which Mr Van
Hinloopen Ubberton held in Semarang, for the Indie Weerbaar movement; and in which he said
that Japan is the Indies' only enemy. ... According to the accused, the people generally thoughi
that these gentlemen [Labberton and H. Mouw) spoke in the name of the Dutch East Indies
government.' As a witness, Pertimbangan chief editor Jacobus Rudolph Razoux Kuhr confirmed
Minami's article was a reaction to Ubberton. So did Sneevliet at his own trial;
SCHWIDDERjTICHELMAN, 246, Warna-Wana, in which Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo wrote, 228,
Oct. 1916, quoted KOT. 1917, 'Persoverzicht', 251 thought, when Minami went to jail: 'Besides,
the public' prosecutor has been unjust. He did not also send to jail (with Minami) thai villainous
theosophisi and provoker VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON.' Sin Po. quoted 1G, 1917 (39), 701 ■
2, MRBTD: the Japanese consul-general came to see Van Limburg Sdrum. He demanded Minami
should be freed, 'or else, also have Messrs Van Hinloopen Ubberton and Mouw prosecuted in a
court of law.' Nevertheless, from 1923-6 Ubberton taught languages in Japan;
TICHELMAN(1994). 187. In January 1916, before IW was formed, VAN HINLOOPEN
LABBERTON(1916A). 54, had written: 'For The Netherlands, dangers threaten from Berlin. For
the [Indonesian] Archipelago danger threatens from Tokyo. So it [military defence] is no question
of siding for or against the allies or for or against the central powers.'

tpemitran (see p. 297), K 164, Aug. 1916, quoted KOT, 1916, 'Persoverzicht', 1668-9.

4, Javaansche mijmeringen en een droom', by 'De rode S.I.-er [The red SI member: very
probably Semaoen]', HVW, 10-9-1916, 237-8.

! SNEEVLIET(1916D), 222.

Social democracy and communism

185

later also wrote his first-ever article against a prominent theosophist; see p. 31 2. Semaoen
sarcastically wrote down a theatrical form dialogue with Labberton:

Art thou in favour of indie Weerbaar? No!

Is thine inner man in favour of Indie Weerbaar^ No!

Semaoen hoped for a future of 'able-bodiedness' in socio-economic, not military,
sense; when 'cannons and other tools of murder would be unknown in the Indies.' 1

After the end of the evening meeting. Van Hinloopen Ubberton tried to reverse
Insulinde chairman Topee's views individually, again in vain; to the anger of anti-
conscripuonists. 2 At first, Ubberton spoke to Topee in a 'very sugary' [manis manis)
way. When (his did not work, he 'intimidated' Topee, He said that the governor-general
might ban Insulinde and the iSDV. Pamjaran-Warta wrote that Ubberton was busy
slandering Indonesia's political organizations to the governor- general; but hoped that Van
Limburg Stirum would not buy it.'

6. Countdown to the queen's birthday

A few days later, opponents' charges that Indie Weerbaar was not spontaneous, but
government-linked, gol unexpected support from a pro-conscription leader: Prince
Koesocmodiningrat. Re spike for a militia to the annual general meeting of the Darah
Mangkaenegaran, (he league of relatives of [he Mangkoe Ncgoro dynasty:

Really though, there is a sccrcl behind ihis It is, thai die committee is a blind (Dutch;
dekmantel] ft really is the government, who wains this [conscription] Pangeran
Kocsoemodiningrat can totally agree with the Indie Weerbaar committee, as its ami is nothing
hut to pay homage and loyalty to the government (|Javancse:| ngatoeraken selio loehoe daleng
kangdjeng gouvcrnemenl). As is apparent from the wayang stories, loyalty and devotion to
one's master are a human's highest honour, and as a man has to die sooner or later anyhow,
lie should die honourably'' 1

Narpowandowo , the relatives' league of the susuhunan , the major one of Surakarta's
two rulers, also met on Indie Weerbaar. 'A pangeran" addressed them, favouring it, and
reminding ihem they were ksatriyas. Very probably, the pangeran was Aryo
Koesoemodiningrat, the family's senior male member. After he spoke, there was a
'vehement debate.' Many did not object to the government expanding the armed forces;

'SEMA0EN(I9I6>,

3 SNE£VLIET(1916D), 222: Ubberton was 'on the warpath in order to continue the Indies'
subjection and exploitation.' Sneevliet in HVW, 10-8-1916, article 'De Heer Hinloopen
Labberton': 'Our religious Mr Van H. L, lays himself out to convert Insulinde to his conscription
ideals. He implores Insulinde to slop its revolutionary action.'

] F.W, van de Kasteele in Modjopoit, 27-9-1916; as quoted and commented on in 'Gouverncur
Generaaldan Vereemgmg insulinde dan ISDV, PW 3-10-1916.

i LOC, 25-8-1916, 'indie Weerbaar en de Javaansche wereld.' Tjhoen Tlijioe, 192, Aug. 1916;
quoted KOT, 1916, 'Persoverzicht', 1672.

186

rv.i

they did not want to serve themselves, however. After ihc speaker had reassured people
on that point, he managed to have the meeting vote in favour. 1

Meanwhile, Abdoel Moeis also held pro-militia speeches; to socially less august and
even more critical audiences. At Sukabumi in West Java, he spoke to a Sarekat Islam
public meeting of 750. He said, like Ubberton in Semarang, Out the Indies were not a
•conquered country [Dutch: wingewest]' any longer, "but a colony.' "The Netherlands is
the best master, and the Indies are not yet mature enough for self-government.' The
Dutch Locomoiief reporter commented:

With the uneducated, simple people of the villages there still is so much misunderstanding; and

prejudice [about Indie Weerbaar], that one finds it pleasing to hear one of their own race

militate strongly and convincedly against those wrong ideas.
Moeis got many critical questions in Sukabumi. For instance, who would pay? Moeis said
'that the native should carry a very small pan of the military burden as well,' 3

Four days earlier than other cities, on 27 August, Surakarta had its Indie Weerbaar
demonstration. In his opening speech, chairman Th. Landouw attacked Sneevliet. Then.
Prince Koesoemodiningrat was to speak. He was present, but got someone else read his
speech, as he had a 'slightly sore throat'; from that week's earlier meetings? Next, a
teacher and member of the Budi Uioma local executive, Mas Ngabchi josowidagdo,
spoke, summing up arguments not just for, but also against. Indie Weerbaar. Landouw
thought this too academic for a propaganda speech, and ordered Josowidagdo to sit down.
AS at other IW meetings, no debate was allowed. At the end of the meeting. Prince
Mangkoe Negoro VII 's military band played the Wilhelmus, the Dutch national anthem. 3

On the evening of die same day, in the same city, the local Sarekal Islam, the S/'s
founding branch, met in the Habi Projo building. Koesoemodiningrat went there to
influence this branch, in his younger brother's capital, for conscription. The Surakarta TS
lodge president Dr Radjiman. who earlier on had criticized especially this Si local, J also
came. The reporter wrote that most of the 1500 at the meeting were 'extremely cool
towards the militia plans.' One asked for yet another condition: were the Javanese to
consent to conscription, then the Dutch sugar businesses would have to return their lands
to the peasants. 5 Radjiman 'urged [57] to mitigate their demands, and asked to co-operate

'Pemberiia Betawi, quoted KOT. 1916. 'Persoveraicht'. 1654.

1 LOC, 28-8-1916, 'DeS.I. te Soekaboemien Indie Weerbaar.'

y L0C, 28-8-1916. 2e blad, 'De meeung van "Indie Weerbaar" te Solo.' The speaker probably
was identical to 'Mas Josowidakdo' , a Surakarta TS member on 15 March 1915;
NUGRAHA(19S9),245.

"Seep. 294. /T 1916 (9), «, 16.

s Latei, in The Hague, fW delegate Uob linked consent to conscription of his Northeast
Sulawesi organization to abolition of 'humiliating unpaid labour' in the region. VAN
HINLOOPEN LABBERTON0916M7), 60S.

Social democracy and communism

187

with the {Indie Weerbaar] action, unconditionally.' 1 The meeting voted, though, to keep
'neutral' on IW. Only months later, the branch were open opponents. 5

On 31 August 1916, Raden Djojosoediro, editor-in-chief of Pewana Theosofie
boewat tanah Hindia hiederland, was one of the speakers at the Jakarta Indie' Weerbaar
demonstration in Deca Park. Prince Koesoemodiningrat also attended. 1

Opponents could neither debate at IW meetings, nor have their own. In Surabaya,
ISDV and Insulinde, whose anti meeting was banned, distributed leaflets. They said:
'Insist on a debate. The [IW] committee proves its weakness by not allowing a debate.'
De Locomotief added: 'The police have seized all these dirty little rags -and there were
extremely many of them- and will investigate who put them there." 1

Semarang was the only city where authorities did not ban the anti -conscription
meeting. Three thousand, mostly Indonesian workers, came to Semarang's theatre on 31
August.' This was the largest number of people so far at a socialist-organized meeting in
Indonesia, institinde member Razoux Kiihr handed out cartoons. They showed a platoon
of poor Javanese, with Van Hinloopen Labberton standing in front of them as their drill-
sergeant.

First, Tecuwen spoke against Labberton, 'All members of the Indie Weerbaar
committee are wealthy, they own sugar plants, get big bonuses, etc' Next, Mohamed
JoesoeT held an anti-militia speech in Javanese.

As did other papers, 6 Sneevliet had attacked the theosophists' General Secretary in

'RADJIMAN(19I7). 149, regretted the meeting's idea that the Government interests wert-
supposedly only ihose of the Dutch.'

: See p. 203. LOC. 2R-8-I916. 3e blad, 'Indie Weerbaar en de S.!.': 'S I en de wecrbaarhcid
le Solo,'

YOC. 4-9-1916, 2e Wad, 'Bataviaaschc bneven'. 31-8-1916. cxlra-cditic. "Baiavia "
SCHOUTCN.98.

'LOC, 1-9-1916. 'Dc weerbaarhcidsmeeting te Soerabaia'. LOC 30-S-1916, 2c blad. 'Uit
Soerabaia' 1 an IW supporter, nobleman Raden Wignja Darmadja. called a mccung of 140 people in
Surabaya. He wanted Ihem lo vote for conscription, without any debate. The result, 'disastrous for
(he rcalous Wignja Darmadja' was 'less than ten' supporters, ihe oihers left. !G. 1917 (39), 2591.,
MRBTD. reprinted a letter from a Chinese to Van Limburg Stirum. He complained that police in
Circbon had removed anti/lV posters, which ihe daily Sin Po had put up. while leaving pro-/W
posters, hanging besides them, alone.

J P.W. Kern, Resident of Semarang, letter to the governor-general, 14-10-1916; in TICHEL-
MAN (1985), 440. Kern's letter summarized the daily Locomoiief s reports. Sinar Djawa, 190,
Aug. 1916, quoted KOT, 1917, 'Persoverzicht', 99-100, estimated 4000 were present, 'also
government employees [presumably, many of (hose from public transport, which was part
government, part privately owned.'

'Malay language paper Wama-Wana, 189 and 192, Aug. 1916, quoted KOT, 1916,
'Persoverzicht', 1670: 'It is strange that Mr VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON, he, the leader
and priest of theosophy, so, someone who should be against all bloodshed, has been willing to use
his influence, both as a spiritual leader and as an expert on Javanese, to reduce the people lo

188

IV. I

Social democracy and communism

189

Hel Vrije Woord.' Here, he again challenged PtVs 'spontaneity'; also, Labberton's
comparing Indonesians and government to a 'domestic buffalo; and a guy, who sits on top
of it.' Sneevliet remembered Labberton's Javanese head-dress of a few days ago. To loud
laughter, he called it and Labbenon 'a kain kepala who is no kepala' [a head-dress of
someone with no leadership mandate].' Now, the delegation would go to The
Netherlands. If (here the deiegates would not just talk about armament and loyally, but
aiso about people's rights, then that would not be due to die pro-conscription movement,
but to our ant i -conscription movement. He called for 'all the oppressed to work together
against the indie Weerbaar action.' Robbers of Insulinde challenged Van Hinloopen
Labberton's difference between offensive and defensive militarism: 'In both cases, people
will have to fight.' He attacked the slogan of the Dutch navy lobby society 'Onze Vloot
[Our Fleet)': 'Indie verloren, rampspoed geboren [If The Netherlands loses the Indies,
disaster is born),'

Last, Semaoen in Javanese held 'a speech to the echo, which loud applause

canon-fodder, in order to protect Dutch interests in the Indies. ... Why didn'l (his "priest" say
honestly thai (lie money for this very heavy war tax, which will be a inescapable consequence of
Indie Weerbaar. will have to come oui of die pockets of the Naovcs. who already wday pay 30%
more taxes than he does (lax laws favoured Dutch]? What does he care that their laxts will have u>
be tripled, if only h e successfully curries favour with the government. Pnor krotno, Indie
Weerbaar will even shear the hair in your neck away Oh, you modern hellish scum! Oli, you
modem leeches!'

'SNEEVL]ET(1916D), 221: 'The priest of die dicosopliisis, who postpones brotherhood uniil a
following incarnation ofpresenl humanity. Tile man of high ideals, who plays at being the practical
person, the pedestrian politician, to incite enthusiasm for cannons and machine-guns The reform-
minded eiliician. who propagates a power of defence, which works against reforms, if it docs not
make them impossible. The Westerner by origin, who plays at being ihe Rasterner. in order to be
more effective.' Later: 'Our truth-loving theosophical militarist'; HVW, 6- 10- 1916. 7. 'Dc
Weerbaarheidsmissie naar Holland ' H. Sneevliet, De tcrugkeer van D.D.'. HVW. 25-2-1917, f!4.
'the will-o'-the-wisp of the "LIGHTHOUSE" LAB8ERTON.* A. Baars. Hel Nationaal Connie
van Inlandsche Vereenigingen', HVW, 25-12-1916, 49: 'the thcosophical-ethical herald of die
sacred gospel of defense of the fatherland, of cannons and machine-guns.' A Baars, Hel
"program" van den Heer v, Hinloopen Labbenon', HVW, 25-12-1916. 49. 'This theosophical -
ethical militia propagandist'.

i Kain kepala was Sneevliet's literal translation into Malay from Dutch hoofddoek, ikat kepala
was usual, Kepala may mean 'head' or 'chief. Next day. 1 September, Teeuwen spoke at an
Insulinde Semarang local election meeting. To loud laughs, starting his speech, he too put on a
head-dress (a present from a Surakarta Javanese man at the ami -conscription meeting of the day
before): 'Now, we start the Insulinde meeting in the Labbenon way!' LOC, 2-9-1916, le blad,
"'[nsulinde"-vergadering. T More than a year later, in his defence speech at his trial, Sneevliet
twice mentioned ihe head-dress of 'this so-called friend of the Javanese' Labbenon 'We socialists
have the moral duty to rip the mask of demagogic philanthropy off these propagandists, who
manipulate the Indigenous people and their organizations, even though we can allow them the
pleasure to keep wearing the Mangku Negoro type head-dress.' SCHWIDDER/T1CHELMAN,
264; 287.

interrupted repeatedly,' Critics of the organizers could debate here, in contrast to Indie
Weerbaar's meetings. Only one did, Aloewie. He asked in Javanese if a 'neutral' view on
conscription was not best. As people prepared to vote on an antt-AV motion, the Dutch
assistant resident, present in official capacity, rose to threaten to close the meeting. The
organizers could avoid that. 1

7.Jambi, geese, fox, converts, and Radjiman

Theosophist A.F. Polkersma, writing to his official superior, tried to minimize the
Semarang meeting; Sneevliet was only 'a fanatic, headman of a very tiny little clique of
socialists'. 1

To the Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereertigtng, the war was senseless. To the
Theosophical Society, it made sense in a perspective of higher worlds, karma, and
reincarnation. In the editorial of TMM, 1 Van Leeuwen wrote:

This war of our times ... Abhorred by some, as if hell were brought here on earth, as if
humanity had backslid into primeval lack of civilization, on the contrary others see in it the
promise of a beautiful future, of a civilization, which, built upon the ruins of the earlier one.
will stand firmer and will rise higher. The former look with the eyes of the worldling, the
latter see with the eye of the spirit and Uius understand completely the words of a Bolland
"The wise man is at peace, even during war. for he is at peace with war

Who supported, and who opposed Indie Weerbaar. if one draws the circles wider in
Indonesia than 1SDV, or TS?

De Locomotief wrote: for, 'nearly all import Europeans [recent immigrants or
totoks] ,..'" Baars later commented that among totoks, 'langan keras'. hardliners, like the
S&embaiasch Handelsblad daily, and 'very ethical' Van Hinloopen Labbcrton worked
together excellently for a long time in IW. So, differences were not as big as they

>LOC. 31-S-1916, extra-editie, *Anii-"indie Weerbaar'"; LOC. 1-9-1916, le blad: 'De arui-
meeling.'

J T1CHELMAN(I985), 434.

J 19I7, 203

VAN LEEUWEN(19I7A), 438: daily Hel Nieuws van den Dag at first opposed IW. Its editor
Wybrands wrote on possible alternatives to military spending: 'If, just for once, we would not brag
so disgustingly, we, the Dutch, and if maybe sewers were to come here. Registration Service,
disposal of faeces in the cities, usury was fought, medical (especially obstetrical) help were
provided, healthy drinking water, practical education, rapid justice.' Quoted Sneevliet, "K.
Wijbrands over de Weerbaarheid' , HVW, 25-9-1916, 250. HVW, 10-10-1916: the Nieuws van den
Dag opposed Labberton's anti-Japan campaign, as it supported the Allies, including Japan. Many
Roman Catholics also were against conscription: IV. 24-11-1917. A Catholic priest had come to
see Sneevliet in 1914 to discuss common socialist-Roman Catholic ami-war action; Sneevliet in
HVW, 25-9-1916,250.

190

IV. I

seemed. 1 De Locomotiefs list of supporters continued: 'a fairly large pan of the Indo-
Europeans, and most Javanese intellectuals.' The daily might have added itself. To this,
Soewardi Soerianingrat reacted : 'Whom does the Semarang paper mean by intellectua!
natives?' Many of them, Soewardi thought, were not the 'tame sheep' that De Locomotief
considered them to be. 1

The daily thought opponents were 'the lower class Javanese, most of whom are
incapable of judging correctly." From this, one might infer that the theosophists had
become involved in class struggle, to which Labberton objected so much. One may
suppose that, without the TS, to which the main fW propagandists belonged or were
closely linked, the number of, especially Indonesian, supporters would have been low,

'Lower class' opposition sometimes expressed itself sharply. In August 1916, when
/W propagandists came to Kemayoran kampung [neighbourhood], its inhabitants chased
them out; they 'had to save themselves fleeing,' Bintang Soerabaja daily commented:
'So, not the Indies, able to defend themselves, but Kemayoran, able to defend itself." The
anti-/W press began to bring news items under headings like 'x Weerbaar', wherever
people resisted authority. X in these stood for the armed uprising, or minor disturbance,
area in these articles. For instance, 'Djambi Weerbaar' on the big uprising in the Jambi
region, already known for petroleum underground * Labberton and Djojosoediro's daily
Pemitran wrote in one of its last issues that no excessively heavy arms should defeat
Jambi:

No, one should extinguish (he uprising by magnanimity and by lofty lessons. Then,
undoubtedly, the subjects' love will end all uprisings in ihe Dutch East Indies*

l A. Baais. 'Hari lahocnan dan i. W. (/Ws birthday]', SM . 25-8-1917, 2. Compare
f"ASSEUR(1995), 195-6

! SOERlANINGRAT(1916'l7). 148.

7 LOC. 1-9-1916. 2e blad, 'De weerbaarhcidsdag te Semarang.* [bid. 'The a mi -demonstration
was extremely abject ... dirty political show.' Sinar Hindia, from Semarang like De Locomoiief.
21-11-1918, quoted IPO 47/1918. MJB, 18: LOC was 'such an Indies Rasputin', and ■slanderous.'
Pewana Soerabaia, opposing AV unlike LOC. estimated that of both Indonesians and Chinese, 'less
than \%' were supporters; ft 189 and 190; quoted KOT, 1916, 'Persoverzicht'. 1671. Sinar
Sumatra, tt 27, 1917, quoted KOT, 1917, 'Persoverzicht', 970, thought '80%' opposed IW.
Soemadi in SH. 31-12-1918, quoted IPO 1/1919, MJB, 15 estimated that the Indonesian languages
press were 'unanimously' and the people for 'more than 90%' against. Troelstra thought /Whad
some support from Indonesian 'intellectuals, who are close to the government ... but as distance
from government increases, increasingly a hostile mood against that defence appears'; LOC. 24-5-
1917, 'De militie in de Tweedc Kamer. I. Rede Mr. Troelstra.'

*Bintang Soerabaja. 190, Aug, 1916; quoted KOT. 1916, 'Persoverzicht', 1672.

deadline on the Jambi uprising, WW 204 from 19)6; see KOT. 1917. 'Persoverzicht'. 113:
116. PW, 3-1-1917, 'Kepoeh Weerbaar.' Semaoen in SM 10-6-1917, quoted IPO 24/1917. MJB:
the oil companies wanted roads. Jambi people had to make those by unpaid labour; anger about this
caused the uprising.

''Pemitran, 184, Sept. 1916; quoted KOT, 1917, 'persoverzicht', 240,

Social democracy and communism \ 9 ]

Contradictions sharpened in these years not only in Jambi and on conscription- in
businesses too. Members of TS and ISDV also confronted one anoU^r as managers
respectively workers. In 1917, at least two of the four men management of the privately
owned East Java Steam-Tram Company were active iheosophisis: Th. Vreede, brother of
the Government Secretary, and L. Mangelaar Meertens, the later TS General Secretary '
This company then faced the rise of Indonesia's first big trade union, that of the transport
workers. Vreede also was a member of the Board of Semarang harbour. There, Semaoen
and other socialists then set up a dock-workers union, which went on strike several
limes. 1 At the Kaliwungu sugar factory, close to Semarang, Van Ganswijk, FTS, was a
manager; the Marxist Mohammed Kasan a labour leader,'

H.W. Dekker was a transportation employee and (he transport workers union's
chairman. On 15 March 1915, and on 1 January 1916 still, he and his wife, A. P. Dekker-
Croot, were members of both TS and ISDV, Then, contradictions were not that sharp yet,
though combining these two memberships already made (he Dckkers exceptional Now'
September 1916, however, H.W. Dekker warned against Van Hinloopcn Labberton,'
Some might accept his Indie Weerbaar because of its leaders' religiosity: 'Beware of the
geese, when the fox preaches." He reminded Labberton thai 'Jesus, whom you also
recognize as one of your masters' had said

Put the sword in its sheath, for whoever lives by ihe sword shall perish by the sword But such
language would not be 10 the liking of the powerful, and so il is better to suspend brotherhood
towards the grcal mass of the disinherited.*

Labberton, Dekker wrote, went further titan government military policy:

'PANL 1918, 661. RANI. 1920. 785: Mangelaar Meenens also sat in the Surabaya Regional
Council J D, de Roock, FTS. was a high level employee (ingmueur) of die eastern Java section of
the government -owned railways. RANI 1917, 627,

■RANI, 1922, 595.

} OCS7. 33.

DEKKER(19I6). Dutch: 'Als de vos de passie preekt. boer pas op je gaiizcn.' ABU
HANIFAH. 36, wrongly says Dekker, Sneevlict and Brandsteder were reachers.
NUGRAHA(1989), 243; 252. As membership numbers show, H.W. Dekker joined later than (and
because of??) his wife. Besides the Dckkers. only two certainly combined both memberships on 1-
1-1916: Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo; and Darna Koesoema; TICH ELM AN{ 1985), 53. Probably
also Raden Pramoe. a leader of Darmo Hatmoko. LARSON<)987>, 42: it had a 'reputation for
violence' against Sarekat Islam; the Mangtu Negoro court (10 which Semarang was financially
important; B. Brommer etc., Semarang. Beeld van sen Siad. Asia Maior, 1995, 22) probably
sponsored it. Pramoe joined the Semarang ISDV as it started; T1CHELMAN(1985) 268' FTS
NfUGRAHA(J989), 247; 257.
5 DEKKER{1916).

192

/V.J

You really are "plus royaliste que le roi" {more monarchist tiian the king], for in your speech

(Semarang, 20 August] you admined: 'If the government now does not ask for support in this

issue, then we really should intervene ourselves.'

Labberton did not wait for a call-up. He served as lieutenant in the ■Volunteer Motor-
car Unit in Java and Madura". TS colleague and Government Secretary, A. Vreede, was
Command Council chairman of tbe military volunteers at Bogor. The colony's Deputy
Adviser on local government, and secretary of Bogor TS lodge, Arnold Meijroos, was
Commander. ' DekJcer concluded:

To preach association and brotherhood with a revolver in One hand and a sabre in the other

hand, seems to me the wort of an imbecile or a demagogue. 1

Theosophist C.C.W. van Ganswijk, of Kaliwungu sugar plantation, defended his
General Secretary against Dekker, in a letter to Hei Vrije Woord* What Jesus had said on
violence was only an individually meant remark against 'Peter who was always rash'. On
general, political, matters," Jesus had said;

'Render therefore umo the (Roman) emperor what is the emperor's.' And Uiese taxes surely
were for army and officials' expenses of the (foreign, as in IndonesiaJ dominators and not for
education |on which Dekker would rather spend the money], for example. ... Thus, also Mrs
Besant forcefully insisted that England would participate in the great European bloodbath, as
the defender of the weaker nations' rights against die Prussian terror, of freedom against
oppression, of progress against stagnation. The Tlieosophisi judges an action by the motives. If
someone like President (Theodore] Roosevelt goes into the jungles of Africa, where he has no
business, to kill wild animals, purely as a hobby, then the Theosophist considers that to be a
crime. But if a planter, living on the edge of the rimboe [Indonesian for jungle], sees his child
threatened by a tiger, and he shoots the animal still just in time, then he performs a boon.
Nowadays, many tiger souls lived in human bodies. So, Indie Weerbaar was not at
variance with brotherhood ideals, as Dekker wrote, but a consequence of them

'RAM. 1916. 809. 1918. 829-30. VAN DEN DOEL(1995). 261. LOC. 14-5-1917,
'Buiienzorgsch Vrijwiiierskorps en Indie Weerbaar.' The Bogor volunteers became linked to IW
They were founded shortly after the beginning of the war; the government soon gave them the
right to wear uniforms like those of the army; LOC, 17-9-1914. -Vrijwiiierskorps le Buitenzorg'.

J DEKKER(19I6).

'VAN GANSWUK()916). He was president of the TS Purwokerto lodge in 1926;
N1JGRAHA(1989). 264; secretary of Dharma lodge, Yogyakarta. in 1934; TiNl Dec. 1934, 152;
and Indies TS executive member Since 1938; 77W May 1938, 107, He organized Buddha Day
celebrations at Borobudur; 77 A7 Apr. 1935, 114.

'An account of Noto Soeroio's speech in Haarlem in The Netherlands, 14 Nov. 1916, for the
local branches of the Algemeen Nederimdsch Verbond and Oosi en West organ izauons: 'He
differentiated the individual's wisdom, that is, losing the ego into the universe, from the nation's
wtsdom which has to be mainly practical. Holland will have to lend a helping hand to the Indies in
developing the Indies, and in order to make that unhindered development possible, will have to
help arming the Indies.' LOC, 4-1-1917, 'Indische stroomingen, in verband met "Indie Weerbaar"
en "Volksontwikkeling".'

Social democracy and communism

193

From a viewpoint of consistency therefore, there cannot be any objection to arming oneself
also against such human ugers. How else could the many military members in (he
Theos.[opl)ical] Scc,[iety] defend their viewpoint. To them, the ideal is the hero Ardjoeno
[Arjuna] from the Broto Judo, as his anitude was described in the Bhagavad Gita. ... Mr
Labbenon's [indie Weerbaar] action is not surprising in the eyes of a single Theosophist.

Sneevliet. in an editorial postscript to Van Ganswijk, did not go much into religious-
philosophical sides of theosoplty; 1 mostly into socio-political aspects, like Annie Besant's
'support of imperialism'. 3

Mrs A. P. Dckkcr-Groot took the opposite side in the conflict to H.W. Dekker. Until
September 1916, when her husband wrote against Labberton, she was Hei Vrije Woord's
administrator. She had also been in the socialist festivities organizing committee, and in
the executive of the Women's Suffrage Society. 1 In 1917, she was against the social
democrats, which upset Sneevliet, Baars in a letter to Sneevliet tried to console his
colleague, taking aim at her tlteosophic ideas: 'Why should you care about the anger of
that fat njonjah (Mrs! DckJeer; let her just mind her Karma." 1 Addressing Semarang
iheosophisis on 1 August. Dekker-Groot said "When contemplating the stale of the world
thoroughly, one can come to the quiei conclusion that "all is good, as it is", even if one
has lo cope with the greatest difficulties. It was our duty to help our oppressed brother ..
but it was also necessary to inform him of the cause of his (own karmic] troubles.' The
second, spiritual, duly was more important than the first. 'IT justice and order (Dutch, wet
en ordcl were noi ihc basis underlying our world system- then all would have been
chaos.' 5

She delivered a lecture at tile Indies Iheosophica! conference in April 1918. on karma
;uid reincarnation. ^ In n, she said that many clever people, like Christian church-fathers
(whom she got to know in her youth), and economists like Mallfius and Marx (whose

lie quoted two sayings by Cttftfuctu* ag.sinsi Van Ganswijk; "Thou doih noi even know how
tliou should serve ihc humans, ihen how should thou wain lo know, how one should serve (lie
spirits'.'* And 'Thou who do noi know life yei, how should ihou warn to know death?'
SNUEVL1ET(1916£)

"Ibid: 'How they (ihc iheosophisis] in iheir real lives go along wnh Maintainors of a society, in
which exploitation and mockery or justice are conditional tor maintenance. . So far you have
removed yourselves from social reality, so much lost yourselves in extrasensory things, thai you
sec the phrases of the English imperialists on "ihe small naiions' rights" uncritically, as if diey
were reality, and defend your hollowing out of (lie ideal of Brotherhood lhat way."

J HVW, 10-4-1916, 121. TICHELMAN(I985). 216. MVW, 25-9-1916, 249, thanked Mrs
Dekker for her work during a year, and kepi silent about political-philosophical differences which
most probably already existed.

'3-8-1917; published TICH ELM AN( 1985). 601: possibly reacting to Dekker-Groot's
Semarang TS speech. At the end of 1916. FT 9 (1916), #3, 16 named her as secretary' °f ">«
Yogyakarta TS lodge,

^LOC, 3-8-1917, 'Theosorie'.

•"Reprinted as DEKKER-GROOT(l919).

f0m ]

194

rv.i

ideas she came into contact with later), had already thought about differences between
rich and poor. However, clever as these people were, they were unable to see root causes
of these differences, as theosophy sees them in kanna and reincarnation.

Some one writing under the pseudonym 'A conven [Dutch: Een bekeerde;
H.W. Dekker??]', so possibly somebody whose ideas on theosophy and on socialism had
gone the opposite way from Mrs Dekker. reported that TS conference for, formerly
Dekker-Groot's, Vrije Woord, He thought that, compared to other speakers there

Mrs DEKKER is more practical, she says, be just well behaved children, you who suffer
[Dutch spelling in original 'leidenden'; probably 'lijdenden' is meant] and are in want. From
the wisdom of reincarnation it is proven, that you will return one more time into this small
world, and then, things will be better; as for now, just start studying [theosophy] on an empty
stomach, in a dirty slum dwelling without lighting. For our doctrine, which emphasizes Right
and Justice, is merciless and hard.'

This leftist criticism in Indonesia of 'the social sedative character of the theosophical
movement', as historian Romein would say later. 1 was somewhat similar to the reaction
of Swedish-American trade unionist and singer Joe Hill (Hills(rom) to U.S. Christianity
in the same decade:

Work and pray/ live on hay^ and eat pie in the sky when you die.

Radjiman, on the other hand, criticized socialism in Koloniaie Siudieen magazine. He
warned his countrymen against anti-government opposition, discussing the French
revolution not as something from a finished past He saw the workers' role in it as as
central as in 1917:

The workers" classes, set completely free after the French revolution, mrough ineptitude and
inexperience relapsed inro completely powerless sums; incapable as (hey were of defending
their interests, now that ihey lacked a governing hand. They had to take care of themselves,
and were too immature for ihis. 3

So one may doubt extremely, whether grafting socialist ideas upon our people, who so far
have always been ruled by an autocratic governmenl, would have positive consequences.
Accepting socialist ideas, expecting all salvation from an economic uplift only, in many
countries has led to a class struggle, which is at least as virulent as racial struggle. .. And

'EEN BEKEERDE.

'ROMElNf 1976), 638.

5 RADJIMAN(I917}, 157. Actually, the French working class was less numerous and
influential in 1789 then later in 19th century revolutions. Annie Besam in her atheist, pre-TS days,
had written a pro- revolution History of the great French revolution. Reviewed 7T May 1932, 214.
The reviewer thought if she would have written it later. King Louis XVI would have been
portrayed with more sympathy. On the supposed grandson of Louis XVI as FTS, see p. 100. She
changed her mind later: the revolution 'only caused the drowning of the forward movement in
blood, and has thrown France backward, and not forward as some people suppose.'
BESANT(1907B), lOlf.

Social democracy and communism

195

whilher all this leads in the end, as we said, the history of the French revolution leaches us. in
which all moderate currents successively were defeated by extremist parties ...'

He based himself on ex-socialist, then liberal, Frederik van Eeden, who wrote: 'From
experience, I have come to the conclusion that material liberation can only proceed from
spiritual liberation,' 3 Radjiman concluded: 'Or can we, may we, submit to Marx'
materialist world view?' No; it still 'contradicted the Native people's psyche too much.

8. Around the world in 235 days

Before the IW delegates went to The Netherlands, Labberton answered critics in an
interview with Si it Po daily. 'People who see me as a (heosophisl who loves war,
as I work for Indie Weerbaar, are wrong. For that movement does not want to bring
war lo the Indies: it wants to keep them peaceful.' That the poor would pay all the
miliiary expenditure increase, was also not true: big sugar companies' taxes might rise
loo Pamjaran-Warta was sceptical of (hat: the companies would raise consumers' sugar
prices: so, 'si Kromo would siill be left to face (he music," 1

Annie Besant in her conveniion speech at Lucknow in December 1916 mentioned the
Dutch Cast Indies. They 'fortunately had a very sympathetic government which sees the
TS' value." Labbcrion's delegates would depart. Mrs Besani described (he petition they
had wiih (hem incorrecdy as a Home Rule for the Indies petition. Thus, she assimilaied to
her own situation in India.* Boih Labbcrion's opponents and a supporter like A. Vreede
in Indonesia would emphasize conirasis

On 3 January 1917, ii was departure day. Before the delegates embarked, Rhemrev
'laid down an enormous wreath wiih ribbons in the [Dutch] naiional colours ai ihe Tcet of
the statue of J. P. Cocn ' 6 Cocn was a I Till century Cast India Company reprcseniaiive,
whose miliiary expansion had cost many lives. The delegation weni on board [he
Stndaro. 1 The governor-general's miliiary aide, C.L.M. fiijl de Vroc, and Prince
Koesoeinodiningrat's sisier had come to sec ihem oTI", s Contrary to plans, the Indonesian
delegates probably became first of their country to go around the world.

Both governmenl subsidies and big agricultural companies paid the journey.* He!
Vrije Woord put /IV's official adjective 'non -governmental' between snigger quotes. 10 The

'RADJlMANOgn), 153

; RADJIMAN(I9I7), 152

3 RADJJMAN(I917>, 154-5.

4 Kapi-Djcmbawati, 'Pcrtenioean dengan toean D. van Hioloopcn Labberlon', PW 5- 1 -1917. 1 .

s rei917, 33.

6 LOC, 3-1-1917, 2eblad.

'VAN LEEUWEN<I917A). 438; DVH. 4; on ihe itinerary.

s SCHOUTEN, 105.

9 HVW. 25-9-1916.

,U A. Baars, 'Mijn ontslag', HVW, 10-11-1917. 25-7.

196

IV. 1

Social democracy and communism

197

paper's reporter at the theosophical conference wrote of "a jaunt, paid for by the proper-
tied class'. 1 HVW computed thai 'apostle LABBERTON' had a 1900 guilders a month
salary, high for then, while travelling as delegation leader. It commented:

On that pay, one can really be patriotic. Simplicity is one of the tbeosophical virtues. On 1900
guilders a month, a human, who loves simplicity, can break even, even in times of war and
wartime scarcity.

The ship went to Padang harbour; Van Hinloopen Labberton and Moeis held speeches
in the city. Then, the party got a reception in Sabang, Indonesia's most north-western
town. The ship continued to Colombo, then to the Suez canal. ' The Sindoro was ship-
wrecked near Gibraltar. Abdoel Moeis lost all his clothes and borrowed 300 guilders
from Labberton and 500 from Dwidjosewojo. 4

The delegation had to continue by train through Spain and France, They stayed with
theosophical lodges. 5 On 25 February, Labberton, after the Dutch consul in Geneva had
introduced him, addressed a meeting of forty Dutch living in Switzerland. His subject

'EEN BEKEERDE. LOC, 30-9-1916, 2e blad, TJomiic en dcpuiatie' called the delegation
conceivably the most expensive postman.' LOC, 28-3-1917, 'Politie en delegatie': a living and,
besides, rather expensive, explanatory and propagandist memorandum.'
S0ERIAN1NGRAT(1916/17). 213: 'The movement has been set up by the gentlemen capital
owners, who were willing to pay thousands of guilders to send their deputation to the mother
country ' Ibid, it was 'capitalist-imperialist.' Views like those of 'Abdoel Moeis and Dwidjo
Sewojo' were 'naive',

3 H. Sneevliet, 'De vaderlandshefde der Indie Weerbaar delegatie', HVW, 20-3-1918. Prince
Mangkoe Negoro VI, the retired predecessor and uncle of Mangkoe Negoro VII. then had a
pension of 11,400 guilders a year; his wife's pension was f. 60 a year. LOC. 6-9-1917,
'Onderhoud der Mangkoe Negoro afstammelingen.' In 1913, Colijn added up his pensions, as ex-
army officer and as ex- government minister, as f, 5800 a year; DE BRUUN/PUCH1NGER. 407,
Sneevliet's monthly income as transport workers' union official in 1917-8 was f, 225. and later
went up to 330. The monthly primary school teacher's salary of Mrs Sneevliei-Brouwer was
f. 250. B. Cosier, 'Een ezelstrap', HVW, 11-1-1919, 125.

J K0ES0EM0DININGRAT(i92l), 26f. Moeis' letters in KM 24/28-4-1917, quoted IPO
I5&16/1917, MJB.

*K0ES0EM0D!NINGRAT(1921), 56f; Jakarta 'S.I.'er' [5/ member], WW 20-12-1917, quoied
IPO 51/1917, MCB, 2. It claimed Moeis still had not repaid Dwidjosewojo. in spite of Dwidjosewojo
asking for it by telegram. Though Moeis announced he would write more letters on the Indie
Weerbaar journey. Ot Locomotief published no more after the first one of the series. British
authorities had seized Moeis' 'extensive travel account'; LOC, 25-8-1917, 4e blad. 'Abdoel Moeis
over Holland.' Moeis' daily Kaoem Moeda, 23-4 to 10-5-1917 continued to print his letters at least
till be was in the Medtteranean,

J VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(1917), 396.

was The Netherlands' colonial task in the mdies.' 1 Next day, Abdoel Moeis spoke, in an
anti-Chinese sense. Sin Po paper complained it were 'lies'. The Dutch in Geneva did not
know any better. 5<>t Po protested though against Labberton, who did, not contradicting
Moeis. 1

Already before the delegates departed, their opponents in Indonesia planned to found
a committee in The Netherlands to counter them. 3 Hindia Poetra, the magazine by
Indonesians in The Netherlands, contained various views on the armed forces question. In
the September/ October 1916 issue, editor Soewardi Soerianingrat opposed Indie
Weerbaar, and theosophist Raden Mas A, Sooryopoetro supported it. The third item on
IW supported Soewardi. R,M, Soeloho [pseudonym? of Soewardi?]'s parodist inversion
of a pro-colonialist poem by Dutch Speenhof against the Indische Partij, now turned it
against Indie Weerbaar.

Indies, did you hear it .... [all .... in original]?

Prepare for die future!

Indies, keep your eyes open.

ui the militia danger.

Pin the link gang of troublemakers

with their obnoxious noise

imo a very rilling jail ....

Keep on being master in your own house!

Do not judge ioo softly

Do not wan loo long before you punish.

Da not fear 10 apply a pair or steel shackles

Do not fear a fining judgment.

Let (hem themselves play at being soldiers

cosily together somewhere.

Indies, mind your interests,

Slav Toeau Rfisaar forever (here!

l /C, 1917 (39), 489-90, MRBTD, from the NRC. The audience reacted with 'general assenl'.
The TS Viveka lodge in Geneva was founded 23 April 1912, JTMay 1912. suppf, xii.

; /C7, 1917 (39). 489-90, MRBTD; from the NRC. Sin Po 7-5-1917, quoted IPO 19/1917,
MCB. 4-5. Other Chinese papers protested similarly.

} LOC, 21-9-1916, 2e blad. 'De ami -weerbaar actic', and Sinar Djawa, 217. quoted KOT,
1917, 'Persoverzichi', 99-100: Insulinde. Sarekat Islam, and /5DV executive members planned a
committee with for Insulinde Soewardi Soerianingrat, J.H. Francois, and Boyer: also,
representatives of SDAP, SDP [breakaway from 5DAP ; later: CPN\, and Christian Socialists.

i HPO Sept, -Oct, 1916, 170. Dutch: 'indie heb je 't al vernomen .,,.? Houd je voor de
loekomst klaar! Indie houd jeogen open Voor net militie gevaar. Zet het troepje druktemakers Met
hun hinderlijk geraas In een zeer geschikte bajes ... Blijf in eigen huis de baas! Oordeel niet re
teergevoelig. Wacht met straffen niet te lang. Wees voor geen paar stalen boeien En geen afdoend
vonnis bang. Laat ze zelf soldaatje spelen. Ergens knusjes bij elkaar. indie, let op je belangen,
Blijf er steeds Toewan Bnsaar!' Speenhof had meant 'Toean Besar', Great Lord. The parodist had
kept his wrong Malay spelling, sounding like 'Market Lord '

198

IV J

Social democracy and communism

199

After they arrived in The Netherlands via Germany, the delegation members
addressed many meetings of different organizations. In a meeting of the Navy lobby
society 'Onze Vtoot' in Amsterdam, K. van Lennep read a poem in the delegates' honour
Its title, almost like the poem's by Marco, was 'Indie Weerbaar.' Though lacking
Marco's two exclamation marks, it, too, voiced strong feelings. Their contents differed
much, however. Its concluding lines were: 'Unity of interests/ For the Greater
Netherlands, to which all of us are devoted.' Professor of history G.W, Kernkamp said
there:

As in the seventeenth century one read Tne Netherlands' health from the pulse, v/hich were

the East India Company shares, so one in the future will read The Netherlands' health from

the '"Indie Weerbaar" movement's degree of development. 1

Abdoel Moeis held a speech, 'greeted by prolonged applause', to the The Hague
branch of the Dutch right wing liberals. 1 He met with more opposition at a leftist May
Day meeting. Van Hinloopen Labberton had urgently asked Moeis not to say anything
there. Henriette Roland Hoist, though, from the chair, provoked Moeis. Soewardi
Soerianingrat opposed his views too, and pointed out that Marco, whom he had met
months ago. was in jail, 3 Later, on 31 May, at an SDAP meeting, Moeis faced Soewardi
again, and MP Maurils Mendels, Moeis criticized the social democrat parliamentary
groups negative views on Indie Weerbaar. SDAP leader Troelstra had called it a
'masquerade',' Mendels replied that he opposed

forcing the villager [Dutch/Indonesian: desaman) to fight for the Dutch inlerest. And for that
the Indie Weerbaar delegation eame to The Netherlands, and that is what the soc |ia!J
deni.[ocral] parliamentary group opposed.
Mendels did not want to 'oblige people -who had been oppressed and exploited for

LOC, 3-7-1917. 2e blad. '"indie Weerbaar" wederom aan hei woord.'
3 The Bond van Vrije Liberal™. The party was also known in Dutch as 'oud liberated' (old
liberals). LOC. 3-5-1917. 'Sarekat Islam en ethische politick,'

LOC. 14-7-1917. 'Indiers op een Mei demonstrate te 's-Gravenhagc,' LOC 28-8-1917 'Een
onderhoud met Abdoel Moeis.' De Tijd. quoted !G, 1917 (39), 809-10, MRBTD. !. Harinck, in
Een Indier tot twee jaar gevangenisstraf veroordeeld', De Wapens Neder. July 1917 wrote that
there two IW members had debated against Soewardi. Soewardi wrote id Dutch socialist daily Net
Volk. quoted IC. 1917 (39), 1221, MRBTD: 'Our Iddies soil is fertile enough, and does dot need
human blood as manure.' SOER)ANINGRAT(l 91 6/1.7). 177: IW was ""capitalist agitation" and
that is nothing but the truth.'

"Speech in Dutch parliament, 23-3-1917. Quoted TICHELMAN{1985) 433. He was Pieter
Jelles Troelstra, not 'Jelle Troelstra' [P.J.'s son], as with HERING(1992) XV Troelstra's later
successor. Albarda, called IW < s terrible comedy'; LOC, 3-5-1917, 'De Indische begrooting in de
Tweede Kamer.' SOERJANINGRAT(1916/17). 173: IW was 'purely a comedy ' Ibid 213
Dw.djosewojo in Algernon Handebblad daily 'in a not very sympathetic way' had attacked
Troelstra's views against [W.

300 years- to put guns on their shoulders to defend capitalist interests.' 1

In De Nieuwe Amsierdammer , Dwidjosewojo protested against Soewardi having
written there that in his heart, he supported Soewardi' s goal of 'absolute independence of
Indonesia,' That would be 'a dubious privilege". Dwidjosewojo did want "zelfstandighcid
[autonomy]' which differs quite from "independence". * On the concepts of
'zelfstandigheid', Home Rule; or independence, theosophtsts would face many
discussions in both India and Indonesia.

The delegates went to a meeting of Indonesians living in The Netherlands. Future
Governor-General H. van Mook was also present. Moeis debated against colonial policy
critic Abendanon, who thought in the Indies aims other than the military deserved
money. 1 Aryo Koesoemodiningrat argued from

the Hindu doctrine, especially from the caste system. Anyhow, a society needs to join forces:
the Brahmanas who take care of spiritual salvation; the Ksatryas who keep the evolution going
by fighting, the Waisjas who increase the country's economic development and the sudras who
help to bring aboui riaicrial produciiod. The lecturer [ Koesoemodiningrat] linked this
evolution to the coming of the god who became human, Vishnu. He has already come down to
our world so many limes, as ii has proved to be necessary again and again to point out to
degenerate humanity the right way. We musi prepare this coming of the world teacher; for our
world must be made worthy to receive Vishnu in our midst, ... So we should also prepare
Vishnu's coming ai an institute of higher education, which the Indies should get

The prince said that the different castes should co-operate; so should The Netherlands and
the Indies. He compared the indies' need of defence to the need of a fence around a
house. 4

The delegates saw army target-practice at the Hook of Holland fort, submarines at
Den Helder, and later combat simulation by 12,000 men in the Loon op Zand dunes. Ori
19 May, they went to a military show in Amsterdam soccer stadium, which the Army
supporters society organized.* Social democrat Malay language paper Socara Merdika

{ L0C. 20-8- 19 1 7, It blad, 'Sarekat Islam en de SDAP."

; Dwidjosewojo, 'Indie Weerbaar'. De Nieuwe Amsterdam/tier, 2-6-1917.

'LOC. 2-7-1917, 2c blad. 'Dc Dcputatie- Indie- Weerbaar als Gasten der Indische Vcreeniging'.
HPO 1916/17, 242-60: 249. J,H, Abendanon, 1852-1925. had been a friend of Raden Adjeng
Kartini. His criticism of traditional colonial policy went further than that of most 'ethici'. Noto
Soeroio argued there that countries like Britain and Germany should disarm first, before The
Netherlands did so.

A LOC, 2-7-1917. 2e blad. 'Dc De pui at ie- Indie -Weerbaar als Gasten der Indische Verccniging'.
HPO 1916/17, 242-60; 247f. He said: 'We should have a pager (fence) around our house. Who,
then, owns (hat pager? Of course, those who have built it.'

s KOESOEMODININGRAT(1921), 114f; LOC, 1-5-1917, 'ComitS Indie Weerbaar in
Nederland.' LOC, 2-7-1917, le blad, 'Indie Weerbaar.' 'Indische penkrassen', Weekbtad voor
Indie, 19-8-1917, reprinted POEZE(1986), 1 15: they also went to a military parade in Gelderland
province, inspected a cannon in an armoured cupola in Den Helder, and an ammunition factory.
The Amsterdam show by the 'Ons Leger' society: LOC, 30-7-1917, 'Ons Leger.'

200

tV.l

reported that Moeis (possibly as first Indonesian in history) had boarded a plane at
Soesterberg Air Force base, 1 Van Hinloopen Labbenon and Prince Koesoemodiningrat
sometimes wore their uniforms, respectively of lieutenant, and of major on the general

Tlie plane for Indie Weerbaar lakes offal Soesterberg 'plihkam' (Javanese: air-
base; from Dutch 'vtiegkamp'). From: KOESOEMODININGRAT(1921), 135.
Transliteration and translation by /. Supriyanto

staff. 2

Labbenon wore it at his well -publicized speech to the Extraordinary Meeting of ihc
Dutch military science society, the Vereeniging tot Bevordering van de Studie van net
Krijgswezen, on 23 May 1917 in The Hague. General Snijders, the Dutch Armed Forces
Commander, having just won a conflict with Minister of War General Bosboom. who had

1 KOESOEMODININGRAT(]921>, 134. SM, 25-4-1917, 5-6, 'Lagi rial Weerbaarheid.' There
were 49 Dutch military planes in 1917; BOSBOOM, 142.

*LOC, 1-5-1917, 'Comile Indie Weerbaar in Nederland,'

Social democracy and communism

201

to resign, was among the audience.'

First, Lieu tenant-General De Waal welcomed Labbenon from the chair. He explained
that the society normally did not meet after 30 April. This, though, was 'of such extra-
ordinary national interest', as it was on 'the militia, which will be introduced in the Dutch
East Indies; at least, the intention to do so exists. ' s

Then, Van Hinloopen Labbenon explained Indie Weerbaar. Yes, some opposed it:
mostly 'the Chinese imperialists'; and 'the European socialists who made mischief ...
Strayed 10 the Indies at an evil hour, they have done everything to incite the population
and the I ndo[- European] s against Dutch authority.' They had succeeded with Insulinde.
There was the threat of the colony's separation; 'a separation that would be fatal for the
development of the Indies, but most of all for the Indo- Europeans' own future.''
Dwidjosewojo. who also spoke there, told of Budi Utomo organized meetings in 1915
throughout Java on whether one should introduce conscription. There, 'Many words of
abuse were hurled at my head.'*

What should happen 'to defend the Tricolour |Dutch flag) side by side, against all
attacks?' Labbenon thought: the 'battle-cruisers needed to be launched as soon as
possible.' Submarines should be built as well. A central naval base should be built on the
Sunda Strait, and a network of smaller naval bases all over the archipelago. Military air-
planes, too, should be built in the Indies. Labbenon rejected the dilemma 'army or navy.
We say, a strong army and a powerful navy arc both indispensable.' Labbenon's view
about naval bases was close to that of his Dutch East Indies Officers' League and TS
colleague. Major W. Hollc. J

Would conscript soldiers come from The Netherlands? The present constitution ruled
this oui. Labbenon was not optimistic that 'Holland would change this Constitutional

'llet Voderlaiid. 'lien militie in Indie', reprinted IG, 1917 (39), 904. ROSBOOM, 214
KOESOEMODlNINGRAT(192l). 94.

! VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON0916/17). 577-8.

'VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON (1916/17). 582. I.OC, 24-8-1917, le Wad, 'De militie in
liidiEV

*VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(l916;i7). 601, OVIW, 1918, 1. 15-20, 'Inlandschc
militie'; 20, GOENAWAN MANGOENKOESOEMO(1918), 21: Dwidjosewojo held much the
same speech to Delft students of the Onze Kohnien league. RADJIMAN(1917), )49 on the
meetings in Java: 'Then, complaints were made, as if the [BU] Central Executive members were
government tools.'

'VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(1916/17), 587. This contradicts TEITLER(1980), 35, on
Labbenon, 'In (tits scheme a battle fleet could play no pan.* Ibid, Van Hewsz favoured the army
side, [army infantry officer] Rhemrev the navy side in the dispute. TE1TLER(1988), 343-4: Holle
proposed a naval base at the Merak Bcsar and Merak Kecil islands in Sunda Strait. Though the
navy commander opposed the plan, among both navy and army officers there were supporters and
opponents; ibid., 335f,

202

[V.I

Social democracy and communism

203

stipulation, which is so against its ColoniaJ calling, for the sake of the Indies' defense.' 1

Conscription in the Indies should be universal, 'so, on all islands.' 5 An army of
millions would be too much, however. It should be an honour to become a conscript:
'In principle, al! have the duty of military service, but those who will have the privilege
to perform it, will be selected.' He thought of about '30 men per desa.' Prince Mangkoe
Negoro VII's forces were a good example.

'So, understanding the need for making the country able to defend itself, should
permeate all schooling and education, not in a German type militarist sense, though.'
Labberton preferred Switzerland, where the delegates on their way to The Netherlands
had stayed with theosophists. There, he had seen himself that views of the Swiss army as
'too good to be true, and so nothing but maya [in iheosophy: illusion]' were wrong.
Some feared that Indonesians, if armed, would use those weapons against the Dutch, That
view was incorrect: 'For the basic characteristic of Indonesian character is devotion,
faithfulness, and attachment.*

'As far as money is concerned: the Indies should be able to bear all costs, except
those of a battle fleet.' Van Hinloopen Labberton esiimated the money needed at at least
a quarter of a billion guiiders, 1 To implement all this, 'Now should come a man with
military genius." 1 He did not name ex -Governor -General J.B. van HeuuJz. The insider
officers at the meeting, though, knew whom he meant. One way to look at Labberton's
speech was as a stalking horse for Van Heutsz' views in the confrontation between

According to Labberton's interview in De Avondpost. quoted IG. 1917 (39). 666, MRBTD. he
wanted '10-20,000 conscripts' from The Netherlands to go the Indies. Minister Pleyte in 1914 had
siopped sending Dutch regular military men to (he Indies, but resumed it later; BOSBOOM, 48, 81

! Nol everywhere in Java diough: "There still arc vast areas where the tribes still live in a state of
savagery. One cannot bring those areas under a militia law'' VAN HINLOOPEN
LABBERTON(1916/17), 616.

3 VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N<19I6/17), 594. LOC. 24-8-1917, le blad, 'De miluie in
Indie.' OVfW, 1918, 1, 15-20. 'Inlandsche militie': 18. H. Sneevliet. Baars en V. Hinloopen
Labberton'. ffVW, 30-10-1917. Van Hinloopen Labberton's financial estimate was roughly the same
as Dekker's quote of Van Heutsi and Colijn: sec p. 213. Labberton had already said on 20
September 1916 in Semarang that the Indies were rich enough to pay; LOC. 21-8-1916. le blad, 'De
vergadering van Indie Weerbaar.'

'VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(!916/17). 594,

'Labberton approved of the policies of colonial army commander and later. 1904-9, Governor-
General Van Heutsi. who was not popular with the Dutch labour movement and anti-colonial
Indonesians; VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1910), 169-70, Social democrat Troelstra in Dutch
parliament in the early 1900's compared the general to a swine, quoting a poem by Heinrich Heine:
Noch immer schmuckt man den Schweinen bei uns/ Mi! LorbeerbWitern den Riisse!'; 'Still, in our
country, they decorate swines' snouts with laurels': KOCH()956). 34. The Koloniaal Tijdschrift in
1916-7 repeatedly called for putting Van Heutsz in charge in Indonesia: Tertius [Gerard Valettc;
VAN DEN DOEL0995), 381), 'Kroniek', KOT. 1917, 666,

m^^^^^^^^^ Koesoemodiningrat spoke ftrst. If

character.' fa , aUue s'; the 'ksatrija or knight's

The prince spoke of Java s most dh - * Boewono VI, always

pities. My great-grandfather, *** a ^Jf%™Z*« chivalrously." When
used to say: 'Remember that you are kmght . ^T a ke( ^ 0nt0

Pa ngeran Koesoemodiningrat's ancestor^ .went o war^e 3^ ^ _ ^ ^

Koesoemo. This jacket of ™*]f Q ™^ZZ^« for an unchiva.rous purpose,
pay the costs of the campaign. If zsusununan spent one c, ^ ^ ^

men the jacket magically — ™ ^T^The Netherlands' leadership.
!n this spin, of chivalry, 'also the ^D teh Ea^ dj ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ,

wiU be-able to be great and ^J^^ (mm [nc desas imo service might brmg
volunteer m.lina fot 'natives. Pressmg ^ , e - > General Dc

major pities and corr.ptiot ^£^J^Z£#£ ***»*■* f

Waal closed the meeting, w.shmg the cause ot u Surakarta branch of

,„ Peb.ary Queen Wrlhelrnina had ^ «*m ^ ^ ^^
Sareka, islam. It warned her " d ^ Wnrna _ Wart(1 appla udea the telegram

tr:^~ - «£- - *' M fof an ordcr °

knighthood for himself.' 1 , , c 0:1 , 9 March 1917. She did so

ami -Japan ones.

>VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTONflSi^. 591 ^

VAN HINLOOPEN LAB8ERTONU916/17), 608. LOC, 24-8-1917,

Indie.'

WAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(1916/17). 62-1 Qf

.WC. .M-19* * b,d. 'Afkeuring .' See . th.br anc ? *. £ ^p^ ^^
He, M««* *« *» *<« headlined on , his MPUDENT i ^ ^ pyJ ^_

Socdjono in W . .9-M9I7. Djilat ^J^t^S Soerianingrat; D/^ 7***.
l917 . The Jakarta 5/ also sen. an ant,-/* telegram, u ^ ^ ^ s ; members

,917. 39. quoted KOT. 1917. 'Persovemcht J109. D7 g N LABBERT ON and

204

IV. I

lieutenant-general of navy and army in the Indies. 1 Prince Hendrik, theosophical ly
minded, knew of the TS through his friend Baron P.D. van Pallandt van Eerde, who
presented Krishnamurti with Eerde castle, 1 and Amhem Lodge president Baron H.P. van
Tuyll van Serooskerken. J Prince Koesoernodiningrat spoke for the delegates. The queen
replied. She saw the delegation as

a strong confirmation of the faith, which 1 have always put in the disposition of those Princes
and those people. The feelings; which you voice [Dutch; vertolkl]. provide a strong basis of
morality lo what is happening and will happen to strengthen the Indies' defence. Those
feelings enable a great development of force.*

Afterwards, Wilhelmina spoke with all the delegates individually.'

Saturday 31 March was the last day of the Dutch Students Congress in Utrecht.
Recently graduated science student Dirk Struik reviewed it critically in socialist De
Nieuwe Tijd. It was a sign of a rightward shift in ideas on Dutch universities, 'under the
aegis of imperialism':

'RAN! 1917. 730. SCHWIDDER/TJCHELMAN. 256: he was parron of Onze Wool society. In
1916, Japanese paper Yamalo Shimbun wrote that with Heinrich as Prince Consort, the Dutch East
Indies were a pro-German security problem Tor Japan and the Allies Japan should therefore buy
the Indies from the Dutch, like ihe US bought the Virgin Islands. LOC, 30-8-1916, 2c blad, 'Japan
en ons Indifc.'

J Van Pallandt was also a local councillor in Ommen: BRUGMANS( 1938), 1131. He led the
Dutch Boy Scouts jointly with Prince Hendrik (and General Snijdcrs). According to ZWAAP, the
idea of bringing Krishnamurti to The Netherlands to slay was Hendriks The prince had his occult
interests in common with relatives in the Gennanenorde; HPB von Hahn: and his supposed son Mr
Licr, In 1894-5. Hendrik had (ravelled extensively in India and Ceylon: BRUGMANS(I938). 14.
L. DE JONG. vol. 14. 586: Prince Hendrik was a follower of 'Bo Vin Ra' < = J. Schneider-
Franken; misspelt ibid. Bo Yung Rai'). BYR had been a prominent German FTS. working with
Vollraih; MIERS, 424. After joining Heindel's Rosicrucian Fellowship breakaway, he broke witli
Heindcl to form his own EBDAR (acronym for. translated: Plenipotentiaries of (he August
Knights) in the 1920's: MIERS, 80f; I33f. 7T Oct. 1931, 121, review of Bo Yin Ra's Book of
Happiness. 'Those who have read Eastern literature. Theosophical writings, 'New Thought' books,
etc., will find no new ideas in 'The Book of Happiness'.

TB 1917. 154. Traditionally, the Van Tuyll van Serooskerken family were siewards or the
royal hunting-grounds of the Veluwe around Amhem. They were related lo Count Van Limburg
Stirum and had also other lies to (he Indies, BRUGMANS(1938), I486, In 1917, the public
prosecutor demanded jail sentences for Henriette Roland Hoist and other editors of Marxist daily
De Tribune, for an article 'Varkensheintje' [Little Hendrik of the Boars], Ii protested against
Prince Hendrik. an avid hunter, having the Veluwe forests stocked with boars. De Tribune thought
'these unloveable animals' and hunting parties would destroy natural values. The court case also
got attention in Indonesia, like in De Locomotief.

^eTelegraaf.qum&ifC, 1917(39). 921, MRBTD.

i WC, 5-6-1917, 'Op audientie bij de Koningin.'

Social democracy and communism

205

On Saturday morning, the show-sioypcr came, (deliberately?) not announced in die program,
(he inevitable Van Hinloopen Labbenon and Prince Pangeran Ario Kocsoenodiningrat [sic],
"Indie Weerbaar" without any fig-leaf for a cover. ... After the Indies had become able to
defend themselves, and also Lord Raden Mas Ario Soorje [sic] Poeiro had informed us that the
Indies and The Netherlands were sisters, the conservative economist from Groningen, Prof. C.
A. Verrijn Stuart spoke ...

On p. 323 of his report on the journey, Koesoernodiningrat wrote of inspecting the
trenches of the Holland Water Barrier, an old line of defence still in use then. Four pages
on he wrote of Madame Blavatsky. The delegates visited many businesses, like Wilton
shipyard and the Uerdam glass-works. P.M. Cochins. FTS, chaired its board of
directors. 1 Leftist weekly De Nieuwe Amsterdammer sneered that Labberton did nothing
useful in The Netherlands, 'apart from missing the [Indies] theosophical Easter
conference in Bandung. ,J

The Dutch Theosophical Society held its biannual meeting in Utrecht, on 22 April.
Labberton and Koesoernodiningrat were speakers; other Indie Weerbaar delegates also
attended. As theosophists entered the Arts and Sciences building, members of the anti-
miluarisi Religieus Socialistach Verbond handed (hem leaflets, wmten by A.J. Restnk
and Baartman These attacked 'Mr Van Hinloopen Labberton and the other theosophtsis
who are in the indie Weerbaar delegation,' The leaflets accused them of 'spiritual treason
against the Indies people by collaborating with conscription in the Indies.' The religious
socialists published their opposition elsewhere too.

Here, in Utrecht, they failed to convince (he TS meeting. First, General Secretary
Schuurman mentioned 'the great significance in occultism of the number seven\ now in
1917. He introduced the theme of the day. Annie Besant's article 'The Wider Outlook'
In it, she had insisted on applying thcosophy more in politics. Then. Brother, Prince, and
Major Koesoemodm'mcrat spoke, 'proving the spiritual basis of conscription in (he
Indies ' He named Ksjaitriyas, the Warrior caste. To rule them out would be the same
as iTa scientist were lo omit Tire from among the elements.' The prince mentioned Arjuna
who did his duty. He finished by calling for support for IW,

From the meeting came a call to support the Boy Scouts too. Then, Ubberton
counter-attacked the contents of the leaflet. He said (he au(hors of that Open Utter to the
delcgaies supported much too soon in history 'spiritually-only defence ... an approach for
which, if at all, only future races will be mature enough.' Indie Weerbaar

did not only aim u defence with cannons and money. Our Indies are a complex of the most
heierogeneous tribes, ihe last remnants of the Lemurian race. These should be made, under
Duich rule a uniiy. one people. ... We should no longer consider ihe Indies a conquered

'D.J. Struik, 'Enkele geesiessiromingen in de studentenwereld', DNT 1917, 264-71; 269,
G. Hamisen, 'Dirk Struik vooraan in de communistische jeugdbeweging', fi/V/i 36, Dec. 1994, 11-
28; 23.

! K0ES0EM0D1NWGRAT(1921), 169: 201. HARMSEN. 227. Cochius also was a Liberal
Catholic priest; T1CHELAAR(1977), 74.

] E., 'Indie Weerbaar', De Nieuwe Amsierdammer, 21-4-1917.

206

IV. 1

country, but a colony, and the Native for the lime being a younger brother. We should be his
guardian, until be comes of age. Along with other properties, in order to become mature he
must also develop his Ksattriya nature.

Tbeosophists believed in brotherhood, and 'Our Indies brothers deserve just as much
protection as our Dutch brothers.' Labberton finished, moving a vote of censure against
Resink and Baartman, and of confidence in himself and fW. This got 'very enthusiasi
applause' from the floor.'

On 28 April, in Artis zoo in Amsterdam, the delegates attended a banquet in their
honour, organized by General Van Heutsz. Most people present were big businessmen;
also (former) government ministers. 1 On 2 May, Koesoemodiningrat addressed the The
Hague TS lodge on 'Evolution'. Next weekend, again 'some hundreds of people', mainly
theosophists, went to Utrecht. This time, it was the Dutch congress of the Order of the
Star in the East. They had come for the Order's Indies representative, Labberton. and for
Aryo Koesoemodiningrat, also a member. The Hague daily Het Vaderland wrote: 'It is
very significant, that thus the two members of "Indie Weerbaar" are also members of the
Order of "The Star in the East".' Labbenon spoke on 'Meditation' at the afternoon
session, and again at the evening session, 1

Minister of Colonies Pleyte gave the Indie Weerbaar delegates their farewell dinner
in hotel De Witre Brug in The Hague on 2 June. Three days later, they departed for the
return-journey via the US' Van Hinloopen Labberton was positive about the immediate
results of the delegation, as the government had increased the military budget, had made
concessions on Socwardi Soerianingrat's exile from Indonesia, and more higher education
would come to the Indies. 5 Soewardi reacted ironically to Labbcrton's gratitude for this 6
Warna- Warta regretted that the fW delegates, 'especially Messrs van Hinloopen
Labberton and Abdoel Moeis' would now get the credit; while Douwes DekJcer of the

'LOC, 30-6-1917, *De Depuiatie: Indie Weerbaar ' VAN DER WILL!GEN(I917).

J LOC, 8-5-1917, 'De Indie Weerbaar dcputaiie.' LOC, 14-7-1917, 'Ecn nieuwe scne
wee rbaarheids rede voe r i ngen. ' Labberton said that 'The Netherlands should not let go of die Indies;
neither should the Indies let go of The Netherlands ' Noto Soeroto had been invited to hold a
speech, as he said, because he 'even in 1909 [in an article 'lava's weerbaarheid, Java's behoud'. in
the Indische Gids] advocated defense of the indies as a national interest. ... Long live the Queen!'
DJAJADlNINGRAT-NIEUWENHUiS, 48. Nolo Soeroto's militia ideas were 'probably being
influenced' by Mangkoe Negoro VII. This is possible: the two met in 1913 though, four years after
Noto Soeroto's article; so, maybe influence as an expansion of his earlier ideas,

J 77J 1917, 63. LOC, 25-7-1917, 2e blad: 'Congres van "De Ster in het Oosten'V From Het
Vaderland; of which H. Bore], FTS, jusi back from the Indies, was editor then.

4 KOESOEMODJN)NGRAT(1921), 381. LOC, 14-8-1917, 2e blad, 'Terugkeer der deputatie
"Indie Weerbaar".' They had to give up an earlier plan to go by way of Germany, Sweden and
Russia; IG, 1917 (39), 806. MRBTD.

5 VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N{1917), 393. Sec also his interview with Het Vaderland of
4 May 1917: quoted LOC, 7-5-1917, 'De Indie Weerbaar deputatie.'

'SOERJANINCRATfigie/l?), 224.

Social democrat and communism

207

Indische Parti} had asked for higher education much earlier on. l

Labberton thought the government's next step should be sending prominent politi-
cians and ex-officers (he named Van Daalen. Van Heutsz and Colijn*) to the Indies, to
implement conscription in practice.' Delegate Dwidjoscwojo was also sausfied: 'the
Crown's agreement with the opinion of the committee members became apparent when
Koesoemodiningrat, 'the delegation's oldest and noblest member', received an order of
knighthood; Officer of Oranje-Nassau with swords/ Tne daily Djawa Tengah wondered
'what the people, destined to be cannon-fodder, would get.'

N i I When he will come back to ihe Indies, thai Pangeran will point proudly to his adorned
chesi, (he result of his mission. But the people will cry: as he maybe expects a still greater
reward to head ihe kraton (ruler's palace] one day.

Sailing back home on the Rijndam did not go smoothly. Delega.e Rhemrev
quarrelled, especially with Abdoel Moeis.' After the literal slnpwreck near the Rock of

'0-6-1917. quoted IPO 23/1917, WCfi. 1-

! G C F. van Daalen Van Heutsz' successor as Aceh War commander, until a report on his
amount of violence against civilians came out. T*en, in 1908. Van Heutst dismissed him. though «
w« said thai Van Daalen had basically earned on his own policy. 1913-14 Lieutenant -Gen era I Van
Daalen was Indies army commander; VAN HEEKEREN. The two others were respectively of the
W .«« Vrije Ubcraten. and ihe Am-Re^iu^onmre Partij. Colijn, ex-officer under Van Heutsz
in Aceh was a director of .he Shell oil company, and la.er became prime minister. Lieutenant-
Colonel Kerkkamp spoke ,0 a Jakarta meeting of the WW. supporting AV. of 'conscription for al
Dutch .objects- Who would introduce ir? He expected no good from die present Dutch
government or parliament: What we need ,s a d i c . a . o t. someone who should do more than
what Lord Kitchener has managed in Australia.' That dictator should be 'ex-Govctnor-Gcncral Van
llemsz' IOC 28-0-1917, 'Uii Baiavia.' On Australia seep 213.

Wtaw w,th II,, Variant of 4 May 1917. quoted LOC, 7-5-1917. 'De Indie Weerbaar
deputatie" and IG, 1917 (39). 808, MRBTD. The governmenl sen! the lesser known General Van
Rietschoteti to Indonesia, his report finally did not lead io conscription.

'Quoted NAGA2UMKI972). 113. LOC, 14-8-1917, 2e blad, 'Terugkeer der deputatie "Indie
Weerbaar"" Plcy.e bestowed the order of knighthood at the farewell dinner in the name of tire
queen

5 6 6-1917 quoted IPO 23/1917, MCB, 5.

'Rhcm.cVs diehard colonialist views caused problems; TICHELMAN(1985>, 652-3. On board
the ship Rhemrev sa.d about natives' '.ha. they should be run through with bayonets. Rumour
had thai Moeis then had hit Rhemrev in response, LOC. 25-8-19.7. 'Terugkoms, verwach
deputatie "Indie Weerbaar".' Ibid., the Ba.avia correspondent of De Uxonm*} 'estimated that
me indie Weerbaar movement had already been completely discredited with the nat.ves. In an
interview Moeis said other delegates had prevented him and Rhemrev actually hi.trng one another.
When at the request of the passengers of the ship. Moeis gave a speech on Sareknt M«i and In&e
Weerbaar Rhemrev tried to make it inaudible by making noise. Moeis felt 'extremely bitter that
■someone with the same complexion as he [Rhemiev had Indonesian as well as .Dutch ancestors.
Moeis on the Rijndam: 'seven-eighths native blood'; 'Gestrand op de rotsen der verdeeldheid ,

208

IV. I

Gibraltar on the outward voyage, the Unites Stales press now headlined that the
delegation 'has split asunder on the rocks of dissent." The ISDV paper Soeara Merdika,
and other papers, reported that Moeis and Prince Koesoemodiningrat, too, disagreed; and
wondered whether it was personal or political Labberton denied these reports. 1

From New York, the delegates went west by train. For two weeks, they stayed at the
Theosophical Society Krotona centre, then in Hollywood. Koesoemodiningrat lectured
there on Islam. They met Warrington, the later TS vice president. 1

The San Francisco political police asked Van HinJoopen Labberton, who knew
Sanskrit and other Indian languages, to translate political pamphlets for them. Indians
sent those pamphlets from California to (he Dutch East Indies." Labberton sympathized

NRC, 7-9-1917; reprinted IC. 1917 (39). 1335). bom in the same country, had said such slighting
things on the people of the indies.' LOC, 28-8-1917, 'Een onderhoud met Abdoel Moeis.' 'Geslrand
op de rotsen der verdeeldheid'. 1335: Moeis accused Rhemrev of breaking his word of honour, 'to
recognize Van Hinloopen Labberton as leader in everything'; Rhemrev would face an fW court of
honour when he came back to Indonesia; see on this, and a f, 25 fine for insult for Labberton. also
Nermja 16-11-1918. 'Perkara Bcrloos'; IB-12-1918, 'Rhemrcv-Labberton'. Rhemrev in his repon
on the journey tried to sound more moderate, claiming that 'both Van Dcventer [leading 'ediical'
critic of old style colonialism; he was already dead] and he did not think the Javanese people were
mature enough yei for awarding them political rights.' LOC, 11-9-1917, le blad. 'Indie Weerbaar.'
TE1TLER(1980). 35: 'only he [Rhemrev] remained true to the spiril of the mission' by limiting
himself to defence. As we saw. Rhemrev did not do dial. As for other delegates also mentioning
non-military questions in a personal, or, say. 5/. capacity as they were in The Netherlands anyway.
AVhad expected thai would happen at least since its 23 July 1916 meeting: see p. 172. Rhemrev had
been present there, as Dwidjosewojo remarked to him in The Hague on 23 May 1917; VAN
HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N{19I6/17), 618. /G, 1916 (3S), 'Vergadenng Comiie indie Weerbaar',
1560: at the end of die meeting. Wand Chamber of Commerce president H. 's Jacob concluded (hat
delegates would also 'voice wishes, which arc not in (he motion'; he also wrote in [his vein in the
Java Bode: see ibid.. 1570.

'Quoted 'Gestrand op de rotsen der verdeeldheid'. NRC, 7-9-1917; reprinted !C, 1917 (39),
1332. The NRC San Francisco correspondent worried, ibid., 1333 that 'the committee had made
itself into die laughing-stock of the American press, and so of the American public, and that
American capital now will think twice before investing big amounts in a country' which was so
careless on defence.

2 ln two letters to LOC. 26-9-1917, le blad, 'Een protest', and 'De beweerde verdeeldheid in de
boezem van de deputatie Indie Weerbaar.' Van Hinloopen Labberton also denied press rumours that
Koesomodiningrat had designs on his brother's throne. SM, 25-9-1917. 86-7, 'M. M. M.', by
'Goblok'.

5 KOESOEMODINlNGRAT(1921). 447-54. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(I9I7). 396,
LOC, 2-7-1917. 2e blad: at the fndische Vereenigtng meeting in The Hague on 14 April,
Koesoemodiningrat 'promoted the Hindu-Buddhist doctrine'. See p. 199. Contrary to what ROE,
387, suggests, Warrington's Krotona Institute was not a split from Adyar, but a regular auxiliary
organization.

"VAN BERGEN. 52. mentions Indians living in East Sumatra [probably Deli] in this context.
D.P. SINGH(1974), 142f: the California Indians were the Hindustani Association of the Pacific
Coast, a.k.a. Ghadar Party, They had contacts with M.N. Roy {ibid., 241-2); later US communist

Social democracy and communism

209

with Mrs Bcsant's Home Rule action. He found that these leaflets, though, wei. in a
much more militant anti-British empire vein, 'very dangerous 1 , and advised the Dutch
Indies government lo ban them. It acted according to the advice. 1

The journey continued to Japan and China, On 25 August 1917, the ship with the
Indie Weerbaar delegates arrived back in the harbour of Jakarta. Koesoeroodiningrat's
brother. Pakoe Boewono X, had come to meet him. 1

The prince worked on at his Lampapihoen Kangdjeng Pangiran Arja
Koesoemodiningrat ngideri bhoewana [Journey around the world by His Highness, Prince
Koesoemodiningrat]. The government publishers Volksleauur brought out this account of
the IW mission jointly with the TS printer in 1921. The over 600 pages of Javanese
calligraphy-like script and photographs cost three guilders eighty cents. In 1922. readers
of the Javanese People's Libraries borrowed it about 5700 times; rather frequently, J

9. Towards the end of conscription, 1917-1918

While the delegation was away. Indie Weerbaar supporters decided to form an association
or dues-paying members, different from the earlier committee. Delegates Moeis.
Rhemrev, and Van Hinloopen Labberton were present at the association's founding
meeting, shortly after their return. Labberton thought some founders of the association
might have intrigued behind his back, against his leadership and against Indonesians'
participation. Chairman Pop's emotional denial reassured him, though. 4

The new association was for every supporter of (he trinity: Orange [royal dynasty].
The Netherlands, the Indies." Within it, 'One can be Protestant, Roman Catholic, modern

Agnes Smedlcy (ibid , 172); E Douwcs Dekker. and. according io the police, wiih German spies.
Ilnd.. 144 quoted its ideas as an -incongruous mixture of llnsli| Sinn fan, Marfan socialism, and
Ma^ini ' Ibid.. 170' on 7 April 1917, one day after the US became a war ally of Britain. San
Francisco police arrested Chadar leaders. Sec also 'Een brief van Dr Douwes Dekker aan den
Vo)ksraad',/G. 1919 (41), 891-4.

l LOC. 8-9-1917, 2e blad, 'Verkccrd begrepen.' The San Francisco correspondent of (he
Locomonef expected that the US government would ask Van Hinloopen to be an expert witness in
the court case against the California Indians. See also LOC. 11-9-1917, 'Amerikaansche Brief,'

*LOC. 29-8-1917, 'De soenan op reis.'

J R. Kami!, 'Verslag van de Javaansche Volksbibiiotheck over het jaar 1922', 29; in IPO 1,
1924.

'LOC. 1-9-1917. 'Oprichting Vereeniging Indie Weerbaar': 'Mr Van Labberton affirms this has
reassured him [Dutch: hierdoor bevreedigd le vjn\: The association decided not to elect Rhemrev to
its executive, contrary to the 1916 Committee, and to plans from before the incident on the sea-
voyage back. Later, both Rhemrev and the Sulawesi member of the delegation. Laoh. still joined the
executive Rhemrev said the original Committee had been 'purely militarist', while in the later
Association 'economic able-bodiedness' was also important. OVTW. 1918, 3, 19-21, 'Indie Weerbaar
week der afdeeling Soemedang.' SCHOUTEN. 177 calls 31 Aug. 1916 a 'members' general
meeting'; but there still were no IW dues-paying members then.

210

IV. I

or theosophist; one may follow Mohammed or Buddha ...'' Labberton wrote articles for
conscription, and addressed Theosophical Society meetings on it. 1

Opposition had also continued while the delegation travelled around the world. On 23
March 1917, the daily Penimbangar? published a cartoon of a group of Indonesian
draftees and their Dutch drill sergeant passing a chained watch-dog. Its caption was:
'This dog has to guard his master's property, without getting any rights in return. Will
the Indigenous people be ordered to guard this colony in the same way?'

On 25 June in the iSDV paper Soeara Merdika, editor Notowidjojo attacked the
slogan in delegate Moeis' daily 'Leve Groot-Nederland en zijn Volk [Long live the
Greater Netherlands and their people]!'* And 'Goblok' [pseudonym; 'Blockhead') wrote
as he had done before, 'that the real people of Indonesia [sedjatinja rajat Hindia] do not
like to be made to be soldiers,' 3

A month later, 'Goblok' mentioned Annie Besant's recent internment in Soeara
Merdiko. He called her a 'heroine', 'really brave'. 4 AD people in Indonesia 'should see
her bravery as an example'. In his concluding paragraph, 'Goblok' noted a contrast:

Another aspeel: if we speak of Theosophy's leader in (he Dutch East Indies. Mr Labberton. (hen
he wants our country (o be married off io The Netherlands, he chose (he Government side in (he
Indie Wecrbaar affair, he compared Indonesians [anak Hindia] (o domestic buffaloes. So, a very
big difference exists between this gentleman and Mrs Bcsant in British India. Is this iheosophy
really a sham? Only God knows.'

Goblok also criticized the 26 June issue of the new daily Neratja; 'a government
paper', he had already written earlier,* That paper (with prominent theosophist editors)
had headlined: 'People's representatives in Vie Netherlands.' 'However, that item was
about the Indie Wecrbaar committee. We know very well that this 'committee' are no
representatives of the people, as ail the Indies people did not elect them, ... Next time.

OVTW. 1918, I, 9-10: T. Oltolander, 'Eenzijdighcid? Neen 1 ' it was that magazine's first issue.

'VAN H1NLGOPEN LABBERT0N(!917A). LOC, 4-9-1917, 1e blad, partly reprinted (his
from theTS monthly. 'Darah Hindia' wrote in tvW, #215. 1918, against a pro/lV iiem in TMNI by
Labberton. translated from Dutch in Neratja: tW 'only works in (he interests of the Government and
the capitalists.'

'Quoted IPO 12/1917. MCB, 6.

■"Notowidjojo. 'Quo vadis domino', SM, 25-6-1917, 33-4. In his article 'Kaoem moeda djadi
pahlawannja kaoem oewang', SM, 10-7-1917, Notowidjojo's slogan was, 'Death to imperialism'.
See also KOT, 1917, 'Persoverzicht*. 1495-6. Kaoem Moeda (hought the Indies soon would become
the 'legal wife' of The Nedierlands, instead of the 'concubine' like earlier on.

J 'X.',SM, 25-6-1917, 36-7.

6 Also SEMAOEN0917), 68. praised Besant, though 'ex-socialist', for her love and work for

India.

'Goblok, 'M. M.', SM, 25-7-1917, 53.
*5M, 25-6-1917, 36, 'U.'

Social democracy and communism

211

[act] 'more democratically', Neratja!' 1

Sneevlict in Hei Vrije Woord, also of 25 July, wrote against conscription supporters.
To him, they 'dreamt of compulsory soldiering instead of compulsory schooling
['weerplicht in plaats van leerplicht'], of fortresses instead of schools, of barracks instead
of good housing, of militarism instead of democracy'. 1

Soeara Merdika three weeks later quoted Raden Mas Noto Soeroto, who said that
military defence went hand in hand with a stronger economy and spiritual strength.
Goblok commented:

1 am someone who is still inexperienced in matters like an able-bodied economy and spiritual
strength in the Indies. As for the IW slogans to shoot people, I disagree: as I really love
people. I am pro human. I will not follow the Indie' Wecrbaar organization.
War would 'leave wives and children on their own.' 3 Proving also pan of Budi
Utomo* had anti/VV ideas. Djojowinolo from Semarang wrote in SM of 10 September:

As people know, an organization has arisen. Indie Weerbaar. which asks us, workers, (o join.
This Indie Weerbaar is a school, teaching how to shoot to kill in the name of THE LORD. And
people like us are forced to make peace with the capitalists [kaoem wang; 'money people'!,
while the capitalists want lo keep on sitting nicely in their rocking-chairs. Finding food is hard
for us workers, we cannot go (o school, our bodies arc too thin ro learn how lo shoot to kill.

In 1917, the social democrat Mendels mentioned theosophy unfavourably in Dutch
parliament. He appealed to die Minister of Colonies, as Indies official C.J.I.M. Welter 6
had dismissed socialist Baars from his technical school leaching job on 23 October,
because of opposition to Van Hinloopen Labberton's IW campaign. A. Vrecde,' PTS, ex-
tW executive member, and colonial government Secretary, signed the official dismissal. 6
Baars had stated his opposition in a debate, on 12 September 1917 in the 1'anti Harsojo

'Goblok, 'L. L.\ SM. 25-7-1917, 53,
'Quoted TICUGLMAN<1985). 606.

3 Goblok, 'O. O,', SM. 10-8-1917, 62. The Noto Socroio quote was from Neratja of 31 July.
i Koemattdang Djawi 17-12-1917. quoted IPO 51/1917, JS. on 5 Dec. 1917, Djojowinolo
chaired a meeting, founding a BU branch in Pekalongan,

s Djojowinoto, 'Toeroel memberi djawaban', SM, 10-9-19)7, 74-5-

6 T1CHELMAN(1985), 680-1. Welter became Minister of Colonies 1925-6 and 1937-41.

7 Baars. 'Naiionalisme in Briisch- Indie. (Slot)*; HVW, 10-9-1917, 224 had criticized Vreede:
'Mr VREEDE, as a theosophical-ethical Dutclunan, who thinks only of the Dutch interest to keep the
Indies'.

e HVW, 10-1 1-1917, 25: decision on 20-10-1917. De Took magazine wrote on it: 'We think, as is
well known, that the viewpoint of Mr Baars on the pro-conscription activity is certainly
reprehensible.' But the magazine thought that, so far, the government had not given enough
information to justify the dismissal, LOC, 8-11-1917, le blad: 'Het onts lag-Baa rs. '

212

fW.l

building in Surabaya. 1 Abdoel Moeis had opposed him there. Moeis, according to
Mendels, 1 was

under Che aegis of the theosophkaJ imperialist 5 Van Hinloopen Labberton, and
wanted to hoodwink the natives into support for the Indies Army. 4

A Sarekat islam member from Surabaya, Oemar Sikoei Tjokromenggolo, thought
'Kromo does cot want to become a soldier, as he still is a 'slave', not a free citizen'.
Instead of spending money oa a miiiiia, one should 'fight the many diseases which
already have cost thousands of lives. ' Tjokromenggolo criticized theosophical influence
in his organization. The executive majority at Blitar, voting for Indie Weerbaar, had had
no mandate from their branches.

The executive will probably reply thai they surely have been up high in the sky, as Abdoel
Moeis has flown in The Netherlands [at Socsterberg air-base], and that it needs mysticism as an

LOC, 1 1-9-1917, 2e blad, 'Indie Weerbaar', had announced it not as a debate, but as 'Messrs
Labbenon and Abdoel Moeis will speak on Indie Weerbaar.' The two principal accounts of (he
debale were by Raden Sosrokardono (pro-Moeis) in Oeioesan Hi/idia, 14/17-9-1917;
TICHELMAN(1985), 636-56. and by Baars in HVW, 25-9-1917, 231-2; TICHELMAN(1985), 658-
61 . See also 'Sarikal- Islam contra 1SDV", LOC, 11-9-1917; based on the Nieuwe Soerabaiaasclte
Couram. Baars had expected from the invitation thai Labbenon would oppose him as well in the
debate; T1CH ELM AN( 1985), 658. He did not speak, however, for which illness was given as. a
cause; TICHELMAN0985), 639. According to LOC. 1 1-9-1917, Labbenon had suddenly become
ill when staying al the Krebcl sugar plant in Malang. Moeis accused the social democrats of accusing
Labberton of being a 'traitor and madman'; T1CH ELM AN( 1985). 641, Tj ok roam i nolo briefly spoke
in support of Moeis, TICHELMAN(1985), 50; 638; Moeis and Labberton had had to pressure
Tjokroaminolo into participating.

According to H. Sneevhet, 'De Heer Abdoel Moeis Volksieider', HVW, 10-10-1917, 1: 'hitle
leaders of the ABDOEL MOEIS brand, tools of the V,[AN] HEUTSZES and HINLOOPEN
LAB8ERTONS, little lackeys of (he Dominator!' Sneevliet, also in October, on Moeis; one of 'the
satellites of this philanthropic prophet [Labberton]'. SCHWlDDERmCHELMAN, 264.

'VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1910). 168: 'An imperialist endeavour like this [in the
Dutch East Indies) can be necessary at a given time as an involuntary expression of respective
balance of power.' For his views on Van Heulsz. see p, 202.

^Quoted IDEMA, 367. Earlier that year, relations between SDAP and Indies theosophists had
proved to be not completely antagonistic: TMNK 1917, 377-8. reprinted some non-political naiure
poems from a book by socialist poet C.S. Adama van Scheltcma. KIEWIET DE JONGE(19)7B),
53, saw a movement away from 'one-sided historical materialism' among social democrats like
Cunow [SPD right winger] and Hyndman and Belfort-Bax from England, which bode well for
reconciliation with idealist philosophy. Ibid.. 82, he also praised Troelstra voting for the 1914
military budget, emotionally moved by the beginning of the world war, declaring that 'The national
iaea now predominates over the conflicts within the nation.' Kiewiet de longe commented on the
nation: 'a unity, deeper than all diversity in economic striving.' SNEEVLIET(19)6E) in an anti-
TS polemic had named Ben 'Tillet'[0 as example of a rightist pro-war social democrat, without
mentioning (and knowing of?) Tillen's TS membership.

Social democracy and communism

213

inner basis (dasar batin) of the S.l. ... As within the S.I. executive theosophy. which is
incompatible with Islam, gains ground; so, one may consider it as its enemy, ... R.
Djojosocdiro, Hadji August [sic] Sal'im. and Abdoel Moeis 1 are theosophists. They also head
'Neratja', a Government-subsidized paper, of which the tendency is to silence Kromo.
Moreover, the S.l. executive members R.M. Soerjopranoto and S. Soerjokoesoemo are
theosophists; the latter even is a half-Christian.

The transport workers union met on 23 September, in Deca Park in Jakarta. Roughly
400 members, of whom 'about fifty Europeans', were present. Chairman H.W. Dekker
discussed fast rising prices;

In speeches, Messrs Van Heulsz and Colijn have pointed out the need to make the Indies able to
defend themselves [in Dutch: Indie Weerbaar, spelt like the committee]. And they say, that one
needs 275 millions of guilders for this; yes, ihey say. the Indies are rich enough, and can pay
that themselves!
Yet, he noted that the Indies government did not want to give a much smaller amount

to the workers of the railways that it owned, to compensate for inflation '

Australians voted down conscription in 1917, to the disappointment of the Dutch [last

Indies TS monthly It saw that vote as a bad precedent for Indonesia, Editor Van

Leeuwen continued on die social function of conscription:

How difficult it still is for many people to understand (hat a nation cannot grow, cannot become
an economic stale, without the painful coercion or duty and necessity, righting and militarism
are still nearly always seen as the devils in our lives, which we should shirk away from and
avoid as much as possible, as it is overlooked how inside every "devil" a "deva" hides, who is
able to bring us up towards the Light. Pain is the great Initiator. Coercion and fate arc the
educators of a still infant race [Indonesians] towards a conscious idea of nationality and a high
feeling of duty."

In Wama- Wana, 'Jc Patriot' [pseudonyml attacked the TS, He called Labberton

'] found no confirmation elsewhere of Moeis' TS membership, though his pohucs were close to
it The pamphlet (see p. 205) mentioning 'other theosophists' besides Labbenon (and
Koesoemodiningral] may be a pointer. So may 773 mentioning some more Javanese members' (see
p 180); if ihe author either did not know Java from Sumatra; or if he thought Moeis, then living in
Java, 'Javanese' in a wide sense.

! 1W #295, 1917, quoted IPO 52H917, MCB. 2 Iff. It is improbable that Soetatmo
Soeriokoesoemo, diough in Adhi Dhanna, was an SI member then; maybe in earlier times when he
also had been in the tPl 'Half-Christian' may allude to his Order of the Star in the East membership.

''De ledenvergadering der VSTP', LOC. 26-9-1917. le blad.

J VAN LEEUWEN(I917A}. 438. In the same year, fellow theosophist Kiewiet de Jonge came to
a similar conclusion from economics and vitalist philosophy: 'The defense budget enables the nation
to continue safely its exchange, and, if necessary, to carry through forcefully the regulations which
this primary urge of life needs. So they are, one might say, overhead expenses; one cannot show
their fruitfulness immediately, but without them the national production of material as well as
spiritual values could not proceed undisturbed.' KIEWIET DE JONGE(1917B), 92.

214

N.I

Social democracy and communism

215

'Beton' [Malay: concrete], 'the false prophet of iheosophy-tai sapi' (ox dungl and 'a
poison to society.' 'Je Patriot' also included in his article Labberton's 'accomplice R,
Djojosoediro and his brother R. Sadarsan."

Just after Russia's 'October', Sneevliet had to stand trial for an article supporting its
February revolution, and saying Indonesia might leara from it. A clause in it against
IndiS Weerbaar was part of the indictment. In his defence speech, he analysed
Indonesia's society, especially conflicts between peasants and big sugar business. He
counterpoised his views to those of Van Hinloopen Labberton, 'the theosophical Sage', 1
as the sugar business employers' league had published them:

All that has happened here during the later years of Dutch rule has as its aim to further the

development of capitalism. Thai, (hough, indirectly is in the people's interest too, the reformers

of (he Labberton ilk, who have enlarged so much on (he blessings of the sugax plantations for the

people, shout unanimously.

That view, Sneevliet said, was one of 'demagogues with both factual and financial
interests,''

Abdoel Moeis bad described Russia as 'people slitting their throats mutually for no
reason.' 1 The ISDV though, supported the October revolution.

A break occurred between ISDV moderates and militants in the fall of 1917. Unlike
an earlier break in The Netherlands, the moderates were a minority, especially so among
Indonesian members. The ISDV majority gradually became communist.

The right wing social democrats called themselves Batavia [Jakarta] section of the
[Dutch] SDAP at first; since 8 June 1919 Indische Sociaal-Democralische Partij? Views
on Indie Weerbaar had certainly nof caused the break.* When on 3 November 1917, the
Batavia SDAP brought out the first issue of its paper, Hei Indische Volk [the Indies

'6-12-1917, quoted IPO 50/1917, MCB. 1,

^CHWIDDER/TICHELMAN. 264. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1908), 31: the sugar
business 'brings a gigantic financial boon to the Native people'. VAN H1NLOOPEN
LABBERT0N<19I4), A: 'Many agricultural companies, especially in Java, make grea( profits in
which the natives have a share.'

3 Dutch: 'belanghebbende en belangstellende demagogen,' SCHWIDDERjTICHELMAN, 211,
VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON (1908). 1: 'Also after 1 concentrated my work on oiher fields, I
kept feeling interested in this [sugar) industry.'

"in a debate againsi Baars: quoted HVW, 20-12-1917, 76. Also Moeis in Neraija 26-12-1917.
quoted IPO 52/1917, MJB: Baars talked of Indie Weerbaar turning people inio cannon-fodder, while
the Russian revolution was far worse. INGLESON(l975). 4's description of Moeis as 'PKI leader' is
wrong.

S /G, 1919(41), 1)73: 'Jaarvergadering Indische SDAP.' Contrary to NOER, 110 that was not
the [Protestant] Anti-Revolutionaire Partij.

s Just before the break, in September 1917, the then still Batavia ISDV section planned an anti-
Indie Weerbaar meeting, jointiy with Insulinde and Sarekat Islam. LOC, 7-9-1917, le blad, 'Anti-
weerbaarheidsmceting'; TICHELMAN(1985), 626. Ibid,. 662: the public meeting did not go ahead,
as Insulinde and 5/ also wanteds speaker from the Batavia ISDV section; and it could not find one.

People], they sarcastically recalled Snecvliet's proposal of two and a half years earlier to
the theosophists' general secretary :

Also (he scout-master' with many followers: Hinloopen Labberton, the ultimate apostle of
conscription and killer of socialist, yes, especially Labberton- was asked, for (he sake of puri(y
of Marxist food, to have his voice sound from (he columns of the Indies first red paper.

In its second issue, JV assured its readers thai it had 'the same views as the
organizations Insulinde and the ISDV against Indie Weerbaar. Il continued, referring to
Labberton tbough not by name;

We deeply regret that in (hese terrible limes, even so-called apostles of peace try to make the
country share in (he crazy, all-annihilating arms race.

Behind /Ws official propaganda were its capitalist, real aims: 'unhindered ownership of
(he sugar processing plants and tobacco fields, the coffee and tea enterprises." 1

Minister of Colonies Pleytc said that the FID, (he political intelligence police, did no!
impede meetings. He! Indische Volk reacted sarcastically: obviously Pleytc thought ami-
IW meetings 'were not worthy of the name of meeting,' If they had counted as meetings,
and Had gone ahead, then 'the propaganda of Messrs Van Hinloopen Labberton and their
supporters would have been greatly harmed.' 5

'A convert' reported for Hei Vrije Woord on the speakers at the April 1918 Indies TS
conference. Government Secretary A. Vrecde said:

The Westerner is the elder brother, he should provide leadership The Theosophisl does not
practice party politics, that would lead lo self-destruction. Just look at Russia. 'Proletarians of
all countries, unite' is brotherhood; but class struggle makes ii into the very opposite of broihci-
liood.

'Labberton was picsent when Countess van Liniburg Stirum-van Sminia, (he governor-general's
wife inaugurated the executive of ihe Dutch Easi indies Boy Scouts. IOC. 6-9-1917, 'Indische
padvinders ' A. Meijroos, PTS, led the Indies scouts; 'Ardjoenascholen', TMN1 1927, 44, The
Bandung Scouts headquarters was in the local TS building; J. A. 8., 'Bandoeng-Loge', TMNI 1923,
Ig3 In HVW. 4-1-1919. 'Padvindmj', 'Aroen' [J. Slam} criticized counter-revolutionary politics in
(he scout movement. Countess van Umburg Slirum, to celebrate the failure of Troclstra's attempt at
revolution in The Netherlands, 'invited (he scouts to shout out three cheers of 'hoezee' [hurrah) in
honour of the Queen and the person who gave (he scouts their flag, PRINCE [Consort] HENDR1K '

2 tV. 3-11-1917: Oproerige Krabbel.' As a supplement, the issue had a cartoon poster againsi
IW by Dutch social democrat caricaturist Albert Hahn.

y !V, 10-1 1-1917, 'De Indie Weerbaar bewegingen wij.'

*IV, 10-11-1917, 'Gemengd: Indie Weerbaar,'

'Quoted 10 19)8 (40), 868-9, MRBTD. PID chief Captain Muurling was one of (he founders of
the Indie Weerbaar association. LOC. 1-1-1917, K0ES0EM0DIN1NGRAT(1921). 546.

21S

IV. 1

'A convert' commented:

Younger brothers, who are exploited on a giant scale by the elder brothers. He should

understand that really is the cause (Karma).

The Vrije Woord reporter continued with a question on south-east Sumatra. There, a
peasant uprising against government-imposed unpaid labour had been bloodily defeated.
Non-rebel peasants had also been killed. What did Vreede think of the

dismaying reports, thai in the Jambi region the elder brothers accidentally have hanged the
younger Jambi brothers by neck? Where have you entered a protest against the untenable
situation imo which the younger brothers have come? Briefly, you sneeringly point to self-
destruction in the present Russian situation. Of course, that suits the Theosophists' purpose. In
Russia, they turn private property into common property; and about that, Theosophists prefer
to talk only in their next reincarnation. ... [They do want] improvement, but only such
improvement as does not hinder sacred property. Your makeshifts only aim to alleviate
somewhat the consequences which capilalism (the cause) crcares, 10 keep the people well
behaved like children.

Het Vrije Woord considered Van Hinloopen Labberton's conference speech
'demagogic cant'. 'A convert' concluded:

Tor no*', Icritieism of preseni society) is too dangerous, and Theosophists will not hinder

Capital in ihe slightest way. as it celebrates its triumphs by exploitation and oppression Thai

was (he message which (he Theosophical congress gave out. to the salvation of humanity.'

In June 1918 local elections in Jakarta, a coalition of Insutinde and social democrats

opposed Fournicr, FfS, and his fellow Nederlandsch-Indische Vrijiinnige iiond

candidates. Het Jndische Volk vowed that it would 'fight them strongly, both by speech

and by pen.' 1 it saw the bourgeois election machine as a 'Holy Alliance' between 'the

[Christian) cross, the {theosophisl} swastika, and the [masonic] triangle', with as its

'Aim: to bar the autochthonous people from the local council.' 3 Foumier personally they

called 'theosophist and engineer', whom (he NIVB thought would raise the 'fallen little

liberal jade' back on its feel. But to achieve this 'he, as a rule, is too much on higher

planes. ""

'EEN 8EKEERDE.
! /V, 18-6-1918.

J /V, 22-6-1918: Telegram. Kruis, Swastika en driehoek.'

*FV, 18-6-1918, 'Fallen little liberal jade': in 1917, liberals had lost their majoricy in Jakarta
city council because of the Petodjo housing scandal, A pro-/V/VB leaflet said thai Batavia SDAP and
Insutinde candidates wanted to 'raise The Revolutionary I, P. flag instead of The [Dutch]
Tricolour Flag!!!' IV, 20-7-1918. IP: see p. 301.

Social democracy and communism

l\l

Jakarta T$ headquarters; TMN1 !9Zl 234

On 4 September 1918, Sinar Hindia
published a criticism of the TS by
'Anarchist'. He wrote of Van
Hinloopen Labberton, the 'world
teacher' or 'Imam Mahdt' '(sic.
Anarchist)'. His TS wanted to build a
big new headquarters in Jakarta, a
central building with four big and four
smaller buildings around it. That square
got Blavatsky Park as its name. The
Amsterdam monthly Vieosophia wrote
it was 'on the west side of the
Koningsplein. the most fashionable and
for our purpose most suitable
neighbourhood of Java's capital.' Bet Nkuws W1 den Dog had protested against calling a
bi* square after a 'fraud'. According to 'Anarchist' that great one of theosophy (Mme
Blavatsky)' at her headquarters 'had been called a fraud by two professors'. What, then,
should one think of Indonesians 'who have been fooled by this theosophy"? Theosophy
did out really include alt religions, as it claimed. Muslims would trust Labherton more ,f
he would go on had) to Mecca. 'Anarchist'

could imagm* vividly, (ha. after all the criticism by He. Nieuws van den Dag die theosophists
si , together, medi.aung silently, in order (o wa,. for the advice from the Mahauna from The..
I ook out Nfcuws van den Dag. be prepared for the a.tack by the as.ral body of the Maha.ma
itam Tibet' A waeher lUbberton] who still hopes to get rich, and s.rives to become chairman
of the Volksrwtl, the Javanese call someone hkc that: panditamng an.doe [htcralh : teacher of
^meku, music wnhout lyrics, of 'tra-la-la', of no ctmtttul and, according io re.ncarnalton
doctrine, after lus death he will turn imo a pretjil (young frog).

Marx.sts in Indonesia did not like theosophists' links to institutions such as borstals.
1-1 W Dekker described the opening of one in an article with the sarcastic tttle Een
Ittlaas noodigc stap van hooge socale bcteekems (An unfortunately necessary s«P of high
social significance!'. He called the borstal 'that creature of darkness . quoting I9ih
century liberal poiit.cian Thorbecke. 2 At the official opening, 'All the author.ttes were a.
that evil place. Director of Justice Department, priests, lord mayor, theosophists ... and
other mainstays and preservers of the so-called social (dis)order" .>

> SHt 179i 4-9-1918. quoted IPO 36/1918, MB, 29-30. THA June 1922, 95.
; PASSEUR(1995), 181.
3 flvW, 20-9-1918.

218

rv.i

This had to do wiih Annie Besant's ideas on crime, which ihe Indies TS translated
into Dutch. Besant criticized the policy of punishing individual criminal acts as acts. To
her, the question was not even individuals who are criminal persons; it was a criminal
'underclass'. For reasons which she derived from reincarnation doctrine, that class
should, as a class, be subject from very early on in their lives, from before they commit
any crimes, to a type of benign state serfdom. 1 Kiewiet de Jonge, then of the Indies TS,
favoured measures similar to Besant's; against long-term unemployed. 1

'' Reincarnation, applied to the treatment of criminals and of the undeveloped class which is
ever on the verge of crime, suggests a policy wholly different from that of our present Society,
which gives them complete liberty to do as they like, punishes them when they commit a legal
offence, restores them to liberty after a varying term of gaol ... In the ligh< of Reincarnation I
suggest that the congenital criminal is a savage, come to us as a school, and that it is our business
to treat him as the intellectual and moral baby which he is, and to restrain the wild beast in him
from doing harm. These people, and the almost criminal class above them, are recognisable from
binh, and they should be segregated in small special schools, given such elementary education as
they can assimilate, be treated kindly and firmly, have many games, and be taught a rough form of
manual labour. The teachers in these schools should be volunteers from the higher social classes
... From these schools they should be drafted into small colonies, bright, pleasant villages ... ruled
by men of the same type as before; they should have everything to make life pleasant, except
freedom to make it mischievous and miserable; these colonies would supply gangs or labourers for
all the rougher kinds of work, mining, road-making, porterage, scavengering, etc , leaving the
decent people now employed in these free for higher tasks. Some, the true congenital criminal, the
raw savage, would remain under this kindly restraint for life, but they would go out of life (and.
later, on into (he next] far less of savages than they were when they came into it ... The chief
difficulties would be innaie rowdyism and idleness, for the criminal is a loafer, incapable of steady
industry. The school would do something to improve him ... "he that will not work neither shall
he eat" is a sound maxim, for food is made by work, and he who, being able, refuses to make it
has no claim (o it." BESANT(19!2A), 78-9; also nearly identically BESANT<1920D), HOf. Ali.
TMNl, 1918, 293: criminals 'are ignorant child-souls, dangerous because they live in strong bodies
and look like humans, though they lack the higher human characterises' BESANT(1912A), 60.
'The criminal, the lowest and vilest, (he poorest, foulest specimen of our race, is only a baby-soul,
coming into a savage body, and thrown into a civilisation for which he is unfit if left to follow his
own instincts, but which will provide for him a field of rapid evolution if his elders take him in
hand and guide him firmly and gendy. He is now at the stage at which (he average commonplace
men were standing a million or so years ago, and he will evolve in the future as they have evolved
in the past.' To her. crime did not only have a link to the 'criminal class' category, but also to the
'racial' category of 'savages'; see the above quotes, and ibid., 58-9: Put without metaphor: a
human Spirit, a germinal life, enters die babe of a savage; he has scarcely any intelligence, no
moral sense; he lives there for some forty or fifty years, dominated by desires, robs, murders,
finally is murdered.' On the link of class and 'race', see p. 121 f. At that time. Professor
Lombroso, a regular listener to AB's speeches when she was in Italy, propagated the idea of an
easily identifiable 'criminal class', with more ideological than factual arguments.

KIEWIET DE JONGE{1917B), 145: 'The unemployment question though, appears at its most
difficult with those popular classes who are not skilled in regular labour, and only get absorbed
into the world of employment if there is a strong upsurge in the streams of circulation. In this.

Social democracy and communism

2!9

Five weeks later, Het Vrije Woord accused two Dutch officials, both Theosophical
Society members. It wrote that Coturoieur Hamerster 1 had sexually harassed a village
headman's sister, near Martapura in southern Borneo [Kalimantan], Her brother,
Senoessi, then made a failed attempt on Hametster's life.

Hamerster got together with his military assistant, 'Captain Christoffel, the welJ-
known 'woudlooper [bushranger]', now a theosophist and hunter after commercial
claims'. Martapura was an important area for finding diamonds in 1918. Swiss-bom
Captain Christoffel 'had an important pan in the oppression of resistance in the 'outer
provinces' [outside Java] to Dutch 'pacification'.' 2 It is said he became Annie Besant's
secretary. He certainly had defended her policy on the world war in Tlte Theosophist.
with Van Hinloopen Labberton's approval. 3

Christoffel and Hamerster tracked down Headman Senoessi and shot him dead,
'Authority, Dutch Authority, has been maintained once again.' And no one saw the
sister's tears over 'the murdered hero, who was her brother and loved her." 1 Neratja also

especially (he stale itself, advised by both central institutions [state regulated: a banking league,
and a trade and professional union, which he proposed ibid,. 143], should act, and strongly so. The
community should not (real these elements, unable to maintain themselves in intercourse by social
degeneration, as outcusies. but as weaklings That is its duly rather than out of rational
understanding, out of necessity to keep the race as slrong as possible and to exterminate all seats of
social infection. . . These social weaklings should be projected againsf themselves by (he regulation
that every one who docs noi earn a minimum wage and docs not have other income jfrom shares
etc.] is stationed in the army or in a borstal. One should ihink here of a kind of Elmira [prison of
N Y. siatc. TMNI 1913. 479| system, not considered as a punishment. ... An argument against
this, which would speak of unassailable liberty of (he individual, would be a bogus slogan in this
context'

'Then, two Hatnerstcrs were mtttroli'itr, M. and A.J. M. Hamerster throughout 1917 and 1918
was an 'official on leave'; so, presumably in The Netherlands. A.J Hamerster. formerly of the
Government Financial Affairs bureau, and laier the TS treasurer in Adyar, in (hose years was
'official of the Outer [outside Java] Islands administration', he had already had leave in The
Netherlands in 1915. So, very probably. Hei I 'rye Waord meant him. N.A. de Haan was the
regular controteur of Martapura in I91S: RAM, 1918 and 1919. NUGRAHA(I989), 245,

'SCHWIDDERnriCHELMAN, 387. Snccvliet named him in his defense speech as example,
with Van Heu^, of oppression. Christoffel fought with merciless severity' in Aceh, where
'kapitan rimoeeng' (tiger captain) was his nickname; EN!, I, 89: 11, 313; Sulawesi, and Flores;
ENS, I. 718; II. 473, In 1907. he killed the last Si Singa Mangaradja prince of the Batak region;
ibid,, 1, 179. Diamonds: KVon 1919 (1920), 68.

^CHOUTEN, 111; on 1917; unconfirmed elsewhere. AB had many secretaries. VAN
HINLOOPEN LABBERTON{19i6E). 148-9. CHRJSTOEFELU9I6), written against Dutch
Commonweal editor/acting Adyar librarian Van Manen, who clashed with AB's and -neutral ism;
R1CHARDUS, 29; not with Indian Home Rule, as NETHERCOT(1963), 232 suggests.

"C.C, v. D, 'Uit Duistere Streken', HVW, 9-11-1918, 47; based partly on Soerabaiasch
Handelsblad of 24-10-1918. In the same region. Christoffel had killed the pretender to the throne
of the Banjarmasin sultanate in 1905; ENI, I, 136.

220

IV. I

reported; spelling Sanoesi, and not mentioning 'toean controleur"s name or theosophy, 1
Anyway, the case did not hinder A.J. Hamerster's career. He was promoted to assisient
resident on 29 April 1910}

Labberton reacted to government plans on conscription law. He differentiated
according to caste on who might object:

We ourselves in general do not condone objection to military service and inciting to it. ... The
Ksattriya should risk his life in bis country's service, and in protection of his kith and kin. Bui
he, whose soul speaks against shedding biood, the Braahmana [sic] soul, wherever he was bom
[so not just in India), he should not be troubled by soldiering, in play or in earnest. 1

Composer F. Belloni wrote an Indii Weerbaar march. On the queen's birthday, the
fW association organized soccer matches for 'natives'; and a day later, for 'Europeans','"
A plane at their military air-show crashed, injuring the pilot.

The smi-Indie Weerbaar campaign also continued 1 . Social democrats saw its IW
acronym as 'Idioten Werk', the work of idiots' On 31 August 1918, Het Indische Voik
announced a big anti -conscription meeting in Jakarta, organized jointly by Batavia SDAP,
Insulinde, and Sarekai islam.

The manifesto for the meeting called the draftee contract a

military coolie contract, more cunning in its tendency than the worst contract ilui ever was
invented in Deli. The people in Indie Weerbaar will drink champagne to your loyally. .. They
want to make you rich. That is why they rob you. Who among you is so stupid !hai he docs nol
know thai the tiger's velvet paw has murderous claws? Let (hal fat-head adorn himself wiih red,
while and blue (of Ihe Dutch flag), like an ok which goes to the slaughterhouse. 7

Chrisloffel madjoe lagi', Neratja 24-10-1918: 'Kapiicin Chrisloffel di-Betawi', Ncraija 12-1 I-
1918.

*RANi, 1921, 277. He worked then at ihe Outer Islands Administration

3 'De nieuwe sirafwelgeving voor Nederlandsch-lndie'. TMNt, 1918. 51-2.

"OVYW, 1918, 3. 3, Ibid., 18. Ibid.. 1/5/6 and later, had an ad: 'One of ihe ways to make the
Jndies Weerbaar, is drinking Jaco-Cocoa. Wiih thai, you make your body able-bodied, for Jaco-
Cocoa is easy to digest and nutritious. In this way, you also support the Indies Indusiry. '

5 /f, iO-8-1918 quoted Sinar Hindia: 'They want to make us able-bodied conscripts while our
siomachs are empty ... For three centuries, our brains have been forced inio inertia by the policy of
keeping us stupid. They have been able to call us names like 'stupid like a domestic buffalo', laiy,
rapacious, unreliable. Now, besides that, they want to force the Javanese to become soldiers,
murderers. Over and above that: to increase the taxes to pay for ihe military budget. Who will
become soldiers? The Javanese, Who will pay for it? The Javanese. They have given us .... [.... in
original) conscription! instead of bread.' The article concluded with a poem: 'Peroel lapar. maianja
gelap/Menboeka moeloet, bilang smeerlap [Because of a hungry stomach, the people go craiy/and if
they open their mouths, they are called names like smeerlap; Dutch for bum].'

''Oproerige krabbel', IV, 7-9-1918.

'Bold type /Vs. Coolie contracts: see p. 330.

Social democracy and communism

221

Jakarta then had about 100,000 inhabitants. Of those, four to five thousand, 'some
hundreds of them Europeans', 1 came to Deca Park on 1 September. This was the largest
number so far at a political meeting in the colonial capital. 2

From the chair, D. ter Laan of the Batavia SDAP opened the meeting, attacking the
Baiaviaasch Nieuwsblad of theosophist Kiewiet de Jonge for its pro-conscription
campaign. The authorities, he said, had allowed the meeting only on condition that
Sneevliet and Semaoen's ISDV, and the Private Soldiers Union, would be excluded from
co-organizing it. At this, the audience booed. Though the ISDV did not participate
officially, one of the three speakers at the meeting was Alimin Prawiradirdjo, then its
Jakarta branch chairman, 3 and later prominent communist. The others were Notoatmodjo
and Batavia SDAP leader R. Schotman. Alimin said that 'he certainly wanted an Able-
bodied indies, but not a military Able-bodied Indies. He wanted to make the
people able-bodied economically.'

A lone gentleman, who refused an invitation to explain his views to the meeting from
the rostrum, constantly heckled Alimin. shouting 'Long live Indie Weerbaar: Alimin
said. 'Just let fools shout out their opinion.' The heckler shouted again: 'Long live Indie
Weerbaar.' Alimin said to loud laughter: 'The fools begin already." 1

Next day, (he am\-Weerbaar opposition showed at the big pro-IW military parade in
Jakarta. With disgusi, Governor- General Van Limburg Stirum's aide, naval Lieutenant
C.L.M. Bijl dc Vroe, noted in his diary, that at the head of the parade

a gang of soldiers whirled about, singing the Internationale. Bums like Baars, Sneevliet.
Brandsieder. and Scholman work far too well among our mililary.

The soldiers distributed pamphlets for the right to have meetings. 5 'Vengeur'. pseudonym
of J.F. van Nugtercn. an oppositionist soldier, said in HVW, 5 Oct. 1918, 2, 'Indie
Weerbaar': 'A call for conscription sounds through the [Indonesian] archipelago. The
■'clue" of society, the capiialists, fear a change of rule.'

On 7 September 1918. Hei Indische Volk also attacked Kiewiet dc Jonge: because, it
said, in his Baiaviaasch Nieuwsblad he had given a biased pro -government account of an

'■De Ami Indie-Weerbaar meeting'. IV, 7-9-1918. Sneevliet, 'Pro en ami Weerbaar', HVW, 10-
9-1918, wrote of 8000 demonstrators there. See also Djawa Tengah, 5-9-1918

2 When on 15 March 1917, 100 people were at a Nederlandsch- indische Vrijunnige Bond
meeting, LOC, 16-3-1917, 'Uit Batavia'. commented: This is quite a loi for Batavia.' LOC. 31-3-
19)7, 'Uit Batavia', described a protest meciing againsi the housing policy of the liberal local council
(ihe Petodjo affair), as ■gigantic, more than 600'. Only the sensational Ida! of (he murderer
Brinkman, the correspondent thought, had ever brought together that many people.

3 HVW, 5-10-1918, 8. 'Batavia.'

"Dutch translation of Alimin's Malay: 'Daar beginncn de gekken al'; 'De Anti Indie- Weerbaar
meeting', IV, 7-9-1918. Ibid., Schotman explained the origin of the world war: 'big capitalist
longed for the property of rich mines, for more colonies in East Africa,'

5 SCHOUTEN, 162; 178,

222

rv.j

incident, when navy sailors had refused 10 obey officers' orders. 1 In the daily Sinar
Hindia. more militandy socialist than /V, Soemadi used even stronger words: the
Baiaviaasch Nieuwsblad vrzs *a poison to the indigenous people." 1

The next IV issue, of 14 September, was an anti-conscription special. Kiewiet de
Jonge had written in his daily that the anti-Indie Weerboar action of the Batavia SDAP
■therefore was a rape of the political greatness of socialism. 1 Also the theosophist paper
fndische Siemmen had, besides an article by Van Leeuwen, 'a specimen of pro-
conscription cant' according to social democrat Daan van der Zee. 3 Van der Zee had
attacked Indhche Siemmen on the issue of ciass contradictions or national and racial
contradictions. 4

A Surakarta woyong puppeteer dealt with conscription in his show.* In Ujung
Pandang on Sulawesi, three thousand people had met against Indie Weerboar on 25
August. Sailor Arga from West Java told them that the militia plans 'should be kicked to
the edge of the universe, as soon as possible.'* Nine thousand turned up at a meeting in
Kudus, a small Java town, of the local branch of the PKBT, the Workers and Peasants'
League organized by ISDV militants, on 13 October (918. Darsono and Marco spoke
against IW; a motion against it was voted for. Sneevliet was unable to speak, as a car
taking him there broke down.' The October Sarekai Islam congress in Surabaya theatre
voted unanimously against conscription. Baars thought it hypocritical that even Abdoel

IV, 7-9-1918, Dt dicnslweigcring der matrozen': Kiewiel de Jonge warned <o 'save faces for
Ihe naval officers involved at any cost.'

*SH 21-1 1-1918, quoted IPO 47/1918. MJB, 15. Soemadi. a girls' school teacher, also wrote in
Sri-Dsponegoro and Sri-Mataram: IPO 15/1919. JB. 9.
Article 'Weerbaarheidsgewauwel,'

''Dedoezclende Alarik [The obscuring Alarik; Alarik was a pseudonym in !S]\ IV, 31-8-1918;
IS had said 'that the socialist movement does not recognize the indispcnsability of national striving in
the world's development.' Van der Zee: 'Racial hatred is only a consequence of false feeling and
false views. But class contradiction is real, based on the fact that one class owns the means, which
ihe other class needs as badly to live. ... And as for those who try to moderate and to obscure us, we
jeer them away.'

i Bromartani 3-11-19)8; quoted IPO 45/1918, JB, 5,

^Sri-Diponegoro 1 1-1 1-1918. quoted IPO 46/1918, 'Exlremisiische bladen', 2; Padjadjaran,
quoted IPO 49/1918, ' Nationalistic he bladen', 1. KM 23-12-1918. quoted IPO 52/1918, MJB, 15;
the navy discharged Arga dishonourably for this. He then sianed work at Oetoesan Hindia,
translating Kropotkin, and as chairman of the sailors' union Sinar Laoeran. OH 23-12- S918, quoted
IPO 52/1918. MJB, 22-3. Arga repeatedly wrote in Pantjaran-Wana , for instance 22-3-1917; for
some time, he joined the socialist league Hindia Sergerak, OH 15-6-1917 quoted IPO 24/1917
MJB.

7 SH2\9, 31-10-1918; quoted/TO 4471918, 23-5.

Social democracy and communism

223

Moeis now voted along with the others. Still, Baars was satisfied. 1 Chinese, and also
Arabs, living in Indonesia, held anti -conscription meetings, 3

In the end, the government did not introduce conscription. As the historian Fasseur
has written, plans for it 'disappeared into a bureaucratic drawer'. 3 Not just because of
bureaucracy, however. Support for it weakened as the war ended; influential businessmen
and politicians like Coiijn preferred a military strategy based on the navy.* And debates
about the military among non-ruling civilians and privates had grown from scores in The
Hague in 1913, to hundreds in Semarang in 1914, three to four thousand in Semarang in
1916, to many more thousands all over Indonesia in 1918. In these debates, opposition
increased.

By now, this popular resistance grew at a time of, possibly, international revolution.
Revolution look over from the ending war as the main issue between Indonesia's leftists
and theosophists.

10. From ISDVlo PKI, 1918-1927

On 15 November 1918, Darsono wrote in Soeara Ra'jat: 'Look how [in Europe] the
Princes are being chased away like boars. ... Put out everywhere the RED FLAG, the
symbol of HUMANITY, EQUALITY. AND BROTHERHOOD.' Indonesians, he said,
should make workers' and peasants' councils take over. 5

In Jakarta 'military guards had been doubled, patrols made their rounds.' 6 High level
officials' wives learned to shoot at (he Indies army rifle-range which is really useful to
ladies because of the Bolshevik fun in Russia.' 7

'A. Baars. 'Dc bcicekcms van het jongste S.l.-kongrcs', HVW. 12-10-1918. 10-1, On 29-10-
1918. in Kaoem Moeda, formerly Moeis', quoted !PO 44/1918. 12, S. G.[oenawan?) wroic,
contrary to earlier policy; 'And then ihe militia, which is useless to Kromo. Kromo is able-bodied, if
his sioniach is full, and if he gets enough education.' According to a letter by official G Hazcu to
Governor-General Van Limburg Stirum on 23 August 1918, Moeis' views on conscription siill led to
'fierce snuggle' within SI. due to 'socialist-influenced opposition againsi ihe "Indie Weerbaar"
movement'; published KWANTES<1975). 43. In a letter to Sn-Diponegoro, opponent of socialism S.
Tondokoesoemo wrote that non-Javanese Baars should not discuss Javanese affairs. The paper's
editor reacted; Then, how about (he Government, and Labbenon?' Sri-Diponegoro 11-1 1-1918,
quoted IPO 46/1918, ' Exlremistische bladen', 2. Socialist SH, 5-12-1918 wroie lhai Tondokoesoemo
himself was 'under the influence of "Sugar Kings'"; quoled IPO 49/1918. MJB, 17,

! 200 Arabs were at an ant i -conscript ion meeting in Semarang. B., 'De Inlandsche militie',
HVW, 29-3-1919. 223^1.

J FASSEUR(1995), 160.

*TICHELMAN{!985), 558-9.

'Quoted IPO 46/1918, 'Exlremistische bladen'. 3. Darsono was sentenced to a year in jail for an
anti-/W article; SH 27-3-1919, quoted IPO 13/1919, MJB, 19.

^KIEWIET DE JONGE0919), 98.

'SCHOUTEN, 168.

224

rv.i

A wave of strikes swept across the archipelago. Not only by workers; also the
students of the theosophist teachers' training school Coenoeng Sari in Jakarta went on
strike. They complained of unjust expulsion of a student and authoritarian ism of director
Corporaal and a lady teacher of pedagogy, Moesso, the later communist leader, was a
Coenoeng Sari student; I am not sure if that was exactly then, and if he also struck. Hadji
Agoes Salim, though hesitating about whom to blame, thought that

the Director has acted more as a man of authority, who considered that authority had been

subvened, than like a father guiding the students. 1

The Sudi Uiomo paper Darmo Kondo asked if the director really 'knew the
Indigenous people', and wrote: 'A wise man does not act hastily, or in anger.' 1 Oetoesan
Hindia commented on the dispute: 'The Javanese as such will not quickly act to defy
their Chiefs, if the latter do not provoke that.' 1 After mediation by Volksraad members
Van Hinloopen Labberton and Abdoel Moeis, the strike ended. It caused Salim to write
at length on strikes in general, attacking the ideas in the Hindu caste system on social
cohesion,' 1 Salim wrote the school had been founded with 'unity' as its slogan. The
conflict, though, had made him think 'that one cannot gel unity by a name, or just by
wanting it, but especially by applying it in practice.'*

In the wake of the Russian and German revolutions, Troeistra, and Marxists to his
left, proposed revolutionary policies, which were popular among the more militant of
Dutch workers. The position of the ruling class and of the royal family seemed to be
uncertain. From the thcosophical sphere came alarm, also in artistic form:

Thrones toner and crowns fall, and the realms crumble.
Where may a king still find fidelity?'

Soon though, the government managed to regain control, with the help of right-wing
paramilitary organizations. 7 Also with the support of the Indies TS monthly:

'Neratja 18-1-1919, quoted IPO 3/1919, MJB. 4. Darmo-Kondo. 3-2-1919. quoted IPO 6/1919,
JB, 2. On Moesso, SH 27-2/3-3-1924, quoted IPO 1, 1924, 420- 1 .

! 2?-l-l9)9, quoted IPO 5/1919, JB. I.

] 17-1-1919, quoted IPO 3/1919, MJB, 25. See also JOT 20-1-1919.

*Neratja 20 and 21-1-1919, 'Mogok',

^Neratja 4-2-1919, 'Piaktijk associate. '

'H,C, Cannegieter, 'Raden Mas Noto Soeroto', The Hague, Servire. 1926. 9: quoting 'the
princely poet', ibid,, 5, In 1918, Dutch theosophically inspired Karel Schmidt painted a 'Portrait of
Wilhelmina's fate.' Queen Wilhelmina looked into a "karmic mirror': Schmidt represented threats of
revolution around her as 'spears, daggers, and evil spirits,' Lien Heyting, 'De bezielende krachten
van de schildcr Karel Schmidt. Ben allemachtig genie'; NRC, 26-8-1994.

'The government also made concessions, like votes for women and a shorter working week.
After Sneevliet's exile from Indonesia. Dutch expatriates in Penang [now: Malaysia] sent a telegram
to the queen, asking her to exile Troeistra from The Netherlands. Neratja 2-12-1918, quoted IPO
49/1918. MJB, 1, Van Kol and other SDAP right wingers opposed Troeistra 's revolutionary plans.

Social democracy and communism

225

... all the messages from the Motherland [The Netherlands) came to us about the revolutionary-
bolshevik agitations, a sony outgrowth to healthy evolutionary spirit. But the people of Holland
indeed proved to be practical and maner-of-fact enough not to rush into the adventure of bogus
beautiful socialist and anarchist promises.

Thank goodness, the government knew how to perform the acdon that was the only remedy
against the surplus of such leaders as the S. D. A. P. has now. 2

The editorial of the monthly summed up the theosophical ideal of society as: 'Duty
above Rights'* A few months later, editor Van Leeuwen elaborated on the difference
between revolutionary and hierarchical views of Brotherhood, and on relations of
superhuman to political hierarchy:

, . the sound of brotherhood which rings out now from the ranks of humanity's younger brothers
is far from being refreshing and enjoyable to hear. Bolshevism, Democratization, Unification,
and Levelling [Dutch: nivellering] are what they are striving for now. the demand of die
majority, which thinks it may derive from the concepl of brotherhood the right to "Equality".
Break down all relationships, the masses roll forward like an unstoppable tidal wave, threatening
io destroy all the results of ages and ages of work.

'VAN LEEUWUN(I9I8A), 583

-VAN LEEUWEN0919A). 4. In a speech in Cimahi (hat year. Van Leeuwen said: 'In social
democracy a part of this Man has shown itself, (he exoteric part, (he human |as opposed to Divine]
part, the wrong pari, we will have to say. Man reaches out to the outside, directs eye and head and
heart towards the environment and forgets that the source of all force is within.' TMNi. 1919.89. in
an editorial, ibid., 98: 'The people ouiside [the social democrat movement), with all their seemingly
beautiful words, see in Social Democracy instead of the way to a social people, the way to a people's
society in which power is given io the majority and not (he minority of the best.' Though Van
Leeuwen was for constructing a 'Theosophical -Social -Democracy' (ibid.) whose contents would
differ from the SDAP: Theosophists have liberated the world horn the chains of scientific
materialism; now. once again theosophists will have to liberate the world from social democrat
hatemongering'; ibid,, 101.

J VAN LEEUW£N(I919B), 350. Else, 'the evil is formed which leads (O revolutions, to
anarchy, to world wars'. Ibid,. 351-2: 'Workers' demands, parties' demands, religious
communities' demands, and so on, endlessly. But finally, one will have to realize that this will create
an abuse which cannot last, and in opposition to these excesses towards rights the FTS will have to
state now a preponderance towards the side of duty'. 8ESANT(1919B). 33: 'Duty above Rights,
obligations above claims.'

226

rvj

Social democracy and communism

111

Why is this? They did not understand the meaning. They missed the hierarchical principle
in the idea of Brotherhood. Not all the same because they are all Brothers, but all in harmony,
and in harmony between elder and younger ones, between wise and ignorant ones, between
stronger and weaker brothers. Only then is construction possible. In the construction of the
temple of humanity there are rafters, which should support the roof, there is the foundation,
on lop of which the walls arise. High up there is the golden dome, though, shining in the
sunlight, crowning the building. Each pan has its special place and task, and if everything

wishes to be as high, if everything wants to be "roof, then [ in original] there is no

construction, but everything stays down.

A half truth [on brotherhood] is worse thin no truth at all. ... Would not this be the reason
why br[other G.). Arundalc [the later international TS president] advises revealing more of
thai which up to now was esoteric, to show the people and hold before them the truth of the
existence of the "Elder Brothers" [superhumans in TS doctrine] ; to proclaim and to
propagate as a fact the Hierarchy of beings in this Universe, as the ideas of Karma and
Reincarnation, which are the property of the whole world now, were made known by us
earlier on? And is not it significant, that also just in these days an important new book came
out: "liners from the Masters of the Wisdom", as if from these Elder Brethren themselves a
voice comes, to witness of Their existence?

That is what our task is! To accustom the world, including the Indies society, to the
concept of "Hierarchy" . of elder and younger ones, also among the earth's Nations and
Peoples. A difficult task indeed in these times of revolution and democratization, but exactly
because of that a still more valuable one.'

Semaocn and his ISDV colleagues Baars 1 and Sncevliet were the subject of the
January 1919 editorial of the Dutch East Indies TS monthly:

In our Insulinde the plant, deriving from that bitter fruit, thrives and grows. People like
Snecvhct, Baars. Semaocn and so many others who are incapable of rising to spiritual heights,
see nothing but the sham of the broihcrhood in matter, while ihe Brotherhood in spirit still
does not exist for them. ... .Demon est Dcus inversus [The demon is the inverted God]",
H. P. B. says in her Secret Doctrine. And for as long as the brolherhood in matter is our aim.
for that lengdi of time (he Demon will be our loadslar. a light indeed (hat will lead us unto
abysses of infernal pains and deepest darkness. 3

In the same month, also Prince Soetatmo Socriokocsoemo in his Wederopbouw
'protested strongly against action and agitation'' of the Marxists. Soeriokoesoemo named
a point against them which Van Leeuwen had not mentioned: the danger of confusion
between anti-capitalism and opposition to other privileged people as well:

The way of propaganda against capital is reprehensible, as the people now can still not discern
the difference between (he capitalist and any other citizen, who can afford the luxury of
driving a car [few could, in 1919 in IndonesiaJ, In the eyes of the people, anyone who lives in

'VAN LEEUWEN(1919D). 488-9.

2 The government forced Baars into exile in 1921; L. DE JONG, vol. Hal, 260; SR. 16-4-
1921, If: 'Diasingkankah Baars dari tanah Hindia?'

'VAN LEEUWEN(1919A), 4.

4 SOERIOKOESOEMO09l9A), 14.

an extraordinarily beautiful house is a capitalist. First, let the people's education have an
opportunity to rise to a higher level, and only then start the propaganda against capitalism. Not
now, for that brings immeasurable misery. Even worse than the propaganda against capital is
the propaganda for the idea of equality.
Soeriokoesoemo inverted socialists' view of religioa as opium:

Opium, for example, is a strong poison: surely, it often is an effective medicine. ... As opium
is for the ill patient, so is socialism for suffering humanity. In both cases, there always is a
chance of recovery; but the chance of perishing totally is bigger than that chance.
Unfortunately, all authorized doctors at the moment are in complete agreement thai, so far,
there is no oiher remedy. We, though, rather stick to the natural way of healing-the (holy)
water. 2

The Theosophical Society leaders disagreed with Sneeviiet. So did the colonial
government, and thus, using emergency law, they banned him from Indonesia in Decem-
ber 1918. J In a debate in the Voiksraad (representative council). Sarekat Islam chairman
Tjokroaminoto protested, as his executive had decided/ SI vice chairman Abdoel Moeis
had already urged the government to ban Sncevliet in 1917, and now said nothing. 5
Prince Mangkoe Negoro Vli did speak, but on Javanese culture, not on the subject of the
debate, the banning. 6

On 18 November, Neratja supported the exile proposal. 'KM a redactie O. H. J We, the
editors)' of Tjokroaminoto's Oetoesan Hindio took Neraija to task for that view three
days later. 'We protest strongly against (he editor R. Djojosoediro. ... By this article, he
has violated (lie principles of the S.I, national executive, of which he is a member. No
longer should R Djojosoediro be in the S.I. executive!' 1 Though SI did not expel
Djojosoediro, its next congress in 1919 would demote him (see p 299). Darsono wro(e in
Soeara-Ra 'jar.

This Djojosoediro, who applauded Sneevlicl's exile, is nothing but a Government mouthpiece.
U is alright dial a paper exists which is based on the principles of llic Government: but S I.

'SOER10KOESOEMO(l919A). 15.

! SOER10KOESOEMO(I920C), 2. VAN DER LEEUW(I920), 165 opposed Marxism in an ai
first sight anti-capitalist way: 'Marx in this respcel is typical of 19lh century mentality, as typical
as capitalism he fought against, (hey are in this both symptoms of one and (he same mentality!'

J L. DE JONG. vol. Hal. 284.

^'Voiksraad', OH 21-1 1-1918.

i 'Aroen' |J. Slam], 'Doeumenten over de uiizctting van Sneeviiet', HVW. 14-12-1918, 91-2.
H. Sneeviiet, 'Het SI congres te Baiavia. Een woord tot de Leiders en Afgevaardigden' , HVW, 20-
10-1917, 9; published TICHELMAN0985), 671. Sneeviiet, in 'Ethisch farizeisme', HVW, 5-10-
1918, 3, and in 'Het verslag van den Voiksraad', HVW. 9-11-1918, 42-3, called Moeis a
'government journalist'.

''Aroen' [J. Stam], 'Doeumenten over de uiizetting van Sneeviiet'. HVW, 14-12-1918. 92
^Neratja 18-11-1918, 'Sneeviiet dienjahkan'; OH 21-1 1-1918, 'Neratja moefakat!'

228

IV. I

people should no[ head such a paper.'

A few days after the anti-Sneevliet article, editor-in-chief Djojosoediro went on sick
leave. Fellow SI executive member, but already no longer fellow TS memberf?), Hadji
Agoes Salim replaced him, on 25 November. Then, Neraija wrote that the editorial had
been against the views of Djojosoediro' s fellow editors. The paper did not want to
denounce it though, as long as Djojosoediro was not back from sick leave.

Raden Djojosoediro did come back on 28 November. 1 On 1 1 December, Satim wrote
another version: that Djojosoediro had already been ill on 18 November.

The Sarekat Islam executive met on Sunday 22 December in Surabaya, first at
Tjok ro ami nolo 's house, then at the Panti Harsojo building. Ten executive members were
present: Tjokroaminoto, Tjokrosoedarmo, Djojosoediro, H.A. Sjadz'lli, Soerjopranoto,
Hasan bin Semit, Prawotosoedibjo, Sosrokardono, Semaoen, Soekirno. Others, like
Moeis and Mohamed Joesoef, were absent. Four left-wingers (very probably including
Semaoen, Soekirno, and Prawotosoedibjo, also an ISDV member) faced four right-
wingers on the pro-exile editorial in Neraija. Semaoen accused Djojosoediro' s faction of
'lies on Sneevliet.'

Finally, chairman Tjokroaminoto helped a proposal, supporting Sneevliet, to a 5
against 4 victory; with one abstention. On the other hand, the meeting decided to accept
Djojosoediro 's profession of non-responsibility for the pro-banishment article. 1

The Dutch Indies TS had strongly opposed Annie Besant's internment in British
India. However, of this externment now they thought, concluding the 'infernal pains'
editorial:

Thank goodness, the heart of society, which reels ihe pains, can remove the sung. Thank
goodness, the government knew how io perform the aclion that was the only remedy ... Well
may it continue in this way! And is not it splendid to see how at (he same lime as the
externmeni of Sneevliet, on the very day that (his man, this obfuscator of human idealism, had
(0 leave the country where he tried io promote his false ideals; that on this very day (he hear!
of society, the governmeni. dived into its own bosom and caused the establishment of the
commission for .Overhaul of (he principles of Stale structure of the Dulch East Indies". . .
May the Theosophical Society, may its members, help along to prepare this path, may the
torch or irulh that was given to us, bear a flame thai will sel alight many people still J
H.J, Kiewiet de Jonge commented in the Dutch monthly De Gids:

It would have been neglect of duty, had the Government in the stormy November days allowed
a man [Sneevliet] who openly, verbally and in writing, called for soldiers' and sailors'
demonstrations; and consequently, was a strong threat to the reliability of the pillars of

>SR 6-12-1918; quoted IPO 50/19)8, 'Extremistische bladen*, 4.

7 Neraija25 and 28-1 1-1918, quoted IPO 48/1918, MJB, 1-2,

J 'HindjaBelanda. Bestuursvergadering C.S.I.*, OH 23-12-1918. McVEY(l%5>. 370-1

"VAN LEEUWEN(19I9A), 4-5.

Social democracy and communism 229

authority over millions of natives, to stay in the colony. 1

Just before Sneevliet's externment, Soeriokoesoenio had written: 1

One is afraid to be a conservative, as everyone is progressive. A bystander then takes the side of
the Government, and admires its great attitude toward that petty revolutionary
lot.

In a farewell poem to Sneevliet in Sinar Hindis, S. Panoatmodjo wrote he had been
'Diboewang lantaran pengaroe kaphas! riet [banished at the request of sugarone
capital].' 3 Sneevliet arrived in The Netherlands after the banning. On 17 February 1919,
he spoke to a packed public meeting of the Communist Party of The Netherlands'
Amsterdam branch. According to the reporter of the daily De Tribune:

The lecturer [Sneevliet] sharply attacked the hypocritical activity of theosophist HINLOOPEN
LABBERTON. who wanted to make Ihe Javanese enthusiastic for "Indie Wcerbaar".*
In 1920, the social democrat society ASDVbecame the communist party of Indonesia.
PKI, wiih Semaoen as its chairman.

In 1921, the PKI paper Soeara Ra'jm commented on a speech by Bcsant in The
Netherlands. They thought it was open to various interpretations: 'But the capitalist,
who embrace theosophy, and who listen to Mrs Annie Besant's speech would surely
interpret it as: "The workers should not change the relationships of power.' ... So, the
beautiful ways of theosophical theory will remain theory; and theory only.' The article
finished calling on all thcosophists, if (hey did not want that, to 'help the communis!
movement ail over the world, %i

Though critical, this article still showed the sharp contradiction of Indie Weerbaar
and Jamhi days had worn away. The contradiction on non-co-operation policy between
Theosophical Society and not only PKI, but also other Indonesian political groups, then
was only just beginning: as it had begun earlier on in India; see p. 346f.

On 26 January 1924, 'Orion', the abbreviation 'Dl' behind ihe pseudonym [of
Amir'.'] denoting membership of the TS-linked Orde tier Dienaren van Indie, reported for

'KIEWIET DE J0NGE(19I9), 351-2,

J SOERIOKOESOEMO(I919A>, 16. He primed it in WED. Jan. 1919: as he wrote in a note, he
did not think it needed change.

Vl-1919, quoted IPO 2/1919, MJB, 14,

"'Sneevliet in Holland': from De Tribune, reprinted HVW, 17-5-1919, 298. 'HGH' (C. Hartogh]
in HVW, 3-5-1919, 'Een vriendendienst', commented satirically on mystic numerology.

s Sfl, 16-9-1921. 3-4, Theosophie dan Komunismc.' Future leading PKI member Tan Malaka as
a student in The Netherlands in the 1910's lived in the house of a theosophist landlady; when she met
him again later she said: 'Hello Mr Bolshevik'; POEZE, 47; 54. He wrote in the Dutch communist
daily on free speech in Indonesia: 'Also theosophists, missionaries and P.E.8. people make
propaganda for (heir ideas in (he Indies, ... such propaganda is allowed in the Indies. But a
communist if he propagates his ideas loses his job and liberty'. He explained about missionaries and
the PES, not on the TS. TAN MALAKA(1922).

230

fV.I

Neratja on West Sumatra. He saw the rise of communism, this 'modem poison'. It mixed
there with pious Islam, 'like Hadji Misbach' [a Java santri PKI member], 1

Sinar Hindia then, reporting on the founding of a TS lodge, added that theosophists
kept silent on mass production of 'guns and poison gas' in capitalism. It compared
theosophists to Praboe Dasamoeka, the Javanese equivalent of the evil King Rawana in
the Indian Ramayana. 1 Just afterwards, on 7 February, the communist Abdoel Hamid
started a weeks long polemic against theosophy in that paper. He wrote an Open Letter to
Soerya of pro-TS daily Neratja. Soerya, he said, 'was like a capitalist, as he had joined
the TS.' He accused Soerya of getting a 'comfortable life' that way. The reply became
'Communism and Theosophy, Open Letter from Soerya to the Communist Abdoel
Hamid'. Soerya remarked on 'the extremely obvious contrast' between communist views
of revolution and theosophists' of evolution. 5 SH of 25 and 26 April published
'Communism and Theosophy. Abdoel Hamid against Soerya.' Abdoel Hamid wrote:

Soerya. how can one have compassion Willi one's fellow humans, if one neither knows nor feels
the suffering? ... You lie /ill you are black in the face, Herr [German: Mr| Soerya' ... Mr
Soerya is a iheosophist, does he fear deaih? Docs not theosophy say, itiat death is just a change
of cloihes. Why, then, does Mr Soerya fear revolutionV

The paper Haiiiimar from Pomianak in Kalimantan picked up the controversy. On 24
May, 'Communist L. Tj. Hoo' wrote he could not back Soerya; as 'theosophy does noi
guarantee support for the people, because among theosophists there are also oppressors.
hi the Bandung communist weekly Matahari [the Sun] of 3 March, 'Sj. Hoed.'
criticized Voiksraad member H. Soetadi. Formerly, he had been chairman of the
Auxiliary Teachers' Union; Matahari wrote thai he had done good things then. Howevei ,
alter joining the Volksracid, he had supported a proposal by Ten Bergc to sack comimiriisi
teachers.

What does it mean that H. Soetadi studies Theosophy diligently?

What does it mean that l-i. Soetadi sits at the editors' table of Neraija, as its cduor in-chief.'
'Sj. Hoed.' saw Neratja as 'enemy of the people.' 6 Soetadi sat in the TS national
executive, at least in 1927.

PKI member Moesso spoke at a Red Sarekat Islam meeting in Nagrek (West Java) on

'Quoted IPO\, 1924. 192-3.

*Sf72l-26Jan. 1924. quoted IPO 1, 1924, 198.

'NUGRAHAOSSS), 202-4. Neratja 24 and 25-3-1924, quoted IPO 15/1924, 76-7.

'Quoted IPO 18/1924, 204-5,

5 Quotcd//>0 23/1924, 450-1.

"Quoted IPO I, 1924, 540-1. RANI, 1922, 49; 1925. 48: the government appointed Soetadi as
member in 1921 and 1924. Apt 6/10-10-1924. quoted IPO 42f[924, 102-3: the Semarang
members' meeting of 5-10-1924 of Soetadi's union rejected his spending union money on Neratja,
of which Soetadi had only informed Goenoeng Sari teacher Sastrowirjo. See on Soetadi also
NUGRAHA, 151; TMNI 1927, cover; TiNI 1932, 93.

Social democracy and communism 23 1

30 March 1924. He attacked the selling oijimais. Chandra of the Orde der Dienaren van
Indie though, in Neratja of 4 April, defended belief in amulets, also for instance in
divining-rods, 1 After Neraija had changed its name to Hindia Baroe, Sinar Hindia too
changed to Apt [Fire]. Hindia Baroe thought it was "Fire' from Hell'. 2

On 10 April 1925. the PKI tried to have a meeting in Surakana. The police chased
them away. Many communists then went to the Habi Projo building, where Budi Utomo
was holding its congress. Josowidagdo, formerly of Indie Weerbaar (and still of the TS?)
told PKI leader Marco to send most of his supporters away. They wore shabby sarongs
[Javanese dress]. That was against the dress code of Habi Projo, a gentlemen's club.
Marco refused. Then, the police drove the sartorially and financially challenged out.
Marco stayed, and gave an address. It helped the left wing of Budi Utomo to win from
the Surakarta-based right. 5

In 1926, General Secretary J. Kruisheer spoke at the TS congress in Blavatsky Park
in Jakatta. He warned against 'the pernicious agitation by the communists in this
country'.

Noi long ago, there was an anicle in their paper "A p i", which reproached the Theosophists
wuh cooling down the people "lite ice-sellers" if the communists had broughl them 10 ihc
boiling point ,

Kruisheer warned of a fate like that suffered by theosophy in Russia; and of communist
cells infiltrating, trying to disrupt the TS. The officials of lodges and centres should keep
oui all individuals who wanted lo propagate their PK! 'doctrine of intolerance'.*

The government banned more and more papers and activities of communists and
trade unions. In 1926-27, there were armed communist uprisings, first in Java Then, in
1927, Kruisheer wrolc in the editorial of his monthly on W eS ( Sumatra:

Lasi. we want to commemorate our brother Rahman gelar Soctan Maharadja (fTS ft 2095),
who was ihiiii ai (lie hands of the communists in Silungkang, where he was a teacher ... Fallen
as a martyr io his conviqiion and his steadfast holding on to what he recognized as righi, he has
earned a right io the sympathy of all or us ...

The treasurer of the Indies TS collected money for Rahman's next of kin. 5 Former
Indie Weerbaar leader Major Rhcmrev crushed the uprising in West Sumatra. The
Sarekat Adat Alatn Minangkabau, with links to the TS, helped him, as il claimed. 6 A
government committee to investigate the rebellion included theosophist A.J. Hamerster, a

'SH 1-4-1924, quoted IPO 14/1924, 86. Ibid,, 82.

2, Tlie Hell', HB 2/6-8-1924, quoted IPO 32/1924, 269-70. HB 1/6-10-1924, quoted IPO
41/1924, 69 headlined 'Driving away the plague of communism'.
J VAN MJERTU995), 260-2. See p. 349.
<HEYMANS(1926), 207,

*J, K[ruishecr|, 'Redaciioneele Aanleekeningen', TMNf 1927, 110.
6 BOUMAN(1949), 78.

232

rv.i

former official in that area some 17 years earlier.'

After the uprisings, the government banned the PKI completely and sent its members,
and others, to prison camps in an epidemic -rid den area of New Guinea. Marco died from
consumption in Boven-Digoel camp in 1932. As workers could no longer express
dissatisfaction through political or union organization, the number of physical attacks
some resulting in deaths, on Dutch high level employees of plantations rose. This worried
the government. A. Vreede, now director of its labour office, called a conference of his
officials on those 'murders of assistant [managers]' in 1929. !

11. Indies social democrats and Indie Weerbaar after 1918

The end of the First World War meant in Indonesia: the end of conscription as a hot
issue, linking revolutionary and reformist socialists, and opposing reformists to theo-
sophists. The Russian question also sharpened contradictions between both former ISDV
wings. So, contradictions between the moderates, soon called Indtsche Societal-
Democratism Parti], and the Theosophical Society could grow [ess sharp. He! Indische
Valk regretted earlier attacks on the TS General Secretary. It now saw him as.

One of the besl (Representative Council members] from .he bourgeois camp, maybe even the
very best one. Also among us. Labberton has sometimes been discussed sneeringly a, someone
who was not practical, who was said to have lost the right new on social eondmons. because he
looked at them loo much through Iheosoplusi glasses }

Some Iheosophists and former theosophists became active in the ISDP in this changed
climate. In early 1919. A. Baars doubted if his moderate ex-colleagues should be happy
with their new recrui[ Mrs Corporaal-van Achterbcrgh. wife and co-manager of the
(heosophist teachers' training school director. He quoted a 'sarcastic' item on her in the
Nedertandsch-Indische VrijziimigeBonds liberal wceklv:

The Vnjiinnig Weekblad says (hat it was especially joyful (har Mrs Corporaal was 3n cx-NIVB.
member, .. In ihrec weeks' (ime. Mrs Corporal's inshncls for the poor, oppressed people had
awakened We wan especially for this principled and mature socialisi leaders next incarnation
We now bel u will be ,n (he Oranjebond roor Onto 1 Or we be( on a General- Assoc iation-of-

'B0UMAN(1949). 13 RANI, 19)1.307
'/G 1929(51), MRBTD, 787.

''Uit den Volksraad. Van Hinloopen Labberton'. IV, 13-9-1919. Koch and Koperberg who in
1915 had warned Sneevhe. against compromising (he purity of Marxist thought bv any con.act wuh
theosophists, about 1919 were rightist social democrats, rejecting revolution. Then [heir relationship
to the TS unproved: they boih wrote in De Taak magazine, as did many Iheosoplusts. KOCI[(1956)
130. Ibid,. I: Koch started his 1956 memoirs with a sympaiheuc quote of Annie Besanl.

''Orange JDutch royal family colour) League for Order,* Captain Rhemrev, former Indie
Weerbaar delegate, founded the Oranjebond voor Orde. a rightist paramilitary outfit in the Dutch
anti-Troelstra mould, in Malang in December 1918; Neraija 24-12-1918, ■ Perse rikatan Oranje'.
HVW, 8-2-1919, 'Ecnvenooning'. li was a corporate member of the IW association. OVIW. 1920,

Social democracy and communism
both-Capital is ts-and-cornmunists! '

233

Mrs Corporaal became Baiavia ISDP section treasurer at the end of 1919. 2 H.J.
Kiewiet de Jonge also joined, though only for a short time in 1919, J Hadji Agoes Salim.
with whose paper it had disagreed on Indie Weerbaar {set p, 319) now wrote in its
weekly as an JSDP member 1 .

Indie Weerbaar limped on. Itself, its links to (he TS, and to Indonesians/ all were
weaker now than in its heyday. Hadji Agoes Salim considered the pros and cons of a
militia. 'The argument against is that the overwhelming majority of the people do not
support a militia.' Nor, in his conclusion, did Salim himself by now.*

In 1919, near Garni in Java, government forces killed Hadji Hassan and his associ-
ates, who protested against the forcible selling of their rice. An alliance of Sarekal Islam,
ISDP, and others organized a protest meeting. In Indie Weerbaar' s monthly, a
sympathetic Sundanese (west Java} nobleman' wrote on it. He regretted both the killings
and ihe protest meeting of 'passion and anger,' 'For God has a plan with the world. That
plan is evolution, Kresna Moerti [Krishnamurti].' The first lines of the article had been a
quote from At the feel of the Master, also ascribed to Krishnamurti.'

IW executive members had plans in early 1920 to disband the association, 24 May
saw one of the last flickerings of life at its annual general meeting, in the Bandung theo-
sophical lodge. Because General Snijders. ex-Dutch armed forces commander, spoke, the
lodge building [see cover] was 'packed'. 3 In 1923. the association disbanded itself at

1/2/3, 21.

l A. Baars, 'Ondcr hct Roode Zoeklichi". HVW, 1I-1-I9I9. I2K.

'IV, 6-12-1919.

B Ifcinig. personal comniumcaiiou from kiewiet <k Jonge's son

NOLR. I 10. In 1920 Salmi said to Malta ihal he agreed wiih socialism; only its Marxisi form
was false and misleading.' HATTA(198I). 51. H ATT A( 1978), 85.

s GOL : NAWAN MANGOENKOESOEMOU918), 22. already in Oct. 1917, an IW Association
propagandist failed lo get the Budi Utoino general meeting to join the Association: Ihough its 1908- 1 1
first president, a bupali. joined. Neratja, 21-7-1919, thought the associaiion had deviated from the
earlier commitiec. The coniacts of ihe Association wi(h Oeioesan Melajoe were good (hough: Tor
instance OM 5-5-1919. quoted IPO 25/1919. MBB, 10.

' Neratja 28-12-1918, quoted IPO 52/1918. MJB, 8-9. In Neratja 31-12-1918. quoted IPO
1/1919, MJB. 2, Salim again saw arguments in favour of a militia,

7 The year before. Labberton's Dutch translation of At the feet of the Master had come out
OVIW, 1919, 3, 2-10, 'Overdenkingen/Perlimbangan'. Probably the same author, under the
pseudonym Indie Weerbaar, wrote mostly the same article for KM 27-8-1919, quoted IPO 35/1919,
MJB, 1 1-2; concluding 'The relationship between Government and People should be as between a
father and his children! '

s OV7W, 1920, 1/2/3,2. Bandung TS buildings moved to Olcon Park in 1930; TTApr 1931, 24.
after the Second World War, Dutch and Indonesian government negotiators met there.

234

rv.i

last.'

In 1932, Tilkema characterized (he TS politically as:

Theosophists in Java are rather conservative. In the main, they are politically colourless at the

as the others . Sure, we do know a f cw members, who have joined the social democrat n» rt „-
hoover, as many of our members think, this really is somewna, shoc^n"

D. LABOUR, COMMUNISM, AND INDIA

oyjasi i Madras in 1918. In the spring, the textile workers went on strike In September
food shops tn many neighbourhoods were looted.' In this climate. B.P Wadia wa ac^ve
sc,ng ; Bp umons in Madras, aided by Arundaie: he then opposed s £ ho T<

aaS sll a Tf TT M reP ° n ' Whi,£ ^ BritaSn «™--i

ho d SvT J" " T,™ 1 ^ atS ° Pe0P ' e °^^'-naily linked to her

should not have any connexion [sic] with the labour movement "

Other countries might follow Red Russia's example. In Hungary, 'the subscouen,

m I" rCS ' mC m3dC ^^P"^ — k impossible'.' Theo ophists in Ccylon
deplored Bolshevist anarchism that has become rampant in many lands' '

In 1919. Ann,c Besan, gave as the reason for her shift to a less ami-colonialist stand
India » now menaced by revolution, and Bolshevist propagandists are at work' »

Mrs Besant had objected to state ownershtp of industries in 1916.' Still in 1919 she

1914 Enghsh TS General Secretary Baillie-Weavcr had feared that her 'complexly
oppostte V1 ews on war might mean trouble between her and Labour." Udy Emily

'OVfW, 1923. 6. 8. 'Ophcffing der verceniging "indie Weerbaar'^

'rs July/Aug, 1932, 319. PALME DUTT(1940), 36 9.
i TAYLOR(1992), 313. B.B. M1SRA{1976). 171.'
6 FEKETE, 89.

7 fl/}C. 1920, 10; goodbye article by A.D.J, to Woodward
S BESANT(1919A), 26.
*NETHERCOT<J963), 246.
^^ETHERCOTCl^,, 292f. OREN, 90 [wrongly,: 'she did not join d,e Labour Party until the
"TTWJan. 1920,319.

Social democracy and communism

235

Lutyens pointed out that Besant's still favouring Kingship by divine right would cause
friction. '

Her political philosophy has been "hierarchical, and Guild Socialism-
Syndicalism and Direct Action,'

while she abhorred

In England, non -revolutionaries seemed to become stronger. The International
Conference on Labour and Religion took place in London, September 1919. George
Arundale's report showed that many of those present belonged to the right wing of British
Labour, From among them.

The Right Hon. George Barnes, Minister in the war Cabinet, opened the Conference with a
strong warning against the perils of materialism, illustrated in the recent war and often offered
to the common sense of the working men by callow academic exponenls. ... He emphatically
denied that the Labour problem was purely a question of wages and of the stomach. 5 It was
essentially a religious quesiion-a question of man's proper place as man, and not merely as
wage-earner. Six or eighl mondis ago he was a little alarmed at the ferment in the Labour
world, but he fell thai we had now got over the worst. 4

Other speakers were the Anglican Bishop Gore, Arthur Henderson. 5 and George
Lansbury:

A8s 1889 speech there could be no division between religion and politics, made such a great
impression on Lansliury ... that he eventually embraced Theosophy and carried its social

I B£SANT(I921D). 117 Labour has no use for Kings'; quoted TAYLOR( 1992), 314.
! Krislina Dasa, Nl. 25-8-1924, 16. Ibid,, 40 explained this astrologically. GH0SE(I984). 50:
she gave licr own definition' of socialism; quoting from her Vie Future Socialism: *a truly
arisiociaiic socialism, comrolled by duty, guided by wisdom ' BESANT(1919B). 1 33: 'a Socialism
... not of compulsion and confiscation applied to die rich by the poor for (lie benefit of the latter"; but
a return, at a more complicated social stage, to (he principle of the family, diercin arc elders,
equals, youngers. marking out stages of capacity. Human evolution consists in bringing the separate
wills of men into perfecl accord with the Will of God. die individual wills with the Universal Will.'
Ibid,, 143, of labour's 'inability to produce without direction and supervision, even if diey had seized
both land and capital.'

5 ln November 1918. Barnes had defied a Labour Party decision to resign from the cabinet;
F. OWEN(1954), 499. He had also had a conflict with Winston Churchill, who had raised striking
workers' wages against Barnes' wishes; ibid., 452-3.

"ARUNDALE(1919A), 108.

S ARUNDALE(19)9A), 109. Henderson 'insisted that the Labour Movement would never attain
its highest ideals until it was insiinct with the Spirit of Jesus Christ'.

236 IV.!

precepts into his career as Socialist labor leader and Cabinet officer. '
As conference delegate for India, B.P. Wadia

declared that in the recently-bom Labour Movement of India the spirit was intensely religious,
dominated by the ideas of Karma, the Immanence of God, and the solidarity of mao. Within
each caste there was the greatest brotherhood. The Brahman prince would let his daughter
marry a Brahman cook, though between the castes no intermarriage was allowed.'
In 1921, Mrs Besant again took up the subject of workers' ideas on class war;
A special hatred develops amongst them against those who are better-off. a thing which is of
course utterly un-Theosophical. and which it is the duty of every Theosophisi to try to
eliminate, wherever he may be living, whatever his particular views, whether sympathetic or
antagonistic to Socialism. 3
And of revolution:

Always mischievous when it achieves that violent form/

Was violence really the problem with Annie Besant's post-1889 views on class
conflict and revolution? Then, one would also expect it to be a problem when a
Government with the Great White Brotherhood on its side applied it. in a war against
governments with black magicians on their side, as Mrs Besant described the First World
War. We saw on p. 86 her views on government violence against unarmed brickbat-
throwing Indian supporters of Gandhi, A basic tenet of Annie Besant in most of the
second half of her life was that the masses should' not rule (see p. 320f.). s 1920's TS Vice
President Jinarajadasa commented on old and new 'socialisms':

Buddha ... was (he greatest "socialisi" that ever could be. but different from the socialists of

Social democracy and communism

231

'NETUERCOT(I960). 3)5. He for instance participated in the OSE and the 1937 TS
Copenhagen congress.

J ARUNDALE(!9I9A). 108-9. Wadia was in a British Indian government delegation <o the
Washington international labour conference: BESANT(I92I F), 412.

^BESANTfTOlC), 114.

'ibid. A few months earlier. G. Gibbon Chambers, TT, Nov 1920, 128-9: 'Judas [to
Christians, a traitor to Jesus] failed because he loved an ideal and a section only of humanky-the
oppressed. Many to-day have the vision of Judas, and would establish the Kingdom with guns and
armoured cars, but- 'the Kingdom cometh not by violence.' ... Only the vision of Jesus can
succeed-the love of ALL humanity ...'

5 ln her views then, violence originated among masses rather than among elites 'This
divergence between her and Gandhiji has persisted steadily, because she has held that any
movement for 'mass action* or 'direct action' released forces which must degenerate into violence';
JINARAJADASA(1986), 37-8. BESANT(1912A), 75: 'Basing itself on the study of the past,
Thcosophy can lay down certain principles. ... The principles are: that Government should be in
the hands of the Elders, i.e. the wisest, the most experienced, and the morally best; ... that
freedom brings happiness only to the educated and self-controlled, and that no one, so long as he is
ignorant and unself-controlled. should have any share in the government of others, and should only
have such freedom as is consistent with the welfare of the community.'

U>-day in that he levelled up and not down. 1
Wadia broke with Annie Besant in 1922:

Wadia charged ... she was privately afraid of the labour movement on account of her many rich
™«SL friends, and she never forgave him .. . [for having] d.verted attenuon away from
her Home Rule organisation. 1 ,,.„„;„,>

The October revolution's impact worried the British rulers ,n India much. In 0* nine-
teen twenties, they declared Russian thousand rouble notes illegal in India; one of the not
that many instances when a capitalist government has acted against ownmg *"*J«£
The reason in this case was the imprint 'Workers of the world, unite. M.ll.ons all ove
India were confiscated.' Communists had to deal wi* Briiigh repression. In 1923, the
first in a series of ant i -communist mass trials took place."

How strongly Indian communists reacted to theosophists varied according to how
strong theosophists were where they lived. Of four I920's prominent Communist Party o
India members. Bengali Muzaffar Ahmad in his memoirs dtd not mention theosophy «
all Bombay resident Dange mentioned Mrs Besant a few t.mes. In Madras, the TS had
conflicts with Mallapuram Singaravelu Chettiar. ex-local Maha Bodh, Society pres.den.
now of the CP1. Chettiar wrote on these conflicts .' M.N. Roy in the 1920 <s wrote about
Besant. He then lived in Europe, where she was more in the public image of India *an m

his native Bengal. .

While Annie Besant worried that the Indian National Congress was not an ,-
communis, enough, communist M.N. Roy worried that it was not an.i-Bcsartt enough, c
thought it so cautious as to be 'hardly distinguishable from the Liberal League or the
Home Rule show of Mrs Besant' ,* He criticised Gandhi:

the prophet himself (Gandhi) throws overboard his program of triple boycott to welcome Mrs
LL and her followers back inio the Congress fold ... such a devoid impenahst as Mrs

Besant.'

The communists did not get the blame for their own actions only

(When in 1924] , new terrorist outburst occurred in Bengal, and the palu*. warned by Mayor

'JINARAJADASA(1923). 53.
i NETHERCOT(l963). 285f.

'WHITE, 100.

'WHITE 102- 'a trial was instituted ... in 1923 a, winch a number of Indians who had received
naming in Soviet' Russia were charged with conspiracy.' White bases this on Brms , patom
reports and on the times of 16 May 1923: but for instance Dange and Smgaraveiu Chettiar had
never been to the Soviet Union, let alone had been trained there.

'MURUGESAN and SUBRAMANYAM. p. 17; 23. Both Singaravelu, from a sudra. and
Rahula Sanskrityayana from a Brahman background, came via Buddh.sm to the CPl.

*M N Roy, 'Open letter to C.R. Das', 3 Feb. 1923; reprinted ADH1KAR1<1974), 15.

'M.N. Roy for the CPl. Appeal ro the Nationally 1 Dee. 1924; reprinted ADH1KAR1U974),
440.

238

rv.i

Social democracy and communism

239

[C.R.] Das of Calcutta, arrested various extremist Swarajist and Congress leaders, she [AB]
attributed the outbreak of bomb-throwing and pillage to a Bolshevist conspiracy from Russia and
openly praised the action of Das and the police ... when at the All-Party Conference she
opposed Gandhi's resolution to investigate the Government's policy and actions, she was harshly
condemned by most of the Indian press ,..'
Sometimes, Mrs Besant was sharply against her own past ideas, as when she

defended segregated schools for caste and tasteless children in India, and class segregated

schools in England;

I know now that the conditions do not make the people, but that it is the drunken and diny

people who cause the conditions. 2

Sylvia Pankhurst, formerly of the CP of Great Britain executive, in a book published
by Bombay communists pointed out how Mrs Bcsam had changed in the nature vs.
nurture debate since her 1886 Why I am a Socialist; which said: 'Take two healthy week-
old babies ... the keenest eye will not be able to separate the aristocrat from the plebeian
... Education, training, culture, these make class distinctions ,,.'. 3 This change had to do
with differences between historical materialism and idealism on whether essential 'human
nature' exists.

Annie Besant attacked Dange of the CP1 on financial support which the Soviet textile
workers union gave to Bombay colleagues in their 1927 strike. 4

jn 1930, the Adyar estate and the Vasanta press. Annie Besam's personal property,
together employed hundreds; it was not a small business. When Adyar workers formed a
union, Mrs Besant refused to recognize it. The PTS declared recognition would have
been against the organic model of society; 'Here, all must make a family, some members
being naturally the elder and the other the younger.' As a compromise, workers could

'NETHERCOT(1963), 350.

3 ln the Indian Review; quoted S. PANKKURST(I926), 149. On the contrary. TJIPTO
MANGOENKOESOEMO( 1928), 9: 'one cannot gel improvement of the individual, if one leaves (he
circumstances under which the individual lives, alone,' BESANT(19I7A), 36: 'an Englishman, who
is often from (he lowest ranks of society, drunken and brutal'. Ibid.. 43: 'the ruffian of the London
slum'.

J PANKHURST(I926), 150f. In 1919. Besant wrote in Reincarnation (translated TMNI, 1919,
421-2), taking the side of the 'nature' tenet, along social, and 'racial' lines: 'Once again, look at the
evolution of man, from the stage on, which differs but little from the animal one. up to the stage of
high civilization, and ask yourself [answer: reincarnation] what contributes to the difference between
the limited contents of the consciousness of the child of the savage and the trained intelligence of a
child of out own social categories. The properties, which show themselves in youth are very
different ones in these two cases: when the child of the savage is transferred to a civilized environ-
ment, is progresses quickly during some years, and then, it comes to a standstill, because its intel-
lectual facilities are not capable of any further expansion.' See also TAYLOR(1992). 313: 'the
transformation of her attitude to socialism in general.'

'DANGE, vol. 3, 77-8.

form a panchayat .' Aftei the dispute on the union in Adyar, A. Rangaswami Ayar wrote;
If the standard of brotherhood underlying that solution {union, no; panchayat, yes] cannot be
achieved outside [of (he TS], then just as an International Court of Justice is a desirable
substitute for war. Mussolini's solution to have an impartial tribunal for the settlement of
disputes between capital and labour instead of lock-outs and strikes, which ate against the
interest of the Nation, is the next one approaching Brotherhood,

In the 1920's and 30's the idea of socialism became popular; at the same time, there
were many right ward trends in world politics. There also was a rightward movement
within social democracy. Elitist ideas rose with theorists like H. De Man, the chairman
of the Belgian party.

Bhagavan Das' position was that there were arguments both for and against
communism and fascism, that the two were rather similar, 3 and that his own ideas of a
spiritually scientific social system based on India's varnas were superior to both of them.' 1
He defined a brand of socialism acceptable to theosophy; 'not a Classless Society';
socialism not as self-emancipation of the working class, Rohil Mchta, to become TS CS
for India in the 1950's. differentiated likewise in the 1930's between unacceptable and
acceptable socialism: Marx' was a

gospel of despair ... To know the racial programme is l« luiten human evolution.
He wrote this as Marxism was quite popular in the Indian National Congress.

E.THE LANKA SAMA SAMAJA PARTY

According to Tile TheOhaphist in 1931. Ceylon had eight lodges, with less than a hundred
members between them. Next year, it turned out that (he section had grown as the only
one in the world 1 Especially the youth lodge was aclivc. The new General Secretary, Dr.

'j|NARAJADASA<1931). Panchayat. village council of (traditionally, five) 'wise men', often
idealiMd as 3 model no: jusi for village, but also for national government for instance ihe Nepal
monarchy saw it as an alternative 10 allowing political parties; until the popular revolt of 1990.

-AYAR(I93I). He was Annie Besant's National Home Rule League provincial secretary.

*J NEHRU(I972), vol VI, 113: Das expressed this idea in public and in a letter to Nehru; who
wrote back thai lie objected to this equalization with fascism, though he did not agree with all in the
Soviet Union

4 DA5(1934)

5 DAS(I934), vii STRUVE. 305: Count Keyserling (see p. 145) after the First World War also
wrote of 'not bolshevism or Marxian socialism, which did not deserve the name Socialist, but
"true" socialism ... because if everyone claimed to be a socialist the Social Democrat Party could
not survive*.

-"Review in May 1937 77. In a debate in Madras on 15 Jan. 1936, Mehta said 'revolutionary
parties the whole world through had enjoyed worsening discontent and sad people's conditions.'
'Debal over wereldhervorming', TiNl March 1936, 51f.

7 7TMarch 1932, 622.

240

[V.2

S.A. Wickremasinghe had taken over from his next-door neighbour Mrs Elisabeth
Lourcrtsz, 6 Theatre Road, Wellawatie. '

A critical member. Wickremasinghe warned the TS on 'confused thinking and
emotional outbursts of devotion 10 a leader' 1 replacing international brotherhood ideals

The growth of the TS did not last when Wickremasinghe turned his energies instead
to the .sland's new Marxist movement. 1 In Wellawatte where he lived in February 1933
a b.g workers' strike took place, which lasted until victory in July' SA
Wtckremas.nghe became one of the leaders of the revolutionary Marxist Unka Sama
Samaja Party. As did Doreen Young, who had come as a teacher from England and
whom he mamed. He wrote 'India is in the midst of her struggle for freedom- there are
signs that Ceylon's is about to begin'.' The party which he co-founded, though the only
one advocating independence, saw freedom more in international workers' than in
rationalist terms. Wickremasinghe left the TS. Other founders of the LSSP had been at
Buddhist Theosophica! Society schools.

2. 'ANARCHISM AND SIMILAR EVILS'

Anarchism (with Irish and Italian nationalism, and forms of Hinduism) was one of the
influences on the Indian Congress 'extremist whom Annie Beam opposed pre-1913 "
Gandhi also mentioned it at the 1916 controversy with her known as the 'Benares
incident . There, he described himself as a kind of anarchist, albeit different from
extremists. The official Short Title of the British government's repressive Rowlat. Ac.
was 'The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919'. Ferdinand Domela
Nieuwenhuis mfltienccd for instance E.F.E, Douwes Dekkcr and Marco in Indonesia

That many anarchists were atheists too might cause conflicts with theosophi.ts "
Theosophis.s' ideas also differed from anarchists, as from Marxists on ruling and
working classes, and on concepts of freedom. 9 There was the question of how one sees

'Back cover TT. Jan 1931

; WICKREMASINGHE(I932), 399

J 7T. Annual report on 1933. 576 7 lodges, 102 members; -23 compared to 1932

"LERSKI, 15.

S WICKREMASINGHE(I932), 402

6 J 1NA RAJA DASA( 1986). 25: 'the Bengal anarchist revolutionaries'.

'MUTHANNA, 161. In the South African Nmal Adverser o( 1-2-1895, Gandhi had attacked
materialist philosophy as the cause of the awful growth of anarchism'; GANDHI(195S) vol 1 166
TS dissident Anna Kingston then in the 1890s influenced his views; ibid.

'See the polemic in Oe Vrijt Social,*,, p. 241. See p. 23. A French saying popular among
anarchists » Ni Dieu. ni rmttre: neither God nor master. No God was just possible in the TS- but no
Master?

'DE PURUCKER(1906). 18, defined freedom 'briefly as 'the inalienable right of man to own
property, and to use all possibilities and facilities w»l, which Nature endows him, unless such action

Anarchism

241

the stale as well. According to Marxists, the state should wither away eventually. The
view of anarchists is still more negative; if possible, the state should be abolished today.

'Anarchism' in The Theosophisi was a term of abuse. The Secret Doctrine described
it as 'blood-thirsty'. 1 One of H.P. Blavatsky's objections to Western societies was 'the
growth of the party of anarchy and disorder. ,:

The Editor of The Buddhist, at the close of a good editorial on 'Anarchism in Europe,' says: ',.,
The only possible remedy for Anarchism and similar evils, lies in a remodelling of the Western
ethical philosophy so as to allow a place in it for the paramount truths of Karma and Rebirth'. 1
Australian TS GS Carroll in 1893 attacked: 'gambling and speculation, and thousands

of Nihilists, Anarchists, and Disrupters of Society ... glibly propose reconstruction of

society." 1

Since the 1890's. in The Netherlands theosophists and anarchists reacted at one

another. In 1892, Domela Nieuwenhuis, who then was evolving from the country's best

known social democrat to its best known anarchist, had called his new-born daughter

Annie. 5 Annie, after Besant, because of her past work for socialism (she had left the SDF

recently).

In Dec, 1895, Domela Nieuwenhuis and W.B. Fricke, the Dutch TS (Adyar) leader,

debated, Domela said (hat 'theosophy and theology differed but little and that Blavatsky

should damage others'; and, more mystically: 'Freedom in its essence can only be conceived as
Ireligious) TRUTH', He. ibid.. 17-8. warned against 'The deification of civil or political freedom ..
which made beautiful France into a battlefield'. Many Marxists and anarchists would disagree with
ilit central position in De Purucker's definitions of both individual property and of religious idealism.

'Quoted TT, Dec. 1945. 92. K1EW1ET DE J0NG6(19I7B), 70 admitted 'rare cases' existed of
the greal, augusi ideal of anarchism, ihc stateless society. We think though, that reality, especially
of Russian nihilism and French syndicalism, has shown that these are not the right ages for this.'
Ibid , 56, Kiewiet dt: Jongc explained his view of the stale: 'Everywhere one finds (hat ihe masses,
ihat society, without force cannot develop iiselT into even a remotely complex organization. IT
contracts could be disregarded freely, property expropriated freely, then this opportunity would be
used so unlimitcdly, (hat all social order would transform itself in(o chaos. Or, more correctly, a
social order would never have arisen then.'

! BLAVATSKY()987). 245.

3 r7"Dec. 1898, 190.

ROE, 73. About then, Austrian esolericisl and anti-Semile follower of Lueger. Josef
Schlesinger. attacked 'materialist' scientists 'leading humanity scientifically into the arms of
anarchism'. SENFT. 20,

5 She died in 1S99. Domela called his children after socialists: Karel after Marx. Cesar after
Cesar De Paepe from Flanders. And Domela said he called Louise after Paris Commune leader
Louise Michel; but MEYERSC1993), 385, doubts that. Ibid., 215-6, suggests without conclusive
proofs diat Domela and Annie Besant, who had met at the Freethought congress in Amsterdam in
1883, had an affair in 1890-91.

242

!\'. 2

243

was a fraud." Later, Van Steenis 5 broke with anarchism as he joined thatTS.

This one may see as a pattern we also saw in others' biographies, of convergence
between rightward political and TS-ward philosophical trends. Just before he joined,
Johan van Manen, later TS magazine for Indonesia editor, still later Mrs Besant's
Commonweal editor, had anarchist sympathies. 1

In spite of theosophist attacks on anarchism, at least two Dutch (ex) -anarchists joined
the TS (Point Loma): J. Sterrfhga, a bookseller; and W, Meng, an ex-preacher whose
'anarchist views melted away forever' when he joined.* Dutch architect and TS (Adyar)
member Lauweriks at first illustrated Meng's magazine.'

The paper Recht voor Allen, like Domela slowly evolving from social democrat to
anarchist, on 10 Nov. 1896 reported a speech by Meng on 'Property, seen from a
theosophical viewpoint,' RvA commented it was 'as useful as from a plumbers'
viewpoint'; it 'could not make head or tail of the speech In RvA, 'Akratcs' [F. DrionJ
thought Meng 'dangerous'; instead of fighting for a belter society, he 'stared at the
volumes' of Schopenhauer and others *

In widely read anarchist paper De Vrije Sociaitsi MA. Rabbie, who had visited
theosophic meetings as an observer, critically described theosophy as 'theology's last
refuge'. 7 Rabbie and editor Domela Nieuwenhuis attacked Sterringa aboui theosophic
authoritarianism. Welcker describes Sterringa's Ft. Loma society questionably as less
authoritarian than Adyar.* fn matters of authority and democracy, Domela Nieuwenhuis
compared theosophists with the Roman Catholic church. He concluded in favour of
popes, whom at least a few score cardinals elected. 9 He also criticized Sterringa's
disparagement of trade unions and his remark on 'materialist' anarchist workers:

And out of whs) miserable motives did they join (unions^ Fear of unemployment and hunger:
As if ii would be bad for humanity if they statved'" 1

'HOUKESf^S), 32,

3 WELCKER, 482 f.

J RICHARDUS, 2; 66. M. LUTYENS(I975) and NETHERCOT misspell Johanrt

' ! HOUKES{1995). 32.

BAX(Wl), 49-51. She describes, ibid., up to 18% as Lauweriks anarchist period' without
mentioning (he shift in Meng's magazine

'HOUKESCmS), 32.

T RABBIE(1898A),

WELCKER, ibid. The oath of R. Crosbie. and others who then still were his fellow members,
to Leader and Official Head Tingley rat): 'I ... recognizing the person called Purple as being the
ageni of the Master I serve ... do hereby unreservedly pledge myself to unquestioning loyalty and
obedience to her ... with my life if need be ... So Help me my Higher Self.' OELC Nov -Dec
1934,

'DOMELA NIEUWENHUIS(1898). That was not friendly to theosophists, as Domela
considered die church of Rome to be the ultimate opponent of anarchism; A, DEJONG, 7!.
l °STERRINGA<)898B).

Domela Nieuwenhuis wondered how Sterringa could reconcile this with the tenet
proclaimed in theosophy, of the brotherhood of humanity. Contrary to Van Steenis,
Sterringa wanted to continue as both an FTS and an anarchist. He defended authority in
theosophy by comparing occult knowledge to knowledge of potentially dangerous
chemicals. From the DVS discussion, though, one can tell that his reputation among
anarchists had received a blow.

Rotterdam anarchist Damme wrote a booklet against the TS in 1916. ' Dutch atheist
and anarchist Anton Constandse in 1929 (the TS' zenith) wrote a brochure against
spiritualism and theosophy. He based his criticism on Annie Besant's The changing
World, which said:

In India ... the submerged classes ... are far happier ... instead of blaming their neighbours,
blame diemselves for the discomfort of their own position, and sometimes determine that their
next birth shall be a happier one by making the very best they can of the disadvantages -here, ,.,
If you are trampled on, you must recognise that it is only yourself of die past trampling on
yourself or die prcseni . J
He also quoted a then recent Dutch TS leaflet: 'Only seemingly these inequalities, which
will remain with man for one earthly life, are imposed on him from the outside, in
reality, they are based on differences in experience, or man himself lias built (hem up in
former lives, according to nature's laws.'
Constandse's comments were:

One may see that (his nonsense is veiy reactionary .. I do not need to show thai these fantasies
jusl aim to reassure the rich capnalisl and guaranlee his riches as deserved property, while one
leaches (he poor person (ha( only through repenting and patience he may improve himself
Still more materialist than Christianity, one promises io the exploited prole very tangible
advantages .... (,., in original] in a future (hat keeps one waiting forever. And meanwhile, one
expropriates him, very surely, owing (o extraordinary' virtuoasness!

in June 1911. French anarchists (and. for different reasons. Roman Catholics) waged
action against Annie Besanl speaking at Ihc Paris Sorbonnc university/ Leadheaier
reaffirmed the stand against anarchism in the \920's i

3.CONCLUSIONS OF PART IV

Was the Theosophical Sociely apolitical? was our first question. From the material in this
part, we answer it negatively. On Indie Weerbaar and other issues, the TS in Indonesia
did not heed their opponent Henk Sneevliet's advice to keep out of politics. Nor did
Annie Besant or George Arundale in India.

Now, our second question, on leftist or rightist politics. In 1875, right after founding

TH1SSEN, 16.

2 BESANT(1910Q, 28; 240 .
5 CONSTANDSE(1929), 24.
"RANSOM(1938), 392.
5 LEADBEATER(1922), 85.

244

in New York, Madame Blavatsky already considered TS membership incompatible with
socialism. After that, there sometimes was open opposition, sometimes, as in Finland in
the I900's, attempts to make the socialists substitute class struggle by 'love and mutual
understanding between the classes.'

In Indonesia, especially since 1916, there were conflicts with the political labour
movement, first mainly on conscription, since 1918 mainly on revolution. In India, the
political labour movement gained momentum later than in Indonesia; in contrast w
national movements in both countries. The 1920's saw the TS conflicting with trade
unions and communists of India. Both in India and Indonesia, the theosophisis'
headquarters, respectively school, had industrial disputes.

Most Marxists saw religion as a 'private matter'. Marxists tended to comment but
rarely on theosophists unless both groups became involved in a particular political issue.
Anarchists already in the 1890's tended more to seek out the TS and criticize their
philosophy. Marty Bax ascribed to the TS 'Ties with socialism, anarchism.' One should
modify this. The links as for movements were more often of antagonism than of
sympathy.

As for biographies of individuals, like Annie Bcsant, Senator Reid in Australia, Van
Hinloopen Labberton in Indonesia, their socialism or anarchism was mostly in different
phases than their theosophy. The few, like Sterringa and Resink, who really tried to link
the two faced strong opposiiion: their attempts did not last. This is not truly surprising
for a Society, of which, as Bax herself wrote 'A major part belonged to the Dutch
patrictaat [old established layers of the bourgeoisie; gentryj and the nobility, of whom
some figured prominently in the Dutch business world." One might make more or less
similar remarks on other countries.

] BAX(1994),

245
PART V.IMPERIALISM, HOME RULE, NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE

1. IMPERIALISM

There are many different theories of imperialism. One may distinguish at least two types
in the history of ideas.

On the one hand, Hobson, Lenin, many Marxists, and many economic historians, say
that imperialism started about 1870. The basis of earlier colonialism had been mostly
trade; unequal trade, if your position was strong enough. Strategic military points, mostly
along coasts, protected that trade.

Since the 1870-71 Franco-German war, and French reparation payments after it, big
banks could consolidate into 'financial capitalism'. Deeper military, political and econ-
omic penetration of many countries worked to integrate these into the capitalist world
market 'on periphery'. Now, china or spices were no longer thai central in the world
economy. Agricultural and mineral raw materials, not necessarily from coastal areas,
were. So were direct investments.

The US. Japan, big and some small European countries, all had their own ideologists
to justify this. Olcott referred to one of them, prominent FTS:

that great scholar and renowned publicist. Dr. Hilbbe-Schleidcn, the acknowledged author of

iliat German policy of colonial expansion which Prince Bismarck fashioned out or bis writings. 1

Another view of imperialism saw it as not so linked to a specific period, or to
economics; rather as natural', timeless', projecting back into, say, the Roman empire,"
both practices and ideologies, Thcosophist authors also argued on these lines.

It was his love of law and order (hat moved the Roman to annex the barbarian without, (bat he

too might enjoy die benefits of Roman ]aw, J

Kiewiel de Jonge during the First World War described his post-war expectations

'ODL, "/T July 1903. 582, WEHLER saw Hiibbe-Schleiden as central -though no: the only one-
to German colonial! st dicory. He did not say much on his practice as a senior official, or a planter in
West Africa; or on the TS. Dutch colonial politician VAN DEDEM, 466, got along well with
Hubbe-Schleiden.

^The Earl of Cromer (of Barings Bank]: Greater Britain and greater Rome; Lenin wrote against
him. Or ancient Middle Easi realms: the 'British Israel Movement', including politicians Lord
Vansillan and Jan Smuts, prime minister of South Africa and die first to use the word 'holism',
religiously sanctioned the British empire by claiming not Jews, but British and related peoples were
the true descendants of Israel, the British kings descended from the ancient Israel kings, and in
building the Great Pyramid Egyptians had used the English inch as a measure; JANSSEN(1954),
24f; 'Een strijd om de Cheops- Py ram ide', TMNI 1923, 353-64. Or 16th century Portugal: TS-
influenced poet and international business correspondent Fernando Pessoa believed in a new
civilizing Portuguese empire in the near future; then, King Sebastiao would return after three and
half centuries, and he himself would be Luis de Camoes reincarnate. PERKONE-MOISES, 87-8.

} J. WILKJNSON(1930), 491. Caesar in the accounts of his wars was more cynically honest.

246

V.I

If then from this, or a next, war. a state or group of states will emerge al! powerful, and will
accept political leadership of the world without being challenged, then the nations will be able to
rejoice about the amplification of their international law horizon, even though this hegemony
may seemingly be a usurpation. For thus already to the Greeks seemed Alexander's [the Great
of Macedonia] empire, to Ihe Gauls Julius Caesar's rule, to the West European nations
Charlemagne's or Napoleon's rule- and look at bow beneficial the
consequences of those reigns, often maligned in their times,
were for the organization of mankind!

H such a world power should rise again, then we should trust either in history's eternal
principles, or in Divine Providence -and is not that the same as the former- that, as after
democracy's victory [in Athens before Alexander] and internal strife, in Hellas Alexander
appeared, in Rome Augustus, in France Napoleon- that also thus at the head of that world-ruling
stale, or group of stales, a world ruler shall appear in order to organize mankind with a firm
hand, according to modem tendencies of development and to remove what would hinder ihe new
social and political structures. 1

Annie Besant 'represented the extreme anti-imperialistic spirit' in the 1870's and
8G"s. : She then spoke of England's 'bullying, boasting, cruel imperialism'; of its 'land-
stealing, piratical policy'. 5 But later:

when 1 was a young girl, brought up as [ was in a Whig [Liberal] family. 1 used m hear remarks
about ihe Colonies very different from the remarks 1 hear to-day. They were spoken of
grudgingly, with the hope that they would break away and make Kingdoms, Republics, as they
pleased, of their own. They were not looked upon as pans of a might; Empire ... And in the
Colonies themselves there was much of the same idea- independence, separation ... But how
dtfferenl now! 4

In the April 1912 editorial of Tlie Theosophist. Annie Besam quoted a 'noble'
editorial of the Financial News, as that paper was 'spiritualising the business world', also
on Britain's links to its Empire:

The last iwenly years have wrought a great change in us, and especially in the mosl deeply
reflective section of the community made up of its business men. ... There, with almost furtive
quietude, has arisen the conviction that while we must bate no jot of our endeavour to extend
and fortify our material prosperity, our success is not the end in itself, but only the means to its
attainment. Every factor in (he outlook at (his most critical period in Ihe history of the world is
full or suggestion thai the uplifting of humanity depends upon the blending or the material and
the mystic. Is ii coincidence, or is it Design, thai has joined under one Imperial flag ihe fearless
(Indian) adepts of (he mystic and occult, and the restless conquerors of the material resources of

'KIEWIET DE JONGE(1917B). 238-9. Ibid., 239: 'South Africa (after the Boer War] has
shown how fast both phases of usurpation and political community can follow one another.'
Alexander the Great was a theosophical Master, according to Besani's The Ancient Wisdom. 4; as
quoted LUNS, 24.

] BAKSH1, 27.

3 BESANT(1877A), 4; 6ESANT(1893), 175; quoting from earlier writings, BESANT(1877A),
3: 'our inhuman cruellies'.

*BESANT(19UC), 18. BESANT(19198), 70, defined: 'An Empire is an assemblage of free and
subject Nations, with a common Government, which may be autocratic, or partly democratic'

Imperialism

247

the earth"* If we lum from the transient pomp and circumstance [of the English royal visit to
India] 10 the eternal verities behind ihem we may come to see that ihe onward path of
imperialism lies through a more intimate blending of Western modes of action with Eastern
habits of ihoughl. ... By this time we are all aware that to evoke the more permanent sumuh.
and lo arouse real enthusiasm among modern Imperialists, the notes of mysticism must be added
to the chord: and the resulting harmony will awaken East and West alike. '
Then Annie Besant and C.W. Leadbeater wrote about imperialism as not limited to
any age of imperialism, nor to planet Earth. On an island on the moon, millions of years
ago where comparatively 'good savages' lived:

help comes from outside which quickens their evolution. A stranger lands upon the island, a

man of much higher type and lighter completion -a clear bright blue- than (he muddy-brown

islanders who cluster around him with much curiosity and admiration. He comes lo civihsc the

islanders who are docile and teachable, in order lo incorporate them in ihe Empire, from the

capital city of which he has come ... they ... decide lhai he is a God, and proceed lo worship

him... 2

Other savages, on planet Earth's satellite, were not docile:

Some of the humanity of the Moon succeeded in going beyond (he Arhai Initiauon, and (heir

superiors were evidently from a humaniiy which had reached a far higher stage.

1, was from These that an order reached the Ruler of the c.iy -which was die capnal of a
large Empire- fo. the extermination or the savages of ihe mainland coasts. The exped'"°« was
led by Viraj . wilh Mars' under him .. The extermination of ihe savages -though done in
obedience to an order ihal none dared lo disobey- was regarded by ihe soldiers, and even by
most of Ihe officers, as only part of a political plan of conquest, intended to enlarge Ihe borders
of (he Empire these tribes stood in ihe way, and therefore had lo be cleaned out of it.

From (he higher standpoint, a stage had been reached beyond which these savages were
incapable of advancing on the Moon Chain, bodies suitable 10 their low slage of evoluuon bemg
no longer available . - U was the 'Day of Judgment' of the Moon Chain, ihe separation between
ihose who were capable and ihose who were incapable of further progress on dial Chan,

M. of the Grcal While

'AG, IVT.TTApr. 1912. 6-7.

; BGSANT and LEADBEATER(T913), 45f.

J Viraj and Mars: 'star names' Tor the Maha Chohan and Master
Brotherhood.

J BESANT and LEADBEATER(I913). 48ff. As for the past, so fo. ihe future: Uadbeater

discussed the esoteric meaning of the Las. Judgment; LEADBEATER0913). 209: a. the end of this

Round conditions will be 'specially adapted to favour rapid progress of more advanced Egos and will

no longer agree wilh entities stuck into an inferior stadium of evolution. The crass vibrations of the

violent passions and lowly and bad sentiments, necessary to develop the inert and barely organized

asiral body of die savage, will no longer be of use. In a world where a high intellectual and sptnlual

development will prevail ... the existence of savage races, with unrestrained passions and having

only the will to Tight, would evidently be a source of many difficulties and serious complications ...

The best course possible, and the most profitable for ihem. is simply to exclude them from this

evolution and have them wail [for millions of years] for the next planetary chain.' Ibid., 21 1: 'This

condition requires a peaceful and comemplative life thai would become impossible if on earth savage

races always ready for aitack and massacre, should still remain.' A paraphrase of these ideas ,n

LEADBEATER(1905A), 19. HNABAlAnASAri«9). 34 pr oposed a 'Central Board of Trus tees

| ,-"" ~"""V jl COMPARATIVE HEUGIGUS STUDIfs]
I ' '■■'-.• 1 1 ' loo* nw

248 V.2

2.H0MERULE. INDEPENDENCE

During relatively short, but sometimes crucial, periods, the Theosophicai Society
stimulated some Home Rule movements. For the two most important countries which we
will discuss, India and Indonesia, one may put these periods roughly at 1913-1918.

The TS could not go along with, and was bypassed by, subsequent demands for
independence and social revolution. We have discussed theosophists' problems with
social revolution. Problems with non-co-operation strategies, which theosophists had in
Ireland, India, and Indonesia, Annie Besant explained from the TS' basic principles; sec
p. 262f. An obstacle to going along with movements as they radicalized was the
theosophical leaders' view of 'the great World Empire of the fifth [Aryan] race', 1 based
on the British empire. 2

for Backward Peoples': somewhat akin to the 'ulira-imperialism' concept of some German social
democrats.

'VAN GINKEL0915), 68. 20 years after the Secret Doctrine, Besant wrote her Pedigree of
Man as a summary of the lalter; TS treasurer Schwarz further summarised. Of the Aryan successors
lo (lie Allanfeans, the most recent branch had a global political future ahead: 'FIFTH SUB-RACE.
The Teutonic. Also migrating westwards, occupied all Central Europe, and is now spreading over
(he world. It has occupied the greater part of North- America, it has seized Australia and New
Zealand and is destined to build a world-empire and lo sway the destinies of civilisation {pp. 150.
15I).'SCHWARZ(1905), 554. table K: 'The Eiflh or Aryan Race'. References to ABs Pedigree of
man. VAN GINK£L(19I5). 67: 'with the Teuton, one Sees the long skull, the blond hair, the blue or
light-coloured-eyes' .

*Sec p. 77f. : VAN GINKELU915), 62f In her Theosophy and Imperialism, BESANT<19I6C),
480. wrote on the British empires future: 'The racial lie in the Empire would be the Aryan. As ail
the Nations in it descend from a common ancestor; and curiously enough, it would include the five
sub-races already evolved-lhe Indian, the Persian exiles in India, the Egyptian, (he Kelt, (he Teuton.'
Ibid., 4S2: 'India will bring to the common stock her sublime ideals of spirituality, or social inter-
dependence, her higher standard of social honour, of the duty of the individual to Ihe whole of which
he is a part. Such a body politic as will be (his Aryan empire (he world has never yc( seen. The
combination of qualities in the constituent Nations will create a Federation unexampled in the history
of the world. ... The various branches of the Aryan Race, developed in different environments, will
unite in one splendid Imperial Brotherhood, the greatest the world has seen since the City of the
Golden Gate [capital of the empire of the Atlanlean race's 'highest phase'] was ruined, and ihat
Aryan Empire shall rise higher and higher, until it overtops all that have gone before, (he marvel of
a world, the glory of Aryan humanity.' She saw the British empire as the basis for the Aryan
empire, basing herself on theosophisl Lieut. -Col. Peacocke's 'British Empire Desiiny', in The
Leader of Mombasa, quoted BESANT(1920A), 206f; 208-9: 'Our Lieut. -Colonel proceeds, after
speaking of what I have called "The Inner Government of the World": You may now be asking:
what has all this to do with the establishment of a British Empire? Well, if God (or Providence) be a
reality and not a mere pious fancy, if He has a definite object in the creation of humanity, and if die
growth of humanity is being guided towards the achievement of that object, it is surely of no small
importance to decide what type of people shall be entrusted for a time with extensive power in the
world and the right of governing other peoples of various types and Faiths, and so effecting their
future development. ... Having proved suitable, it was decided that the British should be entrusted

Home rule. Independence

249

The nation that shall lead tomorrow, that shall have a role comparable to d:at of Manu. of
Tather. shall probably be England; on the mother, or Bodlusattwa side, we shall have India.'
In, say, India's case, one should not tear asunder the links of empire because Indians
belong to the same, Aryan, root race. And in, say, Africa's case, one should not tear
asunder because Africans do not belong to the Aryans; and should learn from their elder
brothers. When The African Times and Orient Review asked Mrs Besant how she saw 'the
interests of the coloured races', she replied, linking 'racial' to British internal social
inequalities;

English liberty . . . cannot be suddenly transplanted into communities where die very alphabet of
self-government is still to be learned. English liberty is now in danger, in consequence of too
sudden and ioo large introductions of masses of ignorant people into the sphere of government
[many of the workers recently got the vote], and a similar policy in hiiherto non-self governing
peoples would have similar results. The partial measure of self-government given laiely to India
will make possible, ere long, ihe inclusion of all her educated classes in (he governing class; bul
India is capable of exceptionally rapid progress, because she already possesses an ancient and
splendid civilisation, and has merely lo adapi herself 10 (he new methods. ... 'Coloured men' is
a wide lemi. and includes very differenl types, and no one system can be applied lo all Some
coloured races are ihe equals of white races, while others are Tar more childish The besl heads
and hearts in both races should guide, while the more childish follow.
However, Cucnon's view

wc have the conviction, we iiugfii even say, certainly, that Ihcosophism ... is above all an
instrument a( British imperialism's service ,
smacks loo much ofcxplaming world history by conspiracies.

Annie Besanl preferred world empires; not just outside, but also inside Europe;

Yei Europe owes Hungary much for her resistance to ihe Turks The multitude of small States
created a( Trianon form a setback Tor the cvoluiion of ihe United Stales of Europe.
Now. wc will look at Home Rule, ami -colonial, and national (sometimes: nationalist)
movements in three Asian counlries

with the projected World Empire.' Pcacocke was cousin to the Marquess of Ely; ex-major in (he
Boer War; TMNI 1913, 181: and ex-president of ihe South African TS; TS Annual Report on 1903,
118.

'French FTS G. Revel: De Van 25000 avanl Jesits-CJirist a nos jours: quoted GUENON(l92l).
293. Anna Kingsford. Tiie Perfect Way, quoted GUENON(1921). 294: 'the existing connection
between England and India elevates itself from the political into the spiritual sphere.'

2 ' Inarticulate wrongs'. JTSepl, 1912. 856.

3 GUEN0N(I921). 281.

Vt Trianon the post-World War 1 treaty with Hungary was concluded. 1927 London speech by
Besanl, TT Apr. 1936, 92. Hungary's dictator- Regent, Horthy, invited Besant in 1929 to an
audience. FEJCETE. 90.

250 V.2

A.iNDIA

l.Lord Cunton and other viceroys

Before we go into the relationship with eventually the major opponent of colonial rule,
the Indian National Congress, we go into relations to that rule as British viceroys
represented it.

In Annie Besant's view, the Himalayan Mahatmas' hierarchy included a 'Spiritual
Viceroy' of India. 1

The first earthly Viceroy of British India we will deal with was one of the most
controversial: Lord Curzon. Long before becoming viceroy, in 1887, he had called at
Olcott's in Adyar to discuss theosophy. 3 Looking back, TT approvingly mentioned
George Nathaniel Curzon, M.P., as he still was in 1894:

... displays that same brave declaration of opinion ... that have been so conspicuous!}' shown
since his coming to India. He writes to Mr. [W. T.] Stead 'I entirely sympathize with your
projected publication of a quarterly review dedicated to the examination of so-called spiritual or
supernatural phenomena

In contrast to Annie Besam herself five years earlier (see p. 252). in 1899 the British
Secretary of State for India (1899-1903), Lord George Hamilton, thought that she still
mattered in the sphere of politics. He wrote to his fellow Conservative Lord Curzon'

Havelock told me that Mrs. Besam has been very useful in Madras in combating the Congress
leaders, and denouncing Western methods of agitation as wholly unsuited to India, and
endeavouring to establish a system of modem education associated with definite religious and
moral iraining." 1

According to Hamilton, Besant's Central Hindu College was a good antidote to
secular education.' Viceroy Curzon expressed his sympathy with Hindu College 6 . He also
visited the Adyar TS headquarters in 1900,' TT praised Curzon repeatedly*; at a time

'CLEATHER(1922A).

*RANSOM(1938). 244.

J July 1903, ODL, 578f. Unlike from Curzon, Stead got a 'scornful' reply from Prof. Ray
Lankester; see p. 139.

^'Letter of George Hamilton to Curzon about Annie Besant's proposal for a college at Benaras,
9 Augusi 1899'. in: GROVER(1967), 207.

S GR0VER(1967),52.

6 'Lord Curzon's sympathy with the Centra] Hindu College scheme'. TT. suppl. Feb. 1899. xxi-
xxii.

'j!NARAJADASA(1925), 229. See also Olcott in ODL, TT, Sept. 1906, 882.

*7T Apr. 1899, 447: 'It looks very much as if he were going to be the greatest viceroy we have
had since Warren Hastings [first British governor-general in India; since 1773]'; May 1899, 509;
1901-02. 253 'A Great Viceroy*; Feb. 1903, 317. TT, Apr. 1906, 557, quoted Curzon's 'wise words
to the graduates of the Calcutta University last year', on India: 'public opinion ... should treat

Home rule. Independence

251

when he was very unpopular in India. 1 During Lord Cirzon's time in office, a

theosophist reviewed a critical book by an Indian:

It contains much that is good and helpful, but at the same time there is much thai is misleading
concerning the methods of Western countries, and, I think, concerning the intentions of
Government in India, One serious mistake the author makes is to class the Australian aborigines
and the American red Indians with the natives of India. 2
A big issue in 1905 was Curzon's partition of Bengal, Students at Annie Besant's

CHC went shoeless as a protest against it. AB herself stood at the gale 'and refused to

admit any student without shoes.' 5

When Annie Besant was in a left phase, Lord Curzon warned against women's

suffrage in England because of the effect in India. She then called him

a late viceroy, more popular over here than in India whilst he was there.*
By 1917. relations had not gone back to their earlier friendly footing. Curzon then
said in a British cabinet session on India

the rcvoluiionary propagandists of (lie genre of Tilak and Mrs Besant were dangerous, and in ihe
Easl things were apt to move wuh Ihe startling rapidity of a prairie fire. 5

At the end of 1916, just before Curzon's attack on her, Annie Besant had taken a
defiant stand against those directly below the Viceroy; a stand, different from immediate-
ly earlier or later periods in her life:

No Governor, no Chief Commissioner can hinder one who works only for God °

In July 1906, Annie Besant praised Lord Curzon's successor Lord Minlo. 1 She

Government as a power io be influenced, noi as an enemy to be abused. Some day, I hope, this will
come.'

'ALL I2f. MAJUMf>AR(1969). L When Lord Curzon left India in November 1905. the
whole couniry heaved a sigh of relief. Perhaps no oilier Governor-General excited such bitier haired
or provoked such ill feelings in ihe minds of ihe people"; including moderates like G.K. Gokhale.
TJIPTO MANCOENKOESOEM00928), 15 characterized Curzon; 'autocrat-despising all ihe
people's rights.'

~X(I903), On S Yirabhadra Sarma, Universal Problems.

J NETHERCOT(1963), 87, The British authornies noied ABs firm position'; M.N. DAS, 31.
Sisier Nivedita (Margarcl Noble), of Swami Vivekananda's organization, living in Bengal, differed:
'she sided with those who advocated the most radical measures of protest' against ihe partition;
MAC MILLAN, 218. TJIPTO MANGOENKOESOEMO(l928), 18-9 and Sukarno's foreword saw
it similarly. Bengal was reunited in 1912.

'BESANT(1914B), 15f, Already BESANT(191 1C), 167: 'the evil results of Lord Curzon's
vice royalty.'

J Quoted WHITE, 98. Curzon later became father-in-law of British fascist Leader Sir Oswald
Mosley.

6 BESANT(1917A), 27-8.

7 ln Central Hindu College Magazine. July 1906: quoted TT. Aug. 1906, 875. MAJUMDAR(1969).
2, called Minto's rule (1905-1910) 'a tyrannical regime' in meting out punishment to die 'seditious',

252

V.2

repeatedly called for a Royal Viceroy 1 with an unlimited term of office, instead of the
usual five years .

2. Beginnings. 'Congress and its mother body, our Society*. What is Svarajl

The first session of the Indian National Congress was in 1885. Organizations like the

Madras Mahajana Sabha, consisting of local Brahmans, 'several of whom were theo-

sophists', had prepared the way for it. 1 According to Annie Besant, TS impact on the

politics of India did not start with her; Blavatsky and Olcott had brought the charter of

India's freedom from the White Lodge, but were unable to stir Indians into united

action.' in LucL, Dec. 1889. appeared an article by H,P. Blavatsky 'Our three objects':

... Congress, This remarkable political body was ... [made] by ... our Anglo-Indian and Hindu

members after the model and on the lines of the Theosophical Society, h has ftom the first been

directed by our own colleagues, men among ihe most influential of the Indian empire ... At the

same time, there is no connection whatever, barring lhat through the personalities of individuals,

between (he Congress and its moihcr body, our Society. 1

British official A.O- Hume was important to the early days of Congress, as its
secretary from 1885 until 1906. By then, though, he was more critical of the TS Ulan
during the relatively short lime he had been a member. 5

In the Mahatma letters to Siniieu were frequent references to the 1880's Ubert Bill
proposal, 6 which angered many British residents in India. It would have allowed Indian
judges to preside in trials of Europeans; the Mahatma letters opposed the angry reactions,
but considered the Bill extreme' The llbert Bill was withdrawn. Olcoii thought the
British might 'rule through love' if (hey were (0 undctstand India more.'

in spile of some reforms in accessibility of government positions lo Indians.

'TTNov, 1908,99; BESANT(19I0B). BESANT(I91 IC), 17). WT, 7TDec. 1915.236-7

3 WOLPERT(1977). 262.

'NETHERC0T(I963), 434; quoting AB in 7TJan. 1930.

4 HPB in 1890 in LB- When the political agnation slarled. ihe National Congress was modelled
afler our plan.,.'; quoted GUEN0N{I921), 283

5 PR1CE0986A), 40. For a short lime after 1881, Hume was a TS vice presidcnl;
J1NARAJADASA(1925). 253. VAN LEEUWEN(1921H). 1 10. defending HPB againsl Count Wine,
confused Hume with American spiritualist Dame) D, Home,

*77/, Oct. 1985, 198.

y ODL, 11, 382. Olcotl contrasted British Raj favourably lo ils Mogul predecessors; 'one cannoi
refrain from being thankful that this cesspool of animalism [the Mogul harem, etc.] has been purged
by the inrush of a purer and nobler civilisation'; ODL, TT, Oct. 1898. 129. Olcotl on Lucknow,
former royal capital of Audh: over it 'hangs -if one looks at it from the standpoint of ihe higher
planes (clairvoyantly)- ihe dark cloud of (he aura of the sensual and self-seeking character of the
ruling class which made it, up to ihe time of (he British Conquesi, a cess-pool of animality. ' TT, July
1906, 723, TT, Oct. 1898, 54-5, reviewed C.P. Hogan's Text-Book of Official Procedure of the
British India government; 'Hence Local Governments and Administrations, nay every Native Chief

Home rule. Independence

253

Pan of the interest that Annie Besant had evoked in Indians since she first came in
1893 was her Irishness, Irish and Indian anti-colonial movements have a long history of
mutual influence on one another; and on Indonesia. 1

Mrs Besant could not. though, impress Indians with a strong TS in Ireland. The T&
early on attracted influential Irish individuals; W.B. Yeats, 'AE', C. Despard. Also.
Maud Gonrve 1 Conflicts, however, kept the organization small. Relatively much smaller
than in the other island colony in Europe, Iceland. Though Indian politics might interest
some Icelanders, Asians did not take much notice of Iceland.

On 18 February 1894. Annie Besant made her first speech to an Indian National
Congress session, in Lahore.' Nethercoi paraphrased her in 1894: 'Her work in the
sphere of politics was over ... she would never resume it." But she had spoken i few
months before aboui 'eight centuries of conquest and degradation'; meaning at the hands
of both Muslims and Britons.*

When in 1922 she looked back at her pre-1913 phase, she denied her Life then had

been really apolitical:

In polu.es 1 worked more in England than in India, well knowing thai until pride in India was
amused, pride in her [Hindu] pas' and hope for her fu.ure. until social self-respect and

in India could not do beticr lhan reorganize iheir Secretaria.s on the basis of .hose or the
Government of tad* in which ease, the Te,.-Book of Official Procedure would be cminemty
useful towards the accomplishment of the object'.

'(NGLESON(1974) 9. ALL 15; DANCE, vol. I, 44; TAYLOR(1992). 270-1. A. .he 1894
Congress session. Irish MP Alfred Webb pres.ded. another Irish MP sharply *«^" *«£
R overnment and Annie Besant spoke, VAN DEDEM, 482f. Compare also O CONNOR. 71
A E' {George Russell), editor of the MO, Saves*™, tclhng ... Indians how to understand
Gandhi ' Jawaharlal Nehru's sister, Vijaya Lakshmi Pand.t, when she was 16 won a gold medal
for an essay on Ireland's Easter r.s.ng; J. Nayak (ed.). lnd,on HW.W. Then and No*. Indore.
Salprakasl.an. 1983. 255. Maybe .here was also an occult mutual influence with Ceylon: TT Nov.
1898. 126 wroie a Sinhalese Buddha image had been found in an Irish bog.

l MEADE, 402. She also joined (he TS' spin-oft" Golden Dawn Tor a shorl ume; bul by ai least
1902 she saw occultists as charlatans. COXHEAD. 30; 52.

5 ODL TTJan 1903 200; VAN DEDEM. 486. Conlrary .o SANGAT SINGH, 240 on AB: 'She
came lo .he Congress platform for the first lime in 1914.' Dharmapala, who sat next to Baron Van
Ded n t spcl in 1894. DIN NAG E( 1986), 107 lets Congress star, in 1906 21 years at. In
out of uie 3 region which were over-represented in Congress politics (Madras and Bombay), (he TS
was rebively strong; only in the third one, Bengal, i. was weak. Of 1 9.605 members of Congress
Sb were from Bengal 4.061 from Madras. 4.857 from Bombay. 6.740 from all other Indian
regions; M0RTIM£R(I983). 77.
J NETHERCOT(1963),23.

J WVW 16 She had also campaigned thai year for election of Dadhabhai Naoroji, first Indian
MP in the'British parliament; TAYLOR(1992), 271. That she had 'only success in English or
anglophile circles' in India (ENCYCLOPEDIA UNIVERSALIS; based on GU£NON(l921), 122)
is not right.

254

V.2

Home rule. Independence

255

independence were awakened, no strong basis existed for political liberty. 1
Unrest, and influence of 'extremists' in Congress, spread in various regions. In the
west, Tilak had contacts with both Bombay workers and Hindu clergy. In Bengal, British
authorities condemned young Satyendra to death for an attempt on an official's life. The
London Times of 1 Feb. 1909 praised Annie Besant's reaction, similar to that in 1905 on
Bengal partition, in an article 'Mrs. Besant and Indian Unrest'. At a meeting in
Bangalore, with Major -General Pilcher, FTS, 2 in the chair, and the dewan of Mysore,
V.P. Madhava Rao, C.I.E., present, she said on Satyendra's dtath sentence:

after the crime of political murder had been committed the law was bound to take its course, and
his mother's tears and prayers to the authorities, even to the King-Emperor himself, were to no
avail.

Mrs Besant told how in Poona she had asked to join her organization for 'good
citizenship,' She got as a reply that if that would help to release Tilak, then jailed in
Mandalay.

three-fourths of the student population would join (he movement. Her response was: Thanks.

On those terms we can do without your Poona help. '

So in 1913 Annie Besant did not really shift from apoliticism to politics, but rather to
a different approach in politics.

Dr. Nair, later to be co-founder of the non-Brahmin movement, in 1913 criticized
Annie Besant as too pro-empire. Besant just then though changed her views to a more
aclivc pro-Home Rule stand,

Lcadbeater was a staunch imperialist: what else than love holds this Empire
together?', he asked rhetorical ly,* The Australian Martyn reported private conversations
with him, in which, he said, Lcadbeater attacked Besant's politics/ Martyn, however, by
the time he reported this, had become CWL's bitter opponent. Leadbeater himself wrote
that on (he political work of Annie Besant, he held the viewpoint of the occultist: you
trust and follow. And the Ruler of the World had inspired the PTS on Home Rule. 5

How could Annie Besant combine her pro-British empire stance on the war, with a
Home Rule Tor india stance, which to colonialist diehards 4 was anti-British? According to
Jinarajadasa. AB had had a vision of

'Annie Besant, The /mure of Indian politics, quoted SHU KLA( 1960). 89.

l AdB March 1909. 176.

^The Great War, TTFeb. 1916, 517. See also T1LLETT( 1982), 149, 154.

"ibid., m(.\ seeFJ.W.S.

s NETHERCOT(1963), 217.

JINARAJADASA(1938), 54: some of them were extreme; an Australian on AB: "That's the
woman who worked to help the Germans win (he war." At the end of 1916, Besant tended to think
British India government leaders were among these diehards: '1 believe sometimes they thought that I
got it [her money] from the Germans. (Laughter). So they shut me out of Bombay and they shut me
out of the Central Provinces [Madhya Pradesh] (Cries of "Shame")'. BESANT(1917A), 27.

victory of the Allies, which was therefore fore -ordained. It was this fore-knowledge by Dr.

Besant of the victory of Britain and the Allies that made her go straight ahead and not swerve in

the political campaign of Home Rule for India even though the British Empire was at war. 1
She said British policy in India was an obstacle to an allied victory. 1 Newlndia wrote:

the ideal of Self-Go vemment for India along Colonial lines ... under the educative guidance of

British statesmanship until Colonial Autonomy is attained ... obliteration of all racial

privileges ... J

When Annie Besant swept to the left, at the head of her Home Rule League, and put
less emphasis on the link with Britain than either earlier on or later, she said:

The duty of the Theosophist in India is to teach patriotism here as the Englishman teaches it -and

rightly teaches it- in England. In India their patriotism must be love of their own land and only

secondarily of the Empire at large/

Her shift had increased theosophy's popularity in Indian politics, in late 1916. early
1917, as Dutch East Indies Government Secretary and ardent follower of Annie Besant,
A.G. Vreede, said, 5 Vreede wrote on aims, though:

Often -also with some English- (here is the wrong impression that India asks for complete

independence ... (though it would really like to see a Viceroy from (he royal family).

The 'delightfully vague' word Svaraf might mean both 'dominion status' and
"independence'. Many nationalists could live with that ambiguity at least for some lime:
they saw the former as possibly a transition, when the relationship of forces would permit
so, to the latter. India's communists wanted an unequivocal meaning of Svaraj %

So did Annie Besant and the TS; differently. They did not want that transition, in
1921, Mrs Besant would write that she left Congress owing to 'my refusal to countenance

'JINARAJADASAUS^S). 52,

"At the 1917 TS convention, she compared the situation with Old Testament Israelites, unable to
win a war until one of them, who had stolen something, had been punished: 'As long as the sin of
Ac ban is found within (he Allies camp, the victory will he postponed'. TMN1. 1918. 284-5.

J NETHERC0T(I963), 224

J BESANT(I9!7A), 60

^Then. Vreede visited India for three monlhs and attended Congress as a reporter for Koioniale
Studied magazine, VREEDE(I917B), 2: 'Theosophy, there it is, is the magic wand, which
immediately, on both sides, lakes away the "colourbar" ... and armed with that wand. 1 managed
with (he greatest of ease to collect my materials abundantly.'

V VREEDE()917B). 46.

7 BRECHER(1959). 71. A concept first raised at the 1906 Congress session by Dadhabhai
Naoroji. Tilak, quoted BAKSHI, 62: '1 don't care for any name.*

"in 'Point of View of the Masses', Masses, vol. I, 4. April 1925, reprinted: ADHIKARI(1974).
501 , they wrote of Congress leaders: 'whittling down the conception of Swaraj to dominion status . . .
under the inspiration, it seems, of Mrs Annie Besant, who has left preoccupation with the beatitudes
of Hindu philosophy for (he more urgent task of assuring British domination in India under some
form or other. Apparently she has not been able to inspire among her fellow members of the
committee that love for "the British connection" with which she herself is consumed.'

256 V.2

"Self-Government within or without the Empire'":'

the votes of the local Congress organizations show that they no longer want Dominion Home
Rule, but independence. 1 hold to the union between Great Britain and India as vital to both
countries. 1

Dominion status to many Indians had been a matter of tactics; to Besant, it was a final
goal,' divinely sanctioned. In his biography, Jinarajadasa summed up her views:

It will be seen from the ideals which she proclaimed that not only was there never any dream

of the independence of india, but there was a clear enunciation that India was to remain a

member of the British Empire under the headship of its Sovereign (the kingj .*

So it was a matter of principle, connected to the Aryan world empire to grow out of

the present British empire.' A matter of principle, based on her doctrines of the Inner

Government of the World and Root-Races. It implied that British Aryans should not ride

roughshod over Indian fellow Aryans. It also implied, though, that Indians should not

separate from their fifth sub-race brethren. No writer, I think, ever emphasized how

important these esoteric 'apolitical' ideas were for understanding her politics. After she

had joined the Theosophical Society, Besant never again became a radical on whether

complete independence, or rather something short of that, was the ultimate end; as apart

from being for some time a radical on means.

!f little more than the British crown ties dominions 10 Britain, and if the king-emperor
is little more than a figurehead, then one may argue that dominion status and indepen-
dence do not differ much. We will see, however, on p. 320 that Annie Besant did not
want (he king to be merely a figurehead.

One may have a speculative theory about the British empire, instead of dissolving as
really happened, democratizing, which would have given a key-position to India.
Gandhi's slogan in his South Africa years 'We are citizens of (he Empire' pointed more
or less in that direction. 6 What separated Annie Besant from this 'democratized empire'
view 7 were not just her ideas on Africans and other people, but her opposition to

'BESANT(1921A), 309.

J BESANT(1921A), 308.

J Al leasi for this Manvanlara. S. Subramanya Iyer, Nl, 25-8-1924, 5 put the accent a bit
differently: 'the oldest branch f!ndia| of the Aryan Race capable of contributing to (he well-being
of mankind as much as, if not more than, (he laier and comparatively smaller branch laying a false
claim to superiority .,.'

< JINARAJADASA(1986), 30-1; written in 1932.

5 See p. 266. A(YAR(I924), 60: 'to enable [England and India], in spile of (heir differences ..
10 iead the Aryan civilisation ofihe future ,.,'

6 Lord Sinha, in his 7 March 1919 speech at the London Savoy Hotel, MONTAGU ei al., 28,
claimed 'the status of equal British citizens' for Indians.

T lndian communist Shapurji Saklatvala argued that view would never be put into practice: 'Equal
rights for India inside such an empire would be a grave danger to the British bourgeoisie, and not a
gift, and unless British domination can be preserved by hook or by crook, by terror or by polished

Home rule. Independence
universal suffrage even for poor 'Aryan' Indians or Britons. l

257

Indian National
Congress

Political spectrum of India, i9}8-1933

In the 1920s, a left to right spectrum had evolved in Indian politics: from (he
communists to Jawaharlal Nehru, to Gandhi, to Annie Besant: and from the viceregal
government to a paper like V\c Englishman on the extreme right *

3,Gokhale, Tilak, and Gandhi

G K. Gokhale's relationship to the TS was complex. Nethercol claims that he was an
earnest Theosopliist until his political conversion'; 3 and later that he was: 'an agnostic of
the old Darwin-Spenccr-Huxley ... school, and distrusted the mixing of religion

roguery, by (Conservative) baldwinism or [right wing Labour] macdonaldism, Britain has no use for
India within the empire'. Article 'The Simon Commission', Labour Monthly, 1927; repriiued
ADHIKARKI979), 295.

'See p. 249. MORTlMER(1983). 69: she did want a Parliament of the Empire': the franchise
for electing its Indian members would be limited to Indian MPs,

2 Tlie Indo-British Association, founded 30 October 1917 in London, also criticized the govern-
ment for conceding too much to indians. It represented pan of British businesses with Indian
interests; see the Maharajah of Bikaner's speech, 1 March 1919 at the Savoy Hotel in London;
MONTAGU et al., II.

5 NETHERCOT(1963), 2)9. JONES0989), 177: he was a member from 1890 till 1905; see also
WOLPERT(1962), 163, mentioning neither Gokhale's direct reasons for joining, nor for leaving

258

V.2

(especially Theosophy) and politics.' 1

Gandhi started his political life as Gokhale's pupil. Though he tried to be non-
sectarian, Hinduism influenced his political thinking, Jawaharlal Nehru, who thought that
'Religion, I feel, is the bane of India' sometimes criticized him for this. 1 According to his
autobiography, 1 Gandhi first got to know the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads, writings
central to his Hinduism, from theosophists in England, respectively South Africa. In
1895 in South Africa, he wrote about reincarnation doctrine: basing himself on
The Perfect Way, by ex-TS London Lodge president Anna Kingsford. instead of directly
on Hindu sources.' 1

When in London in 1889, he was interested in Mrs Besant; more so than in
H.P. Blavatsky. Annie Besant was one of four people whose portraits hung in his room. 5
When travelling through India, after he came back from Africa, he went out of his way
to visit her. 6

His view of Mrs Besant was higher than that of her TS. He refused to go to the I9J I
London Universal Races Congress.' That year, he wrote a letter, considering both
Leadbeater and theosophy 'humbug'.' In 1926, looking back at why he had never joined,
in spile of personal links and repeated requests, he wrote

What has been a bar to my joining the (Theosophical] society is its secret side-its occullism ll

has never appealed to me. 1 long to belong to the masses. Any secrecy hinders ilic real spirit of

democracy 5

Gandhi's politics on empire up to 1917 were not radically different from Annie
Besant's. He stood for supporting Britain militarily in the Boer War, the 1906 Zulu
uprising, and World War i. On the world war, his position was at first slightly to the
'right' of Besant. When she was interned, he wrote a letter to the viceroy, asking for
clemency for her it included a sentence lhai he thai he did not 'like much Mrs, Besant's
... political propaganda being carried on during the War'. 10 Gandhi would later regard his
call to enlist in the British armed forces as a mistake." Usually he was better at admitting

'NETHERCOT(1963), 220

i J. NEHRU<1972). vol. V, 545; speech in Lucknow, 24-9-1933. ALI, 37.

] GANDH1(194Q), 48; 115. L. RSHER(1984), 29. credits Sir Edwin Arnold, not the TS, with
Gandhi's getting to know the Gila. BORMAN, and PAREKH. do not mention (he TS, HPB or A B at
all.

'GANDHK1958). vol. I. 166. Ibid., 142; he introduced Mrs Kingsfords books to South Africa
and sold them.

*MUTHANNA, 78-9,

6 GANDHI(1940), 174,

'MUTHANNA, 105,

S MUTHANNA, 95-6.

''Young India 9-9-1926, quoted GANDHI(1958), vol. 31, 377.

I0 GANDHI(1958). vol. XIII, 464.

"ALI, 36. Tilak then, too, supported joining the British armed forces; SHAY, 131,

Home rule. Independence

259

earlier mistakes than either Annie Besant or Leadbeater,

At the 1915 Congress session, when Gandhi called the British government 'Satanic',
Mrs Besant interrupted him, telling not to use these words. 1 In the 1916 Benares incident,
Besant, supported by her Hindu University's princely financial backers, cut shod
Gandhi's speech against the princes' riches. Gandhi did not report it in his autobio-
graphy. 2

Lady Emily Lutyens in 1916 started a Home Rule for India League in England,
supporting Annie Besant's.' Besant reacted to (his:

1 think the Auxiliary Home Rule League should be started at once with Snowden, lansbury and

any others they select for officers. But I think you should keep out of this ... 1 bowed to

Mrs Besant's wishes and resigned ...
The reaction of Annie Besant to Emily Lutyens' resignation was:

To join the League and leave it rather does harm.

The Home Rule League attracted many Indian FTS, and many more non-FTS
Though the latter eventually became some five-sixths of its membership, geographical
distribution of its branches was roughly similar to (hat of the Theosophical Society. 3 This
disproves ideas on supposed widespread opposition to Annie Besant's politics* then, at
least in India. When the Home Rule League's Bombay branch started, 68 out of its 70
members were theosophists. After Mrs Besant was interned in 1917, however, this
changed drastically: linnah became its president and in hi; wake 'the whole legal
profession' joined. ? In Delhi, the local president was iheosophisi Miss Gmeiner,
headmistress of indraprashta girls' school. Colonial authorities in 1917, when their
conflict with the League came to its high point, withdrew the grant-in-aid of
Indraprashta. Also, rumours were spread, hy the police, people said, on girls' morality at
the school." A backbone for Besant was the 'Mylapore clique', called after the Madras
suburb between the city centre and Adyar.''

As Besant's internment diaries show, 1 " contrary to what both her opponents and

'COUSINS and COUSINS. 274.

2 GANDH1(I940). 356. only mentions meeting Malaviya then in Benares GANOl 11(1958), Xlll,
210L 243f

J E. LUTYENS, 79L The London Times' rcaclion in 1916 was: 'Cranky people in this couniry do
many mad things, bui surely the maddesi is to encourage a Home Rule agitation in India'. Quoted
NANDA, 54. A. VRELDEl I917B). 47: Jinarajadasa was League co- founder with Lady Emily.

"E. LUTYENS. 80,

5 OWEN(l%8). 172-3.

6 T1LLETT(I982), 159,

7 James Massetos, 'Some aspects of Bombay cily polities', in: R. Kumar (ed). Essays on
Gandhian Politics, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971; 153, In Ahmedabad, Vallabhbhai Patel, later
AB's opponent, was a member, B.B, M1SRA(1976), 177.

a SANGAT SINGH, 240.

"WASHBROOK, 239f.

10 OWEN(1968), 176,

260

V.2

supporters wrote, she was not always against passive resistance of a type, roughly similar
to thai of Gandhi.

The Theosophist in May 1917 reviewed Gandhi's saryagraha ideas. The review was
sympathetic; though wondering if 'the right men will come forward' for practice. 1

B.P. Wadia, Home Rule League lieutenant of Annie Besant before her controversies
with Gandhi and later with himself broke out, gave a religious colouring to resistance. In
a 25 November 1917 speech in Trichinopoly, he said:

The ideals of Passive Resistance so much approved of by the general public during recent

months are permeated through and through by the spirit of sacrifice. Our people were willing to

suffer for the good of the Cause-suffer without actively retaliating, suffer leaving the result of

their passivity to the devas and rishis and the Lords of Karma. ?

Annie Besant had brought Tilak back into Congress after their earlier antagonism.
Jointly with him, she had started two Home Rule Leagues: one for Tilak's West of India
region, one ied by her for the rest of India. Good relations did not last though.

Mrs Besant wanted to strengthen the presidency within India's Congress; the duty of
a leader is to lead.' When she made that presidential acceptance speech, many of her
audience were already objecting, 3 Her problem was that the National Congress was a
more democratic organization than the TS, let alone the ES.' Tilak objected to

the supremacy which she claims for her opinions in matters political under (he guise that she is

inspired by the Great Souls (the Mahatmas] and that such orders from them as she professes to

receive must be unqucsiioningly obeyed.

He summed up differences:

Aulocracy may be. and sometimes is, tolerated in theological and Theosophical Society matters.

bul in democratic politics we must go by (he decisions of the majority ... Congress rccogni7.es

no Matiatma to rule over it except (he Mahafma of majority. 5

At that lime, Annie Besant got also criticism for lack of democracy from within her
TS. As US president Wilson spoke of 'making the world safe for democracy', his
compatriots Alice and Foster Bailey, and Indian B.P. Wadia tried to do that for the
Theosophical Society. It expelled (hem from office. The Baileys and Wadia went separate

'W.D.S.E-Irown].. 'Mr, Gandhi on the 'Satyagrahashrama", 7T May 1917,235-6.

^WADlAtlPH), 10, Ibid., 27-8: 'And now let me close. The transitional stage of Indian
Nationalism is coming to an end. A New Age is upon us in this world-old country of ours. ... we
will bring our beloved Motherland, in the years to come, to repeat the charm and prosperity of
Ramachandra's [Rama's] Ayodhya.' Philip MECHANICUS in 1917 in De Locomotief wrote that
'"passive resistance" had been part of the program' of 'Mrs. Besant's supporters' 'since a long
time.'

} NETHERCOT(1963). 273.

4 ES leadership was for life, in the TS the presidency was in principle for seven years; in
Congress for one year. Her Home Rule League had elected Besant for three years; SITA-
RAMAYYA(1969), 126.

'Quoted TAYLOR0992), 315.

Home rule. Independence

261

ways. Wadia joined the. to Alice Bailey, 'fundamentalist' United Lodge of Theosophists, 1
which stayed small. Mrs Bailey, claiming contact with the Master DK from Tibet,
became leader for life of her Arcane School. She had doubts whether and when India
should become independent. She did not influence the debate there though. 1

When Mrs Besant visited Ahmedabad in March 1918, she and Gandhi still shared the
same carriage in a big procession. 3 Soon though, the rise of non-co-operation campaigns
led by Gandhi marked a downward trend for her.* 1 Imperiled with losing the majority for
her views in Madras Congress, Annie Besant 'packed' the provincial Congress committee
with supporters 'including European women and children'. 5

In a Speech against non-co-operation, Mrs Besant said:

Under the Gandhi Raj jrule] there is no free speech, no open meenng except for Non-co-

operators. Social and religious boycott, threats or personal violence, spitting, insults in ihe

streets, are the meihods of oppression. Mob support is obiained by wild promises, such as the

immediate coming of Swaraj, when there will be no rents, no la*es ...

Annie Besant also used caste as an argument in her 1919 opposition to Gandhi: he

had not confined moral-political issues to (he Brahmans where they belong, but involved

'the crowd'.' Sri Prakasa, who knew both, wrote: 'Mrs. Besant's appeal was more to the

middle class educated folk, while the Mahatma[Gandhi)'s was to ihc vast masses of the

country'.*

Bombay man Jamnadas Dwarkadas changed sides from Besant to Gandhi; so did
Benjamin G. Uorniman, editor of the Bombay Chronicle.'' Sometimes, someone changed
sides the oihet way around. Dhawala, an e\ -co-worker of Gandhi, spoke in Amsterdam
for the TS on 29 November 193) '" A talk between Annie Besant and Gandhi on 16

'liAILEY(195l), 189. Founded in 1909 by cjt-TS (Pt. Loma) members, dissatisfied with Katherine
Tingley's aulocracy. So not by W.Q. ludae, as in HUTIN, 1373, though tlie ULT considered liim an
important authority.

"BA1LEY(I95I). 71 : India and Britain are closely related and have much karma lo work oul
mgelher and will have to work u out sometime, and die karma is not all British'. Ibid., 228: Arcane
School coriiact lo India was limited to a small group; 'All these men were old and have gradually died
off.' She named as (heir leader 'Sir Subra Maniyer'; possibly ex-TS vice president Sir Subtamaniya
Iyer.

5 B.B. MISRA(I976), 177.

*WALSH(1988)' in 1918, AB 'abruptly wiihdrew from political activity.' One should rather say
lhat her political influence declined, sometimes gradually, sometimes steeply, and with some ups in
befween.

'WASHBROOK. 310

"Speech reprinted in Annie Besant's India. Bond or Free; quoted MAJUMDAR(1969), 359.

'BESANK^lOA), 65

*SRl PRAKASA, LV.

9 OWEN(l97l), 70. Nevertheless, in A7, 25-8-1924, 26-9, Dwarkadas praised Annie Besant.

,0 rfi Dec. 1931,520,

262

V.2

Home rule, independence

263

February 1919 in Bombay railway station failed to produce results. 1

After Gandhi had announced his campaign, Mrs Besant in 1919 set up anti-non-co-
nperation, pro-police Committees of Public Order. 1 Was it, then, surprising that in the
1920's, she got booed at meetings in India? Mrs Besant's Home Rule League in 1917 had
campaigned for the release of the brothers Mohamed and Shaukat A!i. J In 1921 though,
when the Bombay government arrested the Ali brothers again, Besant 'sent an approving
telegram from Simla' and met the Viceroy several times.' 1

For not only had Mrs Besant become less popular with former friends; she aiso
became more popular with former opponents. Not so much with diehard colonialist
journalists' as with government. In a 1920 tetter. Sir Edwin Luiyens wrote: Governor
'Willingdon adores "naughty Annie", and it is amusing to have her hobnobbing with
Governors,'*

AB expelled p ro- no n -co -operation TS members from the Esoteric Section: she
claimed non-co-operation was against the Masters, 1

On 16 January 1920, her Bombay speech 'The duty of the TS in India', spoke of her
new policy of no to non-co-operation. She said it was more closely tied to the spiritual
purpose of her society than her earlier Home Rule activity had been'

We did not commii ihe Society lo thai (Home Rule], any more than lo lis opposite We could

'Claim by Jamnadas Dwarkadas; OWEN(197l). 73.

2 ARNOLD. 24. WWH, 54: 'the organisation or bands of young men ready to maintain order, to
contradict alarming rumours, etc'

J BAKSHl. 51,

'NETHERCOT<1963), 333, TJ1PTO MANGOENKOESO£MO()928), 40. Montagu introduced
an AB speech in England. 'On behalf of the Government. I am very grateful lo her for her valuable
help of the besl kind'. Messenger Feb. 1922, quoted THA Apr, 1922. !.

! Daily The Englishman, representing the extreme sections of English living in India, in 1917
called AB a shameless political hucksterer'; and. slilJ in J9I9, accused her of a 'malicious and
mischievous campaign against her own kith and kin.' MAC M1LLAN, 218; 226. MECHANICUS
extreme colonialists thought Montagu, in lifting Annie Besant's internment, 'gave in lo some
"sentimental Imperialists". Already in a March 26, 1910, letter, Mrs Besant complained to Lord
Mmto's administration about 'these lower English who are destroying yout work and undermining
the Empire'. Quoted M.N. DAS, 28.

*HUSSEY. 419. The Earl of Willingdon later, in 1931, became Viceroy. In the 1920s, when
AB's popularity with Indians had gone down, it had gone up with Lord Willingdon since his
governorship in Bombay; ihen he had banned her from his presidency in 1916. At the end of his
governorship of Madras in 1924 he wrote: 'If I could get all editors to deal equally honestly [as AB]
with this humble individual [Willingdon) ! should feel life to be much easier.' Quoted
JINARAJADASA(1986).4l.

7 7T Apr. 1933. 148, Theodore Crombie. an ex-1910's Home Rule activist with AB. who in
1922 left to join the ULT. also shifted to the right in the 1920s. He reproached himself for not
having paid enough attention to 'the English [that is. government] point of view' earlier on:
BESW1CK, 9-10.

not, without narrowing ihe platform of the Society. But now there has come an appeal which,
above all other appeals, goes to the very hean of the Theosophical leaching, an appeal for co-
operation between two sub-races [Indian first and Teutonic fifth of the Aryans] hitherto divided;
and from the mouth of the King-Emperor himself there is a cry to help in the building of India
by co-operation between the Indian and the Englishman, between the officials and the people.
Do you suppose that the Theosophical Society can turn a deaf ear to the appeal founded on its
First Object, which declares that it knows no distinction of race, of creed, of caste, of colour? 1
She left Congress when it decided in 1920 at tbe Calcutta special session to change itt
program 'so as to admit those who were against the British connection'. 2 Her influence
declined; her weekly Commonweal folded in that year. 1

At the end of 1920, Annie Besant held meetings in Bombay, opposing Gandhi's non-
co-operation. The first meeting went off quietly, with few people, her supporters,
attending. The second meeting attracted many, mainly her opponents. According to the
account of De Locomoiief from Indonesia,* many ladies came.

The presence of the fair sex proved to be no obstacle to the opponents to air their indignation in

several ways and shortly after Mrs Besant had mounted the rostrum it became clear that ihe aim

of those not liking her. was to make the meeting difficult, and maybe impossible.

The lecturer soon found out what it was about and asked the ladies to leave the hall, when

die noise became too loud ... after about iwenty minutes, she pointed out lo the opponents that

she might easily have called Tor police assistance in order lo make sure of an orderly meeting.

for only a few constables would have been enough to chase them away.

She said though that she had preferred to decline armed force support, because she had

thought that Gandhi's supponers would let her go ahead. Because such was not die case, though.

she was duty bound lo close the meeting, which finished amid shouts of "Shame, shame" and

shouts of mockery by Ihe opponent,

Annie Bcsani then, bojh in her Tlie llieosopliisi editorial and at a press conference for
the Bombay dailies, explained her opposition to non-co-operation: againsi the Congress'
call not to use government -conferred titles, against eleciion boycott. And againsi
education boycott too, which included Aligarh Muslim and Benares Hindu universities,
boih privaie, (hough governmeni-subsidized.

Therefore I do not understand, Annie Besant said, why Gandhi also wants to destroy these
educational institutions. ... Besides, when one looks at the matter from a national viewpoint,
then nothing is worse than teaching disobedience to the children, whom one incites againsi dieir
parents and their teachers, to leave their schools to which iheir parents have sent them. At the
beginning of the movement Gandhi has declared lhai he would not extend his action to the
schools, but now he declares openly that he docs not care aboui education. So he has broken his
promise, and I do nol see, Annie Besant said, why he should have the right to complain if

Annie Besant, 'The Duty of the Theosophical Society in India', TT, July 1921, 323-4.
2 BESANT(I921F),4I1.
3 NETHERCOT(1963), 299.
J As quoted VAN LEEUWEN(1921A), 3f.

264

V.2

[British prime minister] Lloyd George also might break his promise on India. 1

First, 'Mr. Gandhi and "the Ali Brothers'" went to Aligarh. where the students went
on general strike. Annie Besaiu doubted that the university which she had founded would
be spared:

As 1 said at the beginning of these notes, 1 am writing them in Benares, and we are expecting
the invasion of the Destroyers to seduce the students of the Hindu university to be false to their
duty to their parents and their country. [ have given two lectures here (o crowded audiences on
"Co-operation" and "Non-Co-operation", showing the advantages of the one and the ruin
consequent on (he other. But the fun of tilting against the Government has captured lite
immature minds of the youngsters who, innocent of the ruin involved in Mr, Gandhi's subtle
proposals, only sec the side attractive to all high-spirited youths, of bailing the Government,
Behind Striking students and Congress leaders on the one hand, and supporters of the
British empire on the other hand, stood forces from invisible worlds:

This movemem for Non-Co-opcrauon is no movement of party politics, to which the
Theosophical Society can remain indifferent. !( has passed into a phase in which it menaces the
very existence of india, her spiritual life, and her spiritual mission to humanity .. this India is
now the mark of all (he "Powers of the Darkness of Ihis world." driven back in the West by
(he downfall of autocracy in Germany, and now turning their defeated, but still tremendous,
energy on India, by whose undoing and hurling into chaos the onward inarch of die world may
yet be checked for centuries to come. These hosts, ever the enemies of the Lords of Ligtu-
called Asuras by (he Hindus, Ahriman and his agents by the Zoroaslrians. Satan and his angels
by Hebrews and Christians. Eblis and his armies by (he Musal mans- they have caught hold or
(his movement of Non -Co-Ope rat ion, because il is a channel of hatred, their favourite weapon,
and are pushing its leaders onward, step by step, into wilder and wilder methods !
What was The onward march of the world 7 '

I believe dial (he union of Britain and India is pan of "The Great Plan." and is necessary for
the helping forward of human evolution; I know that this union is pan of ihe Plan for our Race
which ihe Lord Vaivasvata Manu (ihe Manu for the Aryan race) is carrying oui; and as
regards the insane policy now being forced on Indian politicians by intimidation and social
boycott, and into which (he ignorant masses are lured by promises of impossibilities,
she did not mind standing alone on the side of right, 3

Annie Bcsant's difference with Gandhi and (he Congress majority was on radicalism
of ends, rather than on radicalism of means We have seen her earlier ideas on passive
resistance. Violence was also less of a problem to her than to Gandhi. She was not always
against violence by oppositions, as when James Cousins wrote of his support for Ireland's
Easter rising in her New India. The critical TS member Stokes even accused her of
assassination plots. J She did not always oppose violence by governments; see her

'VAN LEEUWEN092IA), 4. T1LKEMA(I932). 39. quoted Gandhis autobiography on 'those
citadels of slavery-their [the studtiits] schools and colleges'.

! BESANT(1920B), 108-9.

'BESANTflSaiFj. 412,

'OELC, June 1929, and June 1939.

Home rule. Independence

265

'brickbats and bullets' statement. She criticized Gandhi's inspiration, Tolstoy, as un-
lndian. India's kshauriyas had always used force if necessary; 1

The gospel of Tolstoy, so fascinaiing in its beginnings, but so fatal in its inevitable ending of
anarchy, the dragging of all down to the sordid level to which society had cruelly reduced its
producing class, was one of the causes of Bolshevism in Russia. That infection has been brought
over here by Tolstoy's disciple. M. K. Gandhi, with all the fascination of its philosophical side
and the deadly implications covered by that philosophy, while the masses have not yet become
obedient to the Inner Ruler Immortal, the Hidden God in man. ... Men not yet Self-ruled from
within, and thus delermined (o righteousness, must be ruled by Law from without. The
destruction of reverence for Law. ingrained in the Hindu religion, the doctrine of "civil
disobedience" ... was the step which marked ihe parting of the ways which lead respectively to
Freedom and anarchy. ... Under such circumstances. 1 call on all students and lovers of
Theosophy, the Divine Wisdom, to range themselves under ihe banner or ordered and
progressive Freedom, and to oppose the threatened anarchy ...

Mrs iksant predicted that in the long run, his own people would turn against
Gandhi,'

If India, the Moiher fails, ihen will Bolshevism iriumph for die time, and spread red ruin over

the world. Bui 1 believe that she will not fail, that she will recognise her Dharma. and lake her

place in (he World Order. 4

The Tlicosophioal Society since 1914 had held its world conventions in cities, and at
times, so as to enable Annie Besant and delegates to attend both theosophical and Indian
National Congress annual sessions. Originally, the TS had planned us Dec. 1920
convention in Nagpur lo link up with the Congress. 4 Now, though, that contradictions
between Besant and the Congress majoriiy had sharpened, she wrote:

If 1 went to llie Nagpur Congress. 1 should only be allowed lo speak by grace of Mr. Gandhi,
and 1 do tiol regard speech as free which is granted or withheld ai the whim ofa dictator.''
instead, ihe TS Convention was in Adyar, 10 fil in with the National Liberal

Federation meeting in Madras. Mrs Besant spoke under 'our ancient Cathedral, the great

SJanyan tree in Blavatsky Gardens' to over 600 people.

She started her convention speech on 'The Great Plan' of Manu for ordered

'Translated TMNI, 1921, 493-4. She thought Gandhi's actions were worse than Tolstoys: '(he
threatened anarchy, unknown in India until brought here by the disciple ofa wesiern anarchist, who
had al least (he merit dial, while sowing revolutionary ideas, he confined himself in action (O peasant
clothing and the making of shoes'. BGSANT(1920B). 1 10.

: BESANT(1920B), 109-10.

J VAN LEEUWFN(1921A), 4, Ibid: ihe Times of India wrote dial AB s Bombay meeiing proved
'thai Gandhi c. s, would not create a race of free citizens, but a gang of boorish anarchists and
hooligans'.

'BESANT(I920A>, 210.

J BESANT(1920A),204.

6 8ESANT(1921A), 308-9.

266

V.2

evolution, from 'that very anc ten I adage: "As above, so below."" and from divine plans
on the solar system, Venus, and Earth. She finished on contemporary politics.

The plan of the Manu has been to build out of the Mother Country, India, and the British people
in their own island, the great Empire of the fifth ['Teutonic Aryan') sub-rate. The other sub-
races have had their dominance, and the ume has come for the dominance of the fifth sub-race.
... That is why the English came here and others had to go away ... the English Nation, chosen
to come here and blend with the Indian Nation in the building up now of the World Empire, to
be really a World Commonwealth. ... These two are to be the main constituents of the
Commonwealth, which is to be the model of the World Commonwealth of the future.' 2
The butt of her speech's finale was unnamed distant Nagpur Congress.

India is now divided into two great camps and (wo only: one camp marked by love and the other
by hate, one camp marked by love of liberty and the other by desire to tyrannise, one marked by
co-operation and (he other by antagonism li is for you to choose which of these camps you will
strengthen. 5

Theosophists knew 'that for forty-five years this teaching has been in the world and
you ought to know more about it than the outer world.'

The outer world may be moved by [emporary injuries, carried away by wrongs inflicted and
sufferings undured. bui you. students of the Wisdom, oughi 10 realise thai behind all these
outside things the Inner Government of the world is ruling and ultimately musi have its way. in
one of two ways, by destruction or evolution; yours is the choice. If you find a movement
marked by hatred, if you find a movement marked by tyranny over the opinions or others, by
trying 10 force people along lines ilial some of them may adopt, if you find ihosc means art-
means of compulsion, of tyranny, of social ostracism, of spreading haired in India and dividing
her more than she lias ever been divided before, ! icll you. no maucr who may lead it, (hat is a
movement of (he Brothers of the Shadow and leads 10 destruction. Those are the marks thjt
show whai (hey arc. The Lords of the Light sent our Society for this greai crisis, to save the
Indian Motherland. 4
At the National Liberal meeting, Mrs Bcsant gave Gandhi only 'negative credit' for

basing himself on the poor masses. To Indonesia's ex-FTS Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo,

(hat was to Gandhi's 'imperishable credit. ' s

Literature on Annie Besant and her former fellow FTS, W.B. Yeats, views them

similarly in their relationships to national questions in India and Ireland, respectively

Both were obviously supporters of (he national movements in these countries; not.

contrary to many later descriptions,* of the national independence movements, though.

'BESANT(I921!). 1. THA Match 1921, 356.

1 BESANT(1921l), 105-7.

5 BESANT(1921I), 107-8.

4 BESANT(192ID, 108-9.

^JIPTO MANGOENKOESOEMO(1928). 39.

SK; Grote Nedertandse larousse Encyclopedic Scheliens & Giltay, 's-Gravenhage, s.d., vol.
!V, 554, on AB's 'fighting for India's independence'. AS Berger & J Berger. 77ie Encyclopedia of

Home rule. Independence 267

See p. 255 on AB and India. Annie Besant compared Ireland and India in early 1921:

strange that both, just now, are in so much trouble with England; the hatred between Roman
Catholics and Protestants is like that of the tuiti-Brihmanas to BrJimanas in the Madras
Presidency, and the political hatred is as bitter as that of [Gandhi's] Non-Co-operators. 1

Yeais supported the pro-dominion, an ti- republican party during toe 1922-23 Irish civil

war and later.

Jinarajadasa in New India wrote that occult Initiates like Mrs Besant looked

differently at possible independence of India. As of Ireland:

occultists. They have proclaimed that Ireland, whatever the costs, should not be allowed to tear
itself away from the British empire, and that the Irish Deva ... got his orders from the Lord or
the World, !
Annie Besant thought she saw signs of weaJcness in her opponents in 1921 :

the Non -Co -opera I ion movement, moiived by race haired, by the desire for revenge ... That
mischievous crusade is. I think, weakening. ... Mr. Gandhi, having failed with most of the
intelligentsia, is now beginning to stir up the masses, who have real grievances, and are easily
inflamed. There lies the danger-point at present.'
By 1922, Mrs Besant had become, in contrast to but few years ago, a 'Moderate of

Moderates'.' She saw two threats to India from the north: the red Soviets and small

Afghanistan [both entangled in civil war by the way]:

Let us in the time of danger drop all criticism of government action | unlike during World War I]
and stand firmly againsi revolution, which means bloodshed at home and invasion from abroad

Communist Party of India leader Manabendra Nath Roy. at the request of Lenin, in
1922 first published his book India in transition. In it, he postulated that differences
between Mrs Besant and Mahatma Gandhi, though real, were not as big as they
themselves, especially Annie, thought:

The advent of native orthodoxy in the person of Gandhi was preceded by a reaction, voluntarily

Parapsychology and Psychical Research, N.Y., Paragon. 1991, 33, AB 'leader of Indian
independence*. WILSON(I970), 159: 'independent India (a cause into which Mrs Besant also threw
her immense energies)'. MAC M1LLAN. 25: 'Annie Besant. who scandalized the establishment by
working for India's independence'. SAVSLLE, VI: AB 'played an important part in the development
of the national movement for Indian independence'. REEVE(I985), 7: ihe TS was 'involved in
independence politics ... in India'. ELLWOOD and WESSINGER. 74 also: 'the independence
movement'; without distinction of home rule to independence.

'BESANT(I921F), 510.

■^Translated as 'Occultisme en politick', TiNt 1932. 244-6.

'BESANTtmiD), 515-6. When journalist Durga Das met her in Adyar in 1922. she 'exploded
against Gandhi'; Durga Das, India from Caruon to Nehru and after. N Y., John Day, 1970; 103.

4 MAJUMDAR(1969), 287,

■'Quoted LOVETT/CADELL.

26S

V.2

or involuntarily serving the cause of Imperialism. Annie Besant was i(s apostle. She was
seemingly an avowed spiritualist I?] dreading all contamination of things material, but in reality
a masked defender of the interests of the imperialist bourgeoisie, in spite of her Irish birth. She
had always [?] been the champion of the British Empire, which she chose to call the foundation
of a real League of Nations. Her ideal of the League of Nations was evidently the incorporation
of the whole world in the British Empire. The same instinct which thirty years ago. had induced
the liberal imperialist Hume to promote the idea of founding the National Congress, led Mrs
Besant to arise from her theosophical esoterics, in which she had immersed herself ever since
she came to India, and pollute her holiness with such sordid materialism as politics. Her
instinctive lea! for the welfare (not spiritual) of the imperialist bourgeoisie disquieted her at the
sight of the ominous clouds gathering on the political horizon. Long residence in the country and
intimate relations with the lower middle-class [?] intellectuals, enabled her to gauge the situation
cleverly. She set out with the mission of stemming the rising tide of revolution,
... Mrs Besanl captured Ihe imagination and admiration of the revolutionary-inclined young
intellectuals by preaching with her wonted eloquence the familiar gospel of the spiritual
superiority of Indian over Western culture, and condemning the British government as the worst
manifestation of Western materialism from which, she exclaimed, the innocent children of
sacred India must be saved. Thus a wrong channel was opened for the great revolutionary wave
that was raising its majestic crest on the offing of the society. Essentially a socio-economic
struggle, ihe impending movement must assume a political manifestation with considerable
latitude to nationalist pre-occupations. The astuteness or Mrs Besant caught on the familiar, but
harmless, political slogan of 'Home Rule' which swung the Extremists on her side, because it
promised to head the movement abandoned by the Moderates. In consequence, those who might
have sought (he destruction of British domination with (he aid of revolutionary mass-action
commiltcd themselves to the ambiguous programme of self-government within Ihe British
empire.'

To Roy, both Besant and Gandhi stood for interests of ruling classes. The nationality
of these classes differed though :

Mrs Besanl could not prevenl the inevitable, she only prepared ihe ground for Gandhi, whose
advenl pushed her inio well-merited disgrace. Both preached the doctrine of orthodox
nationalism, bul the difference lay in the respective objects in view. The former desired 10 save
the Indians from modern materialism in order to insure the continuance of British domination,
while ihe latters hostility to Western civilization was founded by ihe apprehension that it would
strike at the root of the religious, intellectual and patriarchal vested interests which, in (he name
of spiritual culture, held the Indian masses in moral as well as material bondage.

'M.N, R0Y(I971), 215-6

! M.N. ROY(197l), 217. ibid., 230 'By iniroducing the slogan of Home Rule she [AB] saved
India for the Empire; left alone, the Extremists, who controlled the Congress completely, might have
repudiated Ihe imperial connection, because the awakening mass energy had fired their imagination
The reactionary nationalism preached by Mrs Besant and subsequently taken up by Gandhi, was not
compatible with that form of political state which would be the corollary to Home Rule. But Mrs
Besant's reactionary designs concerned the [imperial] political and not [?] the (Indian internal] social
aspect of the Indian movement. The reactionary tendencies contained in the orthodox nationalism or
Tilak and the Gandhiiles are social; therefore they would brook no compromise wilh a political
institution which would render them untenable. They would demand complete separation from the

Home rule. Independence

269

When Gandhi had temporarily stopped civil disobedience, Annie ^commented
in my. 'it is the queeresmvolutiou that ever was since Gandhi replaced Til*, has had
the queerest leader, and has now the queerest collapse." _ ^

Gandhi eenerously claimed about his 'most formidable opponent :
H« coX never shot* so brilliant as when at the risk of losing her popularity she opposed
Non-Cooperation, 3

Besant's associate Ayar attacked Gandhiism:

Non-Cooperation and Non-Violence in the political jargon of this period ... a blend of Western
An 2ZZ Materialism ... had nothing to do with the virile conception of hfe ... Indian
XTwavS recognised that righteousness ... might ... depend ... as a last resort on physical

iTa'lccture of H. Kumar to the Quetta TS lodge, he saw Islam's and Hinduism's
common ground in that they both rejected pacifism. 5

M the end of Mo Besant's political work, the rift with Gandh, had no. healed. She
wroie in New India # 5 in 1930 thai Gandhi was the 'most mischievous man ,n India.

Uercot saw Annie Besant as politically more far-sighted than Gandh, or Nehru. He

^nndild followed the advice of her and her party in .929 the country would probably have
obtained Dominion Status sevenleen or so years earlier than i, did, ,. would probably have
relamed Pakistan, and there would have been no Kashmir problem.

This contributes to anti-Gandhi myth, which ,s as unsatisfactory as pro-G-tfj «¥*■
It forgets opposition by diehard British colonialists, !t also forgets Gandh, had bcttc
contacts with Mushms since his South Africa days than Annie Besan, haa. In theory, bo
AB and Gandhi tried to combine personal Hinduism' with ^™^J^
succeeded better. According to Sri Prakasa, Mrs Bcsan, 'never approached the Indian
problem from the Muslim point of view."

British Empire with the des.re to save India from the unholy contamination of the sordid materialism
of the Western world, if they dared.'
'Quoted SHUKLA<1%0). 243.
3 MAJUMDAR(l%9). 1027.
>M, 25-8-1924, 7.
J AYAR(1924). 62.
*7TJan. 1934, 441f.
*NETHERCOT(1963), 468.

'And with AB, political Hinduism: 'WnJiouL Hin^m India has no futu re Hinduism ,S the so,
into which India's rL are struck, and torn out of that she will inevitably wither, as a tree «
Zn Us place. Let Hinduism go, Hinduism that was India's cradle, and ,n thai passing would be
India's grave ' AB, tmoted: Ph A. Ashby. Modem Trend, in Hindus. NY, Columbia University
Press, 1974: 25.

'MUTHANNA, .84: 'Among the top leaders, only Mrs. ^^f^^^tm-
the religious groups and no one else' is uncorroborated. SRI PRAKASA, XXI 77 May 1918. 1W.
hardly half I dozen Muslims have joined the TS' in india; far less than joined Congress, or the
Communists.

270

V.2

Muthanna attacks Gandhi for promoting Hindi as the national language for India. Yet
in this, Gandhi did not differ much from Annie Besant, whom Muthanna contrasts
favourably with him:

She fell that Hindi ... should become the official language of India. She recognized that this

would create a hardship for Tamil-find Telugu -speaking people, but she felt thai was a sacrifice

they should make for (he unity of India. 1

4. Jinnah, Das, Menon

Jinnah's and Annie Besant's views developed parallelly. Jinnah had led a Bombay anti-
British Raj mass demonstration in 1918. Later, he was. one of Mrs Besant's few allies
after her break with Gandhi, saying 'Politics is a gentlemen's game', noi 'working up
mob hysteria'. 5 When jubilee meetings in 1924 celebrated half a century of public work
by Annie Besant, Jinnah presided over the Bombay one. 3

After the Second World War, Jinnah would become the first governor-general of
Pakistan, then still a Commonwealth member. Karachi, that new country's biggest city,
had had as mayor Jamshed Nusserwanji. PTS, from 1922-1934; Hindus and other non-
Muslims then were a larger segment of its population than later.

In 1920, Rai Bahadur Purnendu Narayana Sinha was both Indian TS General
Secretary, and Bihar Legislative Council member." Bhagavan Das in 1920 was president
of the Indian Social Conference in Saharanpur.' In the early 20's. he became closer for
some lime to Gandhi than to Annie Besant; in connection with Gandhi's campaigns of
Jan. 1922 he was in jail. 6 1923-25 and 1931-37 he chaired Benares municipal board.
Some of his ideas remained, or became again later, close to AB;

Swaraj ... the true and essential connotation of ilial word is the raj. the rule, of ihc community
by its true swn, iis higher self. i.e.. ils wisest, i.e.. mosl experienced and niosl pliiiaAltimpir

men and women; 8

En the 1920s. Krsna Menon was Propaganda Secretary of (he Star Committee" in the
Order oT the Star in the East, He also was the representative in England of Annie
Besant's Home Rule League; which she had founded after Gandhi had taken over her
original one. Congress then had no official representation there; 10 thai may have led to
estimations in England of Annie Besant's influence, greater than Indian reality of the time

'WESS1NGER(]989),226.

*MUTHANNA, 395-6; 402.

3 RANS0M(I938). 464.

'Annie Besant. WT. TT, March 1920, 517.

S 7T, Oct. 1920,93-4,

*DAS(1922), )6, For nine months: A. MISRA, 157. SRI PRAKASA. 94.

7 DAS<1947), 382, A. MISRA, 157.

'DAS(1922>, XII.

'NETHERCOTXigeS), 319.

'YAUSCHIK, 149-50.

Home rule. Independence

271

warranted. Menon broke with Besant in 1930, changing from a iheosophisi to an
agnostic' in religion: from a supporter of dominion status to one of independence, and
from non-Marxism to pro-Marxism in politics. 1 In the 1930's, he became a left winger in
Congress, 2 In the 1950's, he became India's Minister of Defence.

Ranganatham Mudaliar, FTS. had been provincial government minister in Madras. 1
Another theosophist was B. Shiva Rao, MP.'

5. Motilal and Jawaharlal Nehru

Motilal Nehru was a iheosophisi for a short time. 5 and a friend of Annie Besant's for a
longer lime, G.N. Chakravarti, another friend of his, via Mrs Besant recommended
Brooks as tutor for his young son Jawaharlal Nehru. 6 When Jawaharlal wanted to join the
iheosophists, 'he himself had soon dropped out [in the days of HPB; he) laughingly gave
his son permission, bui without seeming to atlach too much importance'.'

Muthanna slates that M. Nehru broke with Annie Besant. and took Gandhi's side oui
of spite, because Besani refused lo nominate him as her successor as Congress president.
The Publisher's Note preceding the book* rightly singles this out, as it would be an
important new discovery, if proven. Muthanna though does not corroborate this with
documents or eyewitness accounts, SO it is not proven (yet?),

Jawaharlal Nehru helped his iheosophisi ruior Brooks learn Sanskrit.' He joined the
Theosophica! Society when he was 13, with secret passwords, 1 " Annie Besant herself
initiated him." Olcott complained many Brahmin FTS gave nothing for Panchama
schools. There were exceptions; the Annual Report of the TS on 1903, 61, reported a gift
for ihe Panchama Educaiion Pund. 'Mr. Jawahar Lai Nehru, Allahabad 15 Rs.' He was
then 14 years old.

'MUTHANNA, 372f. S.P. SEN. vol. Ill, 99. Vijaya Ukshmi PANDIT. 286. ascribes this to his
cminng 'under Harold Laski's influence, and |Menon| moved away from his early [Bcsaiul political
background ' NETHERC0T(I963), 439: ihc council of ihe Commonwealth of India League in
England in 1930 supported Congress. AB resigned from it

•ALL 55.

i TT. May 1933,251.

'NETHERC0T(1963), 223.

5 J. NEHRU(1958), 15, on his father: 'Curiosily probably led him to it more than religion'. The
MUTHANNA, 73, description of Motilal Nehru as one of the 'siaunch theosophists' exaggerates. He
was also a member of Allahabad masons' lodge Unity tt 29, LICOU, 608.

*BROOKS(l914A). 178.

? NETHERCOT(l963),75f.

"MUTHANNA, Vll; 235.

°BROOKS(19l4A), I78f, J. NEHRU{1958) though: he himself had not learnt much Sanskrit.

'"MUTHANNA, 73. AL1, 7. omits whether or not he was FTS, suggesting he was not.

"BRECHER(I959),45.

272

V.2

Brooks broke with Annie Besant in 1914. Somewhat like Resink, he wroie:
"Leading' and 'following' are not in the program of Theosophy as understood by me."
Though Brooks shared some of Besant's non-democratic ideas on non-theosophists T he
objected to her extending those to theosophists:

Why wilt they lei rampant autocratic Bogeydom be , , . enthroned at the heart of their democratic

society-not of drink-besotted si urn -dwellers and illiterate labourers ,,, but of picked, enlightened.

liberal-minded men and women drawn from twenty-two modem countries, and more? Surely, if

democracy can ever be expected to begin accomplishing somediing good for itself, it is in a

Society like this, the very antithesis of the 'mob-rule' which Mrs. Besant rightly deprecates. Bui

no, Mrs. Besant uses die 'mob-rule' argument to ban ... democracy from die promiscuous

nations of the world of to-day; and then, in her own select Society, ... she will in reality have

none of it ... Does she really believe that all autocracy serves and holds power from the 'Great

White Lodge', and that ail democracy springs from (he grim Brothers of the Shadow? 2

Nehru wrote he let his TS membership quietly lapse when he went to England.

because of lack of contact. Many theosophists lived in England, however; did he not

outgrow the ideas? To what extent did he agree with Brooks' criticisms? He wrote of

later times: 'But I am afraid that the theosophists have since gone down in my

estimation'. After he ceased to be a religious devotee of Annie Besant, he still was later a

political follower of hers. When that, too, stopped, he still valued her as a person: 'But.

for Mrs. Besant, I always have had the warmest admiration'. 5

He became a leading member, after coming back to India, of Annie Besanl's Home
Rule League. His first public speech ever. 20 June 1916 in Allahabad, was in support of
Besani, whose papers then had trouble with government censorship. He called her 'that
great and noble lady. Don't fail at i his moment; follow her faithfully and let it not be said
that you flinched when you ought to have supported her',' 1

Thai the government interned her in 1917 made Nehru withdraw his two week old
application for British military service. He moved to cease Indian suppon lor military
recruitment, and got also Congress moderates like his faiher and Tej Bahadur Sapru lo
pass this resolution. 5

Like many others, he parted company after the controversy that Annie Iksant's
'Brickbats and bullels' sentence caused in 1919.

With her Indian Liberal allies, she started drafting constitutional proposals. Her 1925
Commonwealth of India bill wanted indirect, panchayai type elections. The larger ihe
area, from village to district to province, and so on until all India, ihe more property
qualifications one would need to have the vote.

Dr Besani has never believed in merely counting heads withoul examining what is inside the
heads, as is the principle of universal suffrage*

'BROOKSC1914C), 26.

2 BROOKS([914A), 147f,

! J. NEHRU(I958). 16.

4 J. NEHRU(1972). vol. 1, 104.

5 J. NEHRU(1958), 32: J. NEHRU(1972), vol. 1, 106; 108.

6 JINA RAJ ADASA( 1986), 39.

Home rule, independence

273

Measuring what is inside heads is difficult even for brain surgeons. So. Annie
Besant, like other opponents of universal suffrage, rather measured potential voters'
insides of purses and strong-boxes. She proposed, much against Nehru's ideas, a sort of
Indian equivalent 10 Britain's House of Lords:

The proposed Senate in Mrs. Besant's bill is a most objectionable body. ... it would be based on
a restricted electorate and would be a reactionary body always causing deadlocks. 1
She had also made a step to the right, compared with her views often years earlier,
on India's military affairs. In 1915, she had demanded for India: 'to have her own army,
her own navy, her own volunteers.' 5 Now, though, the departments of Army and Foreign
Affairs were to be reserved to the British empire.' Jawaharlal Nehru advised Britain's
Independent Labour Party that the bill not only fell short of the full independence which
he wanted, but also short of 'full Dominion Status, not in theory only as Mrs. Besanl's
bill does'. He wrote of 'the milk and water provisions of Mrs. Besanl's bill. T< 'It was a
measure which creaied no enthusiasm in ihe I, L. P, or in India'. 5 Nehru's faiher Motilal
was somewhat less negaiive 10 Annie's proposals. He at least on 5 May 1926 in
Ahmedabad proposed that a committee should look inio them; this, though, was voted
down in the All India Congress Committee*

The Communist Party of India thought that Jawaharlal Nehru did not criticize Mrs
Besanl's constiiuiional proposals enough.' In the magazine Masses, the pany attacked
them; it was afraid thai Congress leaders would compromise with ihem, s CPI member
Shapurji Saklaivala had been elected as the only communist MP in Britain earlier.
Saklatvala wrote, looking back at 1918-9:

Annie Besant had come over as a friend of Indian freedom, and protector of her country's
iiiipcriuui. having as her faithful ally and admirer, even then, George Lmsbury, and her
indefatigable lieutenant, Graham Pole. 9

Of the governing British Labour Party, only Lansbury and 1 1 other MPs supported
her draft constitution. 1 " Everybody knew representative Congress leaders did not back

'Note on a Proposal /or a Parliamentary Bill for India, in J. NEURU(1972). vol. II, 309.

^Quoted JINARAJADASA(I986). 27. See also MORT1MERU983), 69.

J JlNARAJADASA(1986), 37

"Note on a Proposal for a Parliamentary Bill for India, in J. NEHRU<1972), vol, II, 306.

i Note on a Proposal for a Parliamentary Bill for India, in J NEHRU(1972), vol. II, 305.

<, S1TARAMAYYA(1969), 301.

Clemens Dutt. 'Indian Nationalism and the Elections', Labour Monthly, Dec. 1926; reprinted
ADHIKAR1(1978), 219-20.

s Masses, Feb. 1926, 'Future of Indian Nationalism': 'the lowest level of the Besantine constitution':
reprinted ADH[KARI(I974), 710.

'The Simon Commission', reprinted ADH1KARK1979), 291.

ll) NETHERCOT(1963), 360. Subhas Chandra BOSE, 121 ; CJ, WW/, 27; JIN ARAJADASA( 1986),
38, and UGLOW, 57 wrongly claim that her '1925 Commonwealth of India bill won the backing of the

274

V.2

her. Gandhi, interviewed by New India on the bill, said 'I dislike ihc graded franchise';
and 'recognition of the King-Emperor as Sovereign' as 'indispensable condition'.
'... nothing but the waste-paper basket is its destiny', 1 C.R. Das objected that it had no
sanction if the government rejected it. 1 Viceroy Lord Reading's autocratic 1921-6 rule
was no time for compromise.

In 1927, Annie Besant was back in the Ail India Congress Committee.' At the
Madras Congress session of that year, the pro- in dependence motion got wide support. A
bit too wide for Jawaharlal Nehru's taste:

The Independence resolution was supported even by Mrs. Annie Besant This all-round support
was very gratifying, bul 1 had an uncomfortable feeling that the resolutions were cither not
understood for what ihey were, or were distorted to mean something else. ... The best way to
get rid of them (pro-independence resolutions) was to pass them and move on to something more
important.'

According to Annie Besant in 1928, 'The Congress is becoming an intolerable
tyranny by denial of free speech to die minority', 5 J, Nehru's reaction on 16 November

1928 was that the problem was the other way around.

If Dr. Besant wants the majority of the Congress to bow down to the minority, ot to an
individual, (hat surely would be some kind of tyranny and the tyranny of a minority or of an
individual is worse than any other tyranny,

3 November 1929 came out the 'Delhi Manifesto': Gandhi, Annie Besant, Sir Tej
Bahadur Sapru, Motilal and Jawaharlal [who later said he was 'talked into signing' the
manifesto though it was 'wrong and dangerous'] Nehru offered co-operation: after vague
talk by the colonial government, containing nothing new. on Dominion status.

Talks with the Viceroy did not bring anything though. So, the Lahore Congress of

1929 demanded independence: 'This Congress ... declares that (he word "Swaraj" shall

Labour Party.* Labour's right wing did use it as an argument against more radical steps by. for
instance, the Independent Labour Party; J. NEHRU(1958). vol. li, 305. Though the Labour leaders like
James Ramsay MacDonald did not officially support Mrs Besant's proposals, in his 1927 Congress
speech in Madras Jawaharlal Nehru attacked them too: die sanctimonious and canting humbugs who
lead the Labour party in England"; SHARMA(I964). 280.

'Nl 29 April 1925, reprinted GANDHI<1958), vol. 26. 558-9: vol. 27, 390.

! GANDH1(19S8). vol. 27. 464.

] SITARAMAYYA(1969), 315. She then also, like fellow non-Muslims Sarojini Naidu and
Pandii Mohan Malaviya, addressed the Calcutta Muslim League session, T. CHAND, 108.

*J. NEHRU(1958), 167, Nehru did not let his reservations on Besant into his Madras Congress
speech; it praised her support for the resolution. SHARMA(1964), 276. Conclusion of TJ1PTO
MANGOENKOESOEMOC.1928), 48: 'India's movement can end only in the country's
independence.'

S J. NEHRU(1972>, vol. Ill, 76.

6 J. NEHRU(1972), vol. Ill, 309.

Home rule. Independence

275

mean Complete independence.' 1 The times of ambiguity, which could include both

radicalism and Annie Besant's reconstructed Empire, were over.

In 1931. Annie Besant came out once again against universal suffrage in India. 3 This

was about her last political statement. By that time, on this subject, she was to the right

of many British and Indian Liberals and Conservatives. 1 At the end of 1932 New India

ceased publication; few subscribers were left,*

Jinarajadasa saw Mrs Besant's relationship to others in India as follows: 5

The editor of the Hindu of Madras has suggested that she [AB] wanted to be given recognition

as the only leader, and showed a smallness when the Indian national movement swept past her

under the leadership of Gandhiji and left her •stranded. ' Swept past her? Aye, and inio the diwh,

where it now is. Was ever Mother India so humiliated?

In spite of all differences, many Indian political leaders praised her when she died in

1933. Jawaharlal Nehru called her 'that lofty character'.* Madras city named more than

one big avenue after her.

Josephine Ransom, then theosophical GS for England, lectured India's democrats in

her 1933 Convention lecture:

In India, she thought the change was not yet so rapid. They were still arguing about slogans and

watch-words like 'Democracy', which in the West were left behind.

Next year, Manjeri Venkata Iyer in 7T attacked democracy's philosophical

foundations from the heights of Ancient Wisdom:

The modern idea of democracy is. in reality, based upon the utterly false 'scientific notion' that
the world is bul 'a fortuitous concourse of atoms and molecules' without any intelligent direction
... That a colony of idiots by putting their empty heads together can create wisdom seems to be
the basic idea behind democracy ... Democracy is really rooted in materialism, selfishness or
separate i less, which emphasises individual rights instead of individual duties. The divine
conception of a Stale or society is biological or organic, in which Tight for individual freedom
lakes no place*
George Arundale, though he had a Home Rule League past, kept favouring a link

with the British empire in the 30's. At the Benares convention, the official Indian, not the

Congress flag, flew.' His magazine Conscience paid much atlcniion to Indian politics,

Arundale kept fighting his predecessor's fights;

While the president of die Indian National Congress can now say without the slightest correction
that violence must be met with violence, Dr, Besant was bitterly attacked for insisting that brick-

'PALME DUTT(1940). 325.

^Quoted MUTHANNA. 376, See also NETHERC0T(1963), 442.

J Voorham, of the TS (The Hague), said in Leiden in March 1992, (hat AB had been important
'bringing democracy to India'; he used words she herself in most years would hardly have used.
'MUTHANNA. 392.
S 1VT, 7TOct. 1933,3.

6 Specch in Lucknow, 24-9-1933; J, NEHRU(1972), vol. V, 545.
'Josephine Ransom, 'Future Work of the Theosophical Society', IT, Feb. 1934, 621,
! IYER(1934), 457-8,
'TTJune 1937, WT.

276

V.2

bats must be met by bullets, as everyone now agrees.

Here, he did not differentiate between violence by oppressors or by oppressed, deadly
as both may be sometimes,

B.CEYLON

Contrary to India or Indonesia, Lanka did not have big movements of which the
paramount aim was national independence. Since the 1930's, one party.
Wickremasinghe's Lanka Sama Samaja Party, advocated independence as one of its aims.
As it was an internationalist labour party, we have discussed it elsewhere.

There already was a Sinhalese Buddhist revival before the TS leaders arrived in the
country, expressing itself for instance in the Panadure debate. 1 Blavatsky and Olcott
already were popular before their arrival in Galle .'

This did not mean that many people accepted all of the TS doctrine. Olcott wrote 4
few Buddhist monks believed in the Transhimalayan Masters, Madankare being about the
only one.

Among the Sinhalese laity, one of few believing in the Masters, going farther than
the sympathy of most for the TS founders' sympathy for Buddhism, was the
fourteen-year old son of a furniture exporter, from Colombo's richest Buddhist family.
He attended a Christian school (the only education (hen possible).

As the Anagarika Dharmapala,' he would become well known in Sri Lankan history,
both inside the TS as a prominent member, and outside as an opponent. He asked to go
with the theosophica! leaders to Adyar. His parents refused. Madame Blavatsky predicted
That boy will die' if he did not go: he went,"

1883, Caster Day. a crowd of Roman Catholics 1 attacked Buddhists near Colombo,
killing one. On behalf of the subsequently formed Buddhist Defence Committee, Oicott
went to London in 1884 to negotiate with the British government He managed 10 obtain
the recognition of Wcsak (Buddha's birthday) as a public holiday. Before, the
government had only recognized days on the Christian calendar. This increased Glcou's
popularity. Of his activities. Murphet wrote:

Apart from the raising of an Education Fund, political action was necessary if the wrongs of the

Buddhists were to be righted. So Olcott became a lobbyist for the Sinhalese people-something

'TTOcl. 1937, WT, 8.

'MALALGODA.

5 S.C. SEN. 329

i ODL, quoted BOLLAND(l9l 1). 78.

'Sanskrit name form, suggested to him by Olcott. Sometimes spelt Dhammapala (Pali). LucL VI,
Mar. -Aug. 1890, 166; on the same page, also spelt Dammapala (in a letter from Japan).

S S.C. SEN. 331.

'Described by Madame Blavatsky, in 'The final result of the savage attack of the Roman Catholics
on the Buddhists at Colombo', JT. Sept. 1883. 325. as 'the Roman Catholic ruffianly mob, of the so-
called converts (mostly Malabarians)'. Malabar is in south-west India: roughly equivalent to today's
Kerala. For India, many Christians live there.

Home rule. Independence

211

they could not have done for themselves. He interviewed the Governor of Ceylon, Sir Arthur

Gordon, who, fortunately, was interested in occulusm and comparative religion, Henry- was

impressed, for instance, to find that he knew all about H.P.B.'s Simla miracles.

One should qualify Murphet's remark: 'something they could not have done for
themselves' to 'which they were in a more difficult position to do for themselves'.

Enthusiast young Dharmapala founded the Maha Bodhi Society with Olcotl in 1891.
Already the first MB magazine, though, did not get thai enthusiast a reception in 77ie
Theosophist.

After H.P. Blavatsky's death, on and off conflicts between Dharmapala and Olcott
started. 1 In 1893, Dharmapala considered himself more of a theosophist than a Buddhist'
Soon though, he quarrelled again with Olcott. who did not 5upport his court case against
a high priest of Shiva on rights to Buddhist historic grounds in Bengal. Dharmapala was
not financially dependent on Olcott, He was from a rich family, some of whom became
members of the Council (later: Parliament); plus he had subsidy from Mrs Forster of
Hawaii, He wanted to propagate Buddhism in India, and could do so mainly among
'proletarian' social strata. 4 attacking privileges of Ihe Indian TS' Brahman allies. In 1904
Dharmapala broke finally with the TS. J

The rise of Annie Besant made it difficult to patch this up, Mrs Besant was far more
interested in big Hindu India than in small Buddhist Ceylon; lliough she first lectured
there in 1893. before ever having been in India.

The main source of income for the Gallc TS' Mahinda college was T.D.S.
Amarasuriya, A dilemma for the TS was that a main source of Mr Amarasuriya's income
was selling arrack [a sort of gin}, while Olcotl and his TS siood for temperance. When in
1904 a mass temperance movement Started, Amarasuriya decided to check it from within
raihcr than confront it. In September of thai year, he let Olcotl speak al his property.
Olcott proposed that the principal of Mahinda College should direct the southern province
temperance movement .* Al ihe 1905 TS convention. F.L. Woodward read a report of the
Galle Buddhist TS to Olcott, written by D.J. Subasinha:

I regret 10 noic that the Temperance Movement, which last year spread like wild fire, ... and
which once afforded great hopes for a bright future, is now on ihe verge of extinction. The
failure is solely due to the leaders' dislike to be benefited by your world-wide experience in such
organizing work, and their refusal to carry out die campaign on the lines so generously proposed

'MURPHET. 140. 'Miracles': like the sudden appearance of a cup and saucer at a Simla picnic.

■H. S. O.. 'The 'wail" of Dharmapala". JT. Apr. 1899. suppl. xxviii-xxx: 'this ambitious
young man'. In 1893. afier earlier conflicts, Olcoit and Dharmapala still wrote logelher T7ic Kinship
between Hinduism and Buddhism.

3 S.C. SEN, 337.

A BAC, 1921, 11-2.

i 7T, Oct. 1906. 3, Olcotl called Dharmapala 'a conceited young man': ODL. JT. June 1905,
515.

^ROGERS, 338. 'Olcott was no doubt sincere in making his proposal, but it was clear he was
used by Amarasurya to undermine the temperance cause'.

278

V.2

by you.

In 1908, the first time Annie Besant came as PTS. she mentioned some opposition to
her from Buddhist priests. 1 In the same year, Jinarajadasa wrote:

... certain fundamental ideas of Theosophy are looked upon and denounced as heretical by the

Buddhists of Ceylon... the impression distinctly in Buddhist lands is that it is Neo-Christianity!

...orthodox Buddhists dislike Theosophy for its theism and its doctrine of the Logos,'

After 1915's riots between Buddhists and Muslims in Ceylon, the government
interned Dharmapala. They banned his paper Sinhala Bauddhaya, but it came back later.
The government also suspected Annie Besant. '

In the 1920's. Alice Leighton Cleather influenced Dharmapala and his Mafia Bodhi
magazine, as one can read in issues from then, and 1938, and 1940; though she, like
other 19ih century born Europeans, was close to non-Ceylon Mahayana Buddhism. 3 For
Dharmapala, this was a way to keep faithful to theosophical ideas, while denying the
authority of Adyar. There also was some praise for Mrs Tingley in publications like MB
and the Buddhisl Annual of Ceylon.

In !920, the first issue of BAC came out. About then, the Ceylon Theosophical
Journal also started; in the 1930's, it became Ceylon Theosophical News. linarajadasa,
more categorically now than in 1908. wrote: '1 am perfectly aware how my fellow-
Buddhists in Ceylon look askance at all Theosophical ideas as heretical. "*

Wickremasinghe's successor as theosophist CS in the 30's was T. Nallairmthan,
Frankfort Place. Bambatapitya, Colombo.

Dharmapala's funeral in 1933 proved his popularity. MB estimated 100,000 mourners
in Colombo, in April 1935, Jinarajadasa lectured in Wellawatle.
Arundale remarked on Lanka:

'Central Repon on 1905, 66 ROGERS. 338-9. ascribes ihc decline of ihc movement to leaders'
inexperience in 'organising ordinary people on an ongoing basis'.

'BESANT(1908Q, Foreword, n. p, OBEYESEKJERA(l992B): 'Willi the development of an
educated bourgeoisie the monk order as the sole repository of the religion no longer held. Thus, it
became possible for laymen lo know more about Buddhism and its history than monks did.' This
may have caused animosity with some monks, (hough (he TS did not have an anti-monk policy.

3 J1NARAJA DAS A( 1923), 72-4, written in 1908.

*NETHERCOT(1963). 238: 'Even in Ceylon Mrs Besant and her Thcosophisis were being
blamed by (he police as being partly responsible for the riots between the Buddhist nationalists and
the Muslims. 1 am indebted to Mrs Kumari Jayawardena for a passage from a report of the Inspector
General of police {Confidential Minute paper No. 14502 of 1915, Ceylon Government Archives),
concerning the dangerous influence Mrs Besant and her Theosophist followers were supposed to be
exerting against Great Britain.'

0E PURUCK£R(1940). 101: 'Hinayana ... means the 'defective' vehicle, the 'inferior' or
'imperfect' vehicle.' Also VAN H1NLOOPEN LABBERTON(19)0), 101: 'Hina-yana ... that
exoteric morality form of Buddhism. ' Theravada Buddhists do not call themselves Hinayana.
S J1NARAJADASA(1923). VI

Home rule. Independence

279

Mr. Frei is in Ceylon, looking after his estate. We were glad to meet again our old friend Major
Robinson, who is doing good work in Colombo. 1

In 1945, the Ceylon Section had become so weak that headquarters in Adyar
withdrew its charter, and replaced it by a Presidential Agency. 2 Some contributing factors
why TS influence declined, gradually and with ups and downs, after their success with
Buddhisl schools, after 1904-1907, may have been:

1. Hinduism in the TS, as with Annie Besant, estranged Dharmapala and others.

2. Krishnamurti. He was not popular with some in Ceylon as a 'South Indian'. 1
According to Kaviratna: 'When he was proclaimed as vehicle for the World Teacher, that
was the greatest blow to theosophy in India.' 'In Ceylon' might be even more appropri-
ate. Many did not expect the Maitreya (Metteyya) in the twentieth century. Still, quite
some welcomed Krishnamurti festively, when he came there in November 1928 before he
had stopped with his World Teacher mission,' 1

3. The gradually loosening tics between Adyar and the Buddhisl Theosophical
Socieiy. Also. BTS influence in the 1880-1900 period increased, from 0.4 to 15.5% of
the total number of pupils (see table, p. 280). But the twentieth century saw gradual
decrease of BTS influence on education, in favour of that of the government.'

An episode in (he loosening of ties between Adyar and the BTS was (he Woodward
affair. In 1920; the school principal Woodward 4 had to leave the country, because he ale
eggs. This was against most Buddhists' interpretation of vegetarianism. The farewell
article in the Buddhisl Annual of Ceylon did mention rampant 'Bolshevism'; not why he
left. 7

Most MBS political contacts in (he 1930's seem to be with what later became (he
United National Parly. Many Ceylon politicians had connections with BTS schools:

'ARUNDALE(1936).28I.

! RAN5OM(l950). 161-2.

5 ' Krishnamurti through Ceylon eyes', MB 1923, 621-2. BAC. MB 1928. 46.

4 Letler by Krishnamurti on ihe visit, quoted M. LUTYENS, 265: Garlands at every slalion and
devotion ,.,',

5 From 1900 to 1931, the number of pupils in BTS schools went from 18.700 to 45,728 in 240
schools; but the percentage went from 15,5 to 14.13; so slightly down after the steep late nineteenth
cenlury rise; computed from SUMATHIPALA. 28; 204-5. In the early twentieth century, the
number of private Buddhisl schools, not affiliated to die BTS, had risen steeply, to about 360; ibid.,
205. Between 1931 and 1947, the percentage of Sri Lanka's schools that were private (aided),
including BTS schools, went down from 63.63% to 50.73%; that of government schools went up
from 36.37 to 49.27. Calculated from: SUMATHIPALA. 205, 336-7; with thanks to Prof. B.
Morrison.

*S(ar name (Leadbealer's occult research): Lignus. BROOKS(l9l4A), XIII.

7 BAC, 1920, 10; A.D.J., farewell article to Woodward. Interview with Dr. Harichandra
Kaviratna.

BUDDHIST TS SCHOOLS in CEYLON

Numbers of schools

Schools

1 88 1 885 1 890 18 95 1 900 1 93)

Computed from SUMATH1PALA. 28- 104-5

Pupils

^mh^_thou^nd S ; % of all pupils at government aided sciloo | s

5^* pupil* flJdcd ichooli

1880 1885 1890 1895 1900 1931

Computed from SUMATHtPALA. IS; 204-5

Home rule. Independence

281

D.B. Jayatilleke ... later Minister of Home Affairs and Leader of the House, wis in his
younger days a General Manager of Buddhist Schools, 1 W.A. de Silva who became Minister
of Health in the first State Council ... S.A. Wicraraasinghe ... who was General Manager of
the Buddhist Schools from 1932-34. Further the schools had committee members like
D,S. Senanayake (1915-1920) later ... founder of ... UNP and first Prime Minister and
S. Bandaranaike. 1

C.INDONESIA

I, Beginnings and Budi Utomo

tn 1880, 1881 or 1883, Baron von Tengnagell from eastern Germany founded Indonesia's
first TS lodge, in Pekalongan, on Java's north coast.' That lodge fizzled out by 1885:
Tengnagell died in Bogor in 1893; numerical success was not immediaie.

The first issue of the Dutch language monthly Tlieosofisch Maandbiad voor
Nederlandscfi- Indie came oul in July 1901.' Twelve years later, half its subscribers were
non-FTS. s In 1903, five lodges existed in the Dutch East Indies 6 . All their officials were
Dutch, except for the president of Yogyakarta lodge, Raden Mas Toemenggoeng Pandji
Djajeng Irawan. 7 In September 1905. (he first issue of Pewarta Thiosofte boewai tanah
Hindia Nederland came out." This magazine was not only in the Javanese language, bul
also in Malay, 9 so not aimed only at East and Central Java, bul at the island's western
part and other islands too. It already had 200 subscribers after its second issue. '" Since

'BCW, Vol. 1,511: he usually was translator of Olcott's speeches.

~Carla Rissccuw, personal communication.

^ENI. vol VI. 763 (the claim, ibid., ihal Madame Btavaslsky visited Java three limes, is very
dubious) HA 1 / Jan. 1936, 23. so more recent, has 1880. NUGRA11A(1989). 2 has 1881. Spelling in
77", Oct. 1883, 25. *F DE TENGNEGELL'. B l-iering, personal communication.

4 NUGRAHA(t989>, 24. TSUCUIYA(1987). 42.

5 VAN HINLOOPEN LABBGRT0N(19I3B). 3. Tiieosofie in Nederlandscli-lndie was for members
only, while TMNl was also for outsiders.

*TS Annua] Report on 1903, 104. They were, in order of founding: Semarang, Surabaya. Bogor,
Yogyakarta. Surakana. Up to 1910, Bandung, Jakarta, Klaten, Medan, and Malang followed. TiNf,
July 1937, 113.

In 1905, he still was the only non-Dutch official in the, by then, six lodges in (he Dutch East
Indies.

! Ahmat B. Adam. The vernacular press and (he emergence of modem Indonesian consciousness
U&55-1913). London, 1984: 350.

All-archipelago trade language, which eventually developed into Bahasa Indonesia, official
language of the Republic of Sndonesia.

I0 7T, March 1906, 476. TIEMERSMA(1907), 216. In 1918-19, PT also advertised two
translations of theosophical books, by Annie Besant on Islam and 'At the feet of the Master' by
Krishnamurti, into the Sundanese language of West Java. That volume had 194 pages; the same
year's volume of TMNI had 530 pages. From 1916-1920, PTs administrators, all Dutch, changed

282

V.2

the 1920's there was a magazine in Javanese, Koemandang Theosofie, [he Light of
Theosophy; and another one in both Javanese and Malay, Rasa. 1

On 6 April 1912, the TS recognized the Dutch East Indies as an autonomous section. 2
Annie Besant announced: 'It is pleasant to chronicle the formation of a National Society
in Java [ignoring Medan], which now feels strong enough to stand on its own feet,
without the support of its mother, theT.S. in the Netherlands.

The sections still had many links though. In 1913, Baroness Mellina van Asbeck,
daughter of the Dutch diplomatic representative in Paris, came from Europe via Adyar,
to lecture on morality and evolution. Not only to TS lodges: Bogor masculine Masonic
lodge asked her to lecture twice, once in Dutch, once in French.'' Later, in the 1920's-
30's, two Dutch TS General Secretaries. Kruisheer and Van der Leeuw, had an Indies
background.

What did people among the Dutch majority of Indonesia's theosophists think of
colonial rule? General Secretary Van Hinloopen Labberion wrote that after the start of
colonialism, 'the Teutonic race of the North soon followed suit; foremost of all* the
Dutch. Their East India Company had been present in Indonesia since the seventeenth
century. Labberton considered that it had conducted 'mutually profitable trade' with the
islands, in spite of Company selfishness. Its rule had been limited to Java, the small
spice-producing Moluccas islands, and some fortified points along coasts. Accordine to
Semaoen, only since the late nineteenth century colonialism had also become
'imperialist'. ' Since then, it had expanded rapidly militarily into islands everywhere in
ihe archipelago. Labberton gave a historical account of these wars in scores of islands and
regions: everywhere, 'robbery' 6 or 'malevolent persons' had left the military no
alternative but 'bringing (hem to their senses'" by conquest, resulting into 'peace and

fast' first I, Kruishcer, then L.J. Polderman. then J.D. de Roock, then Mrs A.J C. Gonggnjp-van
Blokhuizcn. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(1914), 19, thought ihc Sundanese, less civilized
dun (he (rue Javanese of the centre and the Eastern part'. More Islam ized. ihey were more distant
from theosophy,

'£M. vol. VI, 764, In 1910, the TS published Chabar in Bandung; TTOcl. I9!0. 155. 1924-5
ihe Goenoeng Sari group of the OSE brought out Sterlichl magazine.

'TTMay 1912, suppl., vi. See also ENI, vol. Vi, 763; TB, April 1931, 173.

5 HT, JTJunc 1912, 327.

*VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1913B), 6-8.

S VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(19U), I; 3. SEMAOEN0966), 51: "The consequences of
an imperialist policy only made themselves felt since 1900, that is. since (he lime the country was
opened to international capital.'

s ln Bali; VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1910), 176.

'VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(19IO), 171; in Jambi in Sumatra.

S VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1910), 174; on south western Sulawesi.

Home rule. Independence

283

prosperity caused by the Dutch rule'. 1 On p. 202, we have discussed Labberton's ideas on
General Van Heuisz and imperialism.

Was Van Hinloopen Labberton a typical representative of 'eihische politiek' in
colonialism? He himself did not like the word 'ethisch'. 2 Authors using it then, and now,
do not mean the same by the word. Some call a group of Dutch officials, who criticized
Dutch private business, ethical. Labberton was not 'ethical' in that sense. At the request
of the syndicate of big sugar companies, be wrote a counter-attack to a well-known
investigation by officials on the relationship of European business to the Javanese
peasants. Their report said it contributed to their mindere welvaart; decrease in
prosperity. Quite on the contrary, Labberton reacted; there was no mindere welvaan?

H.J. Kiewict de Jonge thought:

our Colonies should be ruled according (o a system which in pan looks like what people in the

18(h century called "enlightened despot ism". 4

From Madame Blavatsky on, opinions of theosophists outside Indonesia about most
Indonesians were lower than those on 'Aryan' Indians.' TS leaders excepted the islands'
upper classes though: an Aryan empire had existed, ten thousands of years ago, which

colonised Sumatra and Java ... for the most pan (hey were welcomed in these regions by the

'VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(l914). 16. VAN HIl'LOOPEN LABBERTON(19IO),
170 on Aceh immediately after the conquest, (hough 'small gangs of robbers and irreconcilables'
.nil fought ihe Duich: 'now ihe people in (he whole region are subjected 10 regular laxaiion,
without (rouble widi iis introduction. By providing cducaiion ... improving iransport ... and the
uplifting of agriculture and stock-breeding the government works strongly for (he interests of
coumry and people'. Ibid , 175, on Western New Guinea (Irian): 'Our officials' endeavours io
accustom ihe snll very primitive people (o order and regularity and lo end ihe many robbers'
forays (so-called rak/t forays) already have caused fine results'.

"He preferred 'associatie'; interview wnh De Avondposi. quoted IC, 1917 (39), 666-7.
MRBTD.

J VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON (1908). 22.

*HJ. Kiewiet dc Jonge, letter lo his parents, 13-1-1915. NSG, Kicwiet de Jonge archive, M 40.

S H.P. Blavatsky wrote of the Krakalau disaster: 'An earthquake has just engulfed over 80,000
people (87,903) in Sunda straits. These were moslly Malays, savages wiih whom but few had
relations, and ihe dire event will soon be forgotten,' '"Historical Difficulty "why?'. TT Oct.
1883, 3-10. in BCW, V, L.A.. Philosophical Research Society. 1950; 199-200, In his family tree,
TEPPER(1898); see p 457; put Malays below Aryans, above Mongols, and far above Australians.
SCHWARZ lumped Malays and Papuans together. Rudolf Sleiner Uioughl 'Malays' were
doomed'. On Borneo (Kalimantan) live the Dyaks, whose language is of the Malay group. Pan of
their cuhure are the so-called Pengap chants. Theosophist HOOPER{1902), 531 believed Dyak
'savages' could never have written their beautiful Pengap chants. These were probably relics of
some disappeared race. Compare HARA(1904) on the 'wild men of Borneo'. According to VAN
HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1910), 2 'Aryans and Indonesians were completely different.' Ibid.,
3, links Indonesia to Lemuria, the continent of the TS' 'third Root-race'. To Labberton. as both the
Latin word 'lemur' and an ancient Aryan Indian word for South-East Asians, 'Danawa', mean
'ghost-like beings', there should be ancient knowledge in Aryan legends.

284

V.2

people, who looked on the fair-faced strangers as Gods, ar,d were more inclined to worship than

to fight them. 1

In 1912, Van Hinloopen Labberton proposed that the Dutch prince consort Hendrik
should come to Java. The daily Bataviaasch Handelsblad sympathised with Labberton's
idea of strengthening Dutch-Java ties in this way. It was afraid, though, of 'pressure on
the common men' of Java; the nobility woutd burden them with the costs of the prince
consort's visit. To this, Labberton replied in TMNI.

Lately, there really is an excessive tendency to attack the Principalities' princely families. ...

Yes, there arc still really many good sides to the Principalities' families, whose members rightly

consider themselves arya's, 1

In an article 'Java', The Tfieosopfiisi mentioned contacts with the moderate nationalist
Budi Utomo movement, founded in 1908. Its main support was among Java's aristocrats, 3
On 16 January 1909, Labberton addressed a Budi Utomo meeting in Gambir, a Jakarta
suburb. Three hundred people were present. 4 He repeatedly said it must be Allah's will
that Indonesia was now ruled by the Dutch. i He spoke about the brotherhood of human-
ity, of occult racial theories, and of his wish that the Lord might increase the knowledge
and morality of the people of (he Indies. Labberton advocated fighting sins like gambling
or drinking. Dutch journalists noted the speech:

While one may doubt the use of initiating the native, who already is greatly susceplible (o
superstition, still farther into other forms of mysticism, certainly (he conclusion of (Labberton's]
scrn>on deserves universal support, as he points [o vanily and wrongness of knowledge that is

Home rule. Independence
not joined to higher religion and a correct way of life.

285

'BESANT and LEADBEATER(I913), 273. FTS former Volksraad member Th Vreedc, in a
speech in Leiden university's Small Auditorium on 20 February 1922, said 'thai (he Hindu
civilization in Indonesia probably is some millennia older than is usually supposed.' GOEDHART,
50, See the quote on Aryan occult prehistory on p. )22, In a less religious vein, (he Dutch Resident
of Surabaya. G. van Aalsl, also thought that the 'Native race' should be divided into 'descendants of
the Hindu rulers and of the original Malay-Polynesian people'. T1CHELMAN(I9&5), 419 There
certainly had been Hindu and Buddhist rebgious influence on Java's history

3 Labberton, Toestanden in de Vorstenlanden', TMN! Mar. -Apr. 1912: cited 1G 1912. MRBTD.
797.

'TTApr. 1909, 118. Its full name in the old spelling: 'Javanenbond "Boedi-Oetomo"', Javanese
League Budi Utomo; VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1909), 3, Budi Utomo aimed at a 'national
brotherhood irrespective of race, sex or religion'; 1908 leaflet by Soewarno, reprinted
SOEMBANGSIH, 15. R1CKLEFS(1993>, 165: Governor-General Van Heutsz. in these early days,
had good expectations of Budi Utomo. DJAJAD1NINGRAT-NIEUWENHUIS, 47: even before BVs
founding, Labberton knew some of its later founders. The BU founders had also freemason contacis;
STEVENS(1994), 50.

Van hinloopen labberton(i909), 3.
j van hinloopen labbertono909), 8-9; 12-3.

As did some others, one Budi Utomo leader, Radjiman, joined the Tbeosopbical
Society. 1 At BU's 7 July 1917 congress, he was the strongest speaker against upgrading
Islamic and downgrading pre-lslamic elements, and managed to win over the majority.

In 1915, Dr Saiiman Wirjosandjojo had founded a BU youth league, jointly with
students of the TS' Goenoeng Sari teachers' training school. At first, its name was Tri
Koro Dharmo; since 19 IB Jong-Java. 4

The relationship of TS to Budi Utomo was mostly good. Van Hinloopen Labberton
regularly spoke at its congresses. 5 Some sometimes criticized theosophy in the BU paper
Darmo Kondo though; 6 and at the 9 July 1916 Surabaya meeting, Vice-Chairman
Soetopo 7 thought Labberton criticized the Javanese's flaws too publicly.'

In Indonesia, some expected that a just prince, a rain adit, would usher in an era of
justice. According to a 1913 letter to Governor-General Idenburg by his adviser Rinkes,
there was some convergence between this traditional expectation, and theosophical World
Teacher propaganda, which Annie Besant had recently started with (he Order of the Star

1 1G 1909, MRBTD, 534-5. 'Do theosophie en Boedi-OctamS'. Bataviaasch Nietwsbtad !8-l-
1909.

! Budi Utomo president about 1914 and 1922; Volksraod member 1918-21. On 3 March 1945.
the Japanese military appoinled him chairman of the 'committee for research for preparation of
independence'. He knew die writings of philosophers Kant, Hegel, and Bergson well: as some of
iheir philosophies are rather conservative, it was not as surprising as TICH£LMAN(1985). 618
suggests that he supported conservative Hindu-Javanism'. RICKLEFS(I993), 165, BU members [o
Radjiman's left saw him as 'a sturfy reactionary '

! NAGA2UM1(I972), 116.

J PETRUS BLUMBERGER(1987), 165 VAN M1ERT(1995), 44. Mangkoe Ncgoro Vll was iis
patron; HPO. June 1921, 94.

'For instance, in 1914; KOT 1915, ■Persovcrachf, 99.

"In Darmo Kondo. quoted 'PersovenichC, KOT J914. 969-70, 'Katjoeng' wrote that
theosophy and ihe Order of the Star in the East were 'rubbish': there already was too much
religion, both of swuri Islam and other kinds, on Java, hindering people's material progress.

'in 1917. Soetopo spoke out against revolutionary socialism He was rather militant within the
Budi Utomo context though; his colleagues in 1922 rejected his support of striking government
pawnshops employees. T1CHELMAN(1985), 632-4

s LOC. 11-7-1916, 2e blad, 'De jaarvergadering van Boedi-Oetomo', The Lumajang local
branch proposed to outlaw child marriage, and put legal minimum marriage age at 18 for girls and
25 for boys. Labberton said: 'there should not be marriages between children, or between aged men
and very young girls, A people which allows such marriages, finds itself in a degeneration process.
If the Javanese nation wants to improve itself, and to become equal to other nations, then it needs to
keep ihat in mind.' He thought the Lumajang proposal's age limits were too high, diough. 'The vice
chairman, Raden Soetopo, regretted that was pointed publicly to the Javanese people's deficiencies.
He proposed to deal with such questions behind closed doors from now on, as their discussion in
public would hurt many Javanese'.

286

V.2

in the East.' Labberton in the same year thought 'Today too, one can imagine the danger
that the Javanese expectation of a Messiah will again be abused for political aims.' The
OSE should prevent this, 1

Towards the First World War, the colonial government proclaimed an 'association
policy', which it said was a fairer deal for 'natives'. The TS supported this policy. 1

Theosopbists did not base that support on the same philosophical foundations as
Protestant Governor -General Idenburg though. When Christian missionaries said that
association within the Dutch empire could only work on a common b3sis of religion,*
Van Hinloopcn Labberton agreed. But he differed with them on the nature of that basis:

Dutch civilization in these lands will have to have a religious background in order to penetrate

and to continue to exist. Only Theosophy, (he Root of Faith in all faiths, will be able to provide

'D.A. Rinkes to A.W.F. Idcnburg; VAN DER WAL(1967), 101. See also Mas
Mangoenpocrwoto. 'Binlang limoer [Stat in the East]*. FT. 1918-19 02). 70-1. Soeriokoesoemo in
WED. 1920, 1(34- On the spiritual field, it is the Slat of the East, which prepares the coming of (he
Raloe Adil.'

~'Naschrift van de Redactie', TMNI 1913. )67f. Ibid.. 169f. 'Een leraar. die komt voor de Gansclie
Wereld' interpreted New Guinea siorics On a lhaumaiurgisi, expected to return, as confirming ihe OSE.

'VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(19I6D), 518 'Let everyone in hi; surroundings (ighl for
(his and suppon the Government in lis noble striving towards regeneration of our system of rule on
the basis of Association'. See also TMNI 1918, 49. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(1917). 393.
afler visiting Queen Wilhelmina and other authorities as leader of the Indie Wecrbaar delegation,
wrote in TMNI' 'My definiie impression from what I have se^n in The Netherlands is ihat [he ruler
ideal which dates from before the abolition or slavery [in 1863 in the Dutch colonial empire], has
been replaced with ihe influential and ruling Dutch by the idea of a policy of association, which will
be consciously aimed at the education of (he Dutch East Indies towards Self-government and [he
development of Ihe fotccs and (alents of the natives as much as of die riches of the country.'
According to Governor-General De Graerf in a letter to Minister or Colonies Koningsberger on 5
January 1929, in 1918 Van Hinloopcn Labbenon had been die first lo propose including Indonesians
in Dutch delegations to intemalional conferences; KWANTES(I984). 169. DSAJADININGRAT-
NIEUWENHU1S. 42, defines 'association' as 'Indonesia and The Netherlands should cooperate on a
footing of parity and equality between the (wo nations.' This assumes too readily that various people
using the word, meant Ihe same by it. See for instance Van Hinloopen Labberton. and A Vreede's
'elder and younger brother' view (p. 215). vs. Sneevliet and Weslerveld; p. 168, 182. Conservative
Dutchman Rilsema van Eck interpreted 'association' as being different from 'assimilation': 'In
association, besides an element of unification, there always is an element of segregation'; De
Indische Gids, April 1920. as quoted WED, Feb. 1921, 22. See also his 'Indies staatkunde en
weerbaarheid'. De Gids, 1917. I, 201-21. Lord Curzon on India in 1917: 'The policy of His
Majesty's Government, with which the Government of India are in complete accord, is that of the
increasing association'. Quoted M0RT[MER(1983). 75. Albert Sarraut. French Minister of
Colonics in the 1920' s, had a chapter La Politique d'Association in his book La mise en valeur des
colonies francaises . Reviewed by W. de Cock Buning in NIE, Sept. 1923, 7f. International 'associ-
ation policy' was roughly the same as 'ethische politiek' in Dutch of that time.

"VAN HINLOOPEN LAB8ERTON(1916Q. 243.

Home rule. Independence

287

it. The future belongs to our philosophy of life. 1
This view did not make agreement with for instance Muslims easier.

Van Leeuwen, the TS monthly's editor who would later become General Secretary,
received a letter. It asked about attitudes to Christian missionaries in Indonesia. Was it
true that the TS saw mission among Muslims differently from among Papuans 1 in New
Guinea (Irian), and from the islands of Timor, Sumba. and Nias?

In his reply. Van Leeuwen affirmed there was indeed such a difference, comparable
to the one Annie Besant made between Christianily in fndia, and, for instance, Africa.
Missionaries among Muslims basically did nothing more than taking away a nickel from
them and giving them back ten cents. New Guinea and the other islands, though, were
not like that:

Here [in the question] is probably meant the existing animism in these regions, a leftover from
the Lemurian period and the Lemuro-Atlantean influences of thousands and tens of thousands
years ago. Without any doubt, there the new and more noble Aryan Religion will be able to be
very useful and. as also in all odier counlries religion laid the groundwork for civilization, thus
also in these regions: with a more noble religion, a more noble civilization, a more humane
civilization, will be able to establish itself.

When Labberton was in The Netherlands with Indie Weerbaar, a reporter from De
Avondposi daily interviewed him on Dutch relations to the Indies. 'A paternal authority
should be maintained.' Also, (hough, the Indies' autonomy should increase gradually. He
said people in the Manado area of north cast Sulawesi saw the Dutch as allies, not as
oppressors: 'a relationship, like the Batavians' to the Romans.' It should become like that
for all of the indies. Then, Dutch authority would be respected and honoured, especially

'[bid.. 248. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(I913B). 6. The Native society is loo immature
for unbelief. People with a strong moral basis from earlier incarnations may be very good citizens
now, though they now are unbelievers or agnostics, we Tccl though that in this country, in dtis more
primitive socieiy a widespread unbelief would become a grave obstacle to all true progress.' Without
mentioning theosophy. Colonel Fabius at a Duich right-wing liberals' meeting on conscription said:
The native in an Indies army should feel as Dutch as possible ... The speaker [Fabius] in (his
context also questions, iT bringing Chrislianily will lie the nalives more lo us. It is a fact thai
Christianity does not ban drinking alcoholic beverages,' LOC. 7-3-1917, le blad: 'Bond van Vrije
Liberalen en Indie. Hei debat over de motie Van Heuisi,'

J VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1909), 6. The Malay language original of the speech has
orang papoea-papoea Jang masih biasa memakan sesamanja menoesia'; Papuans who still cat human
flesh; the Dutch translation included wilh the original has 'wilden', savages, instead of Papuans.

'VAN LEEUw"EN(1920A). 94-5, VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1910), 109: 'the less
civilized peoples of the outer possessions [outside Java]'. TH. VREEDE(1925). 8 suggested 'that the
3/4 more developed people be accorded a temporary authority over the 1/4 less developed ones, or,
put differently, that Borneo, Celebes, New Guinea and other less developed areas would be
temporarily dominated and colonized by J?v a .'

"Batavians were a Germanic (or Celtic?) speaking tribe, in the central Netherlands, west of
Nijmegen.The Roman empire saw them as socii. military allies: a status above that of conquered
enemies, and below full empire citizens. The Batavians rebelled militarily a< least once.

28S

V.2

if The Netherlands lets the Indies develop, as they are entitled to.* 1

Labberton 's fellow theosophist. Government Secretary A.G. Vreede, wrote in
Koloniate Sludieen magazine on Indian politics. He wanted to warn especially 'Javanese
readers' against losing sight of differences between Indians and Indonesians:

[ do not mean to say anything humiliating, when 1 here pose the undeniable truth, that the people
{Indonesians], entrusted to Dutch guardianship, are "younger" than those [Indians] who now
are educated by England.
Vreede sympathized with Home Rule for India. However:

Without any doubt, through history and ethnological circumstances, the Indian nation has great
advantages over the Indonesians, advantages that have given it a big lcad. ?
The TS brought out a new political weekly, Indische Stemmen (Indies Voices). It saw
Annie Besant's Commonweal as its example. 1 Theosophist L.J. Polderman claimed that
about 1916 he had written in the daily De Locomotief, favouring a National Congress in
the Dutch East Indies, as in India. He proposed this at a 1917 Insuiinde meeting too. The
socialist Sneevliet thought that idea of 'one Mr POLDERMAN' would harm

'Quoted IG. 1917 (39). 666-7, MRBTD.

! VREEDE(1917B). 2 Also quoied OVIW, 1918. I, ' Inlandschc miliiic'. 18-9. Writing of
younger', of 'ethnological circumstances'. Vreede thought of Rool Races as Besanl taughl iliem.
Ibid., 3: poliiics in India differed by their 'broad moderation'. Ibid., 4. 'a general development (in
India], also measured by western siandards, which is immeasurably higher Mian which is now still the
case with our Natives'.

*TMNI, 19 IS, 208; 281. It was a connnuaiion of the fortnightly paper Inlandsdte Stemmen, an
iniliative of Van Hinloopen Labberton in September 1917, with himself, Hadji Agoes Salim, Abdoel
Moeis, moderate social democrai (who had broken with the ISDV) W, Lubberink, and oihers as
editors; TICHELMAN<1985), 57 For Lubberink. an ex-navy officer, ibid.. 380; VAN DER
PAUW, 102-3: in the early 1920s, he briefly became a member of the Communist Parly of The
Netherlands. In 1924. he was an employers' organization official, and became editor-in-chief of De
Vaderlander |The Patriot}, the Dutch fascist party weekly. According to BROEZE. 24, IS first came
out in November 1917. In May 1918, the name changed to Indische Siemmen, edited by Moeis and
the theosophist P. Foumier, who also wrote in TMNI, ibid. Members of Budi Utomo' t youth
organization Jong-Java wrote in IS: TMNI, 1918, 393, One contributor was B.J.O. Schrieke on
landed property law; IS, 4-10-1919. The paper 'lacked contributors and subscribers'; TMNI, 1919,
511. But editor Kiewiet de Jonge in the 1 1-10-1919 /5 issue, 133, wrote that 'in less than ten weeks'
lime the number of subscribers to Indische Siemriten has more than tripled'. According lo
HER1NG(1992), VII. the number of copies per issue went from 280 to 900, read mainly by 'petly
clerks, the teachers, the foremen and lower police officials'. Nevertheless, IS then merged with
another weekly, De Taak (the Task). BROE2E. 86, names as theosophist editors of the pre-merger
Taak. Kiewiet de Jonge, Th. Vreede, and W.P.D, Corporaal, Radjiman also wrote in it; H.
Sneevliet. 'Haar Taak', HVW, 10-8-1917, Among post-merger Taak editors, A.J. Hamerster was a
prominent theosophist. Another editor was S. Koperberg, who in 19)5 had warned Sneevliet against
working with thcosophisis,

, POLDERMAN(1922). 3-4.

Home rule- Independence

289

revolutionary ideas within Insuiinde: 'Insuiinde, a par. of the National Congress, the
Congress of the Princes and Bupaii." According to Polderman, the Congress idea had
faded into the background with the coming of the Volksraad (People's Council). 1

Establishing this Volksraad was part of government association policy. In 1917, Budi
Utomo put up candidates for it, at Van Hinloopen Labberton's request conjointly with his
Nederiandsch-fndische Vrijiinnige Bond? This non-clerical electoral association
eventually won most 'European' seats in the election. Labberton' and three Indonesian
FTS sat from 1918 on in the first Volksraad.' The road had 39 members in all. So more
than 10% of membership were FTS; far more than any of the promillages in the graph, p.
1!0. The Theosophist saw this as a 'Nationalist movement on Aryan lines.'* Soewardi
Soerianingrat in the socialist daily Hei Volk did not expect much from the council, as it
was only partly elected, by limited franchise, with limited powers. He anticipated

that the Volksraad will be moderately conservative. Let me imroducc our "representatives" to
you. I. Dr. Radjiman.' court physician of the Susuhunan of Solo, theosophist and scholar.

'HVW. 25-8-1917. 224; U. Sneevliet. 'Doorbuigcn of tot inkcer komen?'

J P0LDERMAN(1922>, 3-4.

3 NAGAZUMI(I972). 125. Van Hinloopen Ubberton also was on the Budi Utomo lisi or
candidates; LOC. 29-8- 1917, te blad, 'Bocdi Oeiomo' Hadji Agoes Salim also joined the NIVB;
NOER, 1 10. The NIVB was founded with suppori from ihc ihrce main parties (rightist Bend van
Vrijc Liberalen. centre Liberal? Unie. leftist Vrijzinnig-Detnocralisclte Bond) into which Dulch
liberalism was then divided; LOC, 2-21917, Ic blad, De vnjzinnigen in Indie'. LOC, 29-9-1916.
2e blad. 'Een Indische Vrijzinnige Bond': die NIVB was moderate liberal'. K v'on 1917. (1918),
III: NIVB members were mainly from among the wealthier members of (he European population.'

'His candidacy also had Bupatis' Union support; H Snccvliei, HVW. 10-8-1917. 205. 'De
jongsle regenrenvcrgadering en dc Volksraad' their members, including Mangkoc Ncgoro VII, pui
up as candidate the theosophical fire-caler v. Hinloopen Labberton'. Bataviaasch Nteuwsblad,
'Vergadering van den Regenlenbond', reprinted IC. 1917 (39), 1548; Labberton topped (he list of
candidates. Of 34 Bupalis' Union members present. 33 voted for hjm; 28 for Polderman;
Tjokroaminoto got 'one or two' votes. See also LOC. 16-7-1917, 2e blad. GOENAWAN
MANGOENKOESOEMO (1918). 19: bupati founded (heir union lo prevent limitation of hormat.

S 7T, Jan. 1919, 312. According (o DVM, 4, 'most of (he motions and proposals were by Van
Hinloopen Labberton'; and he influenced the section in ihe 1922 new Dutch constitution on the
colonies', see VAN HINLOOPEN LAB8ERT0N(192I). He failed to establish 'one of the native
languages' as a Volksraad official language. His Volksraad colleague R. A. A. A. Djajadiningrai
proposed Malay, NAGAZUM1(I972), 140. Labberton was also a department of (he interior official
from 1918-1922. KWANTES(1975), 494.

*7T. Jan. 1919,312.

'Radjiman was number one candidate on Budi Utonw's liii, LOC, 29-8-1917. 'Boedi Oetomo'.
Ai a 'Nationaal Comite' meeting, preparing for the elections, on 19 May 1917. he had held a
speech, 'from a theosophical viewpoint'. LOC, 22-5-1917, 'Bijeenkomsi van hct Nationaal
Comite*.

290

V.2

conservative and eternal opponent of the e*-exile Tjipto. '

Bandung daily Kaoem Moeda, then Dama Koesoema's, expected Labberton in the
Council to figbt conservatism; but 'that fight will keep within the limits of the principle
that the Indies will remain under Dutch authority.' 1

A committee of Javanese living ia The Netherlands, led by Raden Mas Arto
Sooryopoetro, celebrated ten years of Budi Uiomo, partly in the The Hague TS building,
De Ruyterstraat 67, on 20 May 1918. 1 The theosophists also had a good relationship with
the society of Indonesians in The Netherlands, the Indische Vereeniging. Sooryopoetro
and his nephew Nolo Soeroto then were prominent in it.' Soerjopranoto had represented
its paper for Indonesia. In it, Sooryopoetro explained theosophy as

This reincarnation doctrine has given birth to the caste system. Each caste has its own souls,

which help to fit that caste's members for a definite task of (he work in society and state. Do

noi we find this idea in genetics doctrine as well? 5

The TS founded a central fund for 'all theosophical -social or political work' in the
Dutch East Indies in 1919. 6 [n the next year, before die term of the first Volksraad
finished, a second Dutch, and fifth in all, theosophist 'MP' joined Labberton, also for the
NfVB: ex-Semarang local councillor Theo Vreede.'

Many publications frequently mentioned theosophists. 9 In 1916, the editor-in-chief

'lk-1 Volk: quoted iC. 19)8 (40), 343, MRBTD, In the valuable list of articles by Soewardi.
TSUCHIYA(I987). 50-1 did not include Socwardis Het Volk articles.

'KM 19-1-1918, quoted IPO 3/1918. MJB.

! NAGAZUMI(I972). 131. P0EZE(1986), 125. Javaonsche Kunsta\ond ter gelegenheid van
het tienjarig bestaan dcr vereeniging "Boedi-Oetomo". gehoudett door in Nederland verbhjvende
Javanen Op 20 met 19 IS in her gebouw "Dthgentia". den Haag. The Hague. Luctor et Emcrgo,
1918.

VOEZE(l986), 75: in 191 1, Labberton was one of the IV s pemin\pin (literally, 'leaders',
donors), ibid., 76 Nolo Soeroto went to the 191) London Races Congress, lo which Besant in
vain had urged Gandhi to go.

J Soorjo Poctro, 'Op de Puinhoopcn van Oud-Java'. HPO 1916/17, 228-35; 233-

*7/WrV7. 1919, 202; it started with 6000 guilders. In 1921. (he Vieosofisch Steunfonds had a
capital of f. 100,000; EM, vol. VI, 764. When he spoke to Budi Uiomo. VAN HINLOOPEN
LABBERTON(1909). 4, had denied that the TS was political; it only wanted to cleanse people's
hearts, because else, people's political movements would also be unclean. He said (hat at a lime
when all organizations of a political nature were illegal in the Dutch East Indies; compare Olcott's
views on apoliticism, linked to expectations that ihis might facilitate legalization of die TS in
Russia; see p. 63f.

7 K0CH(I956), 72; 130. He was not as active a Volksraad member as Labbcnon:
SOERJOKOESOEMO{1921B), 72. McVEY(1965), 450 wrongly calls Vreede an tSDP member.

"After an attack on Labberton by Het Nieuws van den Dag voor Nederlanasch Iridic, which
theosophists saw as inspired by Roman Catholic clergy, TMNI, 1918, 48, took stock of the TS'
friends and foes among dailies. Apart from the Nieuws van den Dag, it said also about Baiaviaasch
Nieuwsblad, Preangerbode, and Soerabajaasch Handelsblad. 'One should beware of these media.

Home rule. Independence

291

and press reviewer of pro-colonial monthly De indische Cids, ex-Indies army captain
E.A.A. van Heekeren, felt weary. Once again, he had been reading anti -government
column after anti-government column in Indonesian papers. "The Native press', he wrote,
'broadcasts poison. ... if only the government wanted to understand the press' great
power. Why cannot the government use men like Van Hinloopen Labberton, who have
very great influence on Native society, and to whose voice they listen? ... How they
should perform that task, by founding a new organ', or in another way, 'is a matter for
more talks. But anyway, the Indies government should do something. From all sides,
from this country and from abroad, they incite Kromo. The social democrats have their
revolutionary organ, the Insulinde people broadcast their products of sedition."

Next year, a new daily came out; in 1918, a remodelled old daily came out. Then
prominent FTS, Raden Djojosoediro and Hadji Agoes Salim. and H.J. Kiewiet de Jonge,
respectively headed Neratja (The Balance), and Bata\iaasch Nieuwsblad 1 Both were
accused of being government mouthpieces. 3

In 1918 and 1919, of contributors to the TS' own neosoftsch Maandblad, all but
Jinarajadasa were Dutch. The Maandblad'z 19)9 List of Contributors consisted of
Jinarajadasa, ien Dutchmen, and five Dutch women." In 1920, leading Budi Uiomo
member, though not representative of all of BU, Raden Mas Soetatmo Socriokocsoemo,
joined them. Before wc look further at this leader of 'Javanese nationalism' politics, we
look at other political movements which had emerged meanwhile.

Who supports ihem financially or morally is an accomplice," The Javalxrde and the Baiaviaasch
llandelsblad from Djakarta, iltc Mataram from Yogyakarla. (he locvtnotiej and the Indier from
Scmaraiig. and (he Sumatra Post from Medan. were considered friendly. Things changed fast for the
fintaviaascli Nieuwsblad.

l /G. 1916(38), 1283. MRBTD.

! Salim was born in October 1884; according to KOCH(I960), 131, he sometimes called himself
a Libra man.' In astrology, people born under the Libra sign are supposed to be moderate and
balanced,

3 Kiewiet de Jonge, who also wroie in TMNl and Djdwa magazines, from 1918-19 was Baiaviaasch
Nieuwsblad editor-in-chief; KWANTES(1975), 614-5. 'Aroen' [J. Slam), in 'Verantwoordelijkheid',
HVW, 9-11-1918, 46: 'Mr KIEVIT fsic] DE JONGE. who is very closely connected to Builenzorg
[the governor-general's palace in Bogor].' KOCH(1956), 1)2-3: he had got that job through
intervention of the government Intelligence Service chief, Captain W. Muurling. to propagate the
governor-general's policies; as with Neratja, which received government money. After Kiewiet de
Jonge had been dismissed from the Nieuwsbtad because of falling circulation, in 1919, when he lived
in Gambir, he became editor of Indische Stemmen.

4 See also the graph on p. 292 for the authors of articles. The five women were Mrs van Hinloopen
Labberton, F. Begu in -Bickers, A. P. Dekker-Groot, EH, Sormeborn-Gronloh, J, Westrik- Westers.

:<U

Q -5

Q 2

-a

CO
1— (

O
W

■a gs

5< 9
to —
O

' — '

o
Q

1 — I

Wome rule. Independence
2.Past-Budi Utomo movements: Sarekat Islam

293

After 1912, more radically anti-colonial movements, which managed to get mass
fallowings, upstaged Budi Utomo. They were: Sarekat Islam, based on Muslim lower
level civil servants, small and middle business people, peasants, and workers; the
Indische Parti]; and later, in the 1920's, the communist PK1, and Sukarno's PN1.

The shift in attention from Budi Utomo to Sarekat Islam was potentially negative for
the Theosophical Society, even though the SI was no strictly Islamic monolith. Budi
Utomo tended to look for inspiration towards Hinduism, 1 also on the island of Bali (see p.
329), and towards India:

Of course, the Javanese men of culture, as ihey search for means for the construction of Java's
decayed and ruined palace, are in need of materials which India's spiritual riches brought us. 1
The 'masses' in the S! looked more to Muslim countries; 3 or to Russia after 1917*.
That in India after 1917. Gandhi's non-co-operation pushed Annie Besant's views into the
background, might complicate TS relationships with those in Indonesia who looked to
India as well.

In 1916. the Dutch Resident Engelenberg reported on political and politically relevant
movements of Indonesia. He described the Theosophical Society as ardent supporters of
the association policy, who tried to win over Javanese to their ideas. He strongly doubted
their chances of success, however, as the 'real Islamic spirit' would not be satisfied with
the position of a mere spark of a syncretic Central Pire. s Still, one can argue thai in

'VLEKKE, 412 G.E. HALL(1968), 752: BU 'look its inspiration from ... Rabindranaih
Tagorc, and to some extent from Mahatma Gandhi' generalizes, especially for ihe early years.
SOERlOKOESOEMO(l919B). 72: 'The assimilation of the Javanese and the Hindu spirit in all
respects succeeded so completely ihat Islam, invading later, could not undo whai this Javanese-
Hindu spirii had made, not even by violence and abuse of power. Though Islam seemingly
vanquishes .. the ancient Javanese religion, in reality it has lost splendidly'. Nolo Soeroto.
'Javaansche culluur en Indische sympalhieen', WED, 1920, 58: 'the Javanese have never forgotten
their ancient [lndia| gurus'. Wiihin Bt/'s youth league. Jong-Java, in !92<i theosophisls, Christians
and Hindus had instruction in their own religions: Muslims had not. NOER. 248.

'Nolo Soeroto, Javaanschc cuhuur en Indische sympalhieen', WED. 1920. 59.

J VLEKKE.4I2.

J Sneevliet said 'British India should nol be (he example (for Indonesia); rather, the
proletarians should direct their eyes towards Russia. The civilized Dutchman acis like a dog. when
tic comes lo the Indies'. 'Sneevliet in Holland': from De Tribune, rcprimed HVW. 17-5-1919, 298.

5 A.J.N. Engelenberg. in VAN DER WAL(1967), 461. VAN HINLOOPEN
LABBERTON(I910). 109, described the Indonesian Muslim as mainly tolerant, 'even though a
Pan-Islamic movement is trying to kindle the unholy sectarian Tire wiihin him'. VAN
H1NLOOPEN LABBERTON(1916A), 51 thought ihat the Duich colonial government would
have lo stop Indonesian Muslims from performing ihe hadj. the pilgrimage lo Mecca, as pan-
Islamism, linked to the Turkish government and to the 'Djadjal lanat; the Ami-Christ' (ibid,,
52), might influence ihem there. But 'the Governmenl so far has done nothing to ensure the
interests of its Muhammadan subjects, in order to prevent unholy fanaticism and sectarian
religious hatred being encouraged amongst Ihem and increasing the

294

V.2

Indonesia the TS had more Muslim members than in the rest of the world pu; together;
though some might doubt the orthodoxy of these Muslims. 1

The theosophisi Radjiman addressed Sedio Moeiio. the bupaiis' union, on Sarekai
Islam in late 1913 in Semarang. His speech concluded 'negatively in all aspects' to SI. In
his own Surakarta he had observed that priyayi did not want to join a league like that,
'People still want to hold on to the existing distinction of castes.' So. SI was 'doomed to
break up." Also Labberton did not sound enthusiastic. 1

Not all of the TS, or the Surakarta court, opposed Sarekai Islam so frontally. When it
offered Prince Ngabehi IV its patronage in 1913, 'he accepted it impulsively.' His father,
Pakoe Boewono X, soon ordered him to resign.' Still. Prince Ngabehi may have been one
of the theosophisis through whom over the next years Labberton developed rather good
contacts with at least some SI leaders. He spoke at the Sarekat's first congress of 1916.
Some of the leaders were originally not sharply anti-colonialist: Tjokroaminoto stood at
first for an autonomous 'Indies state' within a "Greater Netherlands' framework, 4

Many Sarekai Islam members criticized the social hierarchy in Java, fn 1914, Kiewict
de Jonge worried about sympaihies of Dutch officials like Rinkcs for 'democratic
tendencies' in SI: 'as with the downgrading of native auihorily, (he government also

possibility of disturbances, of which die maddened perpetrators in (he end will be I he worst victims'.
Such a pilgrimage ban was not 'an obstacle (o religion bur only a fatherly precaution' D. van
Hinloopen Labberton, 'Soenan Bonang's lecringen', TMNI, 19!7, 505. called Javanese islam 'a
form or [slam, wliich. being mcdiraiive and iheosophical, we should consider extremely important in
relationship (o our iheosophical propaganda', [n TMNI. 1918, 599. Van den Oroek thought that in
spite of SI activity, Javanese would not become 'PURE' Muslims now. due to older, what he called
Buddhtsi' influences. Probolinggo, Close to the Tenggcr mountains, where Van den Brock was
assislent resident, was one of the least Islamized regions in East Java. TMNI, 1920, 4f . reprinted a
report from daily De Loco/none/ from 1 December 1919, of an 5/ meeting where Hadji Mohamed
Dachlan, founder of die reformist Muslim Muhammadijah organization, pleaded for tolerance
towards other religions like Christianity, The TMNI editor supported (his view

'GEERTZ(I960). 316, 336: the mystical seel limu Sedjali (True Science), founded by
Prawirosoedarso. a Madiun court noble in 1925, acknowledged thcosophy as one of i<s four sources
of inspiration. It also called itself 'true Islam', to the anger of the orthodox. In Dec. 1928, it already
had 4210 supporters, 2475 men and 1735 women. So, diough geographically less widespread than
the TS. it already had more support. According to the Dutch political police 'nothing at all has so far
appeared of undesirable political action or influence.' POEZE(1982). 489. 'Prawirosoedarmo',
ibid.. 219: and die at least S91S and 1916 FTS "Prawirosoedarmo {Raden), Mamri goeroe [education
official] Malang': NUGRAHA(1989), 247, 257: probably arc the same person.

! 'Dr. Radjiman'soordeel over de S \.\IG 1914, 65-6. LARS0N(1987). 56. VAN HINLOOPEN
LABBERTON(l913C). 122 had criticized this branch of the 'Sarekat dagang Islamiah' for 'the
unwisdom of the all too numerous members of this league, of whom the number has outpaced its
leadership. '

'LARSON(1987), 43-4.

<L.DE JONG, vol. Hal, 233-4. TB 1917,33.

Home rule. Independence

295

undermines the respect for its own authority.' 1

At the end of 1916, Labberton had a disagreement with Sarekai Islam on the harmed
question. Hormai meant prescribed, extremely respectful manifestations of loyalty by
relatively lowly placed people towards, for instance. Javanese princes. Dutch colonial
officials also claimed rights to hormai.

Van Hinloopen Labberton had already defended hormai at the 1915 local government
congress. 1 Later also in an interview in the Javabode daily. He spoke of 'the infamous
ami -hormat circular', in which officials had tried to limit the practice.

In the Sarekai Islam paper Oeioesan Hindia, 'a Javanese Si member' wrote that
Labberton misunderstood 'the S.I. 's character.' it was not just a religious organization, as
he thought, 'but a people's movement first.' So, it dealt with 'the suffering, the poverty,
the lack of justice, etc.. which oppress nearly all of the native world.'

Mr L. (abbenoh), the author continues, has never been a Javanese who has become a victim of
exaggerated hormat; there arc quite some people like that among the oppressed. Through this
(we would like to call it;) lust for hormat. there are some native noblemen, who fancy ihey are
"radja Iking]", and love to go beyond what is reasonable and fining. ... the officials should be
(here for the people; and no( the other way around. How can one win (rust, if Kromo is forced
(O crawl and to scmbah before a bupali. while Kromo's soul rebels against this?
!n the 16 November 1916 issue of Oeioesan Hindia. Van Hinloopen Labberton
reacted for hormat; as

a truly civilized nation has manners, and so ii is not slavishness. if one manifests respect towards
others. ... In Europe, only (he wca I (hy observe the forms somewhat, the majority of Europi^ns
arc conceited, bumptious and ill-bred. Is it really necessary that such etiquette is transferred to
Java? ... Some humans 3tc predestined to rule, others art predestined to form the people.
The Oeioesan Hindia editors added a note to the article, saying thai they opposed
Itormat practice, and Labberton's defence of it. 4

A member of the Sarekat Islam national executive, Raden Djojosoediro. was Pewarta
Theosofie HN cdilor-in-chief. J In early 1915. he also was the editor of Taman Pewana.
lie became chief ediior of Pemiiran (Association), at ihe end of 1915, or early 1916,
when it became a daily, A Duich official in 1915 had described Pemiiran as a 'sometimes
rather vocal publication which had some influences from the I. P. wilh iheosophical

'H.J. Kicwiel de Jonge. letter lo his parents, 6-8-1914; NSG. Kiewiet de Jonge archive, # 24.

J He said his views were 'far from those who wanted to incite the people against the bupali and to
undermine hormat.' He thought 'that the bupari with their intellect might make the people progress.'
IC 1915(37). 'Varia. Vijfde decentralisaliecongres'. 1138.

^OC, 13-11-1916. 2e blad. 'Hel karataer tkr S.I.'

'Oeioesan Hindia, 16-1 M916; as quoted A, Baars, 'Met "program" van den Heer v. Hinloopen
Labberton', HVW, 25-12-1916. 49. Baars' ISDV supported (he OH editors in this.

i PT, 1916-1921; covers. Since 1921, Raden Notosoediro was ediior along with Djojosoediro.
*rari915, 'Persoverzichf, 121-2.

296

V.2

tendencies',' When Djojosoediro came, earlier editors tike Soekimo, who had Indische
Partij/Insulinde and ISDV sympathy, 1 resigned out of opposition to theosoptfy. Many
fellow SI members saw Djojosoediro as too much of an idealist; a Dutch official
described him as 'a reliable person in all respects'.* When Governor-General Idenburg's
term ended in early 1916, Pemiiran honoured him by sending his portrait to all
subscribers. 1 Every early 1916 Pewana Thiosofie issue had a Pemiiran ad on its cover.
The Pewana issues of late 1916 and early 1917 all had the message that the daily paper
in early October 1916 ceased publication, as subscribers did not pay.*

After Pemiiran, in 1917, Djojosoediro started a new daily. Neratja' He did (his
together with fellow SI member, and then still fellow TS member, Hadji Agoes Salim.
Like Abdoel Mocis, who also became an editor, Salim was from (he Minangkabau
region: from Bukittingi, Sarekat left-winger Alimin debated against him on 17 June in
front of L 200 Jakarta Sf members. Salim supported the liberal local council majority in
the Petodjo housing speculation affair. Alimin opposed thcm. s

On 31 July in Pamjaran-Warta, Alimin was not positive about Neralja's contents.

'DA. Rinkes, in VAN DER WAL<I967), 382 About 1913 the colonial government feared the
Indische Panij moil, as ii might radicalize die more numerous SI. In 1915, Rinkes. thought another
paper by Djojosoediro, Tjahaja Timoer. 'much improved' since 1913. Quoted TICHULMAN( 1985),
651

; TICni;LMAN(l985). 626,

*Djawa Tengah, if 8, Jan. 1916, quoted KOT, 1916, ■Persovcrzichi', 500 The press reviews
were by A. 1-1 J.G. Walbeehm and Ch.P.J. Btok. 'Soekirna, who earlier on had been chief editor,
said io him (the Djawa Tengah author| thai he had no longer been able to conlnbute lo that paper,
because its real chief leader. Ihe Officials' School teacher VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON, with

DJAJASOEDIRA as chief eduni .. . I in original] are both iheosophists. for the same reason,

also Moh Safevic left the board of editors." On this conflict also Modjopait 18-7-1917, quoted IPO
29H917, MJB. 19-20. IOC. 6-11-1916, 2e blad, 'Dc S.I. vcrgadcring'; and 9-11-1916, 2e blad,
S 1, vcrgadenng'' Soekirno was Jakarta branch SI chairman He spoke, as did Goenawan. Ins.
predecessor as chairman; TICHliLMAN(1985), 49. PW, 5-4-1917. Kelerangan': when Marco was
put in jail, Soekirno was in a support committee, Soeara Merdiko, 25-6-1917, 36 mentioned
Soekimo as participant in a Jakarta 5/ discussion on voles for women. SM thought: 'Many women
fight for freedom and are workers, just like men. Why should noi ihey too determine the direction,
in which the country's situation should go 1 ' McVEY(l965), 145: Soekirno caused the final break
belween PKI and right wing SI, by a speech against rich Muslims. After it, he had lo run from [he
rostrum 'to escape a beating.*

J KORVER, 242. VAN DER WAL<1967>. 496. Djojosoediro in 1917 was an unsuccessful SI
candidate for the Voiksraad, NAGAZUMI(1972), 124.
5 /C, 1916(38), 952. MRBTD.
6 See also KOT, 1917, 'Persovemcht'. 98,

7 *N.V. Uitgevers Maatschappij Evolutie*, PW, 26-5-1917, 4. Its publishers 'Evolutie* also
published Indische Stemmen.

e 'Openbare S.I. vergadering' , Javabode; reprinted !G, 1917 (39), I442f. Ibid.: Alimin attacked
Tjokroaminolo, who also spoke, on Indie Weerbaar.

Home rule. Independence

297

both on Petodjo and in general. He thought it could not stand cnucism of Jan
CompenicV government'; or of itself. It preached passivity to 'Kromo.' 'Neratja s
editors forget that if the people want to progress, they cannot do that by just remaining
passive.' Passivity, contrary to what Neratja'* spiritual leaders said in another context:

Annie Besant also would not say to Uncle {Dutch: Oom] Ubbenon and his supporters: "Hey
you theosopbists, leave a nice jacket or gold-rimmed glasses alone. For you must stay wok and
resigned and passive, and never get angry."

Neratja wrote that in April 1918 'the Member of the S.l. NationaJ Executive and of
the Theosophical Society national executive, R. Djojosoediro' went on 'a propaganda
tour in northern Java.' In thai most Muslim pan of the island, 'first and foremost, he
insisted on less fanatical behaviour, and a closer adherence to the prophets
[Muhammad's] rules, instead of those of the Arabs. One should hope that the S.I will
heed this admonition by its Executive Member [and Neratja editor)'. 3 In 1919, Neratja
announced a plan by Jinarajadasa to visit Indonesia as 'truly good luck' for the country.

The Sarekat Islam's local level sometimes saw membership of theosophical
organizations as problematic. Djoewarta, from a village near Majalaya in West Java, did
not want discord with fellow villagers about not joining SI. When he went to an executive
member to join, he heard that he was not acceptable, being an Order of the Star in the
East member. He .hen resigned from the 0SE, H.E. Noothout, tea planter and local OSE
secretary did not leave it at that. He wrote a letter to the editor of Kaoem Moeda. The
daily replied that U did not know the local situation. It thought dual membership should
not be a problem, as Djojosoediro was 'even a S.l, national executive member.'

Soekirno was now also in the Sarekat Islam national executive. His involvement in
peasants' action on large privately owned estates near Jakarta* cost him 15 months in jail
in 1919 Djojosoediro thought this was 'too harsh a punishment'. Van Hirioopen
Labberton 'who feels that his life's duty is to help all Gods creatures', also opponents
relations supported Soekirno's family financially until the 5/ did."

In 1921 . Semaocn estimated Neratja printed 2000 copies a day. Thanks to subsidies,
the 'unofficial government organ"s issues are large but very inexpensive.'

'The old Duich East India Company: implying, here, basically there had been no change for the
better.

2 Article 'Ngambeg',

9 /v<ro//a 202, 2810-1918; quoted IPO 44/1918, MJB. 4.

<17^l-!919, quoted IPO 16M9I9. MJB, 2. A speech by Jinarajadasa in Wonog.ri on 8 July 1919.
the state is firstly a Brotherhood of Souls, secondly an expression or Divine life.' TMNI, 1919, 424.
S KM 12-9-1918, K 168, quoted IPO 37/1918, MJB, 14.

*SR 25-5-1919, 3. 'Pergerakan Ra'iaf, reported, concluding: Well done, brother Soekirno!*
'Neratja 28-7-1919. quoted IPO 31/1919, MJB, 1-2,
Neratja 9-8-1919, quoted IPO 32/1919, MJB. 10.
'SEMA0EN(I966),73.

298

V.2

In the spring of 1917, another (at first) theosophist SI executive member. Raden Mas
Soerjopranoto,' founded the Adhi Dharma organization. Its original aim was 'to bring
help and relief to people of good reputation who have got into trouble.' 1 Soeriokoesoemo
and other Paku Alam princes aiso played leading roles in it.

The SI had two Voiksraad members since 1918. One was its president
Tjokroaminoto, (he other one was vice president Abdoel Moeis. Moeis politically
supported TS leader Van Hinloopen Labberton; while Tjokroaminoto was said not to like
Labberton much.'

Since the Indie Weerbaar issue, the SI was divided into a left wing; and the right
wing of Soerjopranoto, Hadji Agoes Salim, and Moeis. People called Moeis' wing
'Sarekat Islam puiih', the white Islamic federation. The leftists were 'Sarekat Islam
merah', the red SI;' like the colours in the red and white flag of the Sarekat (also, later.

Soerjopranoto. born in 1871 , was related to the Paku Alien (and thus, to Soeriokoesoemo) and
an elder brother of Soewardi Soerianingrat; VAN N1EL(1960), 1 10. He was at first active in Budi
Utomo. SHIRAISHK 1990A), 122, calls him a personal friend of Van Hinloopen Labberton. He was
classed under ex-TS members 'who maybe still were [members]'; SOERIOKOESOEMO(192 IB),
72-3.

*OH, 5-5-1917. quoted IPO 18/1917, MJB, 9 Bagoes Kasanbesari in Senopali 25-10/1-1 1-1924.
quoted IPO 48/1924, 430-1: Soerjopranoto 'about 1912' founded the limited liability agricultural
company 'Mardi-Kismo' in Wonosobo. Bagoes, and the anonymous front page article 'Arme
Kroino'. LOC, 2-11-1917, accused him of financial irregularities as secretary/treasurer there;
Bagoes at Adhi Dharma later too. See also Jodjana Socrodiningrat, 'Grepen uii net Javaansch-
economisch leven'. SOEMBANGSIII , 55. AdJii Dharma was linked to 5/, it included a school and an
advice bureau in Yogyakana, which developed into a rival io ISDV trade union influence; PETRUS
BLUMBERGER(1987), 33. TICHELMAN(I985), 50; 666; SHtRAISHl(198l), 96
LARSON(1987), 117: founded 'around 1915'; probably wrong. One aspect of it was io keep
unemployed busy, and to 'morally uplift' them. Also called 'Leger van de Arbeid*, Army of Labor
SHIRAISHK 1 990A), 110, notes its hierarchical' principles: Soerjopranoto was 'commander', not
president. Sri Mataram, 29 Apr. 1919 had an advertisement for it, asking for 'officers',
'Persovetticht'. KOT, 1919,900.

3 KWANTES(1975). 55. IV. 25-5-1918, 'Kiesch', by D, v[an] d[er) Zee: 'Mr van Hinloopen
Labberton (who has managed to keep remarkably quiet since his return from his miliary mission)
has managed to make a big mistake once again.' At a dinner party, he said The floor is Mr
Tjokroaminoio's.' Tjokroaminoto, though, had refused to say anything. 'We owed that to this
clairvoyant of the Oriental soul [v. H. L.].' Van der Zee continued with Wederopbouw s positive
quote on Labberton (see p. 181), and added: 'These very Javanese have now also kicked him. If
TjokroaminoLO is still not convinced of the use of European 'guidance' and 'leaders' he will be
soon.' In a reaction to Van der Zee, Indische Siemmen denied that Tjokroaminoio's refusal to speak
was because of personal feelings against Labberton; quoted IV. 22-6-1918.

In Padang in Sumatra, me S-Ts left and right wings had red, respectively white, coloured
membership cards; IS, 27-9-1919, 1 10. ABDULLAH(1971), 25 rather sees different religious views
on Islam as the basis for the different card colours. In IS, 27-9-1919, 109, editor Kiewiet de Jonge
thought one could differentiate the two wings as 'the socialist and the bourgeois, or as the proletarian
and the small capitalist ones'. In IS, 13-9-1919, he saw Sarekat Islam as politically very diverse:

Home rule. Independence

299

of the Indonesian Republic); or the colours in the Russian civij war, fought then.

Neratja wrote: 'If the S.I. will become an organization for workers only, then we
will see that the same things will happen as in Russia. ... It is a good thing that there are
other voices." To right wing leaders as we saw on p. 227, at least until 1918, theosophy
was at least as important as strict Islam. It then was more a right wing in political and
socioeconomic sense than in religious sense. First, the left seemed to win. The fourth SI
congress in October-November 1919 in Surabaya demoted Djojosoediro to a lesser office;
executive adviser instead of member. A Dutch official observer saw this as one symptom
of a decline of the right wing. 2

The leftists reminded Abdoel Moeis of his Indie Weerbaar past; and Hadjj Agoes
Salim of his TS past and writings in Piwaria Theosofie ? Moeis said of the left that they
wanted to destroy religion and to replace Islamic family life with free love."

As president Tjokroaminoto. who tended more to compromises between left and
right was not present at Sarekat Islam'* sixth congress in October 1921, Moeis presided
then ' Hadji Agoes Salim explicitly denied that he argued for 'the younger brother to elder
brother relationship jas in TS theory], not for the idea of following blindly, but for
brotherhood on a footing, equal for all.' Through him and through Meets, resolutions
were passed which led to expelling Semaoen and others of the left wing; they could after
that only be politically active in ihe PK!.*

In May 1922. a secret government report thought that the split had fatally hurt the SI.
Who would fill this political vacuum? The report named two possibilities; the Naiionaol
Indische Parnj. and 'a theosophical hegemony'. It thought neither really probable,
though it still considered theosophists prominent among Dutch informing young
Indonesian intellecluats on 'cultural and social questions' "

Not long afterwards, Moeis too left the SI. Its significance as an organization
continued io decline through the twenties and thinks. 7 PT editor Djojosoediro remained
in the executive of Sarekat Islam's anti-communist rest, at least until I923. B

•anarchists socialise national. sis (bourgeois), clericals, etc.' In IS, 27-9-1919, 1 10, he thought that
'a class struggle amongst themselves would be very fatal'. In KlEWiET DE JONGE(1917B). 112.
he had rejected (be 'classes categorizing of proletariat and bourgeoisie, of worker versus capitalist.

^Neratjo 206, 2-11-1918; quoted IPO 44/1918, 9.

Z KWANTES(I975): repon by P.J. Gerke on the SI congress, 230. See also letter by Hazeu W
Governor-General Van Umburg Stirum. 9 Dec. 1918, ibid., 192.

5 SDB, 'Awas, ada kritiek. awas ILook out. there is criticism, look out]'. SR. 16-8-1921, 5-6.
M., in Perniagaait 11-10-1924, quoted IPO 43/1924, 195-6, on Salim.

'ENI, vol, V. 21: 197.

5 VLEKKE, 421. SARDESAl. 157: the Marxists 'brake away' in '1920' is incorrect. OCSI, 30.

'CO/, 50; 52-3.

'According to Hadji Agoes Salim in 1928, membership had fallen from about two millions to
'12000 at most' then. PETRUS BLUMBERGER0987), 322.
*KWANTES(1975), 508.

300

V.2

So did Soerjopranoto and Hadji Agoes Salim. Both had broken with the Theosophical
Society, however. Contrary to the TS, SI came to advocate non-co-operation with Duich
authority. After the latter banned the PKI, common opposition to open communism was
no longer a link to the TS. At the 1928 SI congress. Soerjopranoto warned: 'Islam has
been able to withstand communism, but now has to fight Christianity and Theosophy,
which try to destroy the religious foundations of native society'. 1 And Salim then wanted
to introduce the Ahmadiyyah interpretation of the Q'uran into Sarekai Islam, as he
considered it 'the best one to satisfy the needs of intellectual youth and to keep it far
away from the commentaries of Theosophy, which are to be considered a major danger to
Islam'. 1 So, earlier TS' contacts within the SI had turned into its most outspoken
opponents.

In the early I920's. the TS seemingly, at least in Jakarta. 1 had a fairly good
relationship to the modernist Muhammadijah, more especially religious and less political
than Sarekat islam. That relationship was in a parallel decline in the late I920's. Though
H. Fachrodin of Muhammadijah had doctrinal objections to Ahmadiyyah, he too thought
•the danger which threatens Islam now from Christianity and Theosophy, is
considerable." 1

3.1ndiscfte Partij and In do-Europeans

The indische Parlij. a political parly that demanded independence, expanded rapidly after
its founding in 1912. Under government pressure it was dissolved in 1913. The govern-
ment banned from Indonesia its three leaders Tjipto Mangoenkoesocrno. E.F.E. Douwes
Dekker, and Soewardi Soerianingrat, 5 Labbenon, optimistic about winning people to his
views as he would be later with the Samin movement, on 6 September 1913 wrote an
open letter in Tiieosofisch Maandblad voor Nederlandsch-Indie in both Javanese and
Dutch 10 Tjipto, Soewardi and their wives (so not to Douwes DekW). He admitted they
were 'courageous' as persons; 'but still, you erred. '' He urged (hern:

'As quoted PETRUS B L U M BERG ER( 1987), 322.

'PETRUS BLUMBERGER(1987). 323. A( the West Java congress of the Panoi Sarekai Islam
Indonesia, as (he name had become, on 18 Aug. 1929, the Ahmadiyyah missionary from British
India, Mtrza Wall Ahmad Baig. said that iheosophy had 'various doctrines which were at var.ance
with islam.' Fadjar Asia. 21/28-8-1929, quoted IPO 35/1929, 259.

y HB 1/6-10-1924. quoted IPO 39/1924. 633: Muhammadijah then had contacts with (he
Gaenoeng Sari school and the ODI. and a TS representative attended a meeting.

'Bintang Islam 25-6-1928, quoted IPO 27/1928. 1 .

Soewardi in 1928 changed his name to Ki Hadjar Dewamoro. TSUCHIYA09S7). XL

'Also Governor-General idenburg thought: 'I have hope thai the natives [Tjipto and Soewardi]
will still change their mind; DD does not have much chance of this, unless God converts him
completely.' VAN DER MARK, 202. Though a political opponent of 'DD', Labbenon asked the
government for clemency for him, when he was exiled; WANASITA, 1 12.
'VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(1913A), 602.

Home rule. Independence

301

You love freedom: but did you really think of whal uve freedom is? ... You really should know
(hat True Freedom may only manifest itself as the tie of law exists and people act according (o
its limits. ... If you take away from a child thai learns how to stand up and to walk, the tie by
which the Father kept it up: surely i( will stumble and not be free. ... Would you takeaway a
young bird, still unable to fly, from its nest, which, yes, keeps it imprisoned high up in the
branches, but which also by its limits saves and frees that youngster from an ignominious fall?
Desist from actions like that. ... All (hai commits violence, all that murders, that soils itself with
blood, in that red colour wears the mark of the Antichrist. For the country, only Government
authority has the right to wield the club of punishment. It should do this with a merciful heart,
though. ... JAVA AND THE NETHERLANDS SHOULD BE ONE. ...not in brute
force, hu( only in Wisdom and Love one may find (rue progress. May such a force of wisdom
and love be granted to you, so that you too may be an instrument to make Java great, jointly
with The Netherlands. Oh, may the idea of Association grow within you in Ilwil^.i. y_~.
Friend and Brother, D. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON. 1

Tjipto, as a member of Budi Uwmo, at the founding meeting had criticized
Radjiman's anti-materialism: 'Who enjoys watching a wayang performance on an empty
stomach?' 1 Tjipto had left soon, as older influential members rejected his opposition to
aristocrat privileges, to Javaccntrism. and his militant ami -colonialism.

He wrote much, for papers of various tendencies. As far as I know though, never in
iheosophical papers; eiccepi perhaps a few lines of protest on racial doctrines, published
anonymously in the Tlieosofisch Maandblad. The Indies theosophist monthly named him
as one of 'native' political leaders 'who used (0 be members of the Theosophical Society
and maybe still are,' 5 Van Lceuwen:

If one looks through the Society's membership list, one will be surprised at the fact (hat many of
the leaders of the Native people's movement, who now act in such a revolutionary and vehement
way, were once members of our Society, and (hat so many of them at the moment still arc, even
(hough their membership is more formal ihan real, . . If il is (rue what our leaders, the Masters
of Wisdom and Compassion so often hold before us, (hat wc\ the other and often older members
are as responsible for (he defects and errors of our fellow members, as if we had committed

'VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(19'3A), 600f. Also quoted !G 1914, MRBTD, 262
! Dama Koesoema in Weekblad mor Indie. 26, Oct. 1917; quoted /C, 1918(40), 248, MRBTD.
'Quoted SOER10KO£SOEMO(J92IB), 72-3. I am not sure when Tjipto joined (1908?,
according to membership number), and whether or when he left, the TS. I( is not very likely that
tic still was an active Fellow of the Theosophical Society by 1914-6, when he was an ISDV
member and opposed Indie Weerbaar; though he still was on the members* list on 1 Ian. 1916;
NUGRAHA{)989), 260. Then, and later, he called himself 'a revolutionary'. Also, a 'non-
Muslim'; HVW, 20-12-1917, 71. He opposed Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo. In his paper De Bewegmg
in 1919, he called Soetainio's sponsor, Prince Mangkoe Negoro Vll a 'sordid hunter of profits';
LARSON0987), 121. SHIRAISHK.1990A), 120, supposes on Tjipto: 'Early in 1916. as a
theosophist, he must have frequented the (heosophical lodge ... in Surakarta': did he? and if he did,
did he see it as a debating club while disagreeing with most other members' ideas? Might knowing
members help his medical practice? Ibid., 122. he married a Eurasian, Mrs Vogel; a 'batik
entrepreneur and (heosophisi' . Ensiklopedi Indonesia, Jakarta, Ichiiar Baru, 1984; vol, 6, 3573 has
Mrs 'de Vogel'; LARS0N(1987), 1 16: Marie Vogel, whom Tjipio married on 2-2-1920.

302

V.2

these errors ourselves, then we really should become somewhat heavy-hearted. '

What we have written on Tjipto may also apply to his sympathizer Darna Kocsoema.
Darna figured on the TS membership lists of March 1915 and January 1916; they
misspelt 'Darma Koesoema'. 1 On him, too, I found no evidence of political parallelism to
the TS leaders.

While an exile in the Netherlands, Tjipto pursued his medical studies further. In
19L4. he wrote an article for the Indische Gids on wayang theatre. It had one sentence on
the Indies TS section: it had correctly chosen wayang as an object of study, as that was
important. As in Tjipto's other works which I read, he did not mention theosophical
occult doctrines positively. He did mention that plays sometimes criticized Dutch
authority, Wayang was a 'purely Javanese creation'. 1

Also in the Indische Gids, Tjipto got an angry reaction. Its author was C.A.H, von
Wolzogen Kuhr. former assisient residem after a career in Surakarta and other places in
Java and Madura. As were some of his relatives, Ruhr was a member of the Indies TS."
More so than Tjipto's, his article showed it, Tjipto was 'that native doctor, whom we
would rather not have bandaging us. should our coarsely material body be wounded' i

Ruhr started with an anecdote from when he had studied to become a Dutch Indies
official. Then, a fellow student at an April Fools' Day party had supposedly told of an
ancient Hindu travelling by ship to Java. On board he had with him

'a complete set of gamelan instruments, wayang puppels ... and last but not least [.... in

original] a bunch of pisangs [bananas] 1 ' ... Why pisangs? 'Well,' the answer was 'loemiccthc
still Polynesian, shy, autochthonous Javanese out of the trees, to lame them, and make ihem fit
for unpaid labour, especially building the 'Hindu antiquities' like the 'Borobudur"
Though (old as a joke. Kuhr thought this [racist?] view was ao fond [basically]'
correct. What did Tjipto say, wayang 'purely Javanese?'

A primitive people [DulcIi: nawurvolk] of Polynesian origin, still not influenced by the external
civilizing element, maybe standing at a still lower stage of civilization than the Papuans, deep in
[he interior or New Guinea, do now- would people like that really have been ihe wayang's
inventors? ... A nawurvolk, like the Polynesian Javanese, will not invent wayang, wiih lakons
[plots] which speak of a much higher level of culture.

Kuhr meant the level of the aristocrats among Javanese. The immigrants from India,
country of 'the treasure of wisdom', he thought, because of their caste rules

Home rule. Independence
'tjatocrvarnyam') had only mixed 'in moderation' with lower classes.'

303

'VAN LEEUWEN(1921A), 8.

2 NLIGRAHA{1989), 247; 257. Looking at his membership number, he probably joined in
1915.

'TJIPTO MANGOENKOESOEMO(1914). 530.

4 NUGRAHA(1989). 250; 261. VON WOLZOGEN KUHR{1914), 796.

5 VON WOLZOGEN KUHR<1914), 793, 'Coarsely material body'; Dutch; 'grofstoffelijk
lichaam' is the lowest of the seven human principles, according to theosophy.

The Polynesian Javanese was, and stayed, a sudra. Then we, the Dulch, came; still witnesses
of Hinduism's death throes in its fight against Islam. We came as modern Hindus, sired by the
Aryans who had spread over Europe; finally arriving by sea in Java, in order to bring this new
civilization, in which, as one may hope, we will succeed better than the earlier Hindus. Here
the Aryan circle, with its great diameter, closes itself!

Kiihr did not only oppose Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo's history. Concluding, he
suspected Tjipto had hidden political propaganda for his Indische Partij in an 'innocent'
article on art. Was it not 'an attempt to idealize the Javanese, and to downgrade the good
tilings which come from the white brother'?

Tjipto had mentioned the three clowns in wayang: Semar, Gareng, and Petruk. Kuhr
thought that now, these three clowns were the IP's three leaders. 'The Great Dalang'
[Governor-General Idenburg] 'has rightly locked them inside the wayang box (kotak).'
Thus, Von Wolzogen Kiihr finished his defence of colonial rule. 1

Of the three exiles, Tjipto came back in 1914; the others four and five years later.
Ex-/P members kept their ideas alive under the names of first Insulinde, later Nationaai
Indische Partij. 7 At a public meeting in The Netherlands with his Indie Weerbaar
delegation in 1917, Van Hinloopen Labberton said: 'I regret that the IP later became a
revolutionary movement and did not want to be active in parliament.' Then Soewardi
interrupted him: 'This is untrue, we were the first ones to ask for a parliament, and have
always participated in local elections.' 4

In 1918. TS-mjnded daily Oetoesan Meiajoe described Insulinde as an 'opponent' of
theosophy . J Three years later, Semaoen saw it as 'a mixture of Eurasians, Dutchmen, and

'VON WOLZOGEN KUHR(I914), 792-3. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(19I4), 2 on
Java they could exercise -and especially the Hindhus so- a favourable influence on the uncivilized
aborigines'.

r VON WOLZOGEN KUHR(19I4), 798-9.

J KRATOSKA/BATSON, 268, incorrectly wrote already of 'Nationaal Indische Partij' in
1912.

1 Dc Dcputatie-lndie-Weerbaar als Gasien der Indische Vereeniging', HPO 1916/17, 242-60;
251-2.

s See p. 333. Contrary to TS links to moderate competition. VAN N1EL(1960), 63 (accepted
by REEVE(1985), 3) has: "The cultural counterpart to the \1P] party became the Theosophical
Society which had a remarkable influence on many disoriented Indonesians, but there is no
indication of formal concerted action between the two groups.' The second part of this statement
qualifies the first half, and what he ibid., 160, writes on the IP successor organization Insulinde:
see the conflict on India Weerbaar, p. 187. 201. In an interview I had with Prof, van Niel on 29-
10-1995. he said that now he saw the TS as 'very different' from the IP, and did not want readers
to conclude otherwise from the 1960 quote. REEVE(1985), 7 says E.F.E. Douwes Dekker was
FTS; he gives no source; not confirmed elsewhere. Douwes Dekker was a friend of Kautsky;
Troelstra in 1915 introduced him to Trotsky in Switzerland. He saw Aryans as just a 'myth'; he
thought Freud 'has finally liberated us from the human delusion of his [humans'] divinity';
WANASITA, 61, 64. Theosophists would disagree with both.

304

V.2

Home rule. Independence

305

Indonesians, under the leadership of the first.' 1 *

Especially in Surakarta, some people of mixed Dutch and Indonesian ancestry thought
Insulinde was too anti-government. Surakarta area had a category of Eurasian big estate
owners and otherwise prosperous men, lacking elsewhere in Java. Some had joined the
local TS. In 1916, Th.R. Landouw, printing press and daily owner, also local Indie
Weerbaar leader, tried to form a moderate party as rival to Insulinde.

He asked Van Hinloopen Labberton for help. Labberton wanted to help Landouw
with the first of his two main aims. He. too, favoured 'a party, which under, with, and by
way of the Dutch East Indies Government' would strive for 'uplifting and prosperity of
the Indies.' 1 Landouw had a second objection to Insulinde: its pluralist membership
policy.' He said in Surakarta on 16 July 1916:

One may compare Insulinde to a beautiful woman, who receives Indies Dutch. Europeans,

Chinese, Arabs, and Japanese inio her chamber, if only they pay a 25 cents admission. They

call thzt nationalism! 1

Landouw wanted a party for Dutch only, both those who had lived in the Indies for
generations and in most cases had also Indonesian ancestors; and recent immigrants,
committed to their new country. Labberton. in Jakarta, did not really agree with this
objection to Insulinde: 'no limitation to an "Jndo-|Europcan)party"' but a party for 'all
people of good will.' s At Landouw's Surakarta meeting, not only supporters or his plans,
like C, van dc Kamcr from Semarang, showed up; also quite some opponents, like
Sneevliet of the ISDV and G.L. Topee arid P.W. van dc Kasteele of Insulinde When
Landouw's son called Van de Kasteeie a '"rotter" and a "coward"', the meeting almost
degenerated into a boxing match, though it was in clubhouse De Gc/jelligheid'." The
correspondent of De Locomotief, though sympathetic 10 Landouw, admitted his party was
not successful, as oniy thirty people joined.'

'SEMAOEN0966), 53

! SH!RAISM(I990A). 120. 'Hei slandpunt van den heer v. Hitiloopcti Labbcnon', LOC. 16-7-
1916. le blad. As his irain was behind schedule, Labbenon missed an appointment with landouw;
IC. 1916 (38). 1120-1, MRBTD. DAHM(l97l), 30 incorrectly describes Ubbenon as 'Eurasian.'

^Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo, 'De Indische Beweging', IG 1914. 11-18; ihe IP was 'for all in the
richly endowed Indies country who consider themselves io be ihe dominated. As with the social
democrats ... a bloodless class struggle is only possible iT the dominated get political power.' Of
'Indische Partij voor Indo-Europeanen'; DJAJADININGRAT-NIEUWENHUIS, 49; only the firsl
iwo words were the party name.

''LOC, 17-7-1916, 2e blad, 'De nieuwe partij'. KM, 1916, #161, also reported on the meeting.

s 'Het standpunt van den heer v. Hinloopen Labberton', LOC, 16-7-1916, le blad.

'Gezelligheid: roughly cosiness; company.' Landouw's party's next meeting, on 30 July, was
in 'De Harmonic' [Harmony) building.

''LOC, 7-7-1916, 'De nieuwe partij', announced that Landouw founded the party, and that
Schrieke or Labbenon would speak; two articles of the same title on the front page. LOC. 10-7-
1916, 'N.D.A.P.', by Van de Kamer; and. ibid., *De nieuwe partij'; again on Van Hinloopen

Weeks later, Labberton spoke at a meeting of the Indische Bond, also -then- a small
organization which saw Insulinde as too militant and too inclusive. Labberton 'also
thought that the Government neglected the organizations of Europeans who intended to
stay, too much. Were they to remain passive on this, that would mean the Native would
push them aside." However, when that meeting decided to finish the Indische Bond's
open membership policy, and limit the right to join to persons classified legally as
European, Labberton's daily Pemitran regretted that. 1

4. Reconstruct iop of the Javanese nation

4. 1 .Debates against Tjipio, Soewardi, and Darsono

Raden Mas Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo,* 1888-1924. was from the Paku Alam ruling
dynasty. Some arguments exist for calling him 'prince', as the Indies TS' monthly did.

labbenon and 'IP's and Insulinde's more conservative elements'. Van de Kamer wrote that Uie new
pany 'would be 'oyal io the Dutch government'. LOC. 13-7-1916. 'De Nai[ionaal[.
Dcm[ocratische[. Associate Party': Van dc Kamer said of Insulinde: 'its members feel so miserably
independent and dominated'. Also, we do not warn io hide thai we disagree with the soeialen [Dutch
nickname for socialists] on capitalism and militarism [Dutch misspelling: millitairisme]. ... We hope
ihat (he Dutch iricolour may keep flying over all the Indies, until the end of time'. LOC, 14-7-1916,
De aanstaande Solo'sche vergadcring*; Labbenon 'had agreed to hold a speech at the founding
meeting of the I DP.' [DP is Indische Demacrmische Pnrtij; there was no clarity on the name yel.
At the 16 July founding meeting, Radjiman also spoke briefly, 'on the psyche of humans generally,
and of Javanese especially.' LOC. 7-7-1916, 'De nieuwe pariij'; Landouw's point V was 'The right
u> be represented in ihe Second Chamber of Dutch parliament.' His point IX was 'Establishing a
militia as soon as possible'; bodi points agreed with Labbenon. LOC. 30-7-1916, 'De nieuwe panij'.
claimed membership had risen lo 100,

'Pemitran. 183. Sept. 1916; quoted KOT, 1917, 'Persoveriichi', 97, Labberton had been Bogor
local executive member of the IB in 1901 when it was bigger; RANI 1902, 41 1, Later, the Indo-
F.uropeesch Verbond, more conservative than the IP, gained ground. TS ideas influenced some of its
members: Miss H.C.L. van Maarseveen, jurist and daughter of a controleur. bom in 1910, was in
its women's auxiliary executive in the 1930's. She believed in astrology and reincarnation. She was
Indo-European in the sense that her Dutch ancestors had also lived in Indonesia; not of
intermarriage. VISSER&MALKO, JQ9f,

2 KWANTES{1975), 63. TICHELMAN(1985), 270. spells 'Soejatiman Soeriokoesoemo'; VAN
DER WAL()967) T 539: 'Soejatman Soerjokoesoemo' ; in Ensiklopedi Indonesia, Jakarta, Schtiar
Baru, 1984, 11, 854: 'Soeratmo Soerjokoesoemo'; WED, 1919, 39 spells 'brother Soetjokoesoemo':
Djawi, I, 276-7: 'Soetaima Soeriakoesoema'. In Bali in 1920 he wrote a theatre play,
SOERlOKOES0EMO(1921D); reviewed TMNI \9ll, 254-5, In it. Astogini, daughter of a wise
hermit, finally got her 'prince, the hero of my dreams'; ibid., 64. All its characters are
personifications of abstract ideas. When exactly Soeriokoesoemo joined the TS is not certain;
probably 1916, Abdoel Rachman cenainly was a member in 1915; NUGRAHAU989), 242.

306

V.2

and we will also sometimes do. 1 He was an irrigation superintendent in the Public Works
Department. 2

Soeriokoesoemo founded the Committee for Javanese Nationalism, as distinct from
Indonesian nationalism, in 1917. 3 Other founding committee members were Abdoel
Rachman, 'Native expert' on housing of Jakarta local government,' and Doctor Satirnan
Wirjosandjojo. From early 1918, die Committee published its magazine Wederopbomr
(Reconstruction), 'pervaded by the theosophist leaven'. 5

A written debate took place in 1917-8 between Soeriokoesoemo and Tjipio
MangoenXoesoemo. Tjipio wanted all-Indonesia nationalism, or. as he then called ii.
■Indies 1 nationalism.* His supporters thought Soeriokoesoemo' s Javanese nationalism
'narrow-minded 1 .' Both the theosophist Tilkema and others later wrote on these two
views of nationalism. 8

Home rule. Independence

307

KWANTES(1978). 127. He represented the high nobility league (Dutch prinscnbotsdi of
Paku Alam principality in the 1917 'National Committee 1 , in which various Indonesian
orgamzaiions prepared for ilic Volksraad elections; NAGAZUMI(I972>, 206. The editorial address
of Wederopbouw was the Paku Mains palace in Yogyakarla. In a European ruling fanul). Raden
Mas Soeriokoesoemo would have had Ihe litlc of prince In the Central Java principalities, lilies
like Raderi Mas (or Pangcran) were more exclusive than elsewhere in Java Contrary to for
instance Soewardi, Soeriokoesoemo placed much emphasis on his descent.
'FE1TH/CASTLUS. 483 RANI. 1922, 49.

'SOERIOKOESOEMO ei al„ 12. SHIRA1SH!(I981), 95. and LARSON(1987), 69, very
probably wrongly, have 1914 as the founding year for the Comminee (Shiraishi also for its paper
Wederopbouw), instead of 1917, (rcspeclivcly 1918).

'OH 14-2-1917, quoted IPO 7/19/7. MJB. )8

IV, 2-2-I9IK, 'Nicuw Maandblad 1 . In 1918. h listed as ednors Soeriofcoesocino, Saiiman. and
Abdoel Rachman In early 1921 also Raden Soemadipradja; (mis?-)spelling 'Socmadiparadja 1 :
TSUCHIYA(I987). 39; probably idcnlical wuh 'Soemodipradja 1 , a Bandung TS member:
NUGRAHA(I989), 259. VAN MIERT(I995). 126. No hyphen, as in •Weder-opbouw" in
HER[NG<1992), VII and REEVE(I985), 19. Not to be confused with the Bandung General fascisi
monthly', appearing from 1934 on, also called Wederopbouw.

Before 1920. mainly geographers used 'Indonesia 1 ; already in 1916, Soewardi Soerianinjiai
used it politically; and later claimed he had already done so in 1913; TSUCH1YA(I987). 32 liulic
I920's. it became more widely used in politics. This was marked in 1922 when the htdisclte
Vereeniging in The Netherlands changed its name to indoneshche Vereeniging: and on 8 February
1925, when it also took the name of Perhimpoenan Indonesia. KONING(l968) 6' !M 1924 134-
5; and 1925, 2

'KWANTES(I978>, 394; SOERIOKOESOEMO et al.(l918), 4. H. Sneevliet, 'De propaganda-
tocht der Insulinders', HVW. 2-11-1918. 39: members of Tjipio's tnsuliade thought a Javanese
nationalist, who debated against them in Surakarta, 'provincialise.

B0UMAN{I949), 10 calls views like Tjipto's State nationalism"; versus ideas like Datoek
Soetan Maharadja's in West Sumatra, and Soeriokoesoemo 's in Java, 'people's nationalism 1 :
Dutch: 'votonationalisme 1 ; ibid., also 'volkse nationalisms 1 ; ibid., 7: 'Eastern racial nationalism 1 .

Tjipto was two years older than Soeriokoesoemo. His title was Mas, '.he lowest title
in Java; somewhat equivalent to 'esq.' in nineteenth century England, He hardly ever
used it. He called himself child of akromo'; his father was a not very well paid primary
school teacher. 1

At the time of the debate, Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo maybe on paper still was a TS
member. He certainly was a member of Insulinde and of the Sociaal-Demccratische
Arbeiders Parti), Semarang section. Tjipto and Soeriokoesoemo knew one another from
the limes when the latter was more leftist, in the early Indische Partij. In 1913, they had
been chairman, respectively vice-chairman, of the 'Native Committee of The
Netherlands' one hundred years of freedom [from Napoleon's France] jubilee,' 1 In 1916,

Though Bouman's categories, well known in, for instance, the history of Flemish versus Belgian
nationalism, are helpful, 1 did not use them further, as especially the adjective 'volkse' (German-
volkisch, English roughly: racial) suggests a close link to naiional socialist vocabulary. PETRUS
DLUMBERGER(I987), 275, writes of 'racial-ethnic 1 movements: KRATOSKA/BATSON, 256. of
'ethnic* versus 'territorial' nationalism. T1LKEMA(I932), 54-5. basing himself on B. Schrieke's
Hie Effect of Western influence on native civilizations in the Malay Archipelago, differentiated
lieiween 'social (or political) nationalism' [like Tjipio's) and 'cultural nationalism 1 [like
Soeriokoesocmo'sj. He thought, ibid., 56: 'Western education had dealt a heavy blow to cultural
nationalism 1 and unwillingly caused 'social' nationalism. Soewardi Soerianingrat on 'cultural and
political nationalism': see p. 314. E.F.E. Douwes DekJccr saw his 'political nationalism 1 as
'universal', unlike other forms; WANASITA. 16 M. Ignatierf. Blood and belonging, London,
lillC Books, 1994, opposes democratic 'civil nationalism 1 to "ethnic nationalism 1 which sees
heredity as central, The problem with die word 'etlmic' is that it is Greek for 'national'; so if one
viys 3 national problem is an ethnic 1 problem, one does not really gel any further.
I10UMAN{1949), 10. as a theory both on international and Indonesian affairs, on the difference
between the (wo nationalisms, in terms of where in society they find support: 'The urban,
merchant and soldier lype will be able' to see stale nationalism as his ideal come true; if the
emphasis is on the state and not on the nation, one will be able to accept representatives or
different races as citizens, In the volkse nationalisnie ihe emphasis, however, is on the national
tics, the feeling of a deeper belonging by language and race, and for instance a "naturalization" of
aliens, which is acceptable in slate nationalism, will be impossible. In the volkse nationalisme (he
tiller and the landed aristocracy will see their ideal fulfilled.'

'L. DE JONG. vol. 1 lal, 220. TSUCH1YA{1987). 19. Djam Hisworo 3-9-1919, quoted IPO
W1919, 78, 2, ihought Tjipto was descended from Petruk, a clownish peasant character in
wayang plays, not from princely Arjuna. SOERlOKOESOEMO(1920B), 5. 'Tjipto. ... who is
proud that he can reckon himself among the broad masses of ihe people, recently openly professed
democracy, and warned the people to be on the ihrone. A people's government! That is an
umpia...'

i SHlRAlSHl(l990A), 63. VAN DER WAH1967), 305. SOERJOKOESOEMO{1920B), 4.
Abdoel Moeis also was in ihe committee, but first Soeriokoesoemo, then Moeis, resigned as other
members collided with the government; TSUCHIYA(1987). 47. Soeriokoesoemo wrote that he had
l)een more militant in his youth, but had become older and wiser; SOER10KOESOEMO(1922A).
10-1. In an article in Boedi Oetomo's paper, quoted LOC, 27-3-1917. *Het inlandsch Nationaal
fomiit', Soeriokoesoemo wrote that earlier on. he had been 'contemptuous of everything
Javanese'. REID( 1979), 288-9, basing himself on an anonymous 1920 WED article on the medieval

SOS

V.2

Home rule. Independence

309

Soewardi Soerianingrat suggested, Tjipio disagreed with Soeriokoesoemo's contributions
to his paper. 1 Now, in 1917-8, their views were 'diametrically opposing'. 1

In the debate, Soeriokoesoemo first defined nationalism in general, as a form of
egotism; good egotism though, compatible with 'making sacrifices, killing one's selfish-
ness.' Nationalism differed not only from selfish egotism, but also from 'absolute
altruism'. J Then, he explained his Javanese nationalism:

Therefore, the founders of Boedi-Oetomo wisely decided 10 make this organization for
Javanese only ... Those who think -and they are many- that Boedi Oetomo lakes a narrow
viewpoint, did not take into account (he natural groups of nations. ... [Javanese] may noi even
expect thai our closes! neighbours [others in Indonesia] will lend us a helping hand. The Indies
now are nol one country, nol one people with the same culture. ... Holland really made die
Indies or Native people, while contrariwise, the Javanese people exist by themselves.

Majapahit empire, claims there then was a 'new line' which brought 'erstwhile Javanese
nationalists' towards Indonesian nationalism. Reid's 'erstwhile' is doubtful. There was some
margin for differing views in WED. But for inslance, SOERJOKOESOEM00920E), 76, later than
(he anonymous anicle. once again re-slaied editor Soeriokoesoemo's opposition to all-Indonesia
nationalism. The Commmee for Javanese Nationalism kept ils name al least uniil Soeriokoesoemo
died in )924. From 1912 10 1917, Soeriokoesoemo had nioved from 'Indies' to Javanese nationa-
lism, i.e.. in the opposite direction. In December 1923, Satiman Wujosandjojo Once again attacked
all-Indonesia naiionahsis and what he saw as their hijacking of Javanese medieval and later history,
see p 349 ti. I

'Uil de Inlandsche pcrs'. HPO 1916. 27-8; Soeriokoesoemo had wriltcn shorl conlribuiions.
'Vonkjcs' [little sparks), lo Tjipto's Modjopail, 'which are probably meant as propaganda for "ihc
ancient Javanese religion. " We should remark here (hat ihe M.P. editors are not responsible Tor
ihc "Vonkjes" The utterances by (he Buddhistf?) Soeriokoesoemo clearly caused critical reactions
in the papers: while because of ihis, ihc well known journalisi R. Djojosoediro saw ihe Opportunity
of explaining the ihcosophical view on this in Kaoem Moeda.'

; SHIRA1SHI(I98I). 108. REID{1979). 282, writes: 'Javanese nationalism' 'differed radically
only over Tjipto's advocacy of Indisch flnoi Javanese) nationalism'. But ihere were also ihe issues
of democracy, racial doctrines, and Soeriokoesoemo's (heosophical 'Hindu' religious politics
versus Tjipto's secular politics.

SOERIOKOESOEMO el al.(l9l8). 3. Raden Mas Sooryopoclro. in De Jongeren in de
Javaansche beweging'. HPO. 1918, 57-9. which introduced Wederopbouw to The Netherlands:
ibid., 58. wrote of 'equilibrium between egoist chauvinism and altruist humanism'. VAN
LEEUWEN(1921C), 251 . defined: 'Nationalism is the abstract principle which lies at the base of.
realizes and mirrors itself into, the community of individuals of one and the same race, which one
usually calls Nation and which manifests itself in phenomena of a certain national culture, as in art.
tradition, customs and habits."

'SOERIOKOESOEMO et al.(1918), 3-4. Soeriokoesoemo in WED, 1918, 6, 'Gewijd aan mijn
Kameraden in "Insulinde*", expected that if an 'Indies' nation were ever lo arise, it would explode
again soon. VAN LEEUWEN(J921G), 305: 'For what is "Javanism", if it is not something which
makes this nation differ inwardly from other nations?' In Djdwd. May-Sept. 1925. 154, the
theosophist W.P, D, Corporaal wrote that Theosophy 'is in a sense identical to Javanism and to the
basis of Oriental culture'; also quoted in 'Een gevaar in zachtzinnig gewaad voor de Indonesische

Religion has ceased to be a link a long tune ago. Islam cannot tic us to the Sumatran. less still to
the Ambonese or Manadcnese [of north-east Celebes] who are not Islamic. Religion as a tic is
very unwise, if not dangerous.

Ties other than Islam, or geographical political unity, as with Tjipto. existed:

And if we are wise enough to understand that the recognition of racial difference need not lead
to racial discord, then I cannot understand why front some of our own countrymen there still is a
strong protest against the exclusion of different races from Boedi Oetomo ... On this, Annie
Besani wrote in The Path of Discipleship ...: 'He [man] is bom into a definite people and that
determines his national duties. For every human, his duty's borders are drawn by the circum-
stances of his birth.' Even though this sentence from an august personality settles it; next is a
Bagawad Cita quote ... Cri K.r.s.n.a: 'One who does his life's duty, imposed by his nature,
does not commit a sin. 1

So Islam was not a fit tie; but other religion, linked to 'race', was. Not linked to
chance:

II is not chance, or just a freak of nature, that we are bom as Javanese with a nation of our own
and a culture of our own. 1

Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo, defending his all-'lndies' . nationalism, did not go
explicitly into Soeriokoesoemo's argument from Annie Besant's authority:

For my part, I just point out that it is noi really the racial kinship which is decisive, but rather
the material interest, ... That may sound somewhat materialist, but thus is the average human

Besides, lhat defence of national character may sound fine in theory, but in practice it will
turn out lo be a desperale struggle, from which one can hardly emerge victoriously.

The tendency in present day development is towards the levelling [Dutch: nivelleting) of
everything
The 'citizen of the world' lakes over from citizens of special countries:

With every ship arriving, a number of foreigners is let loose on the Javanese people, which
means ihal it would lake superhuman exertion to keep this people in all its particulars 'free from
foreign siains '." 1 will never believe such an endeavour will be successful. 1

jeuKdbeweging', Indonesia Merdeka, 1926, 19-23; 22; IM did not name Corporaal,

'SOERIOKOESOEMO et al.(19l8). 4-5.

! Ibid.. 6. KJEW1ET DE J0NGE(1917B). 232: nations are 'the organic units, the racial
complexes',

l 'Het Indisch nationalisms en zijn rechtvaardiging'; in SOERIOKOESOEMO et al.{1918). 19.

4 Duich: van vreemde smetten vrtj'; line from a Dutch nationalist song, the national anthem in
the nineteenth century. Darna Koesoema in Weekblad voor Indie, 26, Oct. 1917; quoted IC. 1918
(40), 250, MRBTD: 'van vreemde smetten vrij. He [Tjipto] can delightfully sneer at it.'

'SOERIOKOESOEMO et al.(l91S). 20.

110

V.2

Home rule. Independence

3li

Tjipto denied that outside influences meant 'degeneration' for Java. 1 He thought
Soeriokoesoemo had forgotten

Javanese, who, forced by poverty, leave Java, to look for work on other islands. 1
In Tjipto's alt-Indies nationalism, not race, but geography and individuals' preference
were the criterion:

Thus, by 'Indies person' [Dutch: IndiSr] we mean all who consider the Indies to be their home-
land. ... Thus, I flatly deny i(. when people say that a difference in spiritual life separates the
Javanese from the Indo-European or Indo-Chinese. 3
'Tjipto. on the other hand, is not petty enough to see differences between, for

instance, the Javanese person, and the Batak [of Sumatra] or the Dyak [of Borneo].'*

Tjipto expected 'the dying-hour of racial nonsense':' he based himself on Jean Finot. who

denied the existence of 'race'. 6

The language question was linked to the all-Indonesia or Javanese nationalism

problem. Soeriokoesoemo thought 'Malay belongs in Sumatra and not in Java.'' As

'ibid, 61.
'ibid., 33.

'SOERIOKOESOEMO el al.( 1918). 21-3, SHIRA1SHJ(I981). 96, sums up as Tjipto's idea of a
nation: 'a community of politically independent individuals'. Against (hat view. WED. 1920. 49.
quoted French Renan: What is a nation? Ernest Rcnan has as a yardstick: a nation is soul and body
together; a common market is not a fatherland: a spiritual family, not a mass, united by ihe outward
form of (tie icrriiory A naiion is soul in (he past, spiritual principle in Ihe present' For Java, (be
editors though!, that meant, ibid., ihe Oriental Thought and the Asian Spirit'.

'Darna Koesoema in Weekblad voor Indie, 26. Oci. 1917: quoted IC. 191 8 (40). 250, MRBTO.

SOERIOKOESOEMO ctal.<l918). 31.

6 lbid.. 60. As did. ibid., 47, and in IV, 12-1-1918, 'A.M.': A. Muhlenfeld, who preferred
Javanese nationalism, like Soeriokoesoemo, but unlike him, rejected 'race'. In the same debate,
Tjipto's supporter, Miss Bertha Walbeehm, thought: 'If alas! one still must distinguish between
people, (hen thai distinction should be: distinction in morals, distinction in intellect. Not in any cose
distinction in race.' [bid., 35.

7 Soeriokoesoemo in Vreemde talcn voor de landszonen van Java". WED. 1918. 57f. WED. 1919,
1 13-4. 'What should every Javanese know? ... that his language is under threat from the
possibility of an Indies Nation, where doubtlessly Malay will be made the official language'. WED,
1920, 42, on Sumatra: 'up to today, one does not find major influence of Hindu culture Lhere'.
Sumatran FTS Amir, though, wrote on Sumatra; "the [Hindu] first wise teacher's teachings were too
deeply implanted into the national soul for a few [Muslim] centuries to supplant them." 'De Hindoe's
op Sumatra', JS 1918, 57-60; 60. HER1NG(1992), HI: Kiewiet de Jonge had written in 1914: '1
really start to see both the introduction and maintenance of Maleisch [Malay language] as a historical
error. For two reasons: the natives will never feel tied to Holland when the Dutch language remains
for their families and their vocations as something inconsequential to pursue. Secondly, low Malay is
so primitive that thinking in that language only yields narrow and simple thought, which for those not
exposed to Dutch, will form great educational hazards'. Translation from Dutch by Hcring, In 1935,
the Indies TS executive thought that Malay was still 'of very little importance as a "Cultural

foreign languages, Javanese secondary school students should learn Dutch and English,
not French, German, or Malay.

Wederopbouw was in Dutch. Soeriokocsoemo based that on Indian nationalists
writing in English. 1 Malay was politically incorrect. Using Javanese would limit the
paper's appeal in West Java and Madura. The Indies education review reacted
sarcastically, quoting a song: 'Kees Kees Kees you have diluted it' p saw you go to the
pump with a bucket]. 1 Milkman Kees in the song diluted his milk with water. The
education review thought the Committee diluted its Javanese nationalism by propagating
it in Dutch. The Indische G'tds thought the Committee deserved a more positive reaction
than this.

So did the Dutch government in The Hague. It thought Javanese nationalism 'could
only have an ennobling influence. We hardly need to explain that this reconstruction of
the Javanese cuiture in a modem spirit, on the basis of a great past, has the unqualified
sympathy of ihe Government.' 1

Interpreting history was another issue between Wederopbouw and, for instance,
Tjipto. Tjipto's supporter, J.B. Wens, contrasted 'Boedi-Oeiomo, which wants to go back
[0 the "good, old" days' with 'the party of Indies nationalism, which wants to bring the
Javanese to "better, new" times'.' 1 Soeriokocsoemo thought his nationalism should
inspire pride in Java's past, as seen in Hindu and Buddhist monuments like Borobudur, 5
and as sung of by court poets (pudjonggo) .* Annie Besant had written (see p 35) she pre-
ferred myth to scientific history; Soeriokoesocmo wrote:

We really cannot do without a great national hero in the past and were wc not to have him
(suppose (he situation was like that), 1 would simply put a liciiiious person on stage and lei him

language'*' and refused to use it at TS meetings. TiNI Apr. 1935. 59.

'Soeriokoesocmo in WED, 1918, If; his first editorial.

'Dutch: Kees Kees Kees jc hebt er water bij gedaan! Ik heb je met een emmer naar de pomp
/ien gaan. Nederiandsch-lndisch Ondenvijstijdschnfl . quoted IC, 1918 (40), 617, MRBTD.

J KVon 1919 (1920), 8.

'SOCRIOKOESOEMO ei al.(19l8), 69.

*SOER10KOESOEMO(]920C). 3, saw Borobudur as the earthly 'shadow image' of 'die divine
lempleofthe Javanese Nation. ... And in this, we arc fanatical". 'DeGtwte Leer en de Wet zooals
die geleeraard wordt op de Tjandi Mcndoei*. WED 1922, 68-9, saw the ancient Mendut temple, not
lar from Borobudur, as the repository of wisdom. Leadbeater saw Borobudur as a 'spiritual
magnetic centre' built on a special sacred spol and protected by a high deva to counteract black
nMgic supposedly emanating from Java's volcanoes; T1CHELAAR{1977). 120. The Rev. A. J.
llamerster 'The symbolism of the Borobudur'. TT Jan. 1931, 224 on Java religious history: 'the
people, having been won over [to Buddhism] from what was then the rather terrible cult of Shivaitic
llindoism, to which they had been converted in much earlier times.,.' But historians, like VLEKKE,
H, estimate that Buddhism and Hinduism came to Java at about the same time. As for the best
known religious buildings, they see the Shivaitic Prambanan temple not far from Borobudur, as more
llian a century later than it: VLEKJCE, 496.

6 lvED, June-July 1921, 88; KLOOSTER, 322.

Home rule. Independence

313

312

V.2

function as our ancestor and ascribe to him f^e greatest of heroic roles. 1
This pride in Java's pre-lslamic past opposed Sarekat Islam's strict Muslim wing.'
One observer thought this wing felt 'threatened from two sides; from one side, because in
Central Java Javanese nationalism is corning on strong again, with a return to ancient
Hinduism or a transition to theosophy.' 3 Prince Soeriokoesoemo considered

Sarekat Islam is levelled down to a middle class party; the parry of the 'Bourgeoisie' which
wants to surpass the foreign 'Bourgeoisie'.

He described 5/ leader Tjokroaminolo: '1 saw the scarlet' face, glowing with passion,
of the demagogue'. 1 Soeriokoesoemo rather looked at 'the Hindus ... who in many
respects are about 50 years ahead of us.''

In January 1918. a critical review of Wederopbouw's first issue appeared in the
socialist He! Vrije Woord. Darsono. a supporter of Sareknt Islam's Marxist wing, wrote
it; later, he became a leading member of (he communist PKI.

In this, his first ever article, Darsono had three objections. First, to Prince Soeiatmo
Soeriokoesoemo 's iheosopliical style of writing:

Words of wisdom, making my poor head dizzy, and making it difficult for me to understand
them. As long as His Highness keeps moving on the higher planes of the inner life, until then his
scribbling will remain unintelligible to us, ihe uninitiated And theje are many non- initiates

'Written contribution to Javanese cultural congress, KLOOSTER, 323. Ibid,, history should be
written in 'a fairy-tale like language'. Kloosler, whose interest was historiography, did not mention
Soeriokoesoemo s theosophy. Ibid., 378 saw continuity between Soeriokoesoemo and some post-
1945 historians. They, Indonesian nationalists, differed from Soeriokoesoemo s Javanese nationalism
though.

! KWANTES(1975), 59-60. Ibid.. 67: 'hi diese more Arab-Muhammadan circles, people do not
trusi Mr Ubbertons theosophy at all'. SOERIOKOESOEM009I9G), 71-2: 'Islam must be right
for Arabia and its surroundings, as Christianity is for Europe ... they do not correspond to the
psyche of the Javanese, ... Every endeavour to make the Javanese a true Muslim or Christian, will
therefore fail'. Ibid., 77: 'Mecca, the holy land of the Arabs, should not rule us any longer, and
should disappear from our thoughts in order to be replaced by Java, the holy land of the Javanese '
Soeriokoesoemo in WED, 1919, 173: 'Give up the land of Mecca and concentrate your thoughts on
Java. Only then you are a good nationalist..,' When, in a draft political program for Indonesia.
POLDERMAN(1922), 7. proposed: 'Better religious education: viz. penetration into the meaning of
the Koran and its prescriptions', editor Soeriokoesoemo added: 'Not for all groups of the
population'.

^KOT, 1918, 1325-6, 'Islam-beweging', by 'Tertius'. Christian missionaries were the other
side.

*In Javanese culture, the colour of uncontrolled passion and lower (kasar) classes.

J Soeriokoesoemo in WED, 1918, 35.

''WED, 1918, I.

among my friends.

Darsono's second objection was a general one to nationalism. He pointed to its rote

in Europe of the world war:

So, nationalism generates hatred and hostility between people, and as a consequence, war after

war will ravage the world.

Third Darsono doubted that a nationalism, based on worshipping Java s history,
would be 'any better than other countries' nationalism; let alone better than 'international
socialism' which he favoured:

Every Javanese knows, di» o.*** cw We- fin the Middle Ages] onewuld hardly ^define U
as peaceful. Wars, in which many human lives were lost, men ws. ~.~ — -<•-
was much arbitrary rule then.

On 15 November 1918, Darsono's Soeara-Ra'jat wrote:

Also Javanese nationalism is useless. In Surakarta and Yogyakarta, inhabitants of a desa. along

with the sawahs [paddy-fields] are SOLD (by Javanese landlords! to (he sugar -lactones. Where

is Javanese nationalism then?

Darsono certainly did not reject all of Javanese cultural history; only an interpretation
of it which he thought strengthened the political right. 5

The Javanese Nationalists antagonized Sarekat Islam's distinctly Muslim wing, its
Marxists and Tjokrosoedarmo's language reform movement.' Those three groups
boycotted the July 191 8 Congress for Javanese Cultural Development in Surakarta, which

'Sukarno then was one of Darsono's friends; it would be interesting to know if his iheosophica!
education made him understand Soeriokoesoemo more than Darsono did.

! ONOSRAD, The pseudonym Onosrad was an inversion of Darsono.

J lbid For different reasons dian orthodox Muslims, Marxists in 5/ were also sceptical on
theosoohists and others glorifying the pre-Muslim past. AUMIN(19I9). 21 wrote of 'noble
parasites'. Darsono. in SR. 19-7-1918; quoted KWANTES<)975), 63: 'How could this Borobudur be
|.uilf> Certainly only through the arbitrary power of the ruler, that is, the rajah.' Government official
11 J O Schrieke commented on Darsono: ibid.: "In these ultra-democratic walks of life, people are
afraid that the Committee for the Development of Javanese Culture [of Soeriokoesoemo, Radjiman
ind Mangkoe Negoro VII] works to restore die ancien. social order.' POEZE. 572: the early 1920 s
communist leader Tan Malaka strongly opposed 'Hinduism' in Indonesia; as a Sumatran. he had less
affinity to it. BOUMAN(l949), 50: Sumatran Muslim M. Amir in 1928 also called Borobudur the
result of coolie labour'.

"Quoted IPO 46/1918. 'Extremisiische bladcn', 5,

J See for instance PETRUS BLUMBERGER{1987), 1 18: he saw strong female character roles in
wyang plays as an inspiration for women to be courageous in ihe present's political struggle.
GOUDAC1993), 16, did noi mention Darsono when she wrote that Dutch and Indones.ans spoke only
of male, not of female, wayang characters in political comparisons.

*Djawo Dipa, which wanted to end the difference between High and Low Javanese speech. Nolo
Soeroto opposed it: SOEM8ANGSIH. 139.

314

V.2

Home rule. Independence

315

Van Hinloopen Labberton and the Wederopbouw eduors organized, as antidemocratic'. 1
Only Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo attended the congress as a democrat counterweight,
considering himself 'extreme left, even among democrats'. * There, explaining his own
views on Javanese culture, be had his second debate with Soeriokoesoemo.

Tjipto attacked die caste system and other 'Hindu' elements in Java. 'This had now
become a pillar of Dutch colonial rule and was suffocating whatever creativity the
Javanese had.' Tjipto pointed out that, contrary to Soeriokoesoemo's view of a
hierarchical and harmonious past, for instance wayang plays had also elements of dissent
and disobedience, which he valued. 5

If I do not believe in nobles, then I do so as they are dominators. even chough they are

dominators of the same blood is mine, though somewhat bluish. ... Domination in any form,

and by any person, goes against the grain with me.'

In The Netherlands, Tjipto's friend Soewardi Soerianingrat s reacted critically to his
relative Soeriokocsoemo. Writing as a contribution to a book celebrating ten years of
Budi Uwmo, his tone was not sharp or personal. He began by differentiating between
'cultural and political nationalism.' There 'are many conservative elements among the
former nationalists, who first of all want to maintain and to restore the so-called 'national
essential identity [Dutch: volkseigenheid)', also at the cost of all whatsoever, if need be

(dots in original] of national independence.'' He thought that 'Soerio Koesoemo'

'confused the cultural and the political meanings of the word nationalism '' Soewardi
himself loved Javanese culture. However.

SHIRAISUI(198)), 97. Prince Mangkoc Ncgoro VII was founder and honourary president ill
ihe Java Institute, founded 1-8-1919; TSUCH!YA( 1987). 121. It organised similar later congresses
and brought out (he magazine Djawd; sl-c its issue 'Exira-nummer. Aangeboden aan P. A A.
Mangkoe Ncgoro Vll, 4 September 1924', 1. 15. At the Dec. 1924 congress; Djiwd, 1925. I53f.:
Radjiman spoke {mentioning AB's Lectures on political science and Count Kcyscrling), as did
W.P.D. Corporaal, and P. Post: 'This is the rigln place to ihmk of Mrs Besam in great
admiration'; ibid., 183.

'Congress contribution, quoted 1C. 1918(40). 1389.

^Quoted SH1RA1SH1(1981), 97. The TSUCHIYA(1987). 44 remark that Tjipto stood for the
destruction of Javanese culture* is wrong. Compare Darsono, p, 313.

^Congress contribution, quoted IC. 1918(40), 1389

Soewardi, of (he Paku Alam dynasty like Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo. was not as disiam to
Javanese nationalism as Tjipto: REID(1979), 284-5. Though Soewardi valued the Javanese
language more than Tjipio, TSUCH1YA(I987), 37 over-rates their distance; and under-ratcs ihe
political distance between Soewardi and Soeriokoesoemo. Soewardi translated the Internationale
into Malay; IV, t-S- 1920. Soeriokoesoemo probably did not like these lyrics in any language,
TSUCH1YA(1987), 34: in 1916, Soewardi said Malay should be all -Indonesia language; compare
p. 310f.

*SURYA NJNGRAT(19)8), 27.

'SURYA N1NGRAT0918), 40. Ibid., 39: 'obfuscation'.

For the sake of Indonesian solidarity, one needs to separate all cultural propaganda from
political aeiion. This will also help cultural propaganda, as many, who avoid political action,
then will be able to participate without problems; while others [like Soewardi], unable to agree
earlier on with the political-cultural league's political tendencies, then will be able to join the
cultural league, without violating their [political} principles. Javanese nationalism, used as a way
of political struggle, can easily become a refuge for exclusivists and imperialists.' 1

After 1913, Soewardi never joined Soeriokoesoemo in a political association; though,
being a teacher, he would in the Taman Siswa education league in 1922. In
Wederopbouw, Soeriokoesoemo criticized Soewardi: 'Maybe the Indische Parti)
discipline harms him in this. Pl

In the same book as Soewardi, Goenawan Mangoenkoesoemo, Tjipto's brother,
mentioned a proposal by Committee for Javanese Nationalism member Satiman to have
Sanskrit 'as instrument to study Western science.' Goenawan thought that 'absurd.' 1

Prince Soeriokoesoemo's view of the state was reminiscent of Annie Besant's
'Pythagoras-based' one (see p. 77). Though he quoted Plato:

The blossoms of thine host of scions, thou. Lady [the personification of Java), thou wanteth to
make incline towards glorification of the slate, iis institution and ils economy. Remember, lhal
die famous Greek philosopher. Platoon, like ihou, founded his ' "Slate " on Beauty, Truth,
Wisdom, ... To cut a long story short, we see Platoon rise up high in the shape of the Priest-
King. Does not Java have priest-kings? Moi even one? Well. Lady, look forward expectantly is
ihe altitude in life, which fits us/

Soeriokoesoemo's nationalism, though, was 'not really a consequence of my love for
a Javanese Slate as much as for Javanese Individuality'. 5

4. 2. Wederopbouw' s views: only Javanese or also theosophical?

The hisiorian Tsuchiya recognizes Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo had a fairly long term
influence. The wiljaksatia concept, which may mean 'polities', 'divine wisdom', or other
things, is cenira! to Tsuchiya's analysis. He considers there is a link between
Soeriokoesoemo using it, and limitations on democracy in Indonesia since 1959. In the
late 60's-early 70's, Colonel Widyapranata was editor of Armed Forces daily Angkatan

'SURYA NINGRAT(I918), 48. In an SDAP book, Soewardi opposed not only Dutch capitalism
in Indonesia; also Javanese society was a 'feudal' 'corrupted tail -piece'. POEZE{1986), 117.
l WED, 1920, 57.
^SOEMBANGSIH, 137.

1 BOEMI P0ETRA(I922), 168; 172. Boemi Poetra (Son of the Country) was one of
Soeriokoesoemo's aliases, Soeriokoesoemo in WED, I9I8, 41: 'The ideal state of Plato, which "will
only arise when the philosophers are rulers, and the rulers philosophers", is no Utopia for the East',

S SOERIOKOESOEMO<1920E), 76. Djawi, ' Extra -num me r, Aangeboden aan P. A. A. Mangkoe
Negoro VII. 4 September 1924', 70, proclaimed an independent 'Javanese state' as final aim.

JI6

V.2

Home rule. Independence

317

Bersenjaia. He quoted Soeriokoesoemo in support of his view of 'New Order', differing
from other political systems.'

When Shiraishi discussed the Tjipto-Soetacrno debate, he put Soeriokoesoemo into a
perspective of history of ideas on politics in Java. 2 He did not mention Soeriokoesoerno's
theosophy, or ideas on politics in the TS, though.

Herbert Feith and Lance Castles saw Soecatmo as important enough to include in their
widely read textbook of Indonesian political thinking. Likewise not mentioning the TS,
they left out some 'theosophical' parts of his text. They called it 'the anti-egalitarianism
of the Javanese tradition' Was at least part of it not tradition 'invented' by recent non-
Javanese TS leaders? 3

Soeriokoesoemo explained the essential unity of international theosophist and Java
nationalist ideas:

Many Javanese Nationalists, who follow theosophy, and thus arc most readers of this paper
( Wederopbouw] , often do not kjiow how ihey should tie together both seemingly contradictory
ideas in a beautiful, harmonic whole. ... Jav.[ancse) nationalism is the inevitable colour of
Javanese culture, and so cannot possibly be at variance widi lheosoph>, which in this context
should mean 'divine',' 1

Against Tjipto's all-indonesia nationalism, he said:

Jf we [Javanese] really have to dissolve ourselves, then let it be into (lie World sea and not into
an Indies ocean. ... Floating on die divine waves of theosophy, ihou art yei the ship which spans
the ocean ... ii is Javanese nationalism (hat bears the mark of divinity '

IT we compare our universe now to a Waringin [banyan tree], and the divine plan to the roots,
which are under (he ground, hidden to our eyes, (hen theosophy is (lie trunk, and Jav.|ancse]
nationalism one of the many branches So contradiction is out of the question. 6

Though Wederopbouw was mainly on politics and culture, its links to the TS and to
its spiritual views were clear. In an editorial, Soeriokoesoemo promoted the coming of
the World Teacher, the Order of the Star in the East, and HP. Blavatsky. 7 'This struggle

] REEVE(1985), 310-2. TSUCHIYA(1987).

'SHIRAlSHKiOSl). 203.

'FEITH/CASTLES, 483; 179; partly translating SOERIOKOESOEMOC.I920B) on 183-8.

*SOERIOKOESOEMO(1920E), 73f.

J SOERlOKOESOEMO(1920E), 76.

'SOERlOKOESOEMOtmOE), 77.

7 SOER10KOESOEMO(1921A). t-3. SOERIOKOESOEMO(I923A), 17: Europe today
recognized 'the Apostles of die East'; four of the five he named ™ere HPB, AB, 'Krishna Moerti.
Jina Rajadasa', WED, 1918, 218. saw as inspirations: 'Hegel and Bolland. Freemasonry and
Theosophy'. Many authors in Indies masons' magazines disliked Bolland (hough; Th. Stevens,
personal communication.

in our own cultural environment [for Javanese nationalism) is just a simple part of the
I'.rcat cultural struggle, which Madame Blavatsky started in Europe.' 1 Wederopbouw
reprinted a Dutch translation of Arundale's 1918 Madras speech The road to leadership. 2
ft sometimes reproduced complete articles from the Theosofisch Maemdbiad voor
Nederlandsch-lndii? Polderman, former administrator of Pewarta Thiosofie, was
correspondent from The Netherlands.' Kiewiet de Jonge, though bis relationship to
Soeriokoesoemo was good, was no all-out supporter, 5

In 1918, Raden Mas Noto Soeroto was already writing for WED; in 1920, he became
official correspondent in The Netherlands. In one article, he warned against Japanese
imperialism, Soeriokoesoemo seconded him in the same issue.*

Another contributor, under the pen name of Daha, and also the sponsor, without
whom Wederopbouw would have been impossible, 1 was Mangkoe Negoro VII, Pangeran
Adipati Ario Praboe Prang Wedono. Probably, he was the real founder of the Committee
(or Javanese Nationalism; but stayed in the background because of princely status. 8

'Soeriokoesoemo in WED. 1919, 128.

'WED. Aug. 1923, 45-50.

'For instance, WED, Sept, 192). 121-45, the Aug. 1921 TMNl article 'De wajang of het
skhaduwenspel' by Mrs C. van Hinloopen Labberton, WED commented, ibid.: 'Of the Westerners,
.i*. a rule the theosophists are those, who can get access to the spiritual life of the Javanese'.

'See for instance WED. Oct. -Nov. 1921. his 'Overzeeschc bricven', 168-71: and Dec. 1921,

'KIEWIET DE JONGE(1917B), 21, had a position close to Soeriokoesoerno's: colonial rule
should rule all colonies differently: 'For the racial problem and the level of civilisation arc
different for every colony. British India shows different objective standards of development from
liritish East Africa, so does Java from Sumatra.' In Baraviaasc/i Nieuwsbtad of 19 March 1919,
'Nalionalisme en federalisme', reprinted KIEWIET DE JONCE(1920A). I6!f., Kicwiel de Jonge
said of Javanese nationalist views that they 'certainly did not conflict with our short observations.
(>iite the contrary. They are really even an addition to them.* Ibid.. 80, he had favoured
ileuenlralizaiion towards big regions of which die borders are mainly determined by racial
differences'. He could not say whether Soeriokoesoemo or Tjipto was right, though he tended to
see the Dutch East Indies more as an unity; see WED, 1919, 34. For instance IS, 1 1-10-1919. 142;
144. quoted Soeriokoesoerno's and other WED articles extensively. In a letter to his parents, 28-
1 1-1919, Kiewiet de Jonge private archive, HSG, tf 54, wrote of a 'fine tribute' by Wederopbouw
uj him. Kiewiet de Jonge was a contributor to Mangkoe Negoro VU's Dj&wd magazine.

''NOTO SOEROTOC1920). He wrote of Japanese colonial rule in Korea and ibid,, 19, of die
oppression of a Korean movement against it, which included 'Rhee Syngman'; Syngman Rhee,
who decades later became ruler of South Korea. For Japan, see p. 342.

7 SHIRAISHi(1981). 96.

! KWANTES{1975). 612. NAGAZUMI(1972), 98-9; 202; CANNEG1ETER(1937), 122; VAN
M!ERT(1995), 93. For simplicity's sake, I call him Mangkoe Negoro VII throughout. Legally, this
is incorrect: one only had the right to that tide after one's fortieth birthday. Mangkoe Negoro VII
succeeded his uncle, who had abdicated, Djawa Tengalt, 41, 1916, thought that the succession was

318

V.2

Home rule. Independence

319

Mangkoe Negoro VII ruled one of Central lava's four autonomous principalities; he was
related to the rulers of the three other ones.

'Long before his [1913] arrival in Tie Netherlands', he 'had been attracted to
theosophy and to theosopbicai literature.' According to Nugraha, he had officially joined
the TS. 1 Under the name of Radea Mas Ario Soerjosoeparto. In 1914-15 he had been a
lieutenant in the grenadiers of the Dutch army. 2 Queen Wilhelmina had received him;
ultimately, he became her 'Special Adjutant'.' From 1915-6 he had been president of
Budi Utomo, succeeding Radjiman. He then was active in the pro-conscription campaign.
After succeeding to the throne in January 1956, in 1918 he was still, to the indignation of
moderate social democrat paper Met Indische Votk, and the approval of Djojosoediro's
daily:

In the Neratja [26-12-1917], we read that five months ago a Boy Scouts association was already
founded in Solo. They are trained by sergeants and dress is paid by the Mangkoe Negaran,
except for the hats, which they have to pay for themselves. The paper hopes that (his movement
will flower in all of the Indies. [But IV commented:] Dangerous mimicking, in which militarism
is very clear.' 1

the result of 'sccrel policy of the Government, which will at least make a few million [guilders]
profit out of the new contract, which it will conclude with him. People expect, that as a consequence
of this, a few Europeans will get exceptional promotions or orders of knighthood.' Quoted KOT.
1916, 'Pcrsovcracht', 679. Prang Wedono means commander of the armed forces Dutch authori-
ties allowed the Mangkoe Negoro dynasty armed forces of its own: as with the Paku Alam dynasly in
(he nineteenth century, and again since 1938. TE)TLER(I980). 6; 40 According 10 'Eenige
opmerkingen over de tegenwoordigc financielc politick van liel Mangkoenegorosche njk', LOC, 19-
2-1917, the Mangkoe Negoro realm had less than one 70th of the Dutch East Indies' inhabitants, but
'more than one 50ih of all the armed forces." It was roughly ihe size of the Grand Duchy of Luxem-
bourg and had 750,000 inhabitants in 1919; KIEWIET DE JONGE(I920A), 44; 892,283 in 1930.
LARS0N(1987). 2. Though smaller than die susidiunan'i, or the sultan of Yogyakarta's. realms, the
Mangkoe Negoro's was financially the strongest: its budget was larger than either. LOC. 20-4-1917,
2e blad: 'De begrooting van de Mangkoenegaran over 1917.'

'DJAJAD'NINCRAT-NIEUWENHUiS. 47; ibid.: "The secretaryship of the Theosophical
Society of Surakarta in 1912, for instance, was linked to the Mangkoenegoro house,*
NUGRAHA(1989), 171.

? DJAJADININGRAT-NIEUWENHUIS. 48: Colijn had helped him in this. He became a
lieutenant -col one I when he succeeded to the throne; LOC, 17-11-1916, le blad, 'Hoofd Mangkoe-
negorosche huis,'

'RAM, 1940. 443,

*/V, 26-1-1918, 'Indie Weerbaar'. The aim of this 'Javaansche Padvinders-Organisatie',
Founded 'early 1916*, 'seemed to have been mainly the training, in an atmosphere of order and
discipline, of future recruits for the local legion [Mangkoe Negoro Vll's forces]': PETRUS
BLUM BERG ER( 1987), 178. Countess van Limburg Stirum, the governor-general's wife,
inaugurating the executive of the Indies Boy Scouts, mentioned 'army and navy officers' as its
leaders, LOC, 6-9-1917, 'Indische padvinders'.

Kiewiel de Jonge saw the prince's
realm as a model for the system of rule
which he proposed for elsewhere in Indo-
nesia. 1 Mangkoe Negoro VII suggested
the federation of the four princes' states,
thus in a way recreating the old Mataram
empire; this was not successful. 1 He sat
in the Volksraad from 1918-21 and 1923-
4. He shared with Soeriokoesoemo a
great admiration for Rabindranath
Tagore, whose poems he translated and
whom he met personally. 3 He donated the
Surakarta TS lodge ground for its
building. The prince also received
Leadbeater at his palace in 1929.
Uadbeater then in Surakarta was
received at the susuhunan's court too. 1

What did Wederopbouw think about
monarchy and democracy? How did these
ideas relate to those of Dutch
theosophists in Indonesia? and of Mrs
Beiara?

Annie fksant's republican phase
lasted longer than Soeriokoesoemo 's
involvement with the democrat and

republican Indische Parti]. In her pre-TS days, she had written in English Republicanism:
'The Republican spirit is the very core of English progressive thought'.* Then, she
approvingly quoted North England miners: 'We don't care to keep more cats than there's
mice to catch.' By the feline metaphor, the miners expressed: 'the royal cats are ...

Mangkoe Negoro VII and Ms wife, the Ratoe
Timoer. From: CANNECIETER0937)

'KlEWiET DEJONGE(1920A). 44: 'the Mangkoe Negoros realm, doubtlessly the best ruled'
was 'a proof of what Native autonomy -also if restricted by IDutch) government- may accomplish.'
See also LOC, 23-8-1916, 2e blad, 'Een model vorstendom'.

! DJAJADININGRAT-NIEUWENHUIS, 63.

] CANNEG1ETER(I937), 122. He also admired Frederik van Eeden, whose Tagore translations
were popular in Indonesia; KONINGf.1%8), S. Contrary to TSUCH1YA(1987), 42, Mangkoe
Negoro VII introduced Nolo Soeroto to Tagore's work; DJAJAD1NINGRAT-N1EU WEN HUIS, 47;
Noto Soeroto himself, in POEZE0986), 96. Indonesia Merdeka. 1926, 25f.. Twee Nederlanders
aan net woord', 27, referred to Noto Soeroto as This Dutch copycat of Tagore. who as a poet does
not even reach up to his knee'.

i TMNI 1923, 379. Tl CHELA AR( 1977), 132.

S BESANT(L877B), 2. SRI PRAKASA, XXVIII: 'like every other Britisher, she [AB] was
intensely devoted to the Throne', did not take into account younger years.

320 V.2

wholly unprofitable animals, ' ! She wrote:

Thai Great Britain wili become a Republic, none can doubt; the only question is-when? ... our

cousins on the other fUS] side of the Atlantic have set a good example.

If the British people were to follow this example, that would be the end of 'the
weight of a German yoke' 3 by the Hannover-Saxony Coburg royaLs,

Annie Besant joined the TS after reading Tke Secret Doctrine. H.P. Blavatsky, basing
herself on Plato, wrote in it on divine kings. Rulers should not be of the same level as
ruled; just as 'We do not place a bullock or a ram over our bullocks and rams, but give
them a leader, a shepherd...'.'

Mrs Besant later wrote Sri Ramachandra. ihe ideal king; the Indies TS translated it in
Dutch in 1920, and in Javanese later:

You rightly speak of him as a Divine King. He was inherently superior (o the people whom He
ruled, and ihe people whom He ruled reached a high civilisation because ihcy obeyed Him and
others Tar more developed than themselves, h is like a Shepherd with sheep The King is above
Ihe people: He guides rhem, tells rhem what ro do, what not lo do; ihej obey, and ihey flourish.'
There also seemed to be an ideal king in her own times: Edward Vtl. 5 Later,

Jinarajadasa echoed her ideas:

none stands so high in achievement as Queen Victoria ... Disraeli. King Edward VII. who
cemented inro friendship [wo nations ... England and France. 6

In a 191 1 letter. Sir Edwin Luiyens wrote:

Mrs. Besant her ultra Imperialist ideal . . got 3000 radicals together ihe other niglii and
talked Divine Right and Empire (ill ihey were nearly all sick"'

Home rule. Independence

321

'BESANT(1877B), 3.
; BESANT(!877B). 8.
! 8LAVATSKY(I908), 389.
, BESANT(1921l),77-8,
5 BESANT(1910B), 175f.

6 JINARAJADASA(1939), 19. Edward Vi] also has this good reputation wiih other supporters of
ihe British monarchy; for instance Sir George Bellew, Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian
Order, in Britain's Kings and Queens. Pitkin Pictorials. 1974. p. 27-3. Other authors, like
MEYERS(1993), 129, might wonder if the 'cementing' was in London and Paris brothels. George
Arundale wrote in 'The spirit of kingship', American Theosophisi, June 1934, the divine-human
hierarchy analogies applied to one country in particular: 'devas and Masters wore crowns like those
of English kings.'

'Quoted HUSSEY, 172. See BESANT(1911A).

TABLE 3. 1 THEOSOPHY ON TEMPORAL AND SPIRITUAL AUTHORITY

1ST PHASE
thesis

2ND PHASE
antithesis

3RD PHASE
synthesis

TYPE OF
RULE IN
WORLD
HISTORY

Direct divine rule
by Priest- Kings,
originally from
planet Venus; for
millions of years

Separation kings/
priests; ill-advised

democratic

experiments up to

now

Future Priest-
Kings; in those
early days, as in 1
the days that
will close our
human history

TYPE OF
RULE )N
TS
HISTORY

Direct divine rule
by Masters
1875-1888

Separaiion esoteric/

exoteric TS

(Blavatsky-

Besant/Olcott)

1888-1907

Besant both

president and

ES Head I907f.

I hanks to her past rcpuiaiion though, ihcy at least came to hear Annie Besant, unlike
others with her type of opinion. After the 1912 sirike wave in England. Mrs Besani called
lot greater royal power. 2 Subtitles of her weekly and daily ran: 'For King,,,'.

The table on this page represents Annie Bcsant's ideas on rule, both in world political
history, and in her own Society's then 32 years.

A. van Leeuwen, editor or the Dutch East Indies TS monthly, and future General
V'Lreiary, was a former sludent with neo-Hcgelian idealist philosopher and opponent of
democracy Bolland, Van Leeuwen had a view of monarchies' sacredness, basing himself
both on Annie Besani and on his former professor. After modern democracy, 'shall once
mine begin the Golden Age of the Priest-Kings, then the Gods will return to eanh, the
Angels will associate with men, in order to work together and to build [he eternal Temple

'Based on BESANT(I907B), 93-1 13. Compare the scheme for history: Divine Principle to man
buck to Divine Principle; and for doctrines: iheosophy to separate religions to iheosophy; see p. 21.
VAN DER LEEUW{1920)'s explicit Hegelianism developed Annie Besant's implicit Hegehamsm,
J'APUS, 68, when he was in the TS. equalled 'Thesis, Antithesis. Synthesis' to 'Brahma. Siva,
Vishnu'. Compare Nietzsche's view in Beyond Good and Evil: 'The democratic movement is ... A
form assumed by man in decay'. JINARAJADASA(1939), 27 contradicted, in fact, Annie Besant, in
the year that the Second World War broke out: 'the dictator represents the past of mankind and the
free people the future.'

3 BESANT(I9I3A): 7TApr. 1913, 137. TAYL0R{1992), 314: she in 1912 approached the earl
of Minto, ex-Viceroy of India, to form an anti-strike organisation of aristocrats, under royal
patronage.

322

V.2

of Humanity,' 1

Van Leeuwen thought a philosophical synthesis of democracy and anti -democracy
should come. One should, according to him, answer the question if a theosophist should
be a democrat, 'in the way of Bolland and Nietzsche: "With democracy, against
democracy!'" 3 Van Leeuwen wrote:

Republicans are only the blind intellectuals in their mock wisdom, who because of the fog of
semi-rational false thinking no longer see the Ideal and ordain thai the Ideal is no longer there.
They bring the poison of democracy, of superficial civilization into their more simple brothers'
unsuspecting hearts. A republic cannot create culture.

He named the US republic as an example:

And our ancient Europe, which in contrast still has its culture, inhere still throbs a nation's
heart, looking up in love and devotion towards its princes, it goes, driven by the blind social
democracy into the abyss of superficial civilization and mediocrity '

Van der Leeuw, sometimes of the Dutch East Indies, sometimes of the Dutch TS,
wrote his thesis on 'Historical Idealist Polities', as opposed to Marx' historical
materialism. He wanted 'aris to -democracy.''

Hillary of the Indies, who knew Van der Leeuw's book would come out, thought he
had made too many concessions to democracy. He saw Van der Leeuw as

a diligent (heosophical worker and intelligent jurist. In this book, he will tell about an arisio-
democracy, which has become rather popular recently in the walks of life of capitalists, why
feel something of (he new spirit of times and arc sympathetic to it. but still do not want to lose
(heir privileged position, li is a compromise, al (he making of which people are very clever
nowadays, between the republican and (he monarchical idea. Someone, though, who speaks
about "electing" a king does not understand the highness and augusmess of (he royat
intelligence, the authority of majesty. The majesty, the ideal musi be recognized
unconditionally, else it is not an ideal. Then, it is vague sentimentality, only fit for raving young
girls, not for men and male spirits. 5

'VAN LEEUWEN(1918A), 580-1, Also other thcosophists admired Bolland. Ex-Indies GS
Labberton in his first thesis when he became a Lilt. D. in 1931, put Bolland's and Hegel's
philosophy on a par with the Hindu spirit; VAN H1NLOOPEN LABBERT0N(1931). Stellingen. I.
TMNf, 1916, 33: 'Our great countryman, Prof, Bolland'. TMNi. 19IS. 391.

'TMW, 1918. 207.

3 VAN LEEUWEN(1921G), 307.

*VAN DER LEEUW(I920), 188, Ibid.. 75, saw as characteristic for parliamentary government
(as opposed to government by Priest-Kings, which he preferred) that not the 'best', but the
'mediocre' rule. Ibid., 174: Parliament's 'time is up.'

J HILLARY(I920), 399. VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(193l). 14 was not negative about
electing kings. KRU1SHEER(192Q), 207, the later Dutch East Indies TS GS, thought that
'democratic only' rule would 'lead to the perishing of the nation*.

Home rule, independence

323

In 1920, many monarchies had just fallen and the Turkish one was about to fall.
Hillary wrote of the relationship between kingship and rule by superhuman beings:

The theosophical writings teach us that a dewa [god; 'angel'] 'reigns' over a nation. So this
means, that this nation is his way of expression, of sacrifice (by descending from high spirit
into low matter], it is his body. ... So the rhythm of the dewa is the great Ideal, slumbering
within the nation's individuals. Though this in the infancy of a nation is obeyed unconsciously-
instinct ively, and people then recognize kingship automatically, slowly the intuitive knowledge
of the nation's consciousness and its ideal gets lost, along with which kingship also
degenerates, without, however, disappearing totally, for if that should happen, then the dewa's
body (thai is. ihe nation] would be left to decomposition. Kingship is die expression itself of
life.'
After Besant's diesis and antithesis (see p. 321), Hiliary expected the synthesis:

If it has reached the age of manhood, however, the nation shall feel its ideal once again and
express it, consciously though, now, as one sees this with the personality. The expressing, ihe
indicaiion of the rhythm, will have 10 be done by the king. ... He is the light, the intelligence,
the idea. One hardly needs to say that for a nation only one can do this. ... In him, the
brodierhood is realized, ll is hardly necessary lo say lhat one other person or more could noi
possibly do (his jointly with him. Should someone not want to be carried by the waves of the
rhythm, then he would be a poison lo ihe people, it would not be possible that he himseir
could indicate exactly the same ideal, the same rhythm as (he nation's sunan (Javanese;
roughly king), for no two persons are equal, lit case he should still be so highly developed
that his ideal, his idea, might atiract thousands of people, then he should look for another
nation or make revolution. Tor the struggle of ideas in the higher worlds reflects itself as wars
on the material plane. The people now do not seem to see this truth. They think of ruling
nations by meetings and councils

They deny kingship, though they subconsciously still hold lo (he royal ideal. ... Humanity
has outlived ihe limes, in which ii instinctively recognized brotherhood and thus kingship and
intelligence have not yet reached the stage in which they can make this vague intuition into
conscious knowledge. Thus, one also denies in oneself the ideal, the king. For the outer
world, the non-1 is only a reflection of one's own consciousness. This gives rise to great
restlessness. Thai is characteristic for ihis lime of unbalanced people, so much differem from
far-off ages, when kingship was seen internally and externally and there was balance and calm.
10 which the papers and stone memorials left behind still bear witness. Nowadays people try lo
prove from history ihat progress lies in (he development of so-called democracy.

Hillary thought history taught different lessons: the situation in China and ancient
Rgypt had been best tinder monarchy. Russia owed its growth towards great and
European power to the czars' autocracy. Prussia owed this to Frederick the Great, 5

'HILLARY(1920). 395. WESTRIK-WESTERS(I919), 362: True kingship can never
disappear from the world, because the world never is without a Ruler, never without a King',

: HILLARY<1920), 39S-6,

5 H(LLARY(1920), 397.

324

V.2

Today, ii is fashionable 10 say thai it is so good thai at last the feudal conditions in central
Europe have ceased to exist. Those saying this forget that under the Hohenzollems, however
mediocre, or less than mediocre, they may have been, the German Empire has reached a
hitherto unknown prosperity and the weakling German people, which had always been bullied
by its more soldierly neighbours (Sweden. France, Denmark, The Netherlands), under their
guidance has held at bay the furious joint attacks of all the world's nations. That is what the
emperorship did! The [Habsburg dynasty) Danubian monarchy has managed, though beset by
grave rebellions and enormous internal confusion, to still hold out under its emperors during
four years of bitter war. '
Hillary thought of the ancient monarchy as the counterweight to modern revolutionism:

Now, when there is screaming everywhere of equality and anarchy, with the reds [Marxists] as
well as with the blacks [Roman Catholic poliiicians], and also on Java one hears more and
more mockery and sneering about authority, ideal and nobility, it is certainly the TS' task to
hold aloft ihe ideal of Majesty, to (each the Indies (so also outside Javaj people once again
their ancient reverence for His Highness the Susuhunan of Solo. ;

The historian Leggc wrote on ihcosophy, with a sideways glance at his subject,
Indonesia: 'there is someihing patronizing in ihe earnestness with which Wcsiern
enthusiasis urged Eastern wisdom upon India', 1 With Soeriokoesoemo as an individual, ii
probably was more paralellism and inspiration than urge by. say. Hillary. Wederopbouw
wrote on traditional homage to princes, the sembah.

We are glad (hat the so-called modernized Javanese cannot resist the desire to sembah
respectfully before the (Surakajla) Sunan or the [Yogyakarla) Sultan. We hope that one day
ihey will understand (hat Ihe sembah is no dead form, but one of the ways by which one may
icacli THAT [the Absolute). .. To us. it is something natural and it would even be sacrilege,
were we not to do (Ins. because we hsow (hat behind worshipping a prince much more is
hidden than glorifying a human.

Soeriokoesocmo drew political consequences from the principle As it is above, so
below:

the masses have no will and thus cannot rule This is not only correct for the people of Java,
who, as is said, have no "civilization" yel. It is also correct for die "highly civilized" nations
of Europe and America s

Home rule. Independence

325

'HILLARY(1920). 400,

'H1LLARY(1920),401.

] LEGGE<!972). 24.

"'De beteekenis van de sembah', WED March 1921. 48-50: ibid , 49 Noto Soeroto in
SOEMBANGSIH, 140, had similar views. Soeriokoesoemo saw Yudishthira from the Mahabharata
and wyong plays as an example of a priest-king. The ruling prince Mangkoe Negoro VII sponsored
Soeriokoesoemo 's magazine.

'Soeriokoesoemo in WED, 1918. 95, SOERlOKOESOEMO(1916), 98: 'We are Orientals, but
ksatryas above all else, and it is our duty to work towards an ideal state which does undersiand
life's contradictions.'

If socialists and democrats err about Nature, then that seems lo me to be something completely
normal; but a theosophist, of whom one may certainly expect that he is better grounded in
knowledge of Nature than ihe other people, lo whom Nature only shows itself in its mechanical,
lower aspect, a theosophist should penetrate deeper into the mystery and learn how to
understand better the Law: "As above, so below (saying, quoted in HPB's Secret Doctrine,
attributed to late antiquity 'Hermes Trismegistos'; see p, 25, 98); as Nature, so man". I say,
autocracy is the nature of the Will. No Will ts thinkable which does not proceed in an autocratic
way. It willed and ii happened, that is the history of Creation. ... Where is democracy now;
there, there is only pure autocracy. Democracy verily exists as Nothingness. 1

More extensively than in his 1920 Indies theosophist monthly article,
Soeriokoesoemo dealt with the subject that year in his bookJet Sabdo-PandilO-Ratoe.
Pandito ratoe means roughly 'philosopher-king'; 'priest-ruler', (t came out at Indonesia's
$5 publishers. 1 'Democracy without wisdom is a disaster for all of us' was its motto. Its
first sentence saw his task as an arduous challenge:

In times when social democracy progresses strongly, and people see the slogan [of Marco and
others) soma ram. sarm rasa as (he only correct view ... it is a desperate attempt of the
individual who dares to fight thai,'

Soeriokoesoemo rejected democracy, as it was 'purely materialist' ,' in politics from a
spiritual viewpoint. 1

Yet, 1 ihink 1 can conclude from the theosophical publications and from many works by Annie
Besanl thai (heosophy is an implicit opponent of democracy. ... But thai a committed
iheosophisi. who sees ihe doctrine of human evolution as founded on the law of Karma and
Reincarnation, will noi think for one single moment of defending democracy, is absolutely
beyond any shadow of doubt, for this law of Karma and Reincamalion aulomalically excludes.

'BLAVATSKY(I908), 32. SOERIOKOESOEMO(J920A), 310-1. Ibid., 309: 'I begin here with

lilt declaration that it is my aim, yes. higher still, that 1 regard it as my duty, lo fight every

in.iiiifcslalion of democracy, here in Java, everywhere where the opportunity presents itself to me.

Communism and anarchy, for instance, also are from the realm of (pare) democracy and are

mulling but ihe acceplance of the consequence, which has proceeded necessarily from the principle',

'Reprinted at least once in 1920; Nijmegen university library copy. Reviewed TMNl, 1920, 358-
') [the Javanese prince known 10 many of us*).

'SOERIOKOESOEMO{1920B). 3. Ibid., 28 called Karl Marx 'the founder of democracy*.

1 SOER!OKOESOEMO{1920B). 8: as democracy 'believes man lives only once'.

'SOER)OKOE$OEMO(1920A), 309: 'I not only fight the fight against democracy on the
Miiface, but also in the deepesl depths of the human spirit.' SOERIO ICO ESOEMOf 1920S). 5:
'Democracy, though, will only be accepted by the individualist [as Soeriokoesoemo called himself as
n|i|X)scd to 'socialist', and as a partisan of rule by philosophical and royal individuals) when it proves
i]\cful, according to the laws of God. And not earlier!' Further on, he concluded there was no such
proof.

326

V.2

Home rule. Independence

327

equality in rights. , 2

He asked- 'Do the members of the Theosophica) Society elect their Mahatmas?
Nevertheless, flu*" Uiomo elected Soeriokoesoemo to its executive; and from 1921 until
1924 he sat in the Volksraad {as government nominee).

Van Leeuwen Annie Besam in 1905 (the 'blunders of the unguided democracy'
would yield to 'the authority of wisdom') and 1907, and Uadbeater. all saw democracy
as an 'intermediate stage', 'this unlovely stage of democratic mismanagement', in
between autocracies. 4 So did Soeriokoesoemo. He used the metaphor of politics as a
river, usually Slowing within its bed, but which sometimes floods (banjir in Malay):

To the real sportsman, the banjir. tearing along and destroying everything in its violent current,
has a ccnain attraction, which others may understand only dimly. The history of mankind is not
experiencing Such a big banjir for the first time During Plato's life, democracy has banjircd
once before, and then it was Plato himself, who could not resira.n himself, and tossed hunttll
into the stream to counter it.

So democracy was not completely unnatural, as rivers do flood sometimes. Neverthe-
less, it was not a desirable phase. 6 Soeriokoesoemo denied the link between national self-
determination and democracy, made by US president Wilson and others.'

lie saw society as an unequal family, as did Ubberlorv. and Annie Besam, and Annie
McQueen of the TS lodge in New York. 8 Differing from these two ladies.
Soeriokoesoemo saw ,n the family* no. only the father, the ruler, and the children, elder
and younger brothers, the subjects, but also the wife. That wife was for him the

1 S0ER1OKOB5QCMO(I92OB), 7
>SOGRIOKOCSOEMO(1920A). 31 1.
'VAN MIERT<)995). 198-200; VAN DUR WAL(I967), 504

*AB Theesophy and Human Life. 49; from 1905; quoied by Holland in noics to Ins copy of
BLAVATSKY(IW8), page before frontispiece. Uadbeater, TTtc Great lifer, TTPeb. 1916.520-1.
claiming 10 report a talk with Bismarck's spirit

S SO£RIOKOESOEMO(1920A), 308. Ibid., 314; 'See. this is ihe price which I have to pay for
,he service of my Master and my firm faith ,„ .he justice of God'. TSUCHIYA(1987). 38. translates
as rowing a boai', instead of swimming.
6 SOERIOKOESOEMO(1920A), 310.
Soeriokoesoemo in WED, 1918, 93-5.

e MrsC. VAN H1NLOOPEN LABBERT0N<1913). BESANT<1895), 5 McQUEEN(190!>. 72f.
*GOUDA(1993), 8, also mentioned Soeriokoesoemo. without going into theosophy, or his views
on government and capitalists. She wrote ibid., 2: 'In general, Europeans- invocation of family
imagery across the board, was intended to bolster the myth of colonial societies as a natural, organic
whole and parental symbolism constituted a root metaphor that framed, defined, and delineated *e
discursive practices of colonial mastery.' Ibid. 9. she admitted the family metaphor was not limited
io 'colonial settings. However, political elites in most European countries presumed that workers and
peasants were speakers of the same national language. ..' This depends on time; it may be truer at the
beginning of a war, when soldiers are needed, for instance.

capitalist' class. Prince Soeriokoesoemo thought she should only concern herself with
(home) economics, and not get politically powerful. 1 In the ideal situation

The duties which the father imposes on his wife and on the children, they accept gladly; they do

not complain. That which Father says is good, for Father is wise*. That is the ideal of a family.

therefore also of the State.

If the wife rales instead, plutocracy causes wrongs. Under democracy, the children
rule and all goes wrong. 'In such a family, one does not know of duties, all ask about
their rights first.' 1

One who believes that the word of the uneducated peasant (Dutch- Indonesian desamtm) is
equivalent to the one of the wise man, acts unjustly and believes unwisely. 1
Fellow theosophist and fellow editor of Wederopbouw Abdoel Rachman, unlike
.Soeriokoesoemo from West Java and not from a ruling family, criticized hint mildly in
i hi- December 1920 Wedervpbouw; reprinted in TMNl. Rachman thought there should be
I 'joining of autocracy and democracy.'* Not only democracy might bring 'anarchy', but
iheii; might also bea'bad autocrat' who 'does not deserve support'. 5

An unsigned Wederopbouw article also aimed at a synthesis transcending run-of-the-
mill autocracy and democracy:

A king wuh a council or wise men should be (he ideal. The proponents of aristocracy,
miisiruciing their system, stress the human being, who is of divine origin, who should develop
divinity in order to be able to reach THAT, . . . Who thinks that the Divine Germ-cell, preseni in
.ill i>eople, can be developed, that love for his neighbour vanquishes human selfishness, such a
person, we think, would do betler to support autocracy. The one who. while excluding die
people, speaks and writes according to the spirit of ihal people; and not the one
who lets everyone have their say on affairs, about which they are ignorani, is a democrai. ...
Only ilius will democracy and autocracy be able to co-exist. 6

Lecturing io the Jakarta TS lodge, Assiseni Resident A.J. Hamerster was happy to
mile 'a beginning of reaction' against the demand of power to 'the great masses of ihc
P'uple'. That violated the esoteric principle of Hierarchy. As became apparent in the

',SOl:RIOKOESOEMO(l920B), 23; he meant Duich, Indonesian, and other capitalists. An
hih ii;ncd article in WED. 1920. 179-81 , 'De Javaansche bourgeois en de nieuwe geesi' said; 'An
I iMi'in aristos usually calls the pedestrian sensuality and tendency towards superficiality and
li vrllmg of the Eastern newly rich man and upstair by the meaningful term "soedro [Sanskrit;
mdra]'\ which means "njamtri", "njamtrik" ... He, the Javanese bourgeois-soedro, even though
In- ui.iy have Western education, is a threatening element. ... the greatest danger which ever has
flinnitened our culture*.

-\SOER10KOESOEMO(1920B), 23-4.

\SOF.RIOKOESOEMO(l920B), 26.

\\IIDOEL RACHMAN(1921), 14. Compare Van der Leeuw's 'aristo -democracy', p. 322.

'ifeia.; 13; 16.

"'De Oostersche Strijdwijze' , WED, 1920, 163-5,

328

V.2

Home rule. Independence

329

1920s as in the times of Napoleon I, autocracy may not only be rule by someone from a
traditional princely family, ft may also be rule by a dictator, not from an old ruling
family, who may end contradict! uns between political parties by force. A Dutch
theosophist (zx-assisteni resident Von Wolzogen Kuhr?) wrote under pseudonym:

And the people arc thus conditioned by democratic slogans that they rather see those men al
the party conuol button, moving the party machinery; men, servants of their instincts instead
of rulers of these. Those party leaders, who are capable of few things however, hide behind all
kinds of beautiful slogans if problems are intricate. So, in the political field, one has endless
bungling, and nowhere is there a brisk tackling of the serious problems, which are so manifold
in our times.

With good reason in me old comment [Europe] loday many long for 3 strong man who can
pur the crippled affairs in order. Also in (he [Dutch East] Indies one can feel ihis longing, and
elsewhere as well. How will Nature answer this? 1

1920 showed that common membership in [he Theosophical Sociely was not always a
basis for identical views on political history by Dutch and Javanese, even if ihe latter
were not miliums. A TWA7 article by P. Pourmer 2 had a passage on ihc karmic
inevitability of colonial rule because of the bad situation when the Dutch came. An
anonymous WcderoptMuw editor objected to this. Pournier explained his view in Weder-
opbouw i The Wcderopboitw editors objected to the explanation: not to the karmic
inevitability view itself, but it hurl that a Dutchman had stated it,"

I UAMI2RSTPR(I923) 1 135-6. EEN INDISCHE STf:M(l92J). 507-8. Already KIJZWICT DC
J0NGE(I917B), 239-40, had written, as concluding paragraph of his De Pohnek der Toekomst.
linked (o his prediction of a world empire after the word war (see p. 246): 'And ihe same argumem
runs analogously for esiablishing ihe national level reforms which 1 proposed [chamber of
economic functional groups etc | The more this happens ihrough voluntary amalgamation of
political parties, the better, but if it turns out ihai they are incapahle of bringing about such grand
siyle politics, tlicn-once (he desirability of ihe reforms is recognized- only from an overwhelming
position of power is salvation to be exoecied. But such a state of world power is only a boon for
humanity, along with much apparent oppression, as it, putting order into national or international
intercourse, creates organic forms for the development tendencies, as it only forces social and
political life into such forms as are necessary for the harmonious course of social functions, to
make a long story short, as a state or world ruler is not only an organ of a supremacy, born out of
political or military victory, bu t proves to be an organ of Law as well.*

2 'Occulte werkzaamheid', TMNl, Nov. 1919.

3 FOURNIER(1920), 35: 'Had the Europeans not come here, then the downfall of the Indies
people would have been inevitable.'

4 WED, Feb. 1920, 39-40.

Ml:ilL Lombok. Outer Islands'

1.1 1915, the TS had one member in Bali: the Javanese Mas Djono in Denpasar. Later,
The upper class Javanese, who visited Bali recently, are full of enthusiasm.' Mangkoe
Nn-.oro VII went there. 1 Soeriokoesoemo went for three years, 1918-1921. On 6 April
1919, lie inaugurated a Budi Uiomo chapter at a meeting in Dcnpasar. The reporter
M-rue'iied that the chairman had addressed Prince Soeriokoesoemo with just 'dane'; in
lUlmese, 'you 1 for kshattriya caste persons. In Bali however, there were brahmans.
making kshattriyas only the second caste. Soeriokoesoemo saw Bali as religiously purer
ih.iu Java. He thought of it as a counterweight to strict Muslims; Dutch officials who
iv.iined to favour Roman Catholic missionaries in Bali distrusted him though. 3

In 1934, Van Leeuwen went on holiday to Bali. There was no lodge yet. He met
members at large 'Sister De Jong, who keeps iheosophy's torch burning in Denpasar' and
'Brother Ooierdoom in Ampenan [Lombok]. 1 Van Leeuwen also spoke to three Dutch
ndu'ials. successively Residents in Bali." Raden Mas Koesoemodihardjo of the TS in Java
Wtm in his 'Verslag Propagandas is Bali*, 77W, July 1937, 112, of his visit to the
,n ,-mly founded Adnjana Nirmala lodge, the only one in Bali. It had 16 members, and I

I loeui ('Lord*; Balinese title) Ketoet Djclanlik was its president. 5

Suit-.- 1921, BU had been active in Lombok island as well. The TS set up a centre
miotijt Hindus there in the L930's.*

Tkosophy made Mule headway in other islands to the north 10 east of Java. In 1915,

II Zwkts of the Temate police was a member at large; as was J.W. Beck, Dutch
,v qlitbber [official with more power than usually, in a region considered militarily
im',,11.1 of East Ceram. So were his colleague W.J.D. van Andel, and J. LA. Lcdcboer.
„un.rn of the local mining company, in Paleleh (Sulawesi). In Ujung Pandang in
gates'. Lieutenant A.J.L de Groot was, The only member in 1916 in Manado was

M I Wawo Roentoe.' 7

Since at least 1922, the TS had had a centre in Banjarniasin on Kalimantan, and since

1 1 Ik-si; islands were called in Dutch (mileiigwesieit, outer provinces; Ubberton had first used
U.r word about 1916. and it soon passed into wide usage. ENl, vol. V, 128; 75 1918, 121 . VAN
IIINIUOI'PN LA8BERTON(19IO). 167, had still used the word buhenbeviringen, outer

|i,r.\<".',LonS.

NUGRAHA(1989), 243. LEK1CERKERKER(I9I8), 472; Bromanani 19-1-1918. quoted IPO
\l I'll 9,(i.

fflaww Hondo 23-4-1919, quoted IPO 16/1919, JB, 2-3. Dcnpasar fit/ "branch on 21 March
l<iM had 249 members; N1E, Nov. -Dec. 1923, 21. Korte lnlichiingen\
•401 RIQKOESOEMO(1923B), 33; KWANTES(1975), 60; KWANTES(197S), 115.

'!'iNl Nov. 1934, 129-30.

'hi the 1950's, the lodge was still active; Djelantik published his ideas on Hinduism and
■lii-osophy for it in mimeographed form; several mimeographs in KITLV library.
' > NA*JAZUMI(!972), 117. TIN! Nov, 1935, 198.
'Nll<;RAHA(1989). 242-62.

330

V.2

Home rule. Independence

331

1926 in Gorontalo on Sulawesi. Respectively, H.K.M. Dcfares, and Po Tong H.en, a
local official and FTS at least since 1915, were chairmen. In 1932, Gorontalo closed and
Banjarmasin too did not last much longer. The Balikpapan (Kalimantan) centre, led in
1922 by C H.A. de Steur, was already gone in 1928; though the politically 'moderate
weekly Persaioean of Samarinda close to it published translated articles from The Herald
of the Star of the Order of the Star in the East. 1

The TS had a member early on, in 1895, in Sumatra: P. de Heer, who lived in the
Asahan area in the island's north. He attempted propaganda; but 'work here is very
difficult, and there has been very little result. ... we have today 11910] four members of
the Society'. 1 Things went somewhat smoother further to the north, in economically
important Medan; though on Sumatra, it was not a typically Sumairan city.' Also, for
some lime, in politically interesting West Sumatra.

6. West Sumatra

There Daioek Soetan Maharadja, 1860-1921, 'father of Malay journalism', founded the
daily Oetoetan Melajoe (Malay Messenger). Before 1916, Maharadja was a democrat.

l NUGRAHA(19S9), 247. 265-7; 272. Persatocaa 1-20 My 1924. quoied IPO 29/1924. 148
77AH 1932,24; 61.

7 R. Diltmann. 'Sumatra'. 7TOct. 1910, 158.

5 MANl(A) 89- most inhabitants were immigrant In 1930, 5.6% 'European'. 35.6%
'Chinese', 4.9% 'other Asian', mainly Indian, of Indonesians, more than 50% were from Java:
Javanese Sundancse, Jakarta™, Most Javanese were plantation workers, for whom TS membership
was improbable. They were koehes (coolies), a status roughly belwecn capitalist 'free labour and
slavery There was also, in Medan and other places in the Deli region, a small category of Javanese
middle-level civil servants in 1915, Mas Aunodiwirio. Medan local authority clerk, and veterinarian
Nolosoediro were FTS; NUGRAHA(I989), 242: 247. This calegory staned Budl Utomo branches.
Medan had the largesl BU branch outside Java; EM, vol. VI. 944. NAGAZUMi(1972>, 133-4: in
1918 a few other chapters in towns close 10 Medan had move members. These branches, in contrast
to movements like Sarekat Islam, paid hardly any attention to the koeiiaT conditions: VAN
LANGENBERG, 1 18-9. TAN MALA KA{ 1921 A): a few coolies had 'even joined' BU. though its
relationship to them 'was mostly limited to useless sermons against dice-playing and prostitution.' He
did consider Budi Utomo in Deli more democratic titan in Java. In 1916, Labberton asked the
government to investigate the coolies' s.tuation: 'De Delische Conuaci-Koelies'. HPO 1916, 85.
Soeriokoesoemo in the Volksmad spoke against the bad legal position of coolie migrants; NIE. Jan.
1924 23' 'Oil den Volksraad. De "poenale sanctie'V In 1916. J.J.W. Brouwer Popkens was
Medan TS lodge president; PT9 (1916). #3, 16. T1CHELAAR(1977>, 89: Leadbeaier laid the first
stone for the TS lodge building in Medan in Dec. 1926. On 31 Dec. 1931, membership was 44: 29
Europeans 1 Sikh, 6 Javanese, 4 Chinese, and 4 Hindus': so not One 'real' Sumatran; TiNI 1932,
139. A letter, probably from Deli, in TIN! May 1937, 88: 'we must be theosophist in our daily work,
to our cranies (clerks' , coolies, superiors and inferiors. '

who fought the coastal aristocracy, and attacked the Dutch government in his paper. 1
After that, he became a conservative. He now allied himself with his former opponents as
leader of the political party Sarekat Adat Alam Minangkabau*. This was founded in 1916.
Both membership cards and ribbons in young female supporters' hair were orange, the
colour of the Dutch royal family. 3 Maharadja's political shift came at the same time as
his connection with the TS. Daioek Soetan Maharadja

claimed to be a follower of meosophy. 7.x.i !?iT —.ill 1"2^ ^,c, 7 ma, ii" inSi «»cijr Jay,
articles and series of articles on theosophy were published in Oetoesan Melajoe. Most of them
were written by Minangkabau schoolteachers, who were graduates of the Kweekschool* in
Bukittingi, Al the beginning of the century this school was the centre of the Theosophical Society
in Minangkabau. Most of the popular Dutch leachers in this school were theosophist.

Since 1916, the TS had its own building in the main street of Bukittinggi. 5 From
1916 on, Oewesan Melajoe strongly supported Van Hinloopen Labbenon's Indie
Weerbaar campaign, which the local Sarekat Islam and Inmtinde leaders opposed. 6 In an
1W speech, Maharadja called upon Minangkabau:

!.ei them show now, dial they are nol women who belong in the kitchen, hul men, who since
time immemorial have kept up training in bearing arms

Maharadja proposed setting up a rifle-club, 'like the Boers in Transvaal', right away.
Tlumgh he was 'an old man', he would surely join, he told his cheering supporters. 7

Oetoesan Melajoe also advocated bringing back forced planiing of coffee by
peasants.' 1 OM wrote disapprovingly of Sarekat Islam: did it want to 'lure the people

'ABDULLAU(I973), 2l7f, BOUMAN(1949), II. Bouman does not lake imo accoum
M:iluiiadja's 1916 shift. Sec p. 386 for Maharadja's views on ihe women's movement.

'Traditional Law Association of the Minangkabau World: ABDULLAH(1971), 17.

, R0UMAN(I949). 35.

VOEZG, 10: the only posi-primary educational institution in Sumatra 40% of students were
limn ihe Minangkabau region, the rest from elsewhere in Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia.

*ABDULLAH(1973), 233. For instance, the whole from page of OM 28-8-1919, quoied IPO
WI919, MBB, 14 was a Maharadja article on reincarnation. Like many other OM articles.
M.ih.uadja's women's paper Scenting Melajoe reprinled it. A.L., 'Centrum Agam te Fort De Kock',
IMNI 1923, 518,

f 'ABDULLAH(1971), 29; referring to Insulinde as Nmionaal Indische Panij.

7 0/W, #163, Sepi, 1916; quoted KOT, 1916. 'Persoverzichf, 1662-3. When me AV association
Ittlted, Maharadja expected more from it than from the earlier committee, as he did not trust
Ahilocl Moeis; OM, 5-2-1917. quoied IPO 7/1917. MBB, 4.

i OM, g 191, quoied 'Persovemchl*. KOT, 1916, 95. noted that peasants had cut down coffee
lltfubs for firewood, and 'strongly advocates restoring forced planting (of government coffee. Duich:
ilwangcultuur)'.

332 V2

away from the adax associations'? 1

Abdullah writes of Maharadja's SAAM:

The generally loyal [to Dutch rale] stance taken by the adat parties created the popular belief
that, despite their frequent criticism of government policies, they were no more than
government parties whose ideology represented Minangkabau -centered cultural nationalism.

Oetoesan Melajoe praised Soeriokoesoemo's Javanese cultural nationalism:

The Minangkabau people are very happy that, like them, the Javanese are no] keen at all to

change race (nation) (that is, to make the new nation and to be called Indters [Indies people;

Indonesians]), It is despicable to change one's race
It also planned a Sumatran Cultural Congress, like Soeriokoesoemo's Javanese one. 4

Like those of Socriokoesoemo, SAAM ideas fell foul of Muslims. Marxists and all-
Indonesia* secular nationalists in Sumatra's politics. In 1918, Sarekat Istam demanded
that Maharadja should resign his Padang town-council seat, 'because he has always
resisted all progressive measures." Jong Sumatra wrote that Datoek Soetan Maharadja
did not really differ from K. Wijbrauds, rightist Dutch editor of Het Nietsws van den Dag
voor Nedertandsch Indie, both were conservative. With one difference: ihc latter was
honestly so, and the former was not. Some Jong Sumatra readers protested against (his
article by Mohamad Kanocn.' Amir of Jong Sumatra, a iheosophist like Maharadja. went

Home rule, independence

333

'OM, ft 225, as quoted 'Pcrsoverzicht'. KOT. 1916, 206. Ibid., # 203. in Bcngfculu residency, a
few months of Sarekat Islam had disturbed a tony years' tradition of peace and quiet. Ibid : when 5/
worked at founding chapters in West Sumatra, 'ihc [OM] editors in issue number 225 urged the
authorities lo be vigilant.' Ibid., 374. OM, ft 241 opposed founding a 5/ branch. Don't we have
our selves enough people who may lead a league; why should we resort lo other races |lhe 5/
also had support elsewhere)?'

; ABDULLAH(I971). 28,

^OM 25-11-1918, quoted IPO 49/1918. MBB, 1,

J Mohamad Kanoen, 'De conservalieven ter Sumatra's Wcstkust in aclie', JS 1918, 176-80, I7R.

*OM. 8 223, as quoted in 'Persoverzichi*, KOT, 1916, 206; similarly to Wederopbouw later;
' I . One Indies nation does not exist, there are many Indies races, from Madagascar to New Guinea.
2. If people talk of '(he Indies people', they might as well as tall: of 'the Asians', and so. of 'the
earth's inhabitants* as well.' Maharadja wrote in OM. if 144, 1918. quoted KOT. 1918.
■persovenicht', 91, against the existence of this 'newly created race, 'Indies people', to which
Papuans, Alfurs [from the Moluccas] etc., will also belong.' OM, 8-4-1919, quoted KOT, 1919,
'Persoverzichf; "They [Minangkabau people] do not want to be put on the same level as Dyaks and
Papuans; also, they do not want people to consider them to be of one race with Kubus and Memawai
people [from Sumatra and an island close to it],' ■persoverzicht', KOT, 1916, 676; OM, H 38 [new
series] was unhappy about Malay as spoken throughout Indonesia: 'that, though, is pasar [street
market] Malay, of which every true Malay is ashamed.'

*BOUMAN(1949), 47. See also Neratja, 26-3-1918.

''Quos Ego \JS 6/7/8 and 11, 1918, 115-8.

id tee the SAAM leader in 1919, They managed an armistice,'

Oetoesan Meiajoe advocated establishing a prince of Minangkabau, Kaoem Moedti
il.iily jokingly asked: 'Maybe D. S. Maharadja, editor-in-chief of Oetoesan-Melajoe, will
become Emperor of Minangkabau?' 2 Maharadja advocated that the queen of The
Netherlands should get thetille of empress of the Indies, as in British India.'

Abdoel Karim, a leading Maharadja supporter, worked in education, after training at
ihe lioogere Kweekschool voor Inlandsche Onderwijzers in Purworejo in Java.' On 8
hi'cembcr 1917, OM announced him, and the demang [Sumatran official] of Matur,
D.uoek Rangkajo Maharadja, as speakers at a theosophical meeting in Bukittinggi that
ivtiiing. It also expected the Dutch Resident and his wife. Rangkajo, secretary of the
i ivil servants' league Persekoetoean Ankoe-Ankoe Binnenlandsch Bestuur may have been
niie of a category of officials, of whom OM wrote that they read 'the theosophical books
.iiul writings.'*

Abdoel Karim wrote: 'thai the Natives will still have to leam VERY, VERY MUCH
In- 1 ore they are fit for autonomy.'* Oetoesan Melajoe of 25 November 1918 considered
ihi possibility that the Dutch might lose the Indies. Who should rule then instead? Not
ln\uttnde\ Their local councillors, recently elected in Minangkabau, 'only came from
1 1 minion Native second class schools.' 1

II we are no longer under the Dutch flag, then the best thing for us would be lo come under the
I ngiisti flag. ... In their country, there are already many mosques, and last but not least, many
piactice tasa'oef = theosophy. That is the way we, kaoem koeno, think*

Kaum kuno (new spelling), iradkionalisi Muslims, and kaum muda, modernist

'VAN MIERT(I995),7I.

'OM 1 8-1-1 919. quoted IPO 4/19 19. MBB, 2. KM 3-2-1919, quOLed IPO 5/1919, MJB, II.

''OM 11-9-1919, quoted tPO 38/1919, MBB, I; and OM 18-9-19, quoted IPO 39/1919, MBB, 4.

'Saeara-Kwnadjoeaii 15-12-1917, quoted IPO 52/1917, MBB, 6, Probably identical to 'Abdoel
K.inm Galar Soetan Sjarif, Inspector of Primary Schools, Bukittinggi', an FTS in 19)6:
NUGKAHA(19S9), 251. OM 18-12-1917, quoted IPO 52/1917, MBS, 3: Abdoel Karim founded the
IJukminggi branch of Ihe teachers' union PGHB. LOC 25-9-J914, 2e Wad, 'De Kweekschool ic
l\x.rworedjo': the Purworejo school, founded in 1914, was for 75 students at maximum, selected by
.milinmies.

S 0M8-I2-19!7, quoted IPO 50/1917. MBB, I. OM 20- 12- 1917. quoted /TO 52/1917. MBB, 3-4.
IS 1918, 76 on 2 January 1918. In 1915, 'Darwis galar Datoeh Madjo Lolo, supreme District official
I neboeh Sekaping* was a member; NUGRAHA(1989). 243.

6 OM 30-10-1918, quoted IPO 45/1918, MBB, I.

In die Dutch East Indies, first class 'Native schools' were mainly for the nobility's children;
tinasicially less well off second class schools were for non-noble children.

j As quoted KOT, 1919, 494; IPO 49/1918, MBB, 1. Ibid: 'Insulinde ... are opponents of

Mlnt'Oef-'

334

V.2

Muslims, then had disputes in West Sumatra. 1 The Theosophical Society saw mssawuf
(Sufi form of Islam) as consistent with their views. Datoek Soetan Maharadja angrily
rejected the view of kaum muda author Zainoeddin Labai 'who says "that tasauwocf and
thcosophy are two different things'"; that was only 'envy of advanced Europeans 1 .*

Muslims, among other things, disliked Maharadja's theory that the Q'uran as people
know it, was not the Divine original. That had supposedly been burnt by 7th century
Caliph Osman, who substituted a fallible, human one of his own, Thahja-Sumatro?
reacted: 'D. S. M. has said all this to make the supporters of Tarekat {traditional mystic
secret organization) and Theosophy believe that their roots are in the ["original'] Q'uran,
burnt by Caliph Osman.'

Abdoel Karim now was not as enthusiastically pro-militia as OM earlier on;

We cannot fight a foreign enemy There is no enemy at home. Also, we can fight an enemy ai
home belter with a strong, well-organized police force.

He continued on the relationships of theosophy, Minangkabau, and The Netherlands
to one another:

Superiors or leaders must be able to philosophize. ... Blessed is (lit empire, the country, the
kampung. the village, whose inhabitants have the pure science ! One learns thai pine science.
iasawoef= theosophy from competent teachers. So, the author really strongly hopes that the
Indies Government feels bound to help promote pure religions and pure sciences
(theosophy = la sa woe and other f |n e sciences. So. it is necessary to found as soon as possible
schools, in which able, teachers leach pedagogy, and psychology S a a m should sec lo it thai
Minangkabau adal. still famous now. does not gel lost There should be adat schools'

Should all go well, and people have the knowledge, necessary in these times, then Autonomy .
will be necessary, and will also be here. Autonomy, and not independence' Then, Hie niiliiin
may also come. Though il is not necessary "

Abdoel Karim predicted a great leader for all religions for 1921 i In 1929, ha was a
contributor on 'Evolution' to the monthly of Datoek Rangkajo Maharadja's civil servants'
league, its n3tne was now Vereeniging van Inlandsclie Bestuurs Airtbtenaren * In 1930. he
became the only Indonesian writing in Tlie Theosophisi. He distinguished in the Q'uran
between an esoteric part and exoteric non-essentials. The core was the teaching of 'one
Divine life', really compatible with the Hindu Upanishads and reincarnation doctrine.
The rest was 'only intended to apply to the Arabic people.' 7

'ABDULLAH(1°71), passim; NOER, 216f.

i'Tasauwoef boekan theosofie???', OM 20-9-1919, quoted IPO 39/1919, MSB. 4-5

} 2- 1-1919, quoted IPO 2/1919, MSB, 1. OM. H 241 as quoted in Persoverzichf, KOT, 1916,
374: instead of the hadj 10 Mecca, pilgrims should visit a local saint's grave, so 'die money, which
now benefits ... Arab traders, will stay in our own country'.

J CW 2/3-12-1918. quoted IPO 50/1918, MBB. I,

5 OM, 17-12-1918, quoted KOT, 1919, 494.

"Pemimpm Kita Jan. 1929, quoted IPO 1929, H 3, 62.

7 ABDULKARIM(I930).

Home rule. Independence

335

Editor A. Latif of the by then S/L<M-linked daily Tjaja Soemalra wrote on the
coming of the World Teacher. Shortly afterwards, on 16 and 17 May 1924, the paper
translated an article from 77ie Herald of the Star on the same subject. Tbe 26-30 May
issues had articles on theosophy and karma doctrine; and independence politics:

The rebellion in Ireland to get freedom did not lead to anything. [So] people here should not
rush things: Indonesia is not mature enough for freedom yet, '

7. Decline and non-co-operation, 1918-1923

Van Hinloopen Labberton worked hard in the Volksraad; however, not all appreciated
him. Though Het Indische Voik now was friendlier than in Indil Weerbaar days, it wrote;

'Labberton speaks fluently, but never fascinates. Without any exertion, he speechifies for some

hours at an amazingly fast speed, but because of the monotony of his voice it is impossible to

listen lo him all the way through', 1

Van Limburg Stirum, two years after first meeting Labberton, considered him in a
letter to Minister Pleyte 'glib but really lacking content,' Still more negative was the
V.ovcrnor-general's aide, Bijl de Vroe, in his diary.

Van Hinloopen Labberton, who. tiresome gasbag that he is. constantly wants the floor to
himself, moves proposal after proposal. Then, he starts 10 walk to and fro, like a hen about lo
lay an egg ... Because of his very marked theosophical tendencies, people also call him 'the
astral rabbit ' ?
Active as Van Hinloopen Labberton was within the Volksraad, the future of

Indonesia was decided outside it. In spite of the high expectations of some in 19 18,'' the

council turned out to be a 'mock parliament' to its critics. i

In 1918, as he had felt already in 19I5, 6 like Mrs Besant in India, Labberton had lost

'Quoted IPO 24/1924, 488-9. See also MB 12-7-1924.

''Uit den Volksraad. Van Hinloopen Labberton'; IV, 13-9-1919,

J VAN MIERT(I995). 141, SCHOUTEN. 144.

4 A. van Leeuwen in TMN1, 1918, 278 called the establishment of the Volksraad 'the historical
moment which shall prove to be of inestimably high value to the Indies'. A year later, he was less
optimistic, due to the 'struggle between differing interests being the order of the day' and the 'sea of
details': TMN1, 1919, 437.

s Dulch: 'imilalic-volksvenegenwoordiging'; Sm [pseudonym of Soemarsono], WED, Feb. 1920,
44-48: 'Belichiing, Militie en Volksraad'. Ibid., 44. HPO Sept. -Oct. 1916, 153, 'De Volksraad':
'het pseu do-pa tie men tje* [the little fake parliament]. Indonesia's Marxists were already sceptical
about the Volksraad in 1917, before it was established, because of the limited and graduated
franchise.

'When Sarekat Islam criticized his local election law views then, Labberton said 'that he felt like
he had woken up someone who had slept for a long time; and dial the person woken up now pushes
and beats the one who woke him up.' 'Varia. Vijfde decentralisatiecongres', 10 1915 (37), 1130.

336

V.2

some former popularity. The government official B.J.O. Schrieke wrote on Indonesians'
altitudes: 'Mr L.[abbcrton] strikes people as wanting to ram his leadership down their
throats and they do not want that any more.' 1 Labberton basically had not moved, as
political positions both to his right 1 and left were taken up.

Not even his theosophical colleagues always heeded him. On 2 July 1919, Radjiman
of Budi Utomo sided with the government and the Volksraad majority against a motion
which Van Hitiloopen Labberton supported, to investigate a peasants' strike movement in
the Central Java principalities. 1 TS members had always been a minority in Budi Uiomo.
Yet, the critical articles in the BU paper Darmo Kondo of 1919 would have been
improbable ten years earlier. They especially criticized theosophists in education.

At Labberton 's insistence, theosophists had founded a teachers' training school,
Goenoeng Sari, in Jakarta in 1913. The government put it on equal financial status with
its own teacher (raining schools in 1918. Then, its first primary school teachers
graduated. In 1920, it had 72 students, including seven girls. Its textbook for the subject
Political Science was Annie Eksanl's Lectures on political science. Many of the other
texibooks were also by her; Text Book of Hindu Religion and Ethics, Sanatana Dhanna
[on Hinduism); Tlie Story of the Great War 1

The Dutch East Indies Theosophical Schools Association founded the first 'Ardjocna
(Arjuna] school' in 1921. For some time, P. Post was its headmaster; at the second
school, also in Jakarta, Djokosarwano was in die early twenties. In 1927, the Gambir
school had a 'heroes' hall' [Dutch: heldenzaal). There already hung portraits 'of
11, P. P,.. Col. Olcott, C. W. L., A B. and Krishna[murli}ji'. Others, including Nolo
Socroio. were to come soon.

In 1932, five Arjuna schools existed in Jakarta, two in Bandung, one each in Bogor,
Purwokerio, Jatilawang, and Ajibarang. In Ajibarang. portraits of TS leaders hung in the
classrooms. The pupils celebrated White Lotus Day and Annie Besant's birthday. The
only school in the 'Dutch-Chinese' category was in Surabaya. Since the 1920's, there
was also a school, mainly for Dutch children.

Of teachers at all the schools together, only 18 out of 87 were TS members. Of a

'Report by B.J.O. Schrieke, 27 July 1918; KWANTES(I975). 51.

*ln De Slandaard, 'Batavier' thought in 1919 that 'Mr Van Hinloopen Labberton had wasted all
his scholarliness and knowledge' on the ■revolutionary' idea of association (promoted by Balavier"s
party leader Idenburg!]. Quoted /G, 1920 (42). 67. MRBTD. The Anti-Revolutionaire Parti] had a
broad definition of 'revolution.' That Labberton at a banquet at a bupati's had sat on the ground like
the other guests, caused an uproar in a paper of Dutch diehards; Neratja 6-8-1919, quoted IPO
32/1919, MJB, 8.

3 SH1RA1SHI(!990A). 170.

'VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N<I916Q, 247-8. TILKEMA(1932), 39. Goenoeng Sari
annual report ofl920. quoted THA 1922, 320-1. It had six year courses; TiNl !932, 41. Ibid,, 240:
on I July 1932 it had 132 students, including 38 girls.

Home rule. Independence 337

total of about 2700 pupils, FTS were also a minority among parents. 1 A teacher wrote:

We have school-fees that are even higher than the fees at Government schools. There are good
arguments to defend that measure though. 1

So, financially speaking alone, one might expect parents of children at Arjuna
schools to tend even more towards an elite than at other schools in the mainly illiterate
Indonesia of that time.

We have already read (on p. 224) of Darmo Kondo, criticizing Goenoeng Sari's
management when the students went on strike in January 1919. Three months later, the
paper published an article on the school by S.T. Widigdo. He wrote of the two guilders
fifty a month school fee, and f. 17.50 entrance fee. He asked himself 'What is this
money used for?' Widigdo considered that the students were housed uncomfortably and
unhealthily. 'Do [management] really have no care at all about the students' well-being?
or don't they know of these abuses?

Kiewiet de Jonge thought that 'Now, Mr Van Hinloopen Labberton's personal tie'
with Indonesian politicians, was 'gone'.* 1 He also thought that the Indies TS as a whole
was past its zenith.

l ENI. vol. VI. 764 'Ardjoenascholen', TMN'i 1927. 44. TILKEMA(1932), 46-7 VAN
L[;CUWEN(I934), 147: 3 new theosophical schools in Indonesia made 40; a higher figure than
Tilkema's. TiNl Jan. 1939, 27- 33 schools, 5000 pupils and 200 teachers, P. Foumier, 'Van drie
Ardjoena-scholen', TiNl 1932, 181-2.

! TILKEMA(1932). 9. Ibid,. 36, on (Catherine Tinglcy's school at Pt. Loma: 'The main
objection to (hat system is, that i( has become purely an upper classes' school. On average, a
thousand [pre- in flat ion] dollars are asked for for each pupil. Such a system can never become of
major social significance.' Taman Soma's program said: 'Education should be for all, not just the
upper strata of society. ... Education must begin with the lower classes, where iis spread was most
needed.' TSUCHIYA(1987). 57.

'Darmo Kondo 23-4-1919, quoted IPO 17/1919, JB, 2: 'The younger students are housed
together in an open hall, there some forty sleep together. The older students have, not a room, but a
liny cubby-hole each. When it rains, the cubby-hole gets wet as the roof is poor. Soon, the student is
standing up 10 his ankles in the water. ... Mosquitoes then mass around in their millions, as the
school is close to a swamp.' In 1918. the school had to close down for some time, because of an
influenza epidemic; Neratja 202, 28-10-1918; quoted IPO 44/1918, MJB, 4. The school moved to
Lcmbang in the mountains, less prone to malaria, in 1927; T1LK£MA(1932), 44. Ibid., 36: Tagore,
visiting Java, spoke to students in Lembang.

J Letter 10 his parents of 28-11-1919, Kiewiet de Jonge private archive, IISG, ft 54. Though
Indische Stemmen editor then, he wrote of himself: 'Our relationship with the Theosophical
Association [rather: Society, so as not to confuse; from 1920-1923 the Theosophical Association was
Alice Bailey's separate organization; later Arcane School, see p. 7] has become quite loose, although
we are still on speaking terms with everyone and often have discussions with some of the leaders of
the Association,' Ibid: he was sceptical on the Liberal Catholic Church. Translation of the letter as in
HERINGC1992). 1, Mrs Kiewiet de Jonge 's relationship to IheTS stayed better for a longer time; B.
H eri ng , pe rson al com mu n ic ation .

338 V.2

As a movement theosophy has made, in (he past, quite an impact upon the Indigenes. Bui that is
shrinking visibly. Also for Oriental consciousness, so prone to fancy, it becomes more and more
a time for realism: for power formation through political and trade-union organization. That
need could not be met by the ideology of theosophy. ... the gap gets wider all the time. 1

If one compares Van Hinioopen Labberton to Annie Besant, be had some, not all, of
her organizational and rhetorical gifts. Unlike her, he did not then shift to the right; he
no longer was to Annie Besanfs right, as So&w Merdika had charged in 1917; see p.
210. Like her, he had become caught between two opposing tendencies. 1

These were: radicaiization of the national movement on one side; and conservative
retrenchment on the government side. The accession of a new governor-general. Fock. in
1921 marked that. 1 Of his predecessor. Count Van Lirnburg Stirum, the TS magazine
wrote of 'honour, which all Great ones deserve ... Great men cannot leave us
unaffected'. 4 Early in 1921. Van Lecuwen expected that the indies TS might become the
'RUDDER' of 'the great future Ship of State',

Is not thai especially our task 1 To build our society up. so that it becomes a strong and good
tool, a trusty rudder, worthy of the Great Helmsman? Once we are that far. undoubtedly that
Great Helmsman too will come *

Van Lceuwen still sounded more optimistic than Kiewiei de Jonge: 'More and more
FTS move along the uncertain paths of politics, study clubs are formed, the theosophical
book-shelf begins to fill up in its political section and at meetings, it becomes more and
more a subject of speech and thought.'* Theosophist J.N. van dcr Ley in 1921
temporarily became mayor of Bandung city.' A. Meijroos, 1916 Bogor TS lodge

Letter to his parents of 28-11-1919, Kiewiei de Jongc private archive, 11SG, #54. Translation
panlyasby HE5UNG(I992), I; partly as by myself See also K1EW1ET DC J0NGE(I9I9). 100.

J SITARAMAYYA(I969). 150: 'Mrs Besani was soon feeling out of tune both wilh Government
and with the people. The former deprecated her forwardness, the latter her backwardness'. Jong-
Java at the end of 1920 wished dicre was a Annie Besani in Java; VAN LEEUWEN(192I A), 7

His period in office brought more repression and cuts in expenses on education and middle-
level civil servants; bodi props for a movement like Bud\ Ulomo. NAGAZUMI(1972), 149-50.

'VAN LEEUWEN0921O, 171, WED. 1920, 156 on Van Lirnburg Stirum: 'this genuine noble-
man'. Quite some Dutch conservatives thought his measures against Indonesian oppositionists were
not strong enough. J.E. Stokvis in 'De wisseling <e Builenzorg'. VA, Apr. 1921, 35, 'Lord Van
Lirnburg Stirum is certainly no revolutionary, not even a democrat. He is a Dutch nationalist of a
well-tried school, an aristocrat tlirough and through, despotic by nature and really opposed to
popular flattery. The main popular leaders during his rule landed in jail, or are on the way to it.'

S VAN LEEUWEN0921A). 9.

'VAN LEEUWEN(1921F), 533.

T1CRELAAR.(1977), 73. addendum typescript in KJTLV, Leiden. Jelte Nicolaas van der Ley
and Van Leeuwen in 1919 became Indonesia's first two Liberal Catholic priests: ibid. Later, Van der
Ley became vicar-general of the Dutch East Indies LCC. In December 1919, he was one of the

Home rule. Independence

339

'.ivretary and from 19)6-20 mayor of Surabaya, then already was mayor of Jakarta. 1 In
tii:it year's election though, both Labberton and Vreede lost their Votksraad seats. 1 Fellow
tji the Theosophical Society, Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo, had been an unsuccessful BU
candidate in 1917. Now, the government appointed him a member. 1

He remarked on his colleagues' loss: 'They seem to fear the theosophical society, and
yet, the government ought to be grateful to the men of theosophy most of all, if today
ilierc are still Javanese who trust the white ruler," To Soeriokoesoemo, an 'invisible
bond' of a divine nature existed between 'the Native movement' and theTS. J

In 1921, the Volksraad discussed government proposals which based differences in
civil servants' wages on their education. Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo thought that
differentiation in salaries should be based on 'the only real point-the difference in race ...
sincly a criterion which exists and cannot be denied'. 4 Javanese civil servants compared
heir salaries to the higher ones of Dutch colleagues. However:

1 lliink this very hunting after financial gain among my own counirymen is highly unsympathetic
and definitely irreconcilable with their deepest essence. They have knowingly obscured this
essence, because they want to go with the times, ihe limes that have taken money as the
yardstick. ... When 1 was still inexperienced, I always participated in protests, which had as
their aim to get equal salaries for equal education levels. Since 1 got to know the situation on
Ibli island widi its low standard of living, I thought to myself that ihe Western knowledge which
we have learned at school would be truly a blessing to us, if only it could be lied to a low
standard of living, as we have seen on Bali. ... We cannot and may not go along wilh the raising
of salaries. In ihe conviction that I will meet with grave disappointments, maybe resistance as
well, among my own counirymen, nevertheless I must advise to level down all salaries of the

nj'liiiM. mainly Dutch, majority in Bandung council, as opposed to the left caucus of Indonesian and
Imlii European members, supported by h'alionaal Indtsclie Punij and ISDP. IV. 3-1-1920,
It.inilocngs gemeenleraad'. Bandung's TS lodge president. F. Moet. was also a city councillor;
HANI, 1917. 720.

'RANI, 1921, 766. PT]X (1916), #3. 16.

; .SOERlOKOESO£MO(l92lB), 72. TH. VREEDE(I92S) defended the Volksraad'* record.

'LOC, 29-8-1917, 'Boedi Oetomo'. RANI, 1922. 49.

*SOERIOKOESOEMO<l92lB), 72. BOUMAN(1949), 9: with die rise of anti-capitalism in
Indonesians' political movements after the First World War 'there was a decrease in being
Influenced by Dutch -for instance theosophisls- who sympathetically supported the growing self-
i ' iiifideiice, and thus had doubtlessly won a "goodwill" for the Dutch cause, which in a later period
ctlii'i groups, which had less sympathy for Indonesian nationalism, would be able to use to their
■idvainage. Also, the influence of the Javanese nobility, the exponent of Javanese culture and
J.iv;tnese self-view, diminished.'

s SOERIOKOESOEMO(1921B), 73. Ibid,: 'Should we think of chance here, of contingency, (hat
(Specially the best leaders came from the ranks of that [Theosophical] society? Or should we rather
mi- in this an ordered interplay of mysterious, divine forceSj which rule all phenomena of life, and
■•tumid at the same time proof be found in these, that this society has been alloned a certain calling
,iii(l l certain task?'

*SOER10KOESOEMO(1922A), 9.

340 V.2

secondary school -educated, and to raise the workers, with whom the government is directly
involved, somewhat;

Now, with disappointment on the Volksraad, ideas from before its establishment of
the Indian National Congress' example resurfaced. 1 Van Hinloopen Labberton joined the
Committee for Autonomy of the Indies, which wanted a better position for Indonesia
within a decentralized Dutch empire. It proposed a federation, with one-third
representation for The Netherlands, one-third for the Indies, and one-sixth each for
Surinam and Curar^o. It had support from the 'Nieuw Indie' committee in The
Netherlands, including theosophist Polderman and ex-minister of colonies Pleyte,' Mrs
Besam also supported it: 'Holland should give the Indies much more freedom, if it does
not want to loose tlicm'. The Committee for Autonomy soon collapsed under pressure by
Govern or -Genera I Fock. Labberton joined a new 'National Committee' with Sarekat
Islam support. Though disagreeing with his old Marxist opportenis on the link with The
Netherlands, on one point, naming the country 'Indonesia', he agreed with them '

Some Dutch theosophisLs in Indonesia worried that he had moved too closely towards
Indonesian militants, and had forgotten occult Truths about the difference between
Brotherhood with 'brown brothers', and equality with them The secretary of Sukabumi
lodge, P.K G. dc Dont. wrote in TMNI:

Let us never forget thai "brotherly love" pays least of all homage to "equality" Raising our
brolhers to the level of our own development is noi possible for by far their majority, at least noi
yet. And because of that, there never can be any "equality", ,., For we should all rise towards
the Masters: well, as a consequence of the law "as above, so below", let our brown brothers
also work their way up towards the level of Their development, and I can applaud (hat wc give
them the means to do so. but dierc should be discrimination here, else we become trapped into
eiiremes. We really should lake into account the type of development of the native people of the

I SOERIOKOESOLMO(I922A), 10- L

'P0LDERMAN(I922). 5, Polderman counted on support of organizations like BU and 5/; he
also hoped lhal die organizations of princes and of bupali would follow the good example of (heir
Aryan Colleagues in British India'; but had his doubts on organizations of Chinese and Indo-
European s.

'KOCHOQSe), 124; VAN MIERT(1995), 381; 'Pemerinlahan Jang berdasar persoedara'an atau
pcrdamaian', PT 1920-1 (14). 81-98. Nieuw Indie, founded 5 October 1921 in The Hague, brought
out a mondily of the same name; at first as an appendix to Vrije Arbeid. see p. 161. Later, mosl
editors, like Joekes and De Cock Buning, were or the Liberal Democrat party; Van Kol was from
the SDAP's right wing. Few well known FTS wrote in it; though Th. Vreede was a founding
member of the Committee and H.J. Kiewiet de Jonge for some time was its secretary. HPO, Aug.
1922, 80: KOT, 1922, 232. In NIE, Feb. 1922, 61, Th. Vreede wrote: "The extremist slogan "free
from The Netherlands" can only be made powerless by success for the action of the Committee for
Autonomy.' KIEWIET DE JONGECI920A), 126-7. had rejected an Imperial Council, as it would be
unpractical to expect that The Netherlands would consent not to have a majority in it.

*VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERT0N(1921). 2. TMNI 1923, 499. VAN MIERT(!995), 188-9.
See p. 149.

Home rule. Independence

34!

Undies, Archipelago's different pans. As the situation is now. . Auk *^ A« M te
prim Jly the Conomic development" of the people only then one ^«££££
political development. Prommen. leaders of the theosop hical movemen u» U* £«£&«£«
Zny should heed this. Let us consider that the so^a led ethical ™^ ( «^^J
propagated by our society, is mostly misunderstood, and ts seen by our brown brother, as sign
of weakness, as a sign of fear.

When Labberton addressed U. congress of Dutch high level officials on 24 February
[9 22 in Jakarta, his speech was interrupted repeatedly' Boedi-Oetono magazme thought
1 ^hberton was by now 'alienated from the European world .

^X wntin bitter goodbye articles in. also But IW.. ^^o,^
friendly farewell from Boedi-Oeto^ Labberton left Indonesia m 1922. Hcv*mto
Australia to live with Leadbeater and get further religious mstruct.on from htm. TTten,
hewenttoJapan.'andrerurncdtoTheNetherlandsm^ie.

His eJotksraad colleague Th. Vreede spoke in Letden ,n The Netherlands on 20
Tcbruary 19 22 'The lecturer (Vreedel feels sympathy for the trade unions; they should
U Z Lards the right track by the government'. The manager of the ^Uava^team-
Tram Company may have been thinking here of his brother Adnaan, by now dtrector of
the Indies government labour office.

Th. Vreede then discussed the future political status of that country.

,f now we look for an answer to the question: the Indies autonomous ^^penden, then one
hould premise that The Neu.er.ands cannot jus, withdraw. Our task should be finis bed by hoo
or by crook. Purely conservative politics are [..-. in ongtnal] untenable, though. Ou,

'DE B0NTU921). 3,7; see also misprint correction note, 438. NUGRAHA, 244; 246 In the
, VtmNI 192 349 W P D Corooraal reacted; accusmg De Boot, without naming him, of
ZZ i n™!" i-2£ £ priority; though no, for "equality". Corpora, was for
'equivalence'.

*IG 1922 (43), 545, 'Hel B B. congres'.

^Boedi-Oeico. 17-21 April 1922. quoted IPO 1922. I. 126.

Hm; T.CHELMANU994). M- Ben Sydneysch hoofdkwartier , TMN> l^MJ*
some Dutch went from the lnd,es to Uadbeater for insirudon. In a letter to A .Weed . Uauft-I

ported hstenmg with his Dutch group of house-mates to a Dutch ^~J^c'^ '
Qui Wi.he.mina at 3,30 A.M. on 2 June ,927. -A <*^ %"%%£ rT avaGrcep'.
maybe Mr Philips [of the electronics business] also spoke. A. G. VKeeoe!,.

VMM 1927, 310-2. w „ ,. ■

>SH 27-2/3-3-1924 quoted IPO !, 1924. 420-1 : Moesso was educated a. the TS Goenoeng :S»
teachert^mg 3 sehooi q MeVEVa96 5 , .69: Moesso was a W^ ^
exhibit revolutionary inclinations immed.a.ely when he was rele ased [in »3 ^ m ^ j
activity], perhaps because Van Hinloopen Labberton planned to take h.m «ta "^

he then joined the PKI. After he MNaugo. ™ £J9» wro.e^ He * J ^ ^

corruptors corrupted \pengroesak] !um'; quoted IPO 1, 1924, 463. Alter
became PKI leader; anti-communist soldiers killed him in 1948,

342

V.2

morally abandoned policies of exploitation still exist in practice. To want to change thai at
once is as much of wishful thinking as wishing to bring about a revolution in the Dutch
national character.

After an H.I. Kiewiet de Jonge quote in support, the account of Vreede's speech
continued:

For The Netherlands, as the lecturer thinks, the continuation of the ties with Indonesia is to be
wished for, in three respects: first, economic (obvious enough). Second, political. At the
Washington conference. [HA,) Van Karnebeek [Dutch Foreign Affairs minister; sec p. 100]
did not represent 7,000,000, but 7,000,000 + 47 million souls. ... Third, culrural.
Noting Gandhi's non-co-operation in India, Vreede pointed at the need of:

fast reform, before it is too late, ... Greater dangers than threaten England threaten us
[Dutch], because in Indonesia (unlike British India), more aggressive Islamism has outstripped
passive Hinduism. The lecturer sees a lasling lie between The Netherlands and Indonesia,
which together form an international slate, as future ideal '
In his Wedempbouw, Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo had attacked a Japanese plan to buy

the Indies from The Netherlands, like the Uniied Stales had recently boughi ihe Virgin

Islands from Denmark, as 'large scale slave trade!' 2 He wrote

a co-operation with Holland for us is Slill a mandatory necessity. ... We Still need Ihe Dulch
now. We will also rccogmie so frankly. With this rccognuion. we may ask frankly (hat ihey
take inlo account a little our wishes. ., We must insist (hat Holland does not admii foreign
capital. For (he development of the Indies' gianl resources, a giam loan should be contracted,
bill above all else: oul with foreign capital.

What if Dutch authorities would noi heed this? Who should rule instead of ihem then?
Soeriokoesoemo:

only ihen, is (here a case for us to look for a different solution. ... Preferably, we should link
our destiny widi our Hindu neighbour, (hat is, prefer English rule above any other one,
Japanese rule especially, even if we should have io bleed to deadi under British justice.'

So, a parallel to Oeioesan Metajoe's view of iwo years earlier. Soetaimo argued,
though, from India's Hinduism; unlike his colleagues in more Islamized West Sumatra
(see p. 333), who argued from the presence of Muslims and the section of the
Theosophical Society in Britain.

Soeriokoesoemo expressed his confidence in Governor-General Count Van Limburg
Stirum. not in the 'plebs' of some Dutch journalists, and concluded;

Let us be on our guards against over-es lima ling ourselves. Confidence in the force of the

'GOEDHART, 51-2.

2 SOERJOKOESOEMO(1920D). 10. For an earlier Japanese plan; p. 204.

3 SOERIOKOESOEMO(1920D), 13.

Home rule. Independence
masses means confidence in a blind force. 1

313

One year later, Soetatmo compared two 'masters' from 'Hindustan': Rabindranaih
Tagore. 'the spiritual guru', and Gandhi, 'the material master', and their influence on
what Soeriokoesoemo consistently called 'the Hindu people'. 1 He thought that Gandhi's
satyagraha would have been unnecessary and not so successful, if the British government
had listened more to the more moderate Tagore. J

Soeriokoesoemo admired Tagore's ideas on education. He wrote to Mangkoe Negoro
VII of his small-scale educaiion experiments on Bali in 1920.* In 1922, Soeriokoesoemo
was a founder of the influential, Tagore -inspired, Taman Siswa private schools'
movement; it included Sukarno. 5

Soeriokoesoemo noted that Gandhi's non-co-operation policy influenced radicalizing
Indonesians, for instance in the Nationaai [ndische Panij; also, though he did not say so,
in Budi Utomo'i left wing. 6 He doubted if thai was sensible, but still 'Has Gandhi's time
come yei?' was in itself a legitimate question for Java. 7

In his 1921 speech to (he Budi Uiomo annual general meeting, Soeriokoesoemo
answered that question; negatively: 'And this [non-co-operation] is just what I do noi
want, I think Gandhi's time has not yet come and I also hope that that time will never
come. Not because I am afraid of thai, if circumstances would make it necessary for us;
hut slill, all of us would rather reach our aim in a more peaceful way, and our Boedi

'SOERIOKOESOEMO(1920D). 15.

'SOERlOKOESOEMOfmiB). 69f. Neither Gandhi nor Tagore would have thus omiltcd
Muslims and other non-Hindus among the people of India. Tagore was from a Brahmo Samaj
background, so noi a Hindu in the narrow sense of ihe word

'SO£RIOKOESOEMO(1921B). 69.

*1920 Iclier in K1TLV archive; thanks (O Hans van Mien

'Not founded in 1921. as in SARDESAl, 157 Kie«ict de Jonge's account (VAN DER
WALG963), 540), to Governor-General De Jonge of a lalk he had with Ki Hadjar Dcwanroro.
leader of Taman Siswa Dewanloro and Soeriokoesoemo were related , as members of (he Paku Alam
ruling dynasty; VAN NIEU1960). 53. SHIRAISH1<1981). 96, and TSUCHI YA0987), 58 name
Soeriokoesoemo as first president, Sooryopoetro as vice president, and then still Soewardi
Soerianingral as first secretary, of Taman Siswa, Sooryopoeiro taught Javanese music at the Taman
Siswa schools; WE'D, 1922. 184. Sukarno: see TSUCH1YA( I9S7). 59. Soeriokoesoemo had paid
much attention to Tagore's education work. In a Voiksraad speech, he said that the Dutch East Indies
government should send a delegation, including Dr. Radjiman, to India, lo srudy Tagore's Shanii
Niketana school; 'Rede over het Onderwijs door RM Soetaimo'. WED. 1922. 92-3. In WED. 1922,
BOEM1 POETRA alluded to Taman Siswa. On the following pages, the articles 'Jong-Java v66r en
biruien Taman Siswo', 173-7; KARNO(1922); 'Een nieuw Geluid', 182-90; 'Taman Siswo', 190-7.
by 'Koonto', have the movement as ils subject.

'PETRUS BLUM BERGER( 1987), 32.

7 SOERJOKOESOEMO(1921B), 72. His tone had become somewhat more anti-colonial since he
wrote in WED, 1918, 9: 'We should consider Dutch rule an useful institution, a school given us by
ihe Lords of Karma, the Dewas of tefeffr (fate).'

344

V.2

Oetomo ['the beautiful striving' with an undertone of spiritual harmony] would then be
jeopardized.' 1 Still. Soeriokoesoemo's attitude to Gandhi was not as negative on
principles as was Annie Besant's. 1 In the Voiksraad. he rejected non-co-operation, but
warned the government on the future:

Mr Chairman, our Indies may get into the very situation as the country of the Hindus. The right
policy and the most extreme cautiousness therefore cannot be recommended often enough to the
Government, before it is too late. At the moment. 1 can readily assume that amongst us there
hardly is anyone who does not want co-operation with the alien Govemmenl of these colonics.
This wish though. Mr Chairman, is joined to other wishes, which should rather be called
difficult demands of the nationalists liberating themselves. So, do not cheer prematurely if we
show our loyally and seemingly acquiesce in the present situation. Guardianship goes with a
moral obligation, which is included in ihe Educator's task.
Soeriokoesocmo did not get along well with Harloff, the Dutch Resident of

Surakarta. 4 A point on which Wederopbouw criticized (he government was banning

meetings in the 'very loyal' states that Javanese monarchs ruled:

The painful aspect lies mainly in the Tact lhai die suspension of (tic righl to hold meetings is only
applied in the Princely Siaies-Solo and Djokja | Yogyakana], while Samaiang (Semarang) goes
scol-frce 1 Samarang. (he country of revolutionaries and comnuimsis. can nicel wnhoul
punishment as much as i( likes Whatever can be the cause of this? . . After Tjipto
(Mangoenkoesoemo) left, there was no longer any reason to maintain that ban in Solo and yel. 11
is maintained un(il today.

'SOER10KOESOEMO(192IC), 244,

1 SOERIOKOESOEMO(l922A). 1 5-6 again doubled if Gandhi's non -co -ope ration was
'sensible', but did not doubt die wisdom and purity of Gandhi's character.

, SOERlOKOESOEMO<1922A). 16. An editor's note to L.J. Polderman's article 'Congrcs-
filosofic', in WED, 1922, 67. said: 'If Ihis force (of non-co-operation) is fell by all, for just one
simultaneous moment, then the Indies will lie in ruins-possibly also to our detriment 1 But if the
reaction wishes to sharpen the situation in this country, (hen le( us be prepared to drink (he poisoned
cup together'.

S SOERJOKOESOEMO(I922B), 83. In July 1920. Harloff had already caused an incideiu at the
wedding of Prince Mangkoe Negoro VII to (he Ratu Timur; contrary to unwritten law, he had
demanded that they see him first; Soeriokoesoemo, 'Ongeschrevcn wetien', WED, 1920, 230r.

J Articte 'Bocdi -Oetomo', WED, 1922, 36. The ban was linked to the 1922 government
pawnshop employees' strike, which, however, was already over by then. On the pawnshop strike,
see 'Bocdi -Oetomo', WED, 1922, 32-7. In the Volksraad, Soeriokoesoemo spoke in the same vein:
'Further on, everyone must have noted that this restriction [of meeting rights] is limited mainly lo the
Princely States. Semarang goes scot-free, Semarang the city of the revolutionaries and communists.
What might be the cause of this difference in appreciation? Mr Chairman, if 1 have understood the
Governor -General's speech properly, then His Excellency wishes exactly the opposite of this.'
SOERIOKOESOEM00922B), 75. According to NIE, Apr. 1923, 'De mlandsche Beweging in de
laatste paar jaren', what had happened was that Budi (/romo's privilege of meeting without asking
permission in advance, had been withdrawn. Organizations like the NIP or the PKI did not have that
right in the principalities.

Home rule. Independence

345

Wederopbouw'*, last issue, of August 1923, 14 months before Soeriokoesoemo's
death, still listed as correspondent in The Netherlands Raden Mas Noto Soeroto. It listed
;is editors besides Soeriokoesoemo: Raden Mas Ario Sooryopoetro, 1 Abdoel Raehman?
and Raden Mas Soctopo. On its last pages, Sooryopoetro took issue with Hindia Poetra
magazine. Hindia Poetra advocated non-co-operation policy, based on Woodrow
Wilson's doctrine of self-determination.' Sooryopoetro reacted:

We deny the peoples' right to self-determination from (he religious viewpoint that it is not for
us, humans, to decide, we humans, and especially Javanese, have individual freedom as far as
keeping ourselves pure and receptive for inspirations from Higher Levels is concerned, and in
keeping on putting into practice these inspirations swiftly and strongly. No group of humans is
excluded from pulling into practice these inspirations. In its lime, every conlinem will partake of
these inspirations; thus, non-co-operation is not in keeping with divine-human devotion.
Non-co-operation is only based on a temporary fit of anger/

H.Hatla and Perhimpoenan Indonesia

Hindia Poeira was the magazine of, then, the Indonesisclie Vereeniging, of Indonesians.
BWHiiy students, in The Netherlands, That society grew more distant from the TS ;ts
Snoryopoetro's and Noto Soeroto's original influence on HP waned. 5 Noto Soeroto
Bolkcied money to give Governor- Genera I Count van Limburg Stirum a farewell
piescni * When Van Limburg Stirum returned (o The Netherlands on 13 September 1921 .
Indonesian students, led by Noto Soeroto, were there to welcome him. This led to a sh.tqi
comment in the Marxist Soeara Ra'jai 'These students apparently have not heard ahoui
Gandhi yet': referring (o Gandhi -organized siudcnt strikes and other non-co-operaiion
iticn. Under Lord van Limburg Slirum's rule, many people have been exiled, or have

l See p. 309. He was also from the Paku Alam dynasty, and had been WED Netherlands
torrcspondent along with Nolo Soeroto; K0NING(1968), 8, He greatly admired Soeriokoesoemo; in
.t speech to a students' congress in Wageningen on 29 August 19)8. he spoke of 'great ones amongsl
the Easterners, like boih Tagore and Soelatmo Soeriokoesoemo'-. HPO, 1918. 41, In HPO, 1920.
IS, he described himself as 'Buddhist' by religion. He had married Dutch Miss L. van Oyen, who
also wrote in Wederopbouw, WED, 1920, 80f. He died November 1927; TSUCHIYA(1987), 80.

^Probably identical widi 'Abdulrachman' of the Jakarta BU. He protested 17-1-1929 against
Sarekat Islam's non-co-operation; POEZE(1983), 20.

i Hindia Poetra of March 1923 had based the wish for independence on democracy: PETRUS
ULUMBERGER<1987), 1S6.

''Soorjo Poctro [different spelling from the cover], 'Wederopbouw en de Keuzc van
Uouwmateriaal' . WED, Aug, 1923, 53-6; 54.

J KONING(1968), 6.

b VA. July 1921. 152.

346

V.2

gone lo jail.' In Australia 'this gentleman' had also voiced 'strange' ideas on
Indonesians. And yet ... students thanked him. Noto Soeroto was 'noTagore."

On 14 December 1924, the Indonesische Vereeniging expelled ex-president and
honorary president Noto Soeroto, with 45 votes to five. 1 Speaking to the congress of the
Atgemeen Nederkmdsch Verbond in March 1925, Noto Soeroto denied Dutch papers'
reports that he represented a moderate majority: 'I really know, that the overwhelming
majority of my educated compatriots do not share my views.' Those 'showed that they
had not understood the nature, and thus, the call of their racial personality [Dutch: ras-
persoonlijkheid].' In the less well off in Indonesia, he feared

a very ugly qualily-lhe envy of die have-nots. The imported ideas of class struggle and
destruction of present Society are especially unfn lo get my sympathy, as those ideas, permeating
the uncritically thinking broad masses of the Indonesian nations, will lead to class hatred and
class envy and io the scourge of an ap[>elile for destruction causing amok [wanton murder j

Before Noto Soeroio's expulsion, theosophists tried to prevent losing ground in the
Indonesische Vereeniging. They had to do thai while tile social background, and the
opinions, of Indonesian students changed, unfavourably to [hem. Cheaper transport from
Indonesia, and more scholarships, made 'ii was no longer exclusively students from
upper aristocratic circles who went lo The Netherlands lo study, and the views of the
newcomers differed markedly from those of the prewar generation.''

Mohammad Hatia. then in (he Vereeniging executive, later vice president of the
Indonesian Republic, eventually became a major opponent of the TS in the IV. He came
from a West Sumatra trading family. Supporting the kaum muda, he fought the Oetoesan
Metajoe theosophists. At a meeting in Padang on 8 September 1918. he called their
leader D3toek Soeian Maharadja pengchianai (iraitor)', 5 When Hatta studied in Jakarta.
1919-1921, he met theosophists Fournier and Van Leeuwen *

They once tried to gel mc lo join (he Theosophical Sociciy ,, 1 resolutely refused on (he
grounds that I was a commitied Muslim. Ir Fournier said that being a Muslim was no barrier lo
becoming a Theosophisl. Theosophy was not a religion -he said- bul a leaching . . 8uf 1 still
refused.

'Sit, 1-10-1921. 6, 'Coekan Gandhi [No Gandhi).'

'KONlNGf^S), 6: IM. 1924. 134-5. POEZE<1966), 179f; DJAJAD1NINGRAT-
N1EUWENHU1S, 53; 56: Nolo Soeroto was expelled because of a pro-Van Heulsz article,
comparing (he general to Mahabtiarala hero Oima. Semaoen. then in The Netherlands, also played a
role in the expulsion.

% IG 1925. I, MRBTD, 446-7: 449. H.T.D.. 'Nolo Soeroto over "Nederland en mdonesie'", KOT
May 1925, 335 challenged Noto Soeroio's 'ras-pcrsocnlijkheid' concept, as he was a minority.

"DJAJADININGRAT-NIEUWENHUSS. 52. Also: POEZE(!986), 157.
VS 1918. 198-9: thanks to Hans van Mien,

4 HATTA(I978), 146; HATTA(1981). 45; 86. In Indonesian, Halta called Fournier 'kepala',
'the' or *a' 'leader', translated in English as 'Chairman' of ihe TS; actually, he was on its executive.

Home rule. Independence
They were more successful with others at that time:

347

As far as I know, the people they had succeeded in ensnaring were Basuki from Jong Java and
[Mohammad] Amir from the Jong Sumatranen Bond. Perhaps also Muhammad Yamin. 1

Theosophists like Polderman, Mrs Van Hinloopen Labberion, and Van Leeuwen
sometimes lectured to the Jakarta branch of the Jong Summranen Bond, a league of
students from Sumatra like Hatta. 1

From 1917-9, Ahmad Subardjo Djoyoadisuryo was a TS member and went to live at
their Jakarta headquarters at Blavatsky Park. He left soon, though, as he could not
siomach ihe mandatory group meditation. 1 In the 1920s, Subardjo became a member of
the Indonesische Vereeniging; in 1945, minister in (he first government of the Indonesian
Republic. The Sumatran Amir Sjarifuddin became prime minister, before anticommimist
troops shot him in 1948. In the 1920's in Jakarta, he started a three year TS course in
philosophy, bul stopped before the first year was over. Daioek Maharadjah Emas Abu
Hanifah though, from the same island and later a leader of the Muslim party Masjimu,
moved in these circles longer, successfully completing the course.*

In 1923, Fournier and Van Leeuwen came to The Netherlands, where Hatia was
siudying by ihcn in Rotterdam. They had a new proposal for him. This time, not joining
the TS itself, but a new organization, the Orde der Dienaren van Indie (Order of Servants
■ >f the Indies). According to a member of it. Tabrani, later, 'In all, membership of (he
Orde was aboul 50 ladies and gentlemen.' 1 Hatta;

The organization's objectives were io achieve unity and muiual assistance and a sense of
brotherhood, and iis members were lo write (he initials DI after their name. I was inviied io one
of their meetings. Apart from Amir and myself there were (wo other members of the Jong
Summranen Bond. Bahdcr Johan and Nazif. There were also some members of Jong Java. So
(Im eventually (he ideals of (he Orde der Dienaren van Indie were to be thrust upon us. Certain
riiuals were performed ai Hie commencement and (he closing of (he meeling.

Though he had misgivings about the ODI, Hatta then was not free to refuse. They
Sftew he had financial problems continuing his studies; he desperately wanted to

HATTA(1981), 86, 'Sumairanean Bond' is a misprint. Yamin, from Wesi Sumatra like Hatta.
bttune minister in various Indonesian governments, 1951-55, REEVE(!98S), 7: he married a
iln(isi>phis(. On psychiatrist Amir, POE2E(1986), 221 .

; 'Jaarverslag van net Hoofdbestuur', JS 1919. 25-30: 26.

'AHMAD SUBARDJO DJOYOADISURYO. 82-6. Ibid., 572 he names himself as on
Wtferopbouw's board of editors in 1917; but WED was not out yet then, and 1 also found no
I 1 in Urination in laier issues.

'ABU HANIFAH, 64.

S TABRANI(I974), 316; including Mrs Tabrani. See WED. Aug. 1923, 46. I( was a parallel io
V..S. Srinivasi Shascri's Servants of India. Shaslri, Annie Besam's Liberal Party ally, had succeeded
liothale as leader; ROE, 277, 279f.

348

V.2

Home rule. Independence

349

continue. Van Leeuwen got him a scholarship. And Hatta joined, '

The end of Wederopbouw was not immediately the end of Javanese nationalism. Ex-
editor Satiman Wirjosandjojo then was a Surabaya local councillor. On 17 December
1923 in the Indische Courant, he announced the foundation of the Javanese Intellectuals'
League. The League opposed all-Indies nationalism, * Islam, 3 and what Satiman saw as
Budi Utomo's recent tendency to admit also 'low class' Javanese, leading to a 'demo-
cratic mess'. He thought the new League should organize 'the few who act, instead of the
many who talk.' BU should reorganize itself, 'with the intellectuals as its soul, the non-
intellectuals as its body'; an image which theosophists also used for their ES and outer
TS."

Satiman got much criticism. Fournier, writing in Neratja of 21 January 1924,* did
not support him. people in other islands would object, Indonesia Merdeka (Free
Indonesia] magazine, successor to Hindia Poeira, published a unanimous vote of censure
by the Indonesische Vereeniging against the League. The motion accused it of 'Javanese
Chauvinism', which would help colonialist 'divide and rule' politics." A few months
later, the magazine criticized the League's limitation 'not just to Javanese only, but worse
still: to Javanese intellectuals only'.'

'HATTA(1981), 86-7. In 1920, the Indies TS founded a scholarship fund: ENI, vol. VI, 764.

'Sallman thought Indies nationalists irespassed on Java's history: 'Do they [all-Indonesia
nationalists] wish to diminish die glory of Modjopail (medieval empire with capital in Java and power
in many Malay archipelago islands] or Mataram. by calling these empires Indies empires?' Quoted
NIE. Feb. 1924. 17. 'Een Javaanschc lniellectuelen Bond'.

'PETRUS BLUMBERGER<I9S7), 198 Satiman saw (he tod; as a 'wasie of money'

'PETRUS BLUMBERGER(1987), 34-5. N1E, Feb. 1924, 17. 'Gen Javaansche Inielleciuelen
Bond'. Satiman: BU 'gradually began to neglect its aristocrat nature'; it 'gives Kromo [name.
Common among poor peasants] and Wongso (wingsi. regional Javanese form for 'relatives'; here
for non- nobles; SH 7-1-1924, quoted IPO I. 1924. 1 15] free admission.' He regretted (hat now in
BU 'clerk and Bupmi could sit freely next to one another'; PETRUS 8LUMBERGER(I987), 34
NIE, Apr. 1924. 37-8: a few months later, there were talks between the executives of the Javanese
Intellectuals League and Budi Uiomo, said to have brought a good relationship between both.
PETRUS BLUMBERGER0987), 34-5 denied (he talks' success Boedi -Oeiorno 25-30 Jan. 1924,
quoted IPO 1. 1924. 223-4: at talks on 30 Dec. 1923, Dwidjosewojo thought ihal 'the masses would
feel humiliated' by Satiman.

J Quoted IPO I. 1924, 190.

*IM, 1924. 18; PETRUS BLUMBERGER(1987), 198. Kemadjoean Hindia from Surabaya, Si-
ll- 1923/5-1 -1924, quoted IPO 2/1924, 46, smelled 'fascism, Javanese imperialism and Javanese
autocracy', PETRUS BLUMBERGER(1987), 35: 'nearly all of the Native press' attacked Satiman;
so did the PKl, which also criticized the BU executive for making concessions to Satiman. Social
democrat Net Indische Volk, 2-1-1924, saw the League as 'still more a withdrawal within (he golden
fog of a supreme Javanism, to remove oneself still further from one's own suffering masses.' Quoted
NIE, Feb. 1924, 17.

'/W, 1924, 30.

Radjiman and other executive members in 1924-5 tried to make zx.-Wederopbouw's
ideas official Budi Utomo policy. At the April 1925 congress, the majority, including all-
Indonesia minded members from coastal areas, rejected these mainly Surakarta -based
views though. 1

In 1924, Fournier wrote a letter to Hatta. As Hatta remembered, it:

said that the policy of the Indonesische Vereeniging was not in accordance with the views of the
Dl (Servants of the Indies], If I did not leave the indonesische Vereeniging, I would have to
resign from theX>/. He also mentioned that the choice would not influence the scholarship I had
been granted through the kindness of Ir Van Leeuwen. So I resigned from the DI group and 1
wrote Ir Fournier that I would repay the scholarship when [ relumed to Indonesia. As it turned
oui, however, owing to the vicissitudes of my life as a nationalist, I was not able to fulfil this
promise until 1952. 3

As with Krishnamurti , the TS had guessed correctly that Hatta would play an
important role. With him, too, it would differ from what they wanted.

In the fall of 1924, Fournier addressed a Jong-Java meeting in Yogyakarta on 'Java's
gift to the world'. Indonesia Merdeka was 'far from agreement' with him; Fournier
'temporized in the Java or all-Indonesia question. They thought Fournier's "unctuous
preaching' a grave danger to our national struggle," 1 In May 1925, IM warned
Indonesia's young people against both theosophists and Christians.'

The conflict between TS and Indonesian nationalists sharpened in iate 1925-early
1926. Indonesia Merdeka wrote, so far, they had only 'warned'; warned that 'indulging
in profound philosophizing on life is absolutely disastrous'* to Indonesian nationalism.
Now, (hough, there was a need to 'protest'. This happened after the Dutch East Indies
Theosophical Society had forbidden its Indonesian Fellows to be members of non-co-
operation organizations, 'if they still wanted to lay claim to the so-called "promotion
id wards world citizenship'". 7 The Indonesische Vereeniging, the Perhimpoenan
Indonesia, reacted. It declared that people who were members of both PI and the TS-

'VAN M1ERT(1994), 21-2. VAN MIERT(1995), 253-64.

; HATTA<198I), 91, Tabrani, Bintang Turner 28/31-1-1929, quoted IPO 1929, U 6, 182
tonflrmed (he declaration of incompatibility (the source wrongly has Persaioean Indonesia for PI).
Amliorities interned Hatta 1934-42. HATTA(1978), 157: he re-paid in 1950.

y IM, 1924, 108-11, 'Uit het Vcrre Vaderiand': ibid,. 108; Dutch: *en geil en kool te sparen'.

'ibid., 109.

s 37f.: 'Aan de Indonesische jeugdbeweging"; 39: 'From all sides, one has tried to ram various
philosophies of life down your throats, counting on your youthful and therefore susceptible feelings.
Theosophists. Calvinists, Catholics and others ... we think that you allow diem to intimidate you too
Batch.'

6 'Een gevaar in zachtzinnig gewaad voorde Indonesische jeugdbeweging', IM, 1926, 19-23; 19.

T 'Een gevaar in zachtzinnig gewaad voor de Indonesische jeugdbeweging', IM, 1926, 19-23; 20.

350

V.2

Waked Orde der Dienaren van Indie 'which supports a policy lliat is against our national-
ist principles' had to choose between these. Two out of the three individuals involved,
chose for the PL Only Amir, married to a cousin of Fbumier, preferred the Orde. '
Indonesia Merdeka asked why the TS had banned dual membership.

So, a ban against working along to realize our national freedom ideal. What, now. may be the
reasons for this action? Is it because tbey consider that for complete dedication to Theosophical
doclrine absolute negation of all worldly events is necessary? Or maybe it is their intention 10
make our young people into passionless monks, for the salvation of sinful humanity?

IM believed that the real reasons for 'the aforementioned political measures in their
society which is otherwise of a very theological hue' 1 were 'very different' from anti-
politics. They were different politics:

As Blandas [Dutch) it is of course in ihcir interest that the colonies remain so, and they certainly
are for doing their bit in defending the inhuman injustice in our country.'

IM mentioned dial ihcosophists said

il is not good (o be a Theosoplu'sl and to fight against one's fellow humans a( the same time. Bui

in (his case lha< golden Iheory does nol lii a( all, for, unfortunately, here ihese fellow humans

arc antipodes of one another, thai is, dominators and dominated And does there now exist a

more monsrrous abuse againsl the realization of lha( brotherhood ideal?*

Also, theosophist and Dutch East Indies government adviser P. Post s at a leathers'

congress in November 1925 in Gambir, had criticized Indonesia Merdeka. Ik said it

contained 'bloodthirsty essays'. These were ihe consequence of the editors' (oo Western

imellectualisf education. Thai education had made them 'unbalanced', had disrupted

their 'world view and spiritual life'. So they became 'susceptible to the development of

undesirable theories like non-co-operalion. communism, and hatred of Europeans, and a

'■Besruursmcdedcling'. IM. 1926, 32-3. VAN MIERT099S), 69.

''Hen gevaar in zachtzinnig gewaad voor de Indonesische jeugdbeweging', IM, 1926, 19-23; 20.

31 Ecn gevaar in zachtzinnig gewaad voor de indonesische jeugdbeweging'. IM, 1926. 19-23; 20-
I. Ibid., 21: Dutch FTS 'pui aside all beautiful theories of humanity and brotherhood in ihe Dutch
colonial interest'.

''Een gevaar in zachizinnig gewaad voor de indonesische jeugdbeweging', IM, 1926, 19-23; 21.

'Post was Headmaster of ihe theosophists' first Arjuna school in Jakarta, and editor of the Indies
theosophical education league's paper Associate (Association], The paper folded after Post went
back to The Netherlands in mid 1928. TILKEMA(1932), 44; 53. Post also spoke at the Dec. 1924
Java Institute Congress; Djiwd, 1925, 179-80 and 183-4. 77rV7Jan, 1935,9: Post spoke at the 1935
Indies TS congress.

Home rule. Independence 351

dangerous over-estimation of their own strength.' 1
Indonesia Merdeka reacted:

This rising star in the world of education now thinks he has found a remedy against all these
terrible things, in the form of reforming present education into an "Eastern" system. That is,
on a religious and philosophical (meaning, Theosophical !) basis, and this religious education
should be "general spiritual education, which forms character and creates tolerance". Here,
once again, the poliiical reality emerges from behind Theosophical appearance! 2 Creating
tolerance, indeed! J

IM thought Post himself, reacting to their magazine, had not 'given an example of
loierance'. It concluded on the TS: 'Brothers, be aware of this danger in a gentle guise! '*

As in India, the questions of co-operation or non-co-operation with colonial
authorities, home rule or full independence, marked the disagreement between militants
and theosophists. Van Hinloopen Labberton's successor as General Secretary,
J. Kruisheer. was less politically prominent. The links to Indies artistic life were still
rather strong. However, Kruisheer did not like all an. He wrote that, to theosophists,
music is not only sound, but also vibrations which only people with occult perccptiviiy
might feel These might be good vibes or bad vibes. Basing himselfon A. Tranmer of the
South African TS journal, he warned againsl jan music and dancing to il:

Really, all of Western Society is being ' 'niggcrized" [in si range Dutch; "vemiggerd"], iT 1 may
borrow this word |from Tranmer). Of course, someone in Africa knows the Kaffirs' coarsely
sensual way of dancing. Compared lo this, our Oriental Slyles of dancing are subtle and
relatively innoceni

Al the TS congress in 1926, Kruisheer spoke of Besant's opposition to Gandhi as a
model for the Indies: 'Theosophy and Non-co-operaiion are iwo diametrically opposed
concepts.' 5

Indonesia Merdeka in 1926 again criticized Saiiman, on his opposition lo non-co-

''Een gevaar in zachmnnig gewaad voor de indonesische jeugdbeweging', IM, 1926. 19-23: 22
tsmaviaasrh Nieuwsblad, 11-1 1-1925. Nolo Soeroto on PI policy: a result of 'long neglecl of moral
i-ilucalion'; IG 1925, 1, MRBTD, 450; in similar temis, Raden Mas Soeriplo, 'De geesl onder de
Indonesische Studemen in Nederland', IG 1929 (51), 275-80.

3 Dutch' 'Hier koml dan weer hel poiitieke aapje uii de Theosofische mouw!' Posl had advised
ilie Dutch East Indies government lo base education for Javanese on the pesanuen model. Thai
model was some centuries old; il involved Islamic boarding schools where one leaml, for instance,
to recite from the Quran. The government did not carry out Post's advice. TILKEMA{1932). 52

s 'Een gevaar in zachtzinnig gewaad voor de Indonesische jeugdbeweging', IM, 1926. 19-23; 22.

J 'Een gevaar in zachtzinnig gewaad voor de Indonesische jeugdbeweging'. IM, 1926, 19-23; 23

S A K[ruisheer], 'De Uitkijk', TMNI 1923, 226-7; compare Rudolf Steiner on ja*x:
DI-: ROODE7VAN DER TUIN/ZONDERGELD: and Leadbeatcr, 'How the dark powers work', 77'
J;m. 1932, 387f, HEYMANS(1926). 207.

352

V.2

operation. He saw it as self-conceit, as 'a manifestation of a discouraged people', as
passivity. 1 IM reacted: 'Not the Indian, but the Irish Freedom movement has been our
example. ... The non-violence principle is not part of our movement.' 1

Satiman had said: 'Obtaining positions, both within society and within government
offices, leads us to zelfstandigheid. ' Indonesia Merdeka saw that as 'job-hunting'. Also,
the Dutch word zelfstandigheid might mean both independence, and autonomy within the
Dutch empire: they saw that as unclear. Satiman had a major role at meetings in 1926,
replacing left-wingers from Sernarang within the Budi Utomo executive with co-
operationists, and overturning an earlier non-co-operation decision, 3

9. Since Tabrani and Sukarno

In 1920, two students were in the Surabaya branch of Jong-Java: Sukarno and Tabrani,
Mohamed Tabrani was born in 1904 in Pamekasan, Madura. A member of the Young
Theosophisfs. he became editor of the daily Hindia Baroe [New Indies],

On 26 May 1924, Hindia Baroe had succeeded Neraija as that had succeeded
Pemitran. From now on, the TS' Indonesische Drukkerij printed it. Hadji Agoes Salim
wrote one more thing had changed: government subsidies had stopped. Few opponents
believed that.* Indonesia Merdeka criticized it for its proposal not to boycott ihe
kabupaien councils. 5 After October 1925, Tabrani was chairman of the journalists' league
Asia, which excluded communists from membership.' 1

Tabrani became chairman of the first Indonesian youth Congress' in Gambit, 30
April-2 May 1926.' Organ^ations represented at that congress included the Young
Thcosophists, Jong-Java, Christians, and Muslims* Ex-Perhimpoenan member Amir
wrote sympathetically on it in the Dutch Liberal Democrat magazine. The Perhimpoenan
magazine was not as positive. That congress was the work of

undesirable elemcms, that is. the Dutch ihcosophists. who try [o misguide our youth by way of

'iM 1926. 36-9, 'De taal der jongelingschap': PETRUS BLUMBERGER(I987). 199.

r Sukarno agreed with die last sentence: speech in 1933, quoted VAN BERGEN, 21.

'PETRUS BLUMBERGER<1987), 278

'HB 26-5-1924, quoted IPO 23/1924, 409. AMIR. 76: the paper had by 1927 already ceased
publication. M. Tabrani, 'Het Persvraagstuk in Indonesia', OP, 1927-28, 549f. 45 TAHUN
SUMPAH PEMUDA,223.TABRANl<i974),307. VAN M1ERT(1995), 363.

i IM, 1926. 105-8, 'Algemene Negatie'. Kabupaien were ruled by a bupati; then, many
kabupaien had roughly half a million inhabitants.

'M. Tabrani, 'Het Persvraagstuk in Indonesia', OP, 1927-28. 549f,; 566,

'PETRUS BLUMBERGER(I987), 390. STEVENS(1994>, 152: the congress had a
'completely different tendency' from Soeripto's N1VJO, However, only later youth congresses, not
led by Tabrani, were radical; and Tabrani and Socripto together founded the PRI. See p. 357.

"AMIR, 77. PETRUS BLUMBERGER(1987), 390f.

Home ride. Independence

353

the so-called Order of the Servants of the Indies. '
The manifesto, convening the congress, said:

To be a nationalist in Indonesia means to be a Servant of God and to live in the Spirit. We do
not need to be a politically strong people above all; we do not need to be above everything a
physically healthy (sic! Ed. [of IM]) people: but we should be above everything a People
which believes.
Indonesia Merdeka thought this only 'beautiful sounding phrases':

For example, our people arc afflicicd by an epidemic {frequent in Indonesia (hen), yet, (hey
arc supremely happy, for they .... (all .... in Uiis paragraph emphasis by IM} believe. The
majority of our people are illiterate; yet. iliey arc supremely happy, for dicy .... believe..,.
What intelligent human would, or rather could, believe this? Look, there die little political
devil of the Dutch ilicosophists comes info play again.' In our Malay language ).M we have
already warned against (heir satellite Tabrani One should beware!'

Muslims at the congress were suspicious that the youth league to be founded there
might get a tlieosophical character'. 1 In the I970's, the Indonesian historian Drs
Mardanas Safwan wrote also of TS influence as a problem, Tabrani, looking back in
1974, saw Safwan's view as 'tidak benar' |not true], lie underlined his own view, maybe
more of later times than of 1926 as it had been, with four synonyms' the OOI was
'autonomous, separate, zctfsiand'tg . free' from the TS. 4

Though Tabrani still was a Jong-Java member, 5 his perspective was all-Indonesian,
and co-opcrationist nationalist On the one hand, the PKI uprisings of Java in 1926 and
West Sumatra in 1927, were 'all kinds of resiless and malevolent elements, who were
incited to violent mass action by e^tremisi leaders'.*' On the other hand, Governor-
General Fock's iron fist' 7 policy was partly to blame for (lie rise of communism
Between these, 'the position of modcraie national ists became more hazardous, day by
my. In the eyes of (heir compatriois, supporters of extremism and non-co-operation, (hey
were "cowards" and "traitors", while ihc Government considered them
"revolutionaries*".'

''Vaderlandse kroiuek', IM, 1926, 42f ; "14

^'Vaderlandse kroniek', W, 1926, 42f; 45.

AMIR, 78, His conclusion, ibid,, 82: 'So the youth movement should continue to be a
mi anger to all extremism. But one may ask: for how much longer?'

4 TABRANI(1974),3I6.

5 AM1R, 76.

6 TA8RAN1( 1927-8), 505.

'TABRAN1C 1927-8), 508.

! TABRANl(1927-8). 509, His conclusion, ibid,, 'Shared conirol [Dutch: Medezeggenschap]
luings with it responsibility; and that will cause the Indonesian to bring about his ideal "Great
Indonesia" by parliamentary means'.

354

V.2

The non-co-operating Panai' Nasional Indonesia had personal history connections
with the Theosophical Society: as in the case of a later education minister of Indonesia,
Sarmidi. 1 Also Raden Soekemi Sosrodihardjo, father of Sukarno, the future first
president, was FTS.* Theosophy played a pan in his son's education. 5 Sukarno during his
secondary school days lived in a rented room at Tjokroaminoto's in Surabaya. Thanks to
Soekemi's membership, he could visit the TS library at Sawahan, where the city's lodge
president D.L.N. Vink also lived {Princesselaan). 6 Did Sukarno meet Mrs Van Mook, the
mother of his opponent after 1945, there? In the library, he developed a frantic reading
habit, including political books. 7 Probably Carlyle; Abu Hanifah thought him a 'very,
very great' influence on Sukarno, 6 One book, said to have influenced him mirth, he
probably did not get from the theosophicai library: the account of the trial of Van
Hinloopen Labbcrton's opponent Snecvliet, by Sneevliet himself and Baars.

Sukarno was apparently no longer close to the TS in 1921. As two wings formed in
Jong-Java, he chose the 'red' wing. At the June 1921 congress in Bandung, he protested
against neglect of poor people and against capitalism. Right wingers of the Jakarta branch
of Jong-Java, like Basuki and Supomo (later well known as a jurist), held before the
leftists 'the motto of theosophist Fournicr: keep your head; and keep your heart warm.'
Fournier had said this on 31 October 1920 at the inaugural meeting of the Ssudiegroep
Politieke Wetenscliap, It was a short-lived joint venture in Jakarta by Jong-Java and the
Jong Sumatranen Bond to study political science; probably, Annie Besant's Lectures', The
Jakarta Jong- Java then had its office in the TS headquarters. 10

'Originally: Perserikamn

I TSUCHIYA(1987). 68; 82. 86: Sarmidi Mangoensarkaro, born in 1904, 'a noble from
Surakarta who grew up under the influence of Theosophy.' TABRANI(1974). 318: he was ODI
member. He was active in Jong-Java and taught at a Tainan Siswa school. He left, however, in
1928, to teach at the TS' Arjuna school in Jakarta. There, he joined die Young Theosophisls.
TSUCHIYA(1987). 86: he joined the PA'/ also in 1928. IT that is correct, he probably will not have
been a member of both for long, in view of (he earlier TS conflict with Indonesian nationalists, and
the later one especially with the PNI. Sec p. 350, 360.

'SUKARNO, 19. He was a primary school teacher by profession; with a relatively low tide of
nobility.

'"SUKARNO, 21: 'although Father practiced Theosophy, he was legally a Moslem.'

s ROE, XIII; SUKARNO. 23: ibid,, 7), 'My grandfather inculcated in me Javanism and
mysticism. From Father came Theosophy and Islamism.'

t PT 1916 (9), #3, 16. FT, 1917; covers. NUGRAHA(1989), 261. Vink in TMNl, 1918,215: 'In
the broad masses there is a fairly strong tendency towards ihe anti-idealist, in some of these social
strata even towards the animal.'

'SUKARNO, 39.

"ABU HANIFAH, 41.

'SCHWIDDER/TICHELMAN, xxxvi.

"VAN MIERT(1995), 56-7; 79, J. K(ruisheer].-B[oIten).. 'Batavia-Loge', TMNI 1923, 234.
SUKARNO, 49: he was Jong-Java chairman.

Home rule. Independence

355

A few years later. Sumatran student Roestam Effendi told Sukarno he had joined the
Orde der Dienaren van Indie. Roestam recalled that he reacted: "You've fallen into the
trap, haven't you, [RoesjTam?' 1

Sukarno prepared the founding of the PNI, in 1927, with Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo,
whom he called 'chief. 1 Like Jawaharlal Nehru in India, in spite of connections from
young years, the new party did not choose an elite ideology like Soeriokoesoemo's,
Van Leeuwen's or Vink's. It aimed at mass support and chose 'Marhaenism' as Sukarno
eventually called it; Marhaen, like Kromo, is a name common among poor peasants.
Many returned former Perhimpoenan Indonesia members joined.

Sukarno admired Gandhi greatly, but criticized him on some points. His criticism of
Gandhi differed from the theosophists' though. It was somewhat similar to Tjipto's
objections to Soeriokoesoemo:

The spiritually inclined Indian pays too little attention to (he materialist side of the struggle , . io
have good results, politics should be based primarily on (he real, concrete, actual siruaiion. They
never should lose themselves in the vague clouds of philosophisms and absiraciions. ...
Especially Mahalma Gandhi, brilliant though he may be, has sinned greatly against this. As a
logical consequence, society has turned cruelly against him. J

When PNI supporters founded a school in 1928. they voiced similar ideas.'

In 1928, Tabrani was a student in The Hague (The Netherlands), a contributor to De
Telegraaf daily , and to the monthly of the Dutch Liberal Democrat party. 5 He then wrote
Sukarno a letter, 'urging him to conic overseas and warning him to stay out of the public

'ROESTAM EFFENDI, 398. Roestam wrote he joined (o meet Indonesians from oiher regions
He laier became the only Indonesian MP before the Second World War; Tor the Dutch communisis.

! VAN BERGEN. 19. L. DE JONG. vol. Hal. 323-4: Tjipto had inspired Sukarno in this.
CADY(1964), 541 wrongly has 1929 as founding year.

'Soekamo's foreword to TJIPTO MANGOENKOGSOEMO<1928).

j RulIi T. McVey 'Taman Siswa and the Indonesian National Awakening', Indonesia Oct. 1977.
128-49. Ibid.. 139. Mohamad Nazif, Muhammad Yamin, Sartono, M.H. Thamrin and others
founded the Pergoeroean Rakjol in Jakarta. They declared: We wish to avoid vague philosophizing
over deep abstractions and transcendental concepts which do not relate to real life; we wish instead
to show the Indonesian thai he must direct all his emotion and thought io answering the concreie
problems of this society.' McVey interprets ihis as aau-Taman Siswa. However, Sartono was an ex-
Perhimpoenan Indonesia leader. As the declaration is similar to Pi's polemic against the
Theosophical Society (see p. 350), it may have been more against the TS.

The Vrijzinrtig Democratische Bond. A party supporter, writing as 'Koloniaal', LOC, 17-12-
1917: 'So evolution {as against revolution) is the Vrijzinnig Democratisclie Bond's slogan, and one
can also find thai spirit in its colonial activity ' Editors of the monthly Opbouw (Construction)
included G. Bolkestein, PJ. Oud, who both later became ministers (Oud became Liberal Pany
leader), and W. de Cock Buning. Theosophist tx-Yolksraad member Th. Vreede wrote in it on
international economics: 'De Economische Conferentie te Geneve', OP, 1927-8, 129f. On Tabrani
sec also POEZE/,1986), 227.

356

V.2

Home rule. Independence

357

eye for a while'. 1 Sukarno did not, however, and [he Dutch East Indies government
became concerned. On 8 November 1928, Kiewiet de Jonge as government representative
in the Volksraad 2 came out against strong language in Sukarno speecheY Sukarno was
forbidden to use words like merdeka [freedom] and kemerdekaan [independence}. 4 On the
other hand, Kiewiet de Jonge angered colonialist diehard journalists by shaking hands
with Sukarno at his 1929 trial when he was a witness, as a sign of respect for an
opponent. 3

Leadbeater, visiting Indonesia for the fifth time in his life in 1929, approved of
Dutch rule there. He thought that its 'pedagogical task' still needed at least 'half a
century of vigorous work'.* At the end of that year, two prominent Fellows of his society
came in for criticism from the Indonesian press: A. Meijroos and Fournier.

When the Indonesian councillors of Jakarta wanted Thamrin as deputy-mayor,
Meijroos objected. The Indonesian Thamrin did not qualify, as local government was
'moulded in the Western way'. Even the very co-operative paper De Samemverking
attacked Meijroos, comparing him unfavourably to the governor -generals Van Limburg
Slirum and Fock. The councillors resigned collectively as a protest, and won. 7

The criticism of Fournier also came from a moderate side; from Budi Uiomo in his
case. Earlier in 1929, Boedi-Oeiomo had approvingly quoted Annie Besant on the value
of 'self-assurance'. Then, however, Fournier made a speech on 'Indonesian nationalism,
seen from a theosophical point of view.' 'Scientific politics' should prevail over
'sentiment'. He had no faith in an independent Indonesia. 'There was not any Indonesian
nation, only an Indonesian people'. The daily Sedijo Tomo commented that Fournier said

'lNGLESON(l974), 87. Ibid: Halta also though! Sukarno should be more carelul; ihis 'might
indicate collaboration between the two students in The Hague.' This, though, can only be irue if then
the Hatta-Tabrani relationship had improved since Indonesia MerdeSui's attacks on Tabrani.

l HERING()992), VIII, supposes Kiewiet de Jonge 'must have made a rather strong shift lo the
right abandoning bis erstwhile political ideals

, [NOL£SON{l974). 78. When Sukarno was president three decades laler, die translator of his
speeches into English was Molly Bondan. She was born Mary Alithea Warner in New Zealand or TS
parents, went lo a TS-inspired school in Australia, and in 1946 married an Indonesian Hatla
supporter George McT. Kahin, 'Molly Bondan: 1912-1990', in Indonesia, 1990, 158-62.

"1NGLES0N(1974>, 79.

s KOCH(1956), 196-7. Later, Kiewiet de Jonge was the main eulogist at the 40 year jubilee of
the right wing journalist H.C. Zentgraaff; ibid,, 219,

6 TICHELAAR(1977), 121-2: quoting Leadbeater's article in the Australian Theosophist, 15 Jan.
1930. It was not reprinted with the other articles on Leadbeater's Indonesia journey, when The occult
history of Java came out in 195 1 ,

''Het Gemeenteconflicf, in IPO 47/1929, 251-4, and 48/1929, 282-6.

this 'purely to be able to bring about a co-operation of all groups of the people with the
Government. The Government will be grateful to the lecturer.' 1

in a letter to the daily Bintang Timoer in 1929, Mohamed Tabrani claimed he had
resigned from the ODI, as 'it had decided to base itself on iheosophy'. He founded the
weekly Revue Potiiik in May 1930. Months later, he also founded the moderate Partai
Ra'jas Indonesia, Indonesian People's Party, of which he became chairman. Rakjai was
the PR! fortnightiy. J Another PR/ leader was Raden Mas Soeripto, nephew of the
susuhanan of Surakarta. 1 Governor -General De Graeff wrote he had helped Tabrani. 4

A second attcmpi by cooperating nationalists to attract some of the PNI's membership was
launched by Tabrani just two days before ihe PNI leaders' trial opened in Bandung on 18 August
[1930) s ,., Tabrani was mistrusted largely because he was a member of the Theosophical
Society organisation, 'Servants of die Indies' . which was considered anti -nationalist. He and the
other leaders were accused of holding associationiw* ideas and opposing the PI [Perhimpoenan
Indonesia] while students in the Netherlands. 7

Supporters of (he PNI, whose symbol was the banteng, saw Tabrani's PRI as merely
1 kancil. s Members of the PNI youih league made it 'nearly impossible' for Tabrani 'to
make propaganda speeches anywhere'. Once, a student at a meeting gave Tabrani a
leaflet. As (he orator looked at it, he saw it described him as a 'windy no-gooder'.
Tabrani was so shocked that he stopped his speech immediately, and did not resume that

1 Boedi-Oeiomo 1-10-1929. quoted IPO 45/1929, 169. Sedijo Tomo 2/7-12-1929. quoted IPO
Hl/1929, 335; Medan Doema 1 2/ 1 4- 1 2- 1929. quoled IPO 52/ 1 929, 397-8

: Bimang Timoer, 28/31-1-1929. quoted IPO 1929. it 6, 182. INGLESON{1974), 87,
'POEZEUgSS), 197; ENI, vol, VI, 9IOf. He became a doctor of law in Leiden in May 1929,
lib thesis was on the law books of Java's principalities. He had been vice-chairman and chairman of
ill* Nederiandsch-lndoncsisch verbond van Jotigeren-Organisaties in The Netherlands, founded by
Nino Soroeto on 1 April 1926 after his break with the Indonesisclie Vereeniging. IM, 1926, 48;
n TitUS BLUMBERGER<I987). 184; 431. POEZ£(1986), 198: as did Mrs Besant for Indians,
Soeripto objected to ihe word 'native' for Indonesians, as it sounded like 'savage, Bushman, cannibal
it something,'

' Algemeen Rijks Archie/, private archive De Graeff. Letter to his predecessor Van Limburg

'Miiiini horn 1930. As translated UERING(1992), 13-4: 'Behind the scenes, I am trying desperately

also particularly in view of next year's elections- to promote the foundation of an indigenous

middle-of-the-road party [note by Hering: die PRI), A party, which any Government will need

b.ully since it is indispensable to the normal development of parliamentary life in this country'.

S IIN1, vol. VI, 91 1 , has 14 September 1930 as official founding congress date,

fi l!e had denied that in TABRANI<)929), 47.

7 INGLESON(1974), 125-6.

"PETRUS BLUMBERGER()987), 432. A banteng, Bos javanicus , is a homed ungulate, up to
'XHl kilograms in weight. POEZE(1986), 178 writes 'benteng'; that means 'fortress' in Indonesian,
though. A kancil, or Lesser Malay mouse deer, Tragulus javanicus , is the world's smallest ungulate
U about 2 kilograms. Javanese animal tales depict it as clever but selfish.

358

V.2

night. 1 An estimate of PRI membership wr.s only 200, 2

The PRI stood politically for 'independence' 3 in the form of 'dominion status', to be
attained by parliamentary means. * Economically, it stood for 'development in the
direction of a modern monetary economy and with adjustment to the international
exchange', also with stimulation of 'Indonesian economical initiative.' 1

A Budi Utonw attempt to work closely with the new parry misfired; a Madurese
promoter of business interests like Tabrani did not automatically have the same ideas as
Javanese aristocrats. * He had criticized Noto Soeroto's monthly Oedaya [Rise] for being
promoted by the Dutch government. 7 Noto Soeroto criticized supporters of independence
in The Hague in 1927:

National sovereignly and independence have become very relative categories now, if only
because of the universal phenomenon of the world economy. In an ideal union ofbolh naiions.
the Dutchman wili be able to rise to a purer and higher type of hi; people, and the Easterner to a
similar lype of his particular group.

Indies TS General Secretary J. Kruisheer commented Lord Noio Soeroto stales the only
correct viewpoint, in our opinion.'*

Noto Soeroio advocated the caste system, which led to 'happy acceptance of one's
social condition, without envying the apparent privileges of other classes, social
categories or groups." In 1931, he published a book on his aristo-democrat' political
system, invoking Plato, in the vein of Soeriokoesoemo and Van der Leeuw. 10 It differed
from Wederopbouw times in proposing 'local autonomy' for Java, no longer political
nationhood. Even this, though, was suspect to supporters of Indonesian unity,"

'ABU HANIFAH, 83.

^Estimate by Kiewiel de Jonge, 18 Nov. 1931; he wrote of the PR! mainly active in the cily of
Balavia The PRI is nationalistic, religiously oriented and principal^ cooperative...'
HQRING(I°92), 69.

'Of which he had already written in TABRAN1(I929), 57

i ENl, vol. VI, 911.

5 £M. vol. VI. 912.

s lbid. An attempt to introduce the PR! lo West Sumatra failed; B0UMAN(I949). 79.

J TABRAN1(1929). 55. Oedaya criticized Tabrani; it wrole its ' a ris to -democracy' was incompat-
ible with 'any movement, holding out delusions of an "indonesia Merdeka" to the masses'; quoted
POEZE(l983). 322-3. Oedaya started in 1924 , 'guided only by a constructive idea of Dutch-
Indonesian relations.' A picture of Borobudur with the sun rising over it was its masthead.
P0EZE(I986). 180. Soenpto broke with Noto Soeroto in 1930: POEZE(1986), 240

*J. K[ruisheer]., 'Redactioneele Aantekeningen', TMNI 1927, 164.

'Quoted POEZE(1986). 194.
Scheis van een staatkundig stelsel op Aristo-Democransche Orondslag Den Haag, Adi
Poestaka, 1931. DJAJADININGRAT-NIEUWENHUIS, 53.

"DJAJADININGRAT-NIEUWENHUIS, 55,

Home rule, independence

359

The 'democratic' part of the system would be kabupaien councils. They would be
elected very indirectly, like the organs that Annie Besaot had proposed for India. The
councils would have only advisory powers, so as not to hamper the 'aristoi', the bupmi}
lor 'in certain families, one is born with qualities which one needs for the art of
government; they have become instincts. ' : After his break seven years earlier with
Perhimpoenan Indonesia, Noto Soeroto now, less spectacularly, also became secluded
horn the hardline colonialist right: he stopped contributing to the paper De Rijkseenheid
llmpcrial Unity).'

Noto Soeroto went back to Indonesia in February !932. A committee of admirers,
including fellow author and prominent Dutch TS member Miss Tony de Ridder, paid his
Luc.' He found out he had become isolated there too. Though opposing parliamentary
ink, he tried to get nominated to the Voiksraad; in vain, however. Only the Theosophical
Society gave him a platform for lecturing to sizable numbers of people. He declaimed for
instance from his Wayang Songs. The concluding lines of one of these said victory might
have to wait till neKi incarnations:

l/ird, let me be a wayang (puppet) in your hands.

Then, aher a hundred years, or a thousand years, Your hand will make me move again ...

And one day, my enemies will be silent, and the demon will lie down.

Lord, let me be a wayang in your hands.

The TS considered this 'great Javanese poct"s 'Aristo-democracy': 'Now, it is clear
thw he was a visionary!' 6 His reunion with Mangkoe Negoro Vll was 'like the two
hi others Krishna and Baladewa.' 1 He also met Sukarno, but disagreed with his ideas.

The Indonesian delegation to the All Asia Women's Conference, in Lahore. 19-25
l.muary 1931 , consisted of three PN! supporters. Mrs Roekmini Santoso was a daughter
nl the bupaii of Jepara, and sister of Radcn Adjeng Kartini (1879-1904), Kartini'.s
wiitings are seen as the beginning of both women's and national movements in Indonesia.
I he twe others were Miss Soenarjati, a teacher like Santoso, and Soenarjati's brother
Xucgondo.

After they arrived, they decided not to participate, as it was 'not really an Asian
women's congress, but organized and led by European theosophic ladies'. 8 Theosophists

'POEZE(1986), 207f.

! Noto Soeroto, 'Principes der Aristo-Democratie', !C 1929(51), 1193-1202; 1197-8.
J POEZE(1986), 239f.
*POEZE(1986), 242-3.
s POEZ£(1986). 244.

'L. Mangelaar Meertens in TiNi Aug. 1939, L56.
7 DJAJADIN1NGRAT-NIEUWENHU1S, 59-t30.

"PETRUS 8LUMBERGER(1987), 388, 45 TAHUN SUMPAH PEMUDA. 102; this wrongly
has the congress in 1925. Margaret Cousins, one of the ladies referred to, mentioned in

360

V.2

Home rule. Independence

361

stood for co-operation with governments, unlike the PNI. So, the delegates limited their
presence to an informal chat at a tea-party at the Lahore governor's.

Left 10 right: Sanioso, Soegondo, Soenarjati.
From 45 tahun swnpah pemuda, 102

The 'theosophic' may have bothered more lhan (he 'European', in particular to Mrs
Santoso, She was one of the few Indonesians in Ihe largely Dutch Vereeniging vonr
Vrouweitkiesrecht. She sat in its executive, and represented il at ihe first Indonesian
women's congress in 1928.'

One may measure the relative importance of the Theosophicnl Society in the country
from the 1931 Encyclopaedie voor Nederlandscli Indie. It contained a large article, much

C0USINS(I941), 145, (hat 'Women delegates attended from . . Afghanistan. Java; Non-Asian
visitors came specially Tor the Conference from England, America. Ireland and New Zealand'; not
the controversy. As for n on -co-opera lion: ibid.. !47. Sarojini Naidu was elected president, 'though
she was then serving a sentence of imprisonment in Poona'. Ibid.: 'In a time of such disiurbed
political atmosphere and action it was also remarkable that the Government of India allowed such a
significant Conference to take place in India without interference!' See also
WICKRJ£MAS(NGHE(1932), 402

'PETRLJS BLUMBERGER(1987>, 388-9: the PNI defended ihe delegation. Many newspapers
attacked it, as some women's organizations, not committed io non-co-operation, had also paid part
of ihe delegation's travel expenses. BLACKBURN(1995), 6.

of it on TS activities in Indonesia. 1

in 1930, of the 24 fiiil-fledged lodges, only two were outside Java, one-twelfth;
outside Java lived one-third, not one-twelfth of the total population. These two lodges
were an all-Dutch one in Ujung Pandang in Sulawesi, and one in atypically Sumatran
Medan. In Abdoel Moeis' and Datoek Soetan Maharadja's Minangkabau region, there
was only a small 'centre' in Bukitlingi, not a full lodge. 2 The Ujung Pandang lodge and
the Bukittingi centre soon stopped.' Indonesia's TS (and LCC) had become relatively
Java-centred. When the executive founded Pemitran Tjahja 'to re-establish contact with
the masses', PoSderman said

We have n o t tost contact with the masses: that has never existed. We did lose contact wiih the
intellectual indigenous people.'

Also politically, there was isolatation from both radical nationalists and a moderate
like Sutan Sjahrir. Sjahrir wrote in 193S that 'eastern wisdom and religion' were wrongly
'esteemed highly,'' Isolalion on education politics too:

In (he more conservative European theosophists' walks of life, the idea gets stronger and
stronger that Indonesians have been given enough, and maybe already too much, education.'

To the leaders of Taman Siswo and Muhammadijah the Theos[ophicalJ. Society simply does not
exist. They go their own way.'

Of the iwo school-founding organizations that Tilkema named, the TS had had few
contacts with MaJiarnmadijah . Much had changed, though, since Prince Soetatmo

'Vol. V], 763-4. nearly a full page. On the Liberal Catholic Church, there was also a nearly full
page article, vol, V11I, 1 890- J. One may measure the decline of the TS in posL-1945. independent
Indonesia, from two later encyclopaedias. In the 1984 Ensiklopedi Indonesia. Jakana. lchtiar Baru.
3507. which as a whoic is more voluminous than its predecessor, the TS goi only six lines, of which
none was on Indonesia. Seven years later still, the Ensiklopedi Nasionai Indonesia
(HARRISUSANTO), about double Die size of Ihe £!. had only four lines on the TS: and also nothing
on Indonesia.

l £NJ, VI. 763.

3 77W Jan. 1935, 6: a centre for West Sumatra was re-founded,

"in 1938, it had ten local churches plus one 'centre'. Of these, only Medan (where there was
also a small but active co-masonry lodge; TICHELAAR(I977), 150) was outside Java, Most held
their services in TS buildings; only in Jakana, Bandung, and Surabaya there were Liberal Catholic
church buildings. ENI, vol. VIII, 1891.

s 7W/)932. 106,

6 VAN DEN OOEL0995), 387,

7 TILKEMA(1932), 58.

8 TILKEMA(1932), 59.

362

V.2

Home rule, independence

363

Soeriokoesoemo's early leading role in Toman Siswa.'

Van Leeuwen did not like Tilkerna's criticism of the TS and theosophical education,
[n his review, he contrasted them favourably to the schools which the government did not
recognize. The 'wi!d schools' to him were

mostly politically, religiously, or national] siically biased. Very often fed by the small fire of
antitheses: white versus brown, rich versus poor, capitalist versus worker, etc.'

In 1933, the TS of Egypt asked its sister organization in Indonesia to protest against
the persecution of Jews in Germany.

The executive decided, as the TS is not a political league, and, additionally, there is no reliable

information available, to decline this request. 1

In August, Van Lceuwcn wrote on the pros and cons of fascism. He concluded (he
chauvinist dangers were strongest. This led to a reaction by F.J. van der Veer, FTS,
defending fascism. It was 'no danger (o world peace', having brought Germany and Italy
together. There were two internationalisms: one of pacifists and 'talking shops', and
'true, proud internationalism', as also in the Boy Scouts. Theosophy had 'the correct
feeling for a corporative state', like the fascists. In a postscript. Van Leeuwen wrote thai
Van der Veer had convinced him somewhat; not really entirely.'

The names of the theosophist monthlies were now De Pionier, with Meijroos as an
editor, respectively Persatoean Hidoep [Unity of Life], The 7T report on 1933 said
membership had decreased by 300. s Thai was as with other organizations in the years of
economic downturn. Many Dutch dropped out. or went back to The Netherlands; many
Indonesians could afford little. On 30 September 1934, 1184 members were left of

'STANCE. 548: 'Taman Siswa philosophy . . . resounded with (hi; teachings of the Thcosophica)
Society and Maria Monlessori' is more correct for early, Soeriokocsoemo, days
TSUCHIYA(1987), 52-3, suggests a link between Socwardi Socrianingrais views on education and
Rudolf Sleiner; thai was 'no( clear' though. REEVE(I985). 12. widi neilher Tsuchiya's cautiousness
nor a Soewardi quote or other proof, says Steiner inOuenced Soewardi. Steiner wrote mainly on
education after he sorted his first 'Waldorf school', sponsored by Waldorf Astoria cigarettes; after
the world war, when Socwardi was already back in Indonesia. One later reference to Sterner: the
translation in the educational paper Medan Coeroe Hindia of Dec. 1923, quoted IPO 14/1924. S3 of
an article on Waldorf schools from Dutch daily Algemeen Handelsblad. The early name was Taman
Sinvo, in Javanese; as Tilkema still spelled it. After the death of Soeriokocsoemo. it also founded
schools outside Java; the name changed to Taman Siswa (Indonesian).

A. van Leeuwen, 'Aanleekeningen over de brochure van den heer D. Tilkema getiteld
'Oprnerkingen over Theosofie en opvoeding", TiNI 1932, 140-51; 150-1.
] 77/V/Junel933.72.

'H/v; Aug. 1933, 89-90. F.J. van der Veer, 'Welke richting?', TiNI Oct. 1933, 107-10.
583. TlLfCEMA(1932), 58, gave, for Java only, as membership figures: 700 Indonesians, 850
Europeans, and 200 Chinese. TiNI 1932, 287.

1930's 2090.' The Young Theosophists had disappeared since the 1920's; and had to be
re -founded. 2

The membership of individual lodges was not as nationally plural as the total
membership. In 1935, the Malang lodge had 46 members, all 'European*.' Of all the 35
lodges and 'centres', 15 had only 'Indigenous' and/or 'Foreign Oriental' members. These
were mainly the ones with fewer members, in smaller towns/

Though its printing company had failed, the economic crisis had not wiped out TS
finances. In 1934 it founded the Atgemtene Centrale Bank (General Central Bank), a
limited liability company, also representing the big Dutch insurance firm De Nederlanden
van 1845 for the Indies, and handling Liberal Catholic Church finances 20,000 of its
100,000 guilders original capital were TS property. Five unnamed members owned the
other 80,000. Van Leeuwen and Mrs J.A.E. van Blommestein-Land were its Board of
Directors: suffragan bishop Monseigneur Fournier its manager.

In spite of membership losses, Van Leeuwen sounded optimistic in his Diamond
Jubilee greetings to Arundale:

Theosophy is for ihe Dutch Indies a source- of ever refreshing Inspiration. Notwithstanding die
difficulties of a Colonial Society, where iwo races are always somewhat opposed to each othei
Theosophy is acceptable to both ... The Indonesian people has assimilated several Religions
and Filosophies [sic] and Theosophy is to her a Synthesis and a Solution of all problems, by its
Message of the Divine Wisdom The Dutch people has always striven for Freedom and Equality
and to tier Theosophy is to her (sic) the Apotheosis of that Ideal Message of Universal
brotherhood, based on the Truth of the |sic] by its One Life

As membership had shrunk, so bad interest in politics. From 1930-4. Fournier sat in
the Volksraad as government-appointed member. He was also chairman of the by now
small Nedertaitdsch-lndisdte Vnjziimige Bond. Fournier, though, disappeared from the
council; so did the N1VB from the political parties' list.' When the Tasikmalaya lodge
proposed that the TS should nominate three candidates for the Volksraad. the executive
and the general meeting blocked this. 8 Van Leeuwen had also lost his enthusiasm of two
decades ago for strengthening the armed forces. In 1936, Dutch founded a committee Let
op uw Saeck, similar to the earlier Indie Weerbaar. At least one FTS wrote to Van

'VAN LEEUWENU934). 143 JTApr. 1935.90.
! 7W/ Apr. 1936. 85.

\n 1913, Malang still had Javanese members; VAN H1NLOOPEN LABDERTON{1913C). 121.
J Computed from TiNI March 1936. 46-7.

! VAN LEEUWEN0934), 147-8. Prospectus van "Algemeene Centrale Bank"-N.V.\ included
with TiNI 1934. RANI. 1940. 496.

''Brief van den Voorzitter', TiNI Aug. 1935, 133.
7 RANI 1933. 61; 67.
*riM Apr. 1935,59.

364

V.2

Home rule Independence

365

Leeuwen that he should have been more positive towards it. 1

Already in Dec. 1928, Jong-Java had decided to merge with the all-Indonesia youth
league Pemoeda Indonesia; against the objections of founder Satiman, 1 Budi Utomo
merged with other groups in 1935. The name of the new merger party, Partai Indonesia
Raya, Great Indonesia Party, marked a break with Javanese nationalism like
Soeriokoesoemo's. Socially, it was still conservative.' Its chairman became one of BlTs
early leaders, Raden Soetomo. He had known Van Hinioopen Labberton well and had
contributed to Wederopbouw. In 1924, he had founded a we ii -known study group as a
less controversial sequel to Satiman's Javanese Intellectuals' League. Bupaii
Woerjaningrat became vice-chairman. Was he then still an FTS as earlier on?'

Tabrani in 1933 became chairman of the journalists' league PERDI? In 1936, his PR!
finished. Then, in his daily Pemandangan, he supported the petition of Volksraad
member Soetardjo, which asked the Dutch government for more autonomy.' In 1940,
Tabrani had a conflict with the nationalist leader and Volksraad vice president Thamrin,
and changed bis job from Pemandangan to the government publicity service. After 1940
he no longer was PERDI chairman. He was suspected of supplying the government with
information which led to Thamrin's 1941 arrest; Thamrin died five days afterwards.'

A.J. Hamersier, former Indies government official and TS treasurer in Adyar, went
to Ceylon as a Buddhist monk in the I930's. He wrote in Malta Bodlti with James Arthur
as his pen name.

In 1932, (he Netherlands Indies governmeni sent Ong Soc Aan, chairman of the CM
Lojo TS lodge in Bandung, to Madras to study opium policy. Ong also went to Adyar.
There, Jinarajadasa introduced him to another Malta Bodlu author, the Buddhist monk
Narada Thera from Ceylon. Narada had a speaking tour of Indonesia's TS lodges in
1934, converting many to his religion. According to (em Brown, that mission was 'of
singular importance' to the history of Buddhism in Indonesia." Two years later.
Jinarajadasa came.

''Brief van den Voomller N. I. T, V.', TiNI Ian 1937, 2.

2 PLUVIER, 152. VAN MIERT<1995). 334.

Sociomo's opening speech, first Parmdra congress, 25 Dec. 1935: Parindra 'makes the best
effon to woo them [the upper priyayi [interpolation by Anderson]] so that their dedication to the land
and ihe people could be accelerated according to their own darnta, thai is, the darma of a iruc
ksalrya according to their aristocratic blood.' Quoted Benedict O'Gorman Anderson. 'A time of
darkness and a lime of light: Transposition in Early Indonesian Nationalist Thought', in
RE1DMARR, 218-48;246.

'LARSON(1987). 168,

5 PLUVIER, 166,

6 TABRAN1(1974), 307. PLUV1ER, 123. Ibid,, 124f; militant nationalists were originally
divided on the petition, but most ended up supporting it.

'L DEJONG, vol. Hal, 571-5.

'VAN LEEUWENU934), 145. BROWN. 9-11; 16. 77W Nov. 1934. 123: this was 'the Occult
Hierarchy's plan' for Java.

Also in 1934 and 1936, the leading US theosophist Geoffrey Hodson visited Java.
The second time, he spoke not only to theosophical . but also to Rotary branches.
Mangkoe Negoro VII invited him to a wayang performance, and later to a dance, at his
palace. 1 Hodson was not that positive on his slay; what struck him in particular were
many animal sacrifices and much black magic among the people of Java. : He remarked
on contacts between humble favanese and their august supernatural beings, like the
goddess of the Southern Sea:

It appears unlikely (hat any ordinary Fourth ['Atlamean'] Root-Race man would contact these

great Beings. 3

In 1939, Hodson wrote in the TS press of Australia and Indonesia, on that year's
contradiction between 'democratic' and 'totalitarian' governments. He thought;

It is clear that a compromise between the democraiic ideal's complete freedom of thought and
action, and the lolaluarian stale's complete subjection of (he individual to (he state will have lo
hi: lound. ... What will be the solution '' As I have already made clear, it will be benevolent and
wise autocracy. Autocracy rules in the inner worlds Autocracy rules in the Inner Government
of llie world. And a lime will conic, when wlial is esoteric now. will become exoteric. The
Toltecs' Golden Age will be repeated once more on this planet

The Dutch East Indies TS' executive consisted of Sister van Blommeslein-Land',
nine Dutch men. of whom Van Leeuwen was chairman and l-ournier vice-chairman, one
Chinese, and three Javanese, in 1937/ Next year, after 25 years, the theosophical
teachers' training school had to close down because of finances. Tlteosofte in
Nederlandsch-litdie mentioned plans thai the 1942 theosophical world congress would be
in 'J A V A!!!!!!"

Then other visitors came, though. The few thousand Indonesians, whom the army
Conscripted [hen 25 years after Indie Weerbaar, could not stop them. Thirty-one years
.iticr joining the TS, Susuhunan Pakoc Boewono XI died in 1944. One oral tradition says:
i>f poison, for not accommodating enough to the Japanese army.'

After 1945, (he TS was suspect to Indonesians, because of the connection with the

'T/M June 1936,98.

! VAN LEEUWEN(1934), 144. 'Occult experiences in Java'; TT. March 1937.

3 G. Hodson, 'A Devi of the Southern Seas', TT Apr. 1937, 52,

A Tlteosopky in Australia, Apr.-May 1939; TiNI June-July 1939. 183. Toltecs, according iu
Annie Besam, were a sub-race of the 'Atlamean race' whose zenith was millions of years ago
Historians: an Amerindian people, whose empire in what is now Mexico was about AD 1000.

s They were Raden Mas Koesoemodihardjo, Soemardjo, and Kadiroen Mangocnpoernomo,
TiNI, July 1937, 1 14. Kadiroen was president of the central Jakarta Djokeno lodge; M. Soehano
was its secretary. TiNI Dec. 1934, 152

'TIM Nov. 1938, 188.

'Persona! communication of Donald Tick, Vlaardingen.

366 V.2

Dutch. 1 The prewar name Annie Besant Square in Semarang (like Olcott Park in
Bandung, Blavatsky Park immediately west of Koningsplein, renamed Merdeka Square,
in Jakarta) disappeared from the city map. 1 The road signs with Mrs Besant's name are
still there in Madras. In this too, Indonesia differed from India, even though Jawaharlal
Nehru, looking back, still criticized Annie Besant's policies,

3.CONCLUSIONS OF PART V

As for our question on apoliticism, the many connections we have found with Indian
politics clearly answer it in the negative. This is also true for Indonesia; though there,
decline in membership and influence in the 1930's did mark a retreat from politics
compared to earlier on. In Ceylon, national independence was not high on the political
agenda until the I930's, when TS influence had declined much. The party putting it on
the agenda, the LSSP, was primarily an internationalist labour, not a nationalist, party.

Now, our second question, on die TS' position in the political spectrum as far as
naiional movements are concerned. Both in India and Indonesia 1918 marked a zenith in
influence While very soon afterwards, in India Annie Besant clashed with Congress on
non-co-operation, in Indonesia this became an acute conflict later, though perhaps leaving
more marks, in the 1920's, The TS in India allied itself with the co-operalionist Liberals.
In Indonesia, relations were good with socially conservative, not sharply anti-colonial
'ethnic' nationalists of Java and West Sumatra.

In Indonesia, the conflict with the labour movement preceded the one with (he
national movement', while it was rather the other way round in India.

Now, individuals' opinions. When Sinnett, after joining the TS, wrote more posi-
tively on Indians in his daily The Pioneer, Master KM in a letter complimented hi in
'Such is the first political fruit of the society you have the honour to belong to,'' 1 More
shifts of this type probably happened. They were mainly limited to views on elites among
non-Europeans though, seen as 'Aryan'; not to views on for instance Javanese hill area
villagers. They also had less to do with theosophists' views on home rule or
independence, than with views on 'race* theories. To go deeper into this would require a
part of its own.

'GEERTZ(I960). 342, Ibid,. 340: in Pare, during die post- 1945 war, Duicli and pro-Dulcli
Indonesian police chiefs, both in the TS. formed the Budi Selio meditation group, wjih an tX\-priyayi
membership. In 1934, Sapardjo was secretary of the Pare TS lodge; TiNI Dec. 1934, 153
STEVENS(1994), 361; in 1961, Rosicrucians, Freemasons, and Rotary were banned in Indonesia.

Personal communication from Prof. Bambang Hidayat in Lembang.

3 Quotcd TT June 1932. 350. In 1879, HPB refused to print in TT, as a 'religious* paper, a
complaint about unfair treatment of Indians in the Civil Service, though she sympathized with its
contents. BCW, II, 161. In July 1886, Sinnett wrote in the Transactions of the London TS Lodge thai
the people of India 'are on a somewhat lower level of cosmic evolution'. HPB opposed this: 'How
many times have I told you that if, as a race, they [Indians] are lower than Europeans it is only
physically and in the matter of clvilizalion or rather what you yourselves have agreed to regard as
civilization * 7M(1951>, 1)2.

368

PART VI.THE WHITE BROTHERHOOD: HOW ABOUT SISTERHOOD?

1 .WOMEN IN RELIGIONS AND IN THE TS

At the TS' time of foundation, women were subordinate in most religions. Their
subordination in society and religious community was religiously sanctioned.

Even so, many saw religion as a suitable field of activity for women; usually, if their
needed activities were on lower levels of it, 1 like passing on religious values to sons, or
scrubbing church floors.

When the Theosophical Society started in New York in 1875, two out of sixteen
members were women. Of the first 24 Australian FTS joining 1879-1883, not one was a
woman. 2 However, this gradually changed, until in (he 1920's women were a slight
majority of Australian members, though a minority of officials. 1 Since 1888, 'without
distinction of sex' had been in the TS Objects. 4

How did their fathers, husbands, etc , who, according to the ideology of society as it
was, were supposed to 'keep them in line', see their theosophical activity? Sir Edwin
Lutyens, the only honorary ITS, mixed positive and negative feelings. 5 He wrote on his
wife Lady Emily and Annie Bcsanf

She has courage -her astral reincarnation theory frightens me- hut. 10 ihe point, she ha:.

absorbed this summer all my wife's energies in her propaganda. All 1 can say itiai is belter than

Suffragettes!! 4

Other husbands might like a 'suitable activity' for wives as they might other religious
activity. The wives, however, could do it at a more equal level -sometimes: an equal
level- with men than in the great majority of other religious activity. This made the TS
attractive to religion-minded women at a lime when some old barriers fell, and others
started to show cracks.

At the same time, the TS did not require that they broke with social virtues.

'LEADBEATER(I922), 369: 'They look on religion as a nice sort of ihing to aniuie the ladies'
One can think of treasures of the Vatican, paid for by tases the Papal Stale levied on ihe many
prostitutes attracted by the many pilgrims to Rome. There is a certain parallel fo cooking: women do
the bulk of it, unpaid; once it gets paid, and certainly if highly paid, men do most of it,

J ROE, 14.

5 ROE, 185: in 1918/19.97 men, 133 women joined Australia's TS. In 5928/29. 25 each. ROE,
182f: 1891-1925 32% of lodge presidents and secretaries; 18% of presidents only, were women. Jn
die ft, Loma TS community, 63% were women in 1900, 58% in 1910; S.M, WRIGHT, 37. On die
1900-10 drop, she has a general theory oF 'need for "male labor'"; she docs noi tesi it for ihe Loma
TS case.

"JINA RAJA DASACI 925), 249.
S E. LUTYENS, 37f.
'HUSSEY. 172,

Women in religions and in the TS

369

traditionally reserved for women (like 'chastity, sacrifice',' 'self-sacrifice' 2 }. These were
asked for in many religions, 3 especially from women; sometimes by other women higher
up, but mostly by men higher up, who apparently had to sacrifice less.
■ Women's high visibility in the TS made some of its opponents use sexism as an
'argument',' They spoke of it as 'hysterical women', or. more subtly, disapproving that
its leaders were not all male as they ought to be: '{the TS'] leading men- I should say
women.'*

Did this mean that there was no difference between the types of activities of men, and
of women, theosophists? In 1918, Mrs Corporaal-van Achterbergh of the Dutch East
Indies suggested there was; in the sense that women's activities were internal, while
practical application in the wider social and political spheres was almost exclusively an
all-male affair. 6

This part is rather small, as I found in my sources more information on women's
movements in Europe than on Asia. 1 limited the European part lo what was necessary as
background to Asia.

'Motibai E. Batlivala, 'Theosophy and Womanhood', AdB Dec. 1908. 370-1.

2 7T Sept. 1913, 936, FARWERCK-BORR1US, 4: 'woman ... as far as self-sacrifice is
concerned, surely in general, can and will give more llian man.' According lo John Smart Mills On
the Subjection of Women equal rights between men and women would lake away ihis 'extreme self-
sacrifice, which is the unreal ideal of feminine nature now' and equalize men and women as regards
self-sacrifice, Chrislabel Pankhurst's 1913 remark, quoied READ, 298: "Sacrifice yourself,
sacrifice yourself,' is a cry that has lost its power over women." was loo oplimisiic.

John Sluart Mill, ibid., ascribed much of the difference between men and women in tendencies
towards self-sacrifice, lo philosophies and religions.

'BOLLANDCig] I). 123 approvingly quoted Olcolts criticism of an 1879 HPB article. Bolland
thought it 'an extremely female hotchpotch' ('een buiiengewoon vrouwelijk hutspoije').

J L.UNS, 6. 'Hysterical': ROHM, 77; ibid., 21: he held her divorce against AB, The social
democrat KOCH(1915) saw as one category of TS members: 'women, or rather: ladies, who are
cither unmarried or unhappily married, and, for want of a husband, embrace theosophical doctrine.'

*CORPORAAL-VAN ACHTERBERGH, 1 18: 'And now, within the Theosophical Society, this
is the peculiar phenomenon: while in all of the Theosophical Society one finds a striving to apply the
knowledge one has acquired in practice, in work within society, in imitation of our president's
[AB's] work, this really is true only for our male members, while Ihe female ones are practically
completely out of this'.

370

VI. 2

Annie Besant

371

2.MADAME BLAVATSKY

What were ihe views of the 'mother and creator of the Society'. Helena Petrovna
Blavatskaja. on women? Meade tends to see HPB as an ti -feminist; 1 Roe as pro-feminist 5 .
Her views were complex; for instance

H.P.B. always (old me thai her successor would be a woman, long before Annie Besanl had

become a member of die T.S.

On the other hand, in the Mahatma Utters: 'Verily woman is a dreadful calamity in

(his fifth race.'* And in the Secret Doctrine

the pure maleuess is purely divine and spiritual, while the female in a sense is polluted by

matter it is, indeed, matter, and therefore an evil. 5

When' Madame Blavatsky wrote on the T$' Three Objects, she omitted the recent
addition of 'without distinction of sex.' 6

What were views on abortion, inside and outside the Theosophical Society? A doctor
from Colorado, who had joined the still few US theosophisis. asked Madame Blavatsky:

"Is Foeticide a Crime?" Not thai I personally have any serious doubts about (he unlawfulness ol
such an act but the custom prevails to such an extern in the United Siaies that there are
comparatively only few persons who car, see any wrong in it. Medicines for this purpose arc
openly advertised and sold; in "respectable families" the ceremony is regularly performed
every year, and the family physician who would presume to refuse to undertake the job, would
be peremptory dismissed, lo be replaced by a more accommodating one. 1 have conversed with
physicians, who have no more conscientious scruples to produce an abortion, than to administer
a physic, on the oilier hand (here are certain iracis from orthodox (Chrisuanl channels published
against this practice: but they arc mostly so ovcidrawn ...

Madame Blavatsky replied: 'Theosophy in general answers' 'At no age as under no
circumstance whatever is murder justifiable!'" Not because of 'one or another orthodox
ism', but as abortion was a 'crime against nature*, 'interference with the operation of
nature, hence-with KARMA', and 'double suicide' .

'MEADE, 24; 107.

! As do ELLWOOD and WESSINGER(I993). Roe overrates the significance of the goddess Ists
in a title- as with Omm the use of female {SNYDER, 347: 'Ostara ... the Teutonic god of beauty' is
wrong) deities' names is no guarantee of feminism; nor was its cdiior Von Licbenfcls' inspiration by
HPB.

] WACHTMEISTER(1989), 52. Ai first, she had thought of American Mrs Holloway; MEADE.

294.

*Ma)tatma Letters, 421 .

s Quoted MOERLAND(1989), 8. 'Master DK'. quoted Alice Bailey, quoted PR1CE(1986A). 23,
spoke of the wiser, inner aspect of HPB as He, the exterior side as she.

6 BLAVATSKY{1987), 39.

7l Is Foeticide a Crime', 77, Aug. 1883. 282-3.

For, indeed, when even successful and the mother does not die just then, it still shortens her lift-
on earth to prolong it with dreary percentage in Kamatoka. ... Of course die sceptic of
whatever class will sneer at our notions and call them absurd superstitions and "unscientitu
twaddle". But we do not write for sceptics. '
Madame Blavatsky not only opposed the feminist view on the right to abortion, 7 but

aiso breaking down (he barriers between sexes. As is evident in her attack we mentioned

earlier on the Russian "nihilist' democrats:

The names of John Stuart Mill, Darwin, and BQchner. were upon the lips of every beardless Inn,'
and every heedless girl at the universities and colleges. The former were preaching Nihilism,
the latter Women's Rights and Free Love ... The one let their hair grow lite muzhiks (peasants),
the other clipped their hair short and affected blue spectacles ,.. 4

Indian child marriage appalled HPB as an individual; she never campaigned for iis
abolition though. 1 She did not criticize orthodox Hindus' ban on widows remarrying:

If a female has entered the marital relation, she should, in my opinion, remain a chasle widow,
if her husband should die.'

3.ANNIE BESANT FROM 'FULL-FLEDGED FEMINIST* TO DELICATE BALANCE

l My first public lecture should be on behalf of my own sex', Annie Besant wrote or (tit;
1874 beginning of her career. 7 During her pre-1889 period, she had literary, but hardly
organizational influence on the young movement of women:

the women's suffrage movement did nol dare accept her, a militant anti-Christian, among iheii

ranks 5

In pamphlets like Marriage in 1882, she attacked violent husbands. In her Out
Corner magazine, she wrote on subjects like 'Some Advanced Women in the Past', and
'Anti-Slavery Women'. 9 Reva Pollock Greenburg considers her, in the time before slit

'ibid,. 283. Kamatoka is (he equivalent in theosophy of purgatory in Christian theology.

^Anarchist Emma Goldman, for instance, who left the Russian empire for the US like IIP)!,
though of poor parents, propagated pro-choice views on abortion in ihe late nineteenth ceiitiny.
CUMBEY, 41; 59, opposing both occultism and abortion, wrongly lumps them together in hci
cons pi racy -led -by- Satan theory.

'Russian universities then did not take girls, heedless or not.
'"The history of a 'book". BCW, II, 359f,

5 MEADE. 207; 480, Unlike Van Hinloopen Labberton in Indonesia; see p. 285,
''Madame Blavatsky on Hindu widow-remarriage*, TT, Aug. 1931, 639.
7 BESANT(I893). 181.

S D1NNAGE(1986), 31. Her speeches and free speech court cases attracted many young women
though.

"POLLOCK GREENBURG, 15.

372

VI. 3
i

joined the TS, 'the first full-fledged feminist'. And:

In demanding reproductive rights and sexual satisfaction for women, Annie Besant was clearly a

century ahead of her times, 1
■ W.P. Ball, a fellow freethinker opposed to her socialism, wrote of Annie Besant:

like most women, at the mercy of her last male acquaintance for her views on economics ...
Her 188S reaction to this was 'stupendous male self-conceit'. And her theosophic 1893
reaction to her 1885 reaction: 'A foolish paragraph'.' Nethercot in a way echoed Ball,
when he looked for the:

clue ... [to] her mutable career ())... she yearned to be a martyr. [2JAl the same lime she was

extremely susceptible to outside personal influences, particularly of a masculine nature.

Annie Besant's joining the TS marked a ceasing or lowering of her involvement in
progressive movements, women's movements among them. Madame Blavatsky objected
to contraception, as it interfered with souls seeking reincarnation. 6 She changed Besam's
earlier views on birth control to 'restriction of the sexual relation to the perpetuation of
the race'. 7 She made Mrs Besant wididraw her pre-TS book T)ie law of population .

According to Reva Pollock Greenburg, Annie Besant:

ceased publication of The [.aw nt Pouplalion Isicl and refused to sell the copyright, depriving
(he public of one of the few explicit and inexpensive manuals on binh control, and one of the
few well-reasoned argumenls in favour of feminine control on reproduction

'POLLOCK GREENBURG. 13.

2 POLLOCK GREENBURG, 15.

S BESANT(1893), 3 1 5f.

4 lbid. Contrary ioOREN. 90 she did not write, only quoted, (he 'self-conceit' in 1893.

5 NETHERCOT(l%3). llf; CLEATH£R(I922A), 19-20 agrees; TAYLOR0992). 161; 290
disputes this. Engels wrote to German socialist Kaulsky on Annie Besani; 'Mother B. always is of
ihe religion of the man who has subjected her.' MEW. vol. 38 (Berlin: Diet*, 1968), 191; letter to
Karl Kaulsky (Stuttgart). London, 25 October 1891 . 190-1 . Sylvia Pankhursi's biographer Patricia
Romero has a similar doubtful theory on her subject. AB's feminist biographer Rosemary Dinnagc
has a son of no n -sexist variation on Ball's theme: DINNAGE. 51: 'latest set of beliefs from the
laicst strong personality', Besani herself suggested Edward Aveling had become a socialist, as he had
fallen in love with Eleanor Marx: TAYLOR(1992), 165-6 Things may work Ihe other way around
if one moves from one social environment an d/or philosophy lo another (see p. 73), one may become
attracted lo different types of people than before.

'ROE. 311.

7 BESANT(I893), 243, AB quoted TILLETTU982), 89. 77\ March 1913, 954, in a positive
review of a book by Swedish eugenics theorist Ellen Key 'the sex-function should only be used for
die sacred purpose of generalioo.' St. Augustine already had this view in ihe 5th century A, D. in his
De bono conjugii (On good marriage).

"POLLOCK GREENBURG, 15, Annie Besant used the words: 'entirely in the hands of the
woman 1 . Quoted ibid, MAC MILLAN, 25 wrote of AB's TS days in India thai she may have
scandalized the establishment 'because she advocated free love or birth control.* That, however, was
during a different period in her life, though some people never forget.

Annie Besant

1X1

Ursula Bright, the wife of the Liberal M..P. Jacob Bright, set up the Equal Frain.lii.M-
Committee. Later, though, the Committee collapsed, as

Mrs Bright, like Annie Besant. became increasingly involved with Theosophy and left worldly
concerns to others. '

Just before a new upturn in the women's suffrage movement, and a leftward turn by
Annie Besant, she wrote:

Woman claims the right to labour, but very often she lias forgotten that employers can play upon

certain characteristics of ihe woman that nothing can alier, because they are fundamental and

natural.

After thai upturn, Annie Besant and other Co-masons took part as a group in a big
London suffrage procession. June 17th 1911. 3 Three years later, at a time of climax for
the pre- World War 1 women's movement (and other mass movements), Mrs Besant spoke
lo a packed Albert Hall. The audience applauded her. they saw her as a veteran; though
dissent sounded from the crowd when she wanted a compromise with Asquiih's Liberal
Party. 4 To Besani's indignation, Chrisiabel Pankhurst made theosophic suffragettes
choose between the TS and suffragism, 1

Allowing more space to opponents of her personal sympathies here than with some
oilier issues, trying more scrupulously to maimain the TS' political neutrality, Besani
thought: 'an ami-suffrage society would also be in order' for iheosophisis, 6

When Annie Besant praised Madame Blavatsky in 1918, she said her teacher had 'a
lion's heart and a male brain'. 7 In 1925 AR

wrole an ariiclc 10 launch ihe League of Motherhood, but this was never used as I found lhal

many feminists resented the tone of it and 1 did nol myself think it quite suitable. The League of

POLLOCK GREENBURG, 27. This recalls a question wc have already discussed for Annie
Besani; a shift 'away from politics' upon becoming a thcosophist 7 Or towards a different type in
politics?

^ESANT^IOC), 99. Much earlier, in BESANT(1876), 7. though; 'pay women, for the same
work, the same wage that men receive; let sex be no disqualification; let women be trained to labour,
and educated for self-support.'

J E. LUTYENS, 32-3.

4 BESANT(I9I4B). RAEBURN.236.

S TT July 1914, 469. NETHERC0T(1963), 344 suggests she supported the OSE in the 1920s;
but she Ihen was a more traditional, Adventist, Christian. Sylvia PANKHURST{1931), 90. on her
mother Emmeline, suggests a follow-up to 1880's friction: 'Annie Besani, then active in the same
cause, whose short skirts and short hair Mrs. Pankhursl thought hideous.' Ibid., 91: It was said that
... Mme. Blavatsky, had been seen to extend her arm to abnormal length, in order to light a cigarette
at the gas jet in the ceiling. Mrs. Pankhursl and her sisters atiended some of the seances, but nothing
remarkable happened during their presence, Mrs. Pankhurst was completely skeptical and dismissed
Blavatsky's occuli phenomena as mere imposture.'

'TTMay 1914, 158f.

7 7MW, 1918, 283.

374

VI. 3

Motherhood ncvei materialized but i wrote a book called The Call of the Mother ..,'
Margaret Cousins quoted what Annie Besam had said to her: 'You can work better

with women than I can, you know them better.' 5

According to Jinarajadasa, Annie Besant during her last years before 1933 did not

want to stay a woman:

She has her eyes fixed on the future, particularly on a swift rebirth in an Indian body. Her
preference is for a Kshattriya body -of course, a male one- for she says that in her inmost nature
she is a Warrior. 1

Both outright opponents of the women's movement and militant feminists were
minorities in tlie TS. Annie Besant's later views agreed with this.

A. FIGHTING VICE 1

One can observe the shift in Annie Besant's views on women in general also in her
specific views on prostitutes,

Anti-prostimiion crusades, in which he joined forces with the Salvation Army, were a
favourite cause of Annie Besant's colleague. William T. Stead;* and of many others at the
I9lh century's cud Opinions on the subject differed, though. Ellen Ross discusses

social purity leader Cilice Hopkins and feminist Josephine Butler (in Britain in (he I870's-80's).

.. Both did "rescue work" among prostitutes, but Butler deplored Hopkins's antivice crusades.

Butler's movement was explicitly feminist and was committed to defending (he civil rights of the

same prostitutes whom Hopkins was trying to drive off the streets.'

In her atheist and later also socialist days, Annie Besant based herself on Josephine
Butler, whose 'heroism equalled by few women or by few men either" she admired. She
thought

Ladies in the upper classes have no conception of the stress and agony that drives many a
forlorn girl "on the streets". If some of (Item would try whal life is like when i< consists of
making shirts at three halfpence each (cotton not provided) and starving on (he money earned,
they would perhaps learn to speak more gently of "(hose horrid women".'
Annie Besant then did not consider prostitutes as really at a lower moral level than
many of the married women;

"If a woman may not earn a living by selling her labour," she wrote "she must earn it by

'E. LUTYENS, 127.
1 C0US1NS(1934),391.
3 1W.7T March 1933, I,
4 WILSON(1970), 63.

Tigris. Autumn 1992, 146, review of Judith R. Walkowitz, City of dreadful delight. Narratives
of Sexual Danger in Late-Victorian London. Virago, 1992.
'8ESANTU876), 1.
'BESANT(1876). 7.

Annie Besant

375

selling het body, and it triages comparatively little difference, if she be forced to sell her.vll.
whefher the sale is Tor life or for a term. Marriage for an establishment is as loathsome as sjl'-
for a night". Few feminists or socialists were prepared to state the case in such strong tenii', '

When Madame Blavatsky reviewed Alexandre Dumas fils' plea in favour of volinr
rights for women, she strongly objected to his view that the profession of prostitutf
should be legal. 1 A quarter of a century later, Annie Besant addressed her theosophu
followers as follows:

There are women amongst you pure and clean and good: there are women in the streets wh-r
lack every virtue you possess. Oh. your purity would be brighter iTyou shared with the impair.
and tried to raise your sisters to that which is the blessing of your own lives.

Her approach had shifted from differences in level of finance to differences in level
of virtue; from women with bad or good luck, to women in the perspective of meaningful
karma. To Annie Besant now. anti-prostitution was central to (he women's movement;

that heroic struggle . the terrible battle against prostitution. And the fight against piosiiiucmn

was also partly won, but there is very much mote to do in that, and that is one of the ruHim

why the women's vote is wanted so badly.''

Dutch Past Indies General Secretary' D, van Hinloopen Labbcrton thoLght:

Work is one of the best waj s of education. In Semarang, I saw in the women's prison how iIk
morality improved by weaving and banking. Also in fighiing prostitution, one finds th.n iln
Native woman needs only the bolero (weaving lath) or the tjanting {little wax | pen -like) iiij-.i
inorder to Torgel all sensuality, and to return to a chaste way of life. 5

The question for Rukmini Devi Arundale at the start of her successful career :i , :i
dancer and dance group leader was not so much prohibiting prostitution as disianmv
herself from it. She made Tamil Nadu's Bharata Natya dancing respectable by doin^. it
herself; before, it had been 'practised exclusively by the courtesans'.'

'POLLOCK GREENBURG. 17, quoted and comments WIER1NGA(I995), 80: Indoti: i.m
Suwarni Pringgodigdo slated the question similarly in 1933.

l BCW. vol. II, 5)2f: A French view of women's rights': 517.

'BESANT(I91IQ, 39.

'BESANTdgilB). 1.

5 'De nieuwe strafwetgeving voor Ncdcrlandsch-lndie'. TMNI, 1918, 50, 'Oproep', TMNI 19? .
175, called on readers to fight all sex outside marriage: "fight prostitution. neo-Mallhusianism (bn ill
control), homosexuality and all other forms of vice in deed. word, or thought.'

6 N. Subrahmaniam, 'Rukmini Arundale', RAY, vol. 1, 57. J. Michael Kennedy. CIS. Ifo
1992, 333, writes of 'Brahmanised Bharathanatyam'. The quesiion of distancing themselves al.u
came with Indian Congress women street demonstrators, whom their enemies compared to 'street
women' in the sense of prostitutes. Gandhi told prostitutes wanting to join the Congress to dianpf
their profession first; THAPAR, 87. C0USINS(1941), 70: 'the Devadasi or dancing girl heard th
call of Mahatmaji (Gandhi) and left her vocation braving the treatment she might be given by liei

376
4.INDIA

VI. 4

One influence on theosophy, orthodox Hinduism, in its doctrines had barriers against the
equality of women.' In Lucifer, a Hindu defended death by fire for widows, and prohibit-
ing widows from re-marrying. 2 Bernard, the former French Joint GS, defended orthodox
Hinduism on women's position within it, basing this on reincarnation theory. 1

G.N. Chakravarti, a leading Indian member of the TS and later an important adviser
of Annie Besant, wrote an article against a Madras runaway wife. In it. he asserted male
authority in marriage,' A critical reaction to this by Captain Banon appeared in a later
issue. 1

In India, in 1893, the year Annie Besant first came there, 'for the first time native
ladies would attend the coming convention' of the TS. 6 Krishna Dasa commented on
Besam's views of Indian women's issues:

site ... rushed to the defence and sometimes deprecated interference even with customs (like
child marriage and enforced widowhood), which were really against the Hindu Shasiras. lest
the high spiritual and sacramental ideal on which the institution of marriage and the relation
bcrwecn husband and wife were based in the Hindu Shastras be lowered. 1
Catherine Wessinger calls this 'a complete reversal of Bcsant's feminist stance, taken as a
young atheist', 6

In the Adyar Bulletin of Dec. 1908, 370-1. Motibai £. Batlivala wrote ' Theosophy
and Womanhood'. It was one orthe very few articles by an Indian woman in theosophical
magazines, though by then many Indians and many women were writing in them. In those
times, outside the TS, quite some Indian women wrote in magazines 9

Jawaharlal Nehru's sister, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, remembered 1916. the year of

"respectable" fellow prisoners: but I saw the most orthodox of Brahmin women mingling socially,
even eating with her, while she wept as she was being released because her Satyagrahi sisters had
treated her as a Soul and an equal,' ibid., 89, favoured the abolition of devadasis. A devadasi.
linked to a Hindu temple, is nol a prostitute in the commercial sense.

'OELC. June 1939, quotes from the Vishnu Purana.

'Kali Prasanna Mukeyji, F. T. S. in LucL VHI, 504-5. No reactions to this article appeared

"BERNARD. In 1904, he became TS Branch Inspector in India; TS General Report on 1904,
16.

''Hindu Marriage', 7TOct. 1888, 53f.

S 7T March 1889,365-9.

6 NETHERCOT(L963), 17

7 M, 25-8-1924, 14. On widow remarriage, she clashed with reformer Hans Raj; HEIMSATH.

*WESSINGER(1990), 32.

9 BANNERJI studied them in Bengal (where theosophy was relatively weak) and in the social
reform movement (which Annie Besant opposed). In the TS' early years in India, the Maharanee
Surmonoyee gave it a financial contribution; BCW, III, 3.

327.

India

377

upturn: 'Women like Annie Besant and Sarojini Naidu filled me with the ambition to Ik-
like them'. 1 She then went to the Lucknow Congress to hear them: 'I was their devoted
"fan"'. Being only sixteen year old, she could not join Annie Besant's Home Rule
League. 1 Padmini Sengupta claims about many Indian women that 'The internment ot
Annie Besant ... had the effect of bringing women belligerently into the political arena'. 1
At the 1917 Calcutta Congress session, where Annie Besant became the first woman
president: 'About 400 ladies were present.' 4

In 1919, Mrs Besant was in a women's deputation to the government with Sarojini
Naidu. and two women from one of India's richest families, Mrs Herabal Tata and Miss
Mithan Tata. The deputation's talks led to permission for provinces to decide whether ot
not women should have the right to vote. 5 Gandhi's supporter Vithalbhai Patel accused
Besant about 1920 of not working hard for women's suffrage. 6 That Madras province got
women voting first, in 1921 (the last province, Bihar, followed suit in 1929), one may
inierprel as a sign that the TS did have some positive influence there.'

'PANDIT, 59.

^PANDIT. 62. The Home Rule League had a Women's Branch; AGNEW(1979), 35.

3 SENGUPTA. 137 and 147-8; MAJUMDAR(1969). 253. on the participation of women as a
special feature of the Home Rule League.

'MUTHANNA. 210. There, Annie Besant said. 'The strength of the Home Rule Movement was
rendered tenfold greater by (he adhesion to ii of a large number of women who brought lo its
helping the uncalculating heroism, the endurance, the self- sacrifice, of the feminine nature': quoted
SITARAMAYYA(1969), I30. There had been women members of (he Indian National Congress
from ils inception'; C0US1NS(I9<1 1), 27-8.

S SENGUPTA, 156; MAJUMDAR/RAYCHAUDHURl/DATTA, 967; C0US1NS(194I), 35.
Ibid.. 32-3: (he first Indian women's deputation 10 a British government official was in 1917, Then.
Sarojini Naidu, Margaret Cousins and others spoke lo Montagu. The vote was added as an
afterthought. Cousins wrote, ibid,, 34: 'But in my own heart 1 thought it would be a century before
Indian women would understand, or be interested in polilical matters. I entirely under-rated Indian
mentality in (hat second year of my residence in India. '

6 MUTHANNA, 275. NETHERCOT(1963), 299: Despard then wrote to India, defending her.
OREN, 90: 'Some critics charged thai Annie Besant diluted her feminism when she moved lo India
in 1894.* Gandhi, though opposing birth control devices, in speeches and writings mostly supported
women's rights: P. Joshi (compilation). Gandhi on women. New Delhi, Centre Tor Women's
Development Studies, 1988.

'Vijay AGNEW(1979), 1 13-4, also suggests the presence of Annie Besant and Margaret Cousins
made a difference in Madras presidency. In 1881, before Annie Besant came, Madras province was
already ahead of the rest of India in women's education; MATHUR(1973). 37, COUSINS(194I),
36: the vole was for 'women who possessed equal qualiftcations-a certain amount of literacy,
property, age, payment of taxes, length of residence. ' Ibid., 64-5 and 73: in 1923, only one million
women had the vole; in 1936. five million. In Madras presidency, only 1% of women met with the
strict qualification conditions; still, that was higher than anywhere else in India; AGNEW(1979),
113. Madras' percentage for male electors was 11.6. COUSINS(1941), 44 and 72: in 1941 Indian
women wete still dissatisfied with franchise qualifications like 'wifehood', though, according to
Cousins, they 'favoured literacy qualification'. Cousins contrasted Indian men's, especially

378

VIA

India

379

The Liberal Catholic bishop and future TS president George Arundale defended
ceremonial conservatism, adding ideas on 30's society:

... each woman is a temple of Motherhood ... how can any woman envy us who are within this
[LCC] Sanctuary when she is an Altar, when she is a Priest, when she is a Sacrament, when she
is an Offering all in one? Unfortunately in the world today women do noi realize this splendid
priesdiood. Some of them seek after other priesthoods ... War ... unemployment., these crimes
exist in our midst in no small degree because woman has forgotten, or perchance does not yet
know, her mission, her power, her purpose. ... Men will execute, but women will inspire, and
until women do inspire the world must surely continue 10 suffer.

Rukmini Devi Arundale was practically the only exception to the rule that no Indian
women wrote in TT. In a Lcadbeater experiment, a novelty for Hinduism, she also
figqrcd as female purohit [officiating priest] . The experiment succeeded, Leadbcater
wrote: the blue-throated Dcva 3 appeared,

Rukmini Devi Arundale said in her 1936 congress speech

In modern limes, many people do not understand; they think that woman must he an exact
likeness of man ... What many women want is freedom to be equal with man in his vices, the
freedom of licence ...
Rukmini applied her husband's ideas to the sphere of tndian politics'

Unfortunately, many women who are active in work in the ouler world tend io become
somewhat hard, and even, 1 might say. unwomanly ... women must be womanly just as men
should be manly. The world suffers when woman strips herself of the womanliness and tends to
become masculine. Often her masculinity is worse than the man's. A woman veiy strongly
represents in herself the spirit or the home, and that spirit must never be lost .. We often hear
people saying thai such-and-such an Indian woman is a splendid speaker, is taking part in
politics, is a great worker in the cause of India, 1 sometimes wonder if some of ihese women are
really helping India. May they not sometimes, in fact, though not in intention, be hindering our
Motherland? 11
In the 1930's Indian Central Legislative Assembly, Bliagavan Das opposed the

politicians', relative lack of resistance to women's suffrage favourably to her earlier experiences in
England and Ireland: COUSlNS(194l). 38, Until 1926, women could not be elected to legislatures.
Ibid , 60 and 86: by 1940. India had 80 women members of slate and provincial legislatures, 'and
thus ranks third [after the USA and USSR) amongst the nations of the world as regards the political
influence and position secured by its women',

'A RUN DA LEO 930).

'IT July 1932, 383. According to the Puranas, Siva swallowed poison to save the world from it.
There was. besides with Brahman woman Rukmini, also a satisfactory experiment with an unnamed
ksharriya man. Rukmini also performed the first puja in a new temple in Benares; CQUS1NSU94I),
139.

'TTOct. 1936, I8f.

*DEVI(I936), 199.

possibility of divoice. 1

Margaret Cousins, who had been active in Hie Irish women's vote campaign, after
moving to India paid much attention to women there. In her book on Asian women, 1 she
did net mention the Theosophical Society. She contributed to the 'only women's
magazine in India', Stri Dharma (meaning in Hindu religious law 'proper conduct for
wives'). Stri Dharma's editor, Mrs Malati Patwardhan from Bombay, Honorary
Magistrate of Madras, District Commissioner of the Girl Guides, frequently travelled
along with Krishnamurti.' The magazine was linked to the Women's Indian Association,
which had 2700 members by 1921.'' While Annie Besant was still alive, Cousins duly
meniioned her TS president's opposition to Gandhi's non-cooperation in it.

After Besam's death, George Arundale did not inspire comparable docility in her
though, and participation in Gandhi campaigns led to jail terms for Mrs Cousins. 5 To ihe
disappointment of Margaret and lames Cousins, Arundale prevented men and women
iflting together in a play. 6

A.hDUCATION

All teachers must be clairvoyant; it is an absolute prerequisite for the office.

Nome theosophical schools were: in The Netherlands the Pythagoras primary school in
Ommen, and a secondary school in Naardcn; the King Arthur school in Edinburgh,
Scotland;" in Australia till Martyn broke away and turned off the money tap. Most TS
education effort, though, was in India, Ceylon and Indonesia, Before we move to
women's education there, first some short general remarks on theosophy and educaiion.

Madame Blavatsky had emphasized 'in all countries' 'non-sectarian education'.'
I'tiii'iice in Ceylon, where Christian sectarian education was the only option before she

'A. MISRA, 1ST.

! Ttie A wakening of Asian Womanhood. Madras, Gancsh, 1922.

'TT 1930, 558. M. LUTYENS(1975), 173, 190, 196. 227-8, 243.

"AGNEWf^g), 104.

'She protested against division of labour by sex in the saryagraha movement; AGNEW{197y),
ft

'COUSINS and COUSINS. 379. If Arundale had permitted it, he certainly would not have set a
precedent in India's theatre history. For instance, actress Kamlabai Gokhale had already performed
with men on stage in 1904 and in movies since 1912; MOHAN, 13.

'LEADB£ATER(1971), 61,

"TILKEMAC1932), 30.

*BLA VATS KY( 1987), 44. Also in the 1879 Principles of the TS: J1NARAJADASAU925), 245.

380 V7.4

arrived, had already differed. Annie Besanl changed the theory, however. 1 In Kashmir.

Besaat fell thai generally it was not advisable to educate children of different faiths at the same
institution. 2

In 1912, she formed the Theosophical Education Trust: only ES members might
join. 1 Most joined Krishnamurti when he split.'

Ex-school principai Arundale expressed his ideas:

I see no reason why the education of girls should not substantially be the same as for boys, but
with special emphasis on the management and beauty of the home, on food values and simple
medicines. And in principle i favour co-education throughout the educational system. 5
The Tlieosophist. in March 1897,* illustrated with tables, showed little had been done

so far on women's education in British India When Annie Besanl came there she wanted

to change that. But on what lines?

AB expressed her ideas, rather new to her. that women's education meant preparing

girls for a future as 'Goddess of the home'. 7 One might argue that was still more liberal

than those who did noi want any education. In 1893, Mrs Besanl and Olcott met

leading pandits of Benares for discussion We [bund that (hey disapproved of education for
Hindu girls in general, especially for the virgin widows . on the other hand, they expressed
their unqualified approbation of my Sanskrit libraries and schools and societies for Hindu boys
It was amusing to see the contrast between the appeaiancc and views of Annie Besanl, (he
champion, for so many years, of the uplifting and education of women, and the hard, stony
conservatism . . !

'7T Feb. 1906, 396. BESANT(1907B), 176. BESANT(19l IC), 174 over here there is much
feeling in favour of secular educaiion-becausc you have never had it and know not its results. New
Zealand has ii. and her youth is a problem . . racing, gambling, lack of all control and
subordination,' Olcott (convention speech, TT, suppl. Nov. 1898. viii) saw the TS as a counterforce
for 'the home of every Hindu boy who was exposed (o' not only 'foreign missionaries' but also
'skepiical teachers'. Ibid., ix. AB called CHC 'absolutely Hindu' See also Lord Curzon's
sympathy wiih the Central Hindu College scheme', TT, suppl Feb. 1899, xxi-xxii. TT, May 1906.
63 1 , attributed increase in crime in Upper Burma to seculat education ihere, contrary to religious
education in Lower Burma Gandhi, and I930's and 40" s Ceylon education minister C. Kannangara,
favoured separation between school educalion and religion; SUMATHiPALA, 157

! WESS1NGER(19S9), 227; referring to AB's The Indian Nation. 36 Bui VAN H1NLOOPEN
LABBERTON(1910). 185 preferred non-denominaiional government schools to then still mainly
Chris nan religious schools in Indonesia.

J BROOKS(19l4A).

*C. Jinarajadasa. 'Dr. Besam's work for education', TT July 1933, 396.
! 7TNov. 1937, 157.

6 370. Parsis then had done most on women educalion, compared to other religious communities.
In 1901-2. 67.15% of Parsi girls were at school; MATHUR(I973), 54,
7 7T, March 1897, 331. TT, Jan. 1902, 252-3. Also TT. June 1905. 57.
a O£>£, TTDec. 1902, 130-1.

India

381

tiesant later lagged behind Jawaharlal Nehru's view though. 1 S.V. Subrahmi.ny:im.
provincial secretary of the TS-linked Sons of India wrote from its Adyar headquarter

The Indian woman should be educaied in accordance with her immemorial traditions and lin
characteristic development through the centuries, and care should be taken that she doc. M
grow into the militant and aggressive type of the suffragette of England.

When Central Hindu College became Hindu university in 1916, its girls' school,
founded in 1904, had to be disconnected. Ulian Edger led it.

Also in 1916, D.K. Karve founded the Indian Women's University. He goi divr -p' U
reactions to it: Annie Besant advised him to make it an all-India institution; Mai^iri
Cousins sat in its Senate. 5 Gandhi had mixed feelings. Others rather supponM M
tducaiion like the students of the only Government College for Women, in Calculi;..

According to Mathur, many among India's higher castes felt that education, il any
for one's daughters was not to get them employment, bui a bctler chance of muHtff!.

The advantages of educalion as an aid to a successful marriage did not influence (he fMUn ol
the poorer classes. They were, on the oiher hand, less opposed to the employment of i ■ n
daughters in independent occupations.

Al leasi two views on women's educalion in India, both class-linked accordm;
Maihur, opposed one another. A government paper summed them up as follows'

The one school (i.e. the Humanistic School) would bring up girls on lines as similar a:, (M H»
(0 ihose laid down for boys and would prepare (hem for a universiiy career. The other (1 I t»
Vocational School) would prepare girls primarily for home life ... By ihe formei. u
contended that, after all, the school is intended to (rain the mind; thai a woman should W , .

educaied as to be a companion to her husband, and lhal exper.ence shows that an ai.iL.n,-

the 'humanities' is lhal which is most sought after by the girls themselves ..

''Pundit Jawaharlal on women's education'. MB. Feb. 1934, 91-2.

! 'The Order of the Sons of India', /WS. Apr. 1910. 124f; 127.

'COUSINS and COUSINS, 278. MATHUR(1973), 132 Ibid.. 133: a Japanese precrdnK v ,
an inspiration. Ibid., 144: .. a.lracted mainly Hindu women; many Parsi and ^W*
a, co-educaiional Bombay university. C. v. d. V„ 'Uit Allerhande Bron'. KOT. 1918, .id-
Women's University, studies were fot three years only, to be finished at customary age of n, km#

Domestic economy was a mandatory subjeel. Ibid., 479: 'many Indians, including women. I

at the idea of teaching universiiy students how to use pots and pans. '

4 MATHUR(I973), 132.

s 'lt is not desirable lhal there should be a separate University for women ... We women 46 M
want 10 lag behind.' Quoted MATHUR(1973), 131.

''People did not educate their daughters to gel them employment but to marry them on l.m.
and easier terms. But as soon as a suitable bridegroom was available, the girl was al oner V U. , .1
ihe seclusion of the purdah: MATHURU973), 62.

1 MATHUR(1973), 62.

382

VI. 4

By the olher school ii is argued that ... the majority of girls arc precluded by early marriage
from a university career ... that women with the traditional characteristics of decorous home-
keeping ate what the educated husbands themselves desire rather than the westernised product of
the university, and that girls are, as a rule, physically incapable of the strain of a university
course. 1
Annie Besant would not have agreed with the last part of that sentence. As did the

British India government, 1 she agreed with neither view completely. Nevertheless.

theosophists often sided more closely with the second, housewife, view; in Indonesia, as

we will see, and in India. Looking at the TS' social base there, this agrees with Mathur's

remark on socially different views.

Son of a landlord Bhagavan Das was president, his sister Srimati Uma Nehru was

secretary of Crosthwaite Girls' College, Allahabad. 3 )n a speech there, he explained his

ideas, similar to Annie Besant's 1900's ones:

Her vocation is on the whole different from man's, and it is in every way finer and nobler ...
woman's natural and noble vocation is that of wife and mother ... the woman is the heart, the
man the head ...

I most earnestly pray with all the strength of my heart, dial India may be saved from one
particular phase of Western experience, viz.. the setting of man against woman, and woman
against man .

In the West, man and woman are said io have forgotten their older and true ideal, the same as
(he Indian, of better half and other liolf. and to be fighting for equality to-day. It is as if the right
lobe and die left lobe of the same brain should fight with each odier. It is madness. Our ideal has
always been, not of equality, which involves odious comparison, whence conflict, but of identity
of wife and husband, as two halves ...

Nemesis has come, and they are trying to do all the things that men are doing and strive against
them, in the battle of life, instead of nerving, heartening, vitalising them for that battle. This is
scarcely natural, from the Indian standpoint 7

Man seems intended by nature to do all the rougher and harder outside work of "bread-
winning" and all the competitive battling of life: and woman to do the comparatively less hard
and more affectionate work of "house -keeping" and "home -ma king", and reserve her vital

'Resolution of Female Education in India; Education (A) Proceedings. Nos. 1-12, October
1917. Quoted MATHUR0973), 64f.
2 MATHUR(1973), 66.
3 DAS(S93G), 2.
"Ibid.. 12-4.
J Ibid.. 15.
'Ibid., 16.
7 Ibid., 18.

Ceylon

383

powers for the great toil and travail of maternity ... Some very false and very mischievous
catchwords have become current, in consequence of the thoughtless speech and behaviour of
foolish and arrogant men, who have been insulting womanhood ... about the "household
drudgery" of women and the "dignified work" of men.

Das spoke of men, but omitted some feminists also opposing division of labour by
sex.

His conclusion on the field of education was:

It would be well, therefore, if girls were educated primarily for home-making, and all that ii

means. 1

S.EDUCATION IN CEYLON. THE WELL AND THE PENDULUM

Annie Besant's views on Ceylon were similar to those on India: Sinhalese maiden's
educalion should not prepare her for a profession; 'That evil fate has not yet descended
upon the East.' 1 More progressive ideas were voiced later by Wickramasinghe. J

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971

■ Ceylon S_^ tndia* ■ Pakistan

* Figures until 1947 British India: after 1947 Republic of India. Pakistan 1971 only
Women's literacy percentage in Ceylon vs. India and Pakistan

Apart from emancipaiory or no n -emancipatory ideas on education, there was Ihe question
of whether women should have education at all. Women's education in Lanka predated

'ibid., 19.

'ibid., 22.

'BESANT( 1 908C). 3. (But how aboul women on farms?*

4 W1CKRAMAS1NGHE(1932).

384

VI. 5

TS involvement. That the relative influence of the Theosophical Society on education was
bigger in Ceylon than in India, though, may have contributed to the literacy rate of Lanka
women. It was higher than in other South Asian countries, though the 1881 starting
position had not been much different. 1

An Australian, Miss Kate Pickett, became Principal of Colombo Sanghamitta Girls'
High School, in June 1890, On 23 June 1891, she was found drowned in a city well with
a high rim, very difficult to fall into ioadvertently. Christians said it had been suicide;
Olcott and other theosophists during the judicial enquiry indignantly denied this:' an
accident! People seem nol to have spent much time investigating a third possibility, that
she had been pushed.

Kate Pickett's mother. Mrs Elise Pickett, stayed in Ceylon. Later in 1891, Mrs
Musaeus Higgins, whose plans to come to the island dated from before Miss Pickett's
death, joined her. 3 This American widow, German-born, daughter of a High Court
judge,' would play a central pan in ihe next decades of the isle's educational history.

Views of women from a German-American and from a Lanka background on girls'
education were not automatically identical, as turned out when Mrs Musaeus Higgins sent
in her resignation to Olcott on 21 December 1893, She had a conflict with Sanghamitta 's
ladies' committee, Olcott wrote of its previous history:

1 introduced her into office at a public meeting of the women's Society and made them pledge
her thai she should not be interfered with in her management of the institution. I did ihis because
the women of Ceylon had never been associated together in any public work before and as their
domestic relations and house customs differed diametrically with those of Western women, I
knew dial it would be impossible for Mrs. Higgins to gel on with these associated Sinhalese
ladies unless she were given freedom of action. 5

See graph, p. 383. In 1971. 71% of Sri Lankan women were literate, compared to 22% in
India and 12% in Pakistan; Cf/, 150. In 1921, the figure for British India was 4.5%; computed from
Encyclopedia Britanica", London, 1932, 168. C0US1NS(1941), 17, gives 2-3% for the time of
writing for India as a whole; and ibid., 98 0.5% for Bihar in 1930. For Ceylon, in 1911 the
percentage was IL7; in 1931 30 2; SUMATHIPALA. 4S; 338. See also SCHWA RT2BGRG, 103.

2 OLCOTT(I892). Olcotl. LucL. March-August 1891. 510: over 6,000 attended Miss Pickett's
cremation. Theosophists are strongly anti-suicide: "suicide', then I say, most decidedly not. Such a
result can never be a 'natural' one. but is ever due to a morbid brain disease, or to most decided and
strong materialistic views. It is the worst of crimes and dire in its results,' B1_AVAT$K,Y()987),
227f. Report of Annie Besant lecture, TTJune 1897, suppl., iXv. 'The lowest part of the astral world
is filled by souls actuated by the lowest type of brutal and animal passions ... Suicides and executed
criminals of the lowest type are flung into (his state of wretchedness ...' OELC July 1937, 'Suicide
Bridge': Glendale, California lodge created 'thought forms' around a local bridge by invocation to
prevent suicides. C. Jinarajadasa, TTMay 1937, on suicide: 'The more one knows ... die less one is
inclined to general conclusions.' «

'lacL vol. VIII (1891), 438.

4 7T Oct. 1901, 6. Misspelt 'Huggins'. TILKEMA(1932), 8. Her writings were popular amongst
Dutch East Indies theosophists.
*ODL, TTOct. 1902. 5f.

Indonesia

385

To regain thai freedom of action now, land for a new school bad to come from Peter de
Abrew. Later financial contributions came from Albert Schwarz. On 1-5-1895, Dr.
W.A.E. English, then associated with Mrs Higgins' school, became the 7T sub-editor. '

Her new school was successful. Sometimes maybe too successful, if one takes for a
yardstick the tone that was set in Mrs Besant's speeches:

We offer Mrs. Higgins our congratulations; although we cannot say that our ideal of education

for Singhalese girls is to make them B.A.'s: 'G.H.' (good housewife) would be more to our

taste. 3

Mrs Musaeus Higgins' 1920 retirement plans 3 and 1926 death were markers in the
downswing of the pendulum of Adyar influence in Ceylon. Though her school's official
De Abrew still looked among theosophists for contacts:

three free Buddhisl scholarships, attached 10 Musaeus college ... three ladies of any nationality,

between ihe ages of 32 and 40, who arc well educated Buddhists, with a Buddhist missionary

spirii ... apply to Mr. Peter de Abrew F.T.S., M.B.E. 4

6.INDONKSIA

How to react to women's emancipation was a theme in three of the categories in which
the TS had members: Dutch, Suniatrans, and to a lesser extent Javanese around
Wederopboitw magazine.

On 26 October 191!, the theosophist 'Mr. S. v. d. W.' lectured to the Batavia
| Jakarta] branch of the Dutch Women's Suffrage League. Very probably, she was the
local teacher Miss Mane Simone van der Willigen; later to be involved with the
Gocnoeng Sari school.* She said theosophy saw people as being at distinct hierarchical
levels, comparable to age differences in a family. Sex differences differed from that,
(hough. There 'is a difference between a man from our environment and our civilization,
and a woman from the non-subject tribes in the interior of Borneo, so you could consider
lhai man to be at a higher level than that woman, but the same difference exists between
a man from those regions, and a civilized woman from our society.' 6 Becoming a woman

'ODL, 77 Jan. 1904, 195

'7T, Suppl. Feb. 1903, xii, 'Mrs. Higgins' success '

'BESANI(I921E). 505: 'Mrs Higgins sorely needs an English Theosophical graduate, who can
succeed to her place.'

J 7T March 1937, XIV.

S NUGRAHA(I989), 136. She was from a prominent Dutch family. RANI 1912. 332; 1914, 312;
816: she was 'first class' (the highest rank) teacher; in Batavia since 1901. As one of only two
women teachers then, (he government gave her an order of knighthood. On 5-5-1913, she went to
The Netherlands on leave. At least during the World War, she did not return. She probably was the
'M, van der Willigen' who wrote VAN DER WILLIGEN(1917) on the Indie Weerbaar delegates at
the TS meeting, la 1933, Marie Simone van der Willigen published a Dutch translation of Mabel
Collins' The Idyl! of the Wliite Lotus at TUM,

'VAN DERW1LLIGEN(I91I), 1.

386 VI.6

was not low-level, though it was different:

! jusi said, one needs an incarnation as a woman for developing female characteristics. In that, I
think, there is also a warning for those fighters for women's rights, who think thai ihey serve
iheir cause best by considering themselves man's equal as far as possible, and show that by
copying his characteristics, habits, and acts. Also for parents who think that they help their girls
most by bringing them up similarly to boys, and by developing characteristics in them which
people like to see in boys. ... We should be woman and stay woman. Those who fail in this and
fight against their femininity, waste their lime and the opportunity, given to them [by karma).
They probably will have to spend still more lives as a woman, in order to obtain what they might
have already obtained in this life, had they not striven for something which is not ihetrs. Now,
certainly, life's circumstances are thus that woman can best develop and show her femininity as
a wife and mother, and the man as provider of the family, and as the person, who in difficult
circumstances supports and protects the others.

She argued from earlier incarnations for women getting the right to vote:

Who knows, how many present -day women in their pasts as men have worked at a government
position; and (hey still have the characteristics which they acquired then."

She also argued from Plato, 'one of the greatest theosophists.' And from the
administration of the Theosophical Society: first, Madame Blavatsky had done it together
with Olcott. Now. Annie Besant reigned, jointly with Leadbcater. 3

The suffrage association became the Vereeniging voor Vrouwenkiesrechi for the
Indies in 1919. Mr and Mrs Van Hinloopen Labberion joined. It was noi really attractive
to Indonesian women, though.*

!n 191 1, his more leftist phase, Datoek Soetan Maharadja started the 'first feminist
magazine in Sumatra', Scenting Melajoe (Malay Ornament). Its slogan was 'May
women's ability increase constantly.' Maharadja's daughter Zoebaidah Ratna Djoewita
was its first editor. 5

Seven years later, progressive West Sumatrans were as disillusioned about Soe/iiing

'VAN DER WlLLlGEN(l Q ll), 8-9. Orthodox Hindus say a man may be punished', or a
woman 'rewarded' by reincarnating as the opposite sex. The TS, with many women members, often
kept silent on this. BLAVATSKY(1987). 202: 'the distinction of classes in Society, and of the sexes
in the affairs of life ... all are due to what we tersely but truly denominate KARMA.' Theosophist
and women's rights advocate C0US1NS( 1941), 24. saw beneath I9th-20ih century improvements foi
Indian women: 'the spiritual belief of the predominant Hinduism of India-the belief in rebirth which
held that the soul might in one life take a man's and in another a woman's body, and thus prevents
the single -sexed monopoly of opportunity inherent in the creeds that postulate only one life.'

*VAN DER W[LLIGEN(19L1). 13.

3 VAN DER WILLIGEN(191 1), 14-6.

*BLACKBURN(L995). 1-3.

5 ABDULLAH(1973), 217f; NOER, 216. Another Maharadja daughter, Ratna Tanoen, also
contributed: IPO 43/1919, 'Vrouwenbeweging*. I,

Indonesia

38?

Melajoe then, as with what Maharadja's views had become on other issues. This showed
in the November 1918 issue of Panoento-istri, the magazine of Poetri Merdika [Free
Women] organization. There, Bahder Johan, describing himself as Social Democrat
sympathizer, criticized

the conservative papers Oeioesan Melajoe and Socnting Melajoe, They say 'that the women

have enough rights in Minangkabau.' Everyone knows, though, that this freedom is as a bird's

in a cage. 1

In the same month, Soeara-Perempoean [Women's Voice] magazine said that
Scenting Melajoe did not live up to its slogan. Soeara-Perempoean thought itself really
the only women's magazine for Sumatra, 'one cannot say as much for Soenting Melajoe.' 2
A Maharadja supporter a year later called Soeara-Perempoean a magazine of 'whores and
pub-crawling girls.' 1

Javanese women within the Theosophical Society had little, if any, impact on debates.
In March 1915, the TS had three Indonesian woman members, all unmarried ladies of the
nobility in Bogor. They were Mas Adjcng Soerjati and Mas Adjeng Soclastri, both from
kampung Anjer, Gang Scpatoe; and Raden Adjeng Tcdjapoermana. In January 1916, the
number had risen to five, all from Java: Raden Ajoe [Ladyl Ehrij Puhrnama. the wife of
the Malang public prosecutor, and Raden Ajoe Kantjana Ningral from Ciamis had joined.
About these five I found no further information, 1

'Karno', pseudonym in Soeriokoesoemo's Wedeiopbouw magazine, in an article on
the To/mm Siswa education movement approvingly quoted 'a married woman':

The Javanese women's movement follows (he Javanese men's movement directly. In (heir aim.
ihcy are the same "Changing (he existing situation". While the man strives after the
greatness of Ins country, the woman gives her force for the happiness in die family. Though

'hi dial issue, llic articles 'Moiher' and 'The Woman' also attacked OM and SME. Quoted IPO
46/1918. "Vrouwenbeweging", 2. OM 7-12-1918, quoted IPO 5U/I918, MSB. 7. "very indignantly"
wrote of a parly in Padang, "where the girli did not want to eat before (he young men joined them
and they could have fun. If this is (he freedom which women warn, the author says, then it is clear
that tins freedom will ruin both adat and religious law Tliank goodness, in Padang-Panjang (he
teachers' training school for girls is separate from the one for boys. The Governineni itself feels
that the lime has not come for Malays, when boys and girls may contact one another freely ' OM
quoted IPO 5/1919, 1: woman should noi get 'freedom, as the "new women" want it: that would
not improve her situation. Tor instance, ii would not be right, were women to add to (heir many
freedoms the right to a husband of their own choice.' In OM 6-10-1919. quoted IPO 41/1919,
MBB, 2, Abdoel Karim advised women: 'most of all. lei your parents choose a husband fitting for
you. For only then will your marriage be a happy and peaceful one, you will do well, and so will
the children whom Allah shall give you!' SME 24-1-1919. quoted IPO 6/1919. 'Vrouwen-
beweging' was against 'asking equal rights for men and women.'

^Quoted IPO 52/1918, 'Vrouwenbeweging', 3.

i Wana Hindm 6-8-1919, quoted IPO 33/1919, MBB, 14.

"NUGRAHACI989), 249; 253; 255; 259-60.

388

VI. 6

limited, this is not inferior to the men's aim; as in domestic happiness man finds (he perpetual
source, by which he keeps his forces fresh for the struggle outside the home.'

Thousands of Javanese women were involved in politics then, for instance in the
Sarekat Islam of Semarang, and later in the PKl. However, the segment in the political
spectrum of these workers and street market saleswomen was far away from the TS, at
least since the founding of Indie Weerbaar.

These women had been driven underground by the time various organizations met at
the 'first Indonesian women's congress', in Yogyakarta 22-25 December 1928. At this
and later congresses, marriage laws were the main point. In Yogyakarta, a female teacher
of a TS Arjuna School clashed with Siti Moendyah, of the Muslim women's organization
A'isjijah, whom she accused of 'defending the institution of polygamy'. Siti Moendyah
replied that she did not defend polygamy, merely understood why it existed. 2

An Islamic man, who did defend polygyny against secular nationalists, proved that
Annie Besant had prestige beyond her Society. This 'S,' in Pembela Islam named her and
Schopenhauer among supporters of his view that one cannot fight polygamy, and
monogamy cannot exist without prostitution.' 5

When the Japanese army invaded twelve ycats later, stili not even the governor-
general's wife, Lady Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachowwer, had ever been allowed to
vote.

A. EDUCATION

In government primary schools in the Dutch East Indies at the end of 1908, girls were
much under- rep resented: 45% girls with 'European' children, 13.5% with 'native'
children, and 15% with 'other (mostly Chinese)' children. 1

General Secretary Van Hinloopen Labberton was interested in girls' education. Like
the Theosophisi editor in 1903 on Ceylon, he opposed schooling of 'bluestockings', )n a
polemic, he characterised an inspector of education as:

an opponent of domestic education, cooking lessons, washing lessons, and practical
needlework (children's clothes, sewing on buttons etc.) at the Kartini schools fprivate girls'
schools, founded in memory of Raden Adjeng Kartini], where he sees scholarly little Native
ladies as his final ideal instead of well-educated, correctly Dutch -speaking, but otherwise solid
and practical homemakers, whom we want to see to graduate there; 5
The Arjuna schools of the Dutch East Indies Theosophical Education Association

KARNO(1922), 180. He did not mention the woman's name; it was Sriali Mangoenkoesoemo,
SOEMBANOSIH, 130.

^PETRUS BLUMBERGER(1987), 376-7. W1ERINGA(I995), 74; 77.
*Pembela Islam Dec, 1929. quoted IPO 51/1929. 351 .

Percentages were somewhat higher at the less numerous private schools, Roman Catholic nuns,
not admitting boys, ran many of these; VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTONU910), 185,
J VAN HINLOOPEN LABBERTON(19l6C}, 249.

Conclusions of Pan VI 389

Wttt mostly for boys. A reporter of TMN1 wrote on girls at the Gambir Arjuna school:

Friday is girls' day. Of course, they cook themselves, both European and Native style, lay the
tabic neatly, with tasteful floral adornments, note down various domestic things worth
knowing, wash, wash floors, cut. sew, embroider, march [in the Girl Guides], stalk,
command, and eat. 1

When, after Soeriokoesoemo's death, the Javanese nationalist current within Budi
Uiomo tried in vain to make his ideas official BU policy, their program included a clause
on educating women. It was like Mrs Besant's views about their South Asian sisters:
'Girls should be educated to become good housewives, not for positions in society.' 3

Through W.A.L. Ros-Vrijman, the Theosophical Society had a personal link with
education of Dutch women, who were bound for Indonesia as housewives. Mrs Ros was
founder in 1920, and still executive president in 1928, of the Koloniale School voor
meisjes en vrouwen [The Colonial School for girls and women}. It had three month
courses. The Ministry of Colonies and The Hague local authority subsidized it.'

7.CONCLUSIONS OF PART VI

Once more, we can answer our question on apoliticism negatively. However, on Ceylon 1
found much more material on indirectly politically interesting education than on attitudes
In [he wider women's movement.

To our second question, of rather conservative or rather progressive politics, the
answer differs somewhat from our parts on labour and national movements. Annie
IksaiH's views moved rightwards, also on women's issues, after joining the TS.
Polemics, for instance in Sumatra, saw theosophists as a brake on the women's
movement. Nevertheless, conflicts rarely got as sharp as with India's Congress and
Communis! Party, Indonesia's Marxists, or Indonesia's women delegates in Lahore in
1931 (boycotting the conference because or the colonial, rather than of a specifically
women's, issue).

Those other conflicts happened at their sharpest after 1916, as labour and national
movements were on the rise. At that time, one cannot describe the women's movement as
equally on the rise

Jill Roc ascribes a downturn in women's influence to World War I. That is relative

''Ardjoenascholen', TMNi 1927, 44.

; VAN MIERT(I995), 253. HPO July-Aug. 1916. 142-3: in Tjipto's De Voorpost, Soetalmo
Soeriokoesoemo had criticized a certain M.'s view that 'women's education brings immorality.'

5 /G, 1928 (50), 'De Koloniale School voor meisjes en vrouwen in Den Haag', 1108-9; Hct
Vaderla/id, 18-2-J921, reproduced HPO, Mar. 1921. 45-8, 'De Koloniale School voor meisjes en
vrouwen'. Ibid., 46-7: 'What, then, does die Colonial School want? It wants to prepare the girls and
women, who go to the Indies, for their task there, li wants, first of all, to bring them at die school
into an Indies environment, into (he Indies family amidst Indies servants, amidst language, people,
and customs.' IC, 1920 (42). MRBTD, 367-8. HPO, Apr. 1922, 47: the queen was the school's
patroness.

590

V/.7

(women then were also needed for war work; voting rights in many countries came in the
social revolutionary climate immediately after the war). 1 The end of the first feminist
wave really happened in the 193O's-40's, as Roe 3 writes. Ups and downs in women's
influence in the Theosophical Society roughly coincided with ups and downs in society at
large. Not thai high in the 19th century, greatly up in the 1910's, down in the 30's.

In The Theosophist. during the decade 1910-1920. more women authors contributed
(apart from writings by Presidents) than before it; and after it.

Other men 51.4% 309

Indian men 8.8% 53

Annie Bcsani* 18.8% 113

* Ptcsidcra and TS Mead

Other women 2 1. OK 126

Articles in Die Theosophist, Oct. 1912-Sept. 1917, by authors' sex and country

*-,
After the 1929 death of Kaiherine Tingley, and the 1933 death of Annie Besant.

maybe not entirely by coincidence, neither Point Loma nor Adyar had a woman leader

during our period. 1 Still, there were probably more articles by women (though not Asian

women) in TS magazines than in many other magazines or the time; certainly magazines

on religion.

There might have been even more, had women had equal access to TS management

and writing activities, in proportion to their beliefs, as distinct from formal membership;

French 1963 statistics on astrology say women then tended to believe in it nearly twice as

'ROE. 213. See also ROMEIN-VERSCHOOR, MO. Sylvia PANKHURST(1931), 657 on why
women got the vote at last: 'The shock to the foundations of existing social institutions already
reverberating from Russia across Eurcpe, made many old opponents desire to enlist the liew
enthusiasm of women voters 10 stabilize the Parliamentary machine.'

5 ROE, 204.

3 ELLWOOD and WESSINGER, 80.

(—1

ffl

O *

CO £

O §

pq s

W£

f-H

w *

H w

^ -°

C/3

CO 3 .

o <

ee •

t£

r*^

■s>

T— <

■3
T3

J j

xt-

i — i

St,"

S-H

-3

392

VI. 7

much as men.' There was no similar sex disparity in traditional Christian beliefs.

One conclusion; opposition to feminism existed within the theosophical movement,
but mostly as a minority (as were militant suffragists); and at the fringes (except for the
Liberal Catholic Church, which one could hardly call marginal). Roe's remark: 'the T.S.
eschewed sexism both in theory and practice' 1 is also not 100% correct, when one thinks
of the Mahatmas.

Did non-feminist women become feminist after joining the TS? Or did feminist
women joining become less so; which is arguable for for instance Annie Besant after
1889? From a feminist viewpoint, the theosophists' record becomes more favourable, if
one compares it not with the women's movement, but with other religious organizations
at the time. One might argue ideas of most theosophists on women were more progress-
ive than those of other religious organizations then; and more progressive than their own
ideas on many other issues. 1 The prevailing attitude about women in the TS proves that to
be relatively progressive about one nodal point of far-reaching issues, does not automati-
cally make one so on others. Patriarchy in otherwise emancipatory movements is the
other side of this coin, in other movements*

'F1SCHLER. 288: 21 % for men: 39% for women.

2 RO£, 167. Mary Farrell Bednarowski, 'Widening die B3nks of the Mainstream: Women
Constructing Theologies' , WESS!NGER(I993), 3)1-31; 223-4 'Theosophy has a history of women
leaders and a long-standing interest in the feminine principle or the eternal feminine. At the same
time. Theosophy has in ils history a kind of amifeminism that emerges from an occult worldvieiv. '

'BESANT and LEADBEATER(19)3), 139 'Tlie exclusion of women from political power in
England only came, it should be remembered, with the growth of democracy ... This is (he nadir of
political life, as the occult system is its zenith.' CWL and AB forgot that die few women not
excluded from political power under absolute monarchy were so mostly because no convenient sons
or brothers of dead rulers were at hand. COXON, 904: in Greek antiquity, the Pythagorean order,
which was also conservative and oligarchic on many other issues, was 'open to women equally with
men'.

"Anti-woman writer Strindberg also sympathized with Swedish Social Democracy late in life.

393

SUMMARY

The politics of divine wisdom

Theosophy and labour, national and women's movements
in Indonesia and South Asia, 1875-1947

This book is not a full history of the Theosophical Society (TS), founded in 1875; it does
not go beyond 1947, It is not even ils complete political history; concentrating on India and
Indonesia. My two central questions arc: 1. What were the Theosophical Society's
relationships to three political movemenls: labour, national, and women's movements?
2. How did ouisidcrs, linked to these movements' fields of activity, agree, or clash, with
ihc theosophists' approach to them? 1 based the book on many sources, bodi from
iheosophists, and from their allies and opponents in the political held.

One approach to 1875-1947 world political history is looking al it through a well
recorded organization, existing all of thai time, international, neither too big nor too small.
The Theosophical Society fits diese criteria. It is also interesting as a relatively well-
organized 'nucleus* of a looser, broader occult current, influential in those times.
1 included diagrams of numbers which 1 found, and other pictures.

Often, authors see theosophists' occult views as politically irrelevant; this shows in (he
little attention political history pays to them. On the other hand, authors connect (hem to
progressive political views. James Webb associated occultism with 'Nationalisms,
Socialisms.' Daniel Bell linked 'gnosiic esoiericism' to 'anarchism' wilhout explaining
ihi<;. Authors both left and right in the political spectrum, opponents and supporters of
theosophy, often took one of these two views. This book questions both. 1 limned ihc
complex notion 'nationalism' to nationalism in a colonial rule situation.

Pan I is a brief outline of theosophic doctrines: it looks al theosophy 's selfdelininon
as religion of religions, science of sciences. It deals with its relationships lo various
religions The doctrines of karma and reincarnation, of die nonexistence of chance, and of
the existence of higher worlds, are central to theosophy. When scientists attacked
traditional religious views of Earth as the centre of the universe; and humans as the most
important products of divine creation, theosophists tried to restore them in a scheme of
non-Darwinisl idealist evolution.

Pari II is a brief history of theosophy. Its origins were in spiritualism. From the US. it
spread, moslly to western Europe, soulh Asia, and Australia. 1917-8 was the high point of
its influence on Indian and Indonesian politics: the I920's of ils influence in general.
In spite of conflicts and splits, and a high membership turnover rale, the TS as an
organization grew, from 1875 till 1928. The Theosophical Society attracted many
thousands; it lost many again, though, especially after 1929. Arundale, who was not as
dynamic a leader as Annie Besant had been, managed consolidation, but not new
expansion, in the late 1930's.

Part III deals with social backgrounds of theosophists over the world. The great
majority of supporters belonged to more or less privileged strata like the nobility, business,
and officers. Theosophy, promising an international elite, inter alia worked as ideological

394

Summary

support for some sections of groups who felt they might lose privileges. In India mainly
Brahmans: lawyers were very strongly represented. In Indonesia, many totok Dutch with
good positions in government and business. About twenty Indians and 190 Chinese (many
of them from 'officer' families, an 6lite which other Chinese challenged) were members at
maximum. By far the most Indonesian members were from the Javanese nobility; fewer
came from West Sumatra, and, after 1930, Bali and Lombok.

In theory, theosophy was for everyone. However, attempts to reach workers or
peasants were infrequent and unsuccessful. In Indonesia, there were two, internationally
atypical, attempts among peasants, in 1915, TS leaders attempted to stop Saminists. a non
violent protest movement in north Java, by converting them to theosophy. They failed. The
second attempt, in the 1930's when the TS as a whole declined, was more successful and
lasted longer. For some years, Pemitran Tjalija, an auxiliary to the TS, had close to a
thousand supporters in Java, Bali, and Lombok.

Pan IV is on the TS' relationship to three tendencies in the labour movement: social
democracy, communism and anarchism. From the beginning, the relationship was strained,
as showed in Madame Blavatsky's anti-socialist declaration of intent in the first issue of her
monthly Vie Tiieosophisi in 1879, Marx and Engels referred quite often briefly, and not in
a very complimentary way, to spiritualism. Engels once, in a 1890 private letter to
Kautsky, referred, not in a positive sense, to the Thcosophical Society This set a pattern
for iater Marxists: reactions to viewpoints of theosophists mostly came only where these
views were influential.

Opposition to revolution, as in the C7-ar's empire in 1905. to anarchism, to
communism, was consistent in theosophists' writings. The relationship with moderate
social democrats was more complex. On the one hand, there were quite some links: on the
other hand, a basic principle like universal suffrage was a problem with theosophists.

1 have treated the conflict between theosophists and trade unions and socialists in
Indonesia during the First World War, on military conscription, extensively here for the
first lime. Apart from Annie Besant's role in the Indian National Congress at the same
lime, it was the most important political question, linked to iheosophisis It was also much
less described previously than that. After 1916. socialists like Henk Sneevliet saw the
General Secretary of theosophists in Indonesia, Dirk van Hinloopen Labberton, and his
Indie Weerbaar committee, as their main opponents, Lahberton was the most often
criticized individual in their press. One may see Sneevliet and Labberton as the two
Dutchmen who influenced Indonesian political movements most, though in different
directions. fW was Indonesia's first twentieth century political issue, which got mass
attention among all people's categories. It contributed greatly to polarization between left
and right in the big Sarekat Islam movement, generally in Indonesian society, and against
colonial authority; so, rifts with prolonged influences. Its effect was contrary to its
sponsors' view of harmony along hierarchical lines of social and imperial pyramids.

Most main Indie Weerbaar supporters were TS members or allies. Indie Weerbaar also
used links with theosophists outside Indonesia, in The Netherlands, the US. ancj other
countries. This agreed with theosophists' views internationally of the first world war and
other wars as spiritual clashes between divine powers and dark powers. Both Semaoen and
Darsono, later prominent in the world's largest non-ruling communist party, the PfCI.

Sunmvjry

395

WOlc Uieir first ever articles against prominent Thcosophical Society members. Another
I'Ki leader, Alimin, in 1918 addressed Jakarta's biggest political mass meeting so far,
against Indie Weerbaar. The journalist Marco in 1917 had to go to jail after a notorious
irial, because of anti-/W writings and cartoons in his paper.

Among Indonesians in The Netherlands, TS supporters like Noto Soeroto and
Sooryopoeiro were for, Soewardi Soerianingrat against Indie Weerbaar. Soewardi later
;i[m> opposed (he policies of theosophists of the monthly Wederopbouw. So one cannot just
assume, as has been done, that his later activities in the Taman Siswa education movement
were based on die TS' or Rudolf Steiner's ideas.

Bolshevik authorities banned the small Theosophical Society of Russia in 1919, Most
til' iis members emigrated, and formed the only TS section in exile. Relationships with
Indian communists also were not good. M.N. Roy and Shapurji Saklatvala in exile, Dange
in Uombay. and Singaravelu Chettiar in Madras criticised Annie Besant. Muzaffar Ahmad
in Bcngai, where (he TS was relatively weak, did not mention her though, Sylvia
Pailkhursl criticized how Annie Besant's views on social inequality had changed, compared
[o her pre-theosophist days.

Indonesian Marxists' relationship to ihe TS was bad in 1918. Their paper accused the

I he osopl lists of basically supporting authorities who had bloodily defeated the uprising in

I I to Jsmbi oil region. It also accused two prominent TS members, A.J. Hamcrstcr and
Captain Christoffel, of murdering a village headman in Borneo in a case of sexual
li.ir,issmem against the headman's sister. In 1921, contradictions from Indie Weerbaar
nines seemed to wear off somewhat After (lien, though, the non-co-operation question
became central. As in India, this question opposed not only communists, but also others lo
theosophists. General Secretary Kruishecr accused the PKt of a plot to wreck his TS in
1926 lie also wrote (hat at least one member was killed by communists during the 1927
uprising in West Sumatra.

V, on imperialism and Home Rule and independence movements, shows how TS
occult views of a future Aryan world empire, based on the British empire, on the one hand
made them ask Britons and other imperialists to respect fellow 'Aryans': on the other
lund. lo oppose total independence (lor 'Aryan' or non-' Aryan"), India as a country, and
1913-17 as a period, were (important) progressive deviations from general TS political
patterns.

Indian and Irish politics had much mutual influence. However, in spile of some
personal contacts, theosophical influence on Irish politics was minor. The Theosophical
Society in Ireland had relatively fewer members than for instance in Britain or The
Netherlands: and many less than in Iceland.

In the early twentieth century, the TS had a good relationship with Lord Curzon, the
Viceroy Of British India; as showed during the controversy on the partition of Bengal in
1905. This changed, though, during Annie Besant's Home Rule action in 1916-7. As
move, also non-privileged, people became involved in Indian politics, the TS' influence
declined again. After 1918. Annie Besant lost the overwhelming part of her influence in
the Indian national movement to Gandhi; though she tried to keep, and, later, to regain it.
This later pan of theosophists' role in India's politics is less described than the earlier one.
So 1 paid some more attention to it, Mrs Besant came to oppose Gandhi's non-co-operation

3% Summary

strateev which she had not rejected earlier. She now claimed non-co-operation was against
Liphical basic princtp.es. So, cooperation with coloni.1 authority, unlike her earlier
Home Rule agitation, was a religious duty. Non-co-operation supporters could no longer
rem ain members of the Esoteric Section, the Theosophical Society's 'inner circle The
Theosophical Society did not keep the earlier allegiance of people like Jawaharlal Nehru or

Krsna Menon.

As in India, in Indonesia about 1916, the TS had a promising starting position m
political life. For some years then, theosophist editors like H.J. K.ewiet de Jonge, Raden
Djojosoediro. and Tabrani led pro-government papers like the Baiaviaasch Nieuwblad,
PeLran and Nenuja. Also Hadji Agoes Salim was an active TS member and eonmbutor
to ihe monthly Pewna Theosofie for a short time. Good contacts wiihin political move-
ments like the Nederiandsch-lndische Vrijiinnige Bond, Budi Uiomo. and with Indonesians
living in The Neiherlands, existed. To a lesser extent, they also existed with Sarekal Islam,
though ideas for instance on hierarchy differed. The government-imposed gap between Sft
national and local levels made influence at the national level by personal links like from the
ac.ive Van H.nloopen Labberton 10 Djojosoediro. and possibly .he later susuhunan Pake*
Boewono XI, easier than at the local level. Sukarno, later Indonesia's firs, president, read
his first political books in the Surabaya TS library, because of his father's membership^

Annie Besan. tended to emphasize Indian unity over regionalism, which in Tamil Nadu
was associated will, her non-Brahmin opponents. The situation with regionalism ,n
Indonesia differed. Contacts were best with two groups. arnied at the noh>ht> of lava and
of West Sumalra. Firs.. Javanese nationalists of prominent theosophist Prince Soelatmo
Soeriokoesoemo's magazine Wederopbouw. one among tendencies within Bud, Ulomo.
Prince Mangkoe Negoro Vll was Wederopbouw s sponsor. Wtdenpbouw aimed at a
Javanese state, a member of the League of Nations; and a. reconstruct of Javanese
culture in an aristocratic sense. Basing himself on Annie Besan., and on the philosopher
Bolland much quoted in the Keosofisch Maandblad^ voor Nedirkmdsch-lmht,
Soeriokoesoemo fough. democracy on principle. Ann.e Besan. changed her views on for
instance universal suffrage, after she joined the TS. Both within their organization wd ««
politics, theosophists drought in terms of hierarchy and authority. The his.onans Tsuchiya
and Reeve see influence from Soeriokoesoemo's ideas as a factor in limi.a.ions on demo-
cracy in Indonesia since 1959. Tsuchiya in this, though, does no, mention
Soeriokoesoemo's TS connection. David Reeve sees theosophy as an influence on the
ruling Golkar party. In that view, authoritarian strands in theosophic thought may have
influenced Indonesia deeper than India; though post-1945, the TS' reputation in India was

better di3n in Indonesia.

The TS also had a link to the Sarekal Adai Atom Minangkabau of Daioek Soetan
Maharadja in Sumatra. Earlier on in his daily Oeioesan Melajoe and women's paper
Soentine Melajoe, Maharadja used to criticize Dutch authority and aristocrats. After about
1916 this changed. Then, he, and supporters like Abdoel Karim, kept writing theosophical
articles in these they attacked kaum muda (Islam modernism), socialism, militant
feminism, and all-Indonesia nationalism. Much in Oetoesan Melajoe %vas parallel to
Wederopbouw, of which it approved.

Contacts to other organizations like Sarekal Islam weakened, if these aimed at broader

Summary

397

layers of people, and became more militant. In Jakarta, already from 1915 members of
Sarekal Islam's left wing around the daily Pomjaran-Wana (of Soekirno, Marco,
Goenawan, Alimin and Abdullah Fatah), were sharply ami- theosophical. Fatah, of the
petroleum workers' union, called for common action by Muslims and socialists against
ihcosophical ideas. At least till the end of 1918, the TS' relationship to Sarekal Islam's
right wing (Djojosoediro, Abdoel Moeis, Hadji Agoes Salim) was close.

With Budi Utomo, relations were not as good in 1919 as ten years earlier. This showed
in the strike by students of the theosophical teachers' training school in Jakarta. In the
1920's, ex-TS members like Salim and Soerjopranoto became the most avowed anti-theo-
sophists within Sarekal Islam. Contacts with the Indische Partij. called Insuiinde and
Naiionaal Indische Pariij later, were not good. With Perhimpoenan Indonesia, the
organization of Indonesians in The Netherlands, relations deteriorated. Attempts to
influence ihe new generation of members, like Mohammad Haua, soon failed. The PI
(bought (he TS: 'a grave danger to our national struggle. ' In spile of Sukarno's theo-
sophical education, his Parlai Nasional Indonesia came to think similarly. It was based on
non-co-operation with colonial aulhority As in India, the Theosophical Society declared
lhai membership in non-co-opcralion political organizations was basically incompatible
with TS membership. Perhimpoenan Indonesia in its aim banned dual membership with
(lie thcosophisis' social and political organizaiion. Indonesian PNI delegates withdrew from
an international women's congress afler finding (hat llieosophists had co-organized it.

Indonesia had no parliament. In the first Volksraad from 1918-21 , the closest Indonesia
had to one, evenrually five oui of 39 members were thcosophisis; as was (he mayor of
Jakarta. A. Meijroos. As in India though, the TS was already pas( its real zenith. Both
colonialist hard-liners and revolulionarics had grown to dislike Van Hinloopen Labberton,
Labberton, isolated, went back to the Netherlands.

The Commit.ee for Javanese Nationalism and Wederopbouw disappeared after the
death of .heir founder, Soctatnio Soeriokoesoemo. Gradually, the ideas of thai committee
too declined. Budi Ulomo disappeared in a merger. The Oeioesan Melajoe paper of Daioek
Soeian Maharadja ceased lo exist.

VI deals with views on (he women's movement. Both sirong opponents and strong
supporters were minorities among theosophists. Annie Besant represented an intermediate
position. Before she joined the TS, people saw her as the most militant feminist of her
limes. Like on other points, during her rapid rise as TS leader she changed lowards more
conservative views. Also like on other points, shortly before World War I she began to
defend somewhai more progressive views again, also on the position of women in India.
Both on suffrage there, and on women's educaiion also in Sri Lanka, positive influence is
probable or evident. 1 could find some links of Dutch women TS members in Indonesia lo
ihe (moderate) women's momevent. Noi so, however, of ihe very few Javanese women TS
members in the 1910s.

In 1914 in England and in 1920 in India, Annie Besani got some criticism for
excessive moderation regarding the women's movemeni. The 1918-20 conflict with
women's papers in Indonesia, reproaching the theosophists around Datoek Soetan
Maharadja with conservaiism, lasted longer.

Contrary to anti-colonial and labour movements, 1920-1945 was a lime of decline for

398

Summary

the women's movement in many countries. So, the friction did not lead to a major
worsening of relations like wiih the two other movements.

With those, relations worsened if their support got more of a mass character, and
social groups that were little represented in (he TS, increased participation in them.

In Indonesia, the conflict with the labour movement from 1916 on, predated the one
with the national movement. In India, however, after 1918 the conflict with the national
movement first became most conspicuous. Contrary to India, in Indonesia labour gained
momentum before the national movement did (Sarekai Islam was various movements in
one). The contradiction to the national movement in India clearly influenced Indonesia.
India, of course, was the country of the TS international headquarters. However, as far as
1 found out, Indonesia did not influence relations with India's labour movement. Language
may have been a factor here: more people in Indonesia knew English or Sanskrit, than
people in India knew Dutch or Malay.

The supposition on the TS' 'apolitical nature' proves to be wrong. Both Annie Besant.
and opponents like Perhimpoenan Indonesia, contradicted it. However, the TS in Indonesia
had a more apolitical attitude in the 1930's than before. Thai was noi typical for all
countries: though also in India political influence had declined. TS president Arundale tried
to reverse that tide. Also against the 'apoliiicism' supposition: quite some important
politicians in various countries belonged to the TS. were influenced by it, or thought it
important enough to oppose it.

As for the assumption on the special relationship to the political left James Webb
himself already noted links between occultism and conservative Trench monorchism,
contrary 10 his thesis on 'Nationalisms. Socialisms'. This book qualifies the thesis even
more. In 1875-1947, one may find people like Annie Besant. Australian ex-Labor, later
rightist Senator Reid. Dutch ex-anarchist Van Sleenis. Datoek Soetan Maharadja. and
probably D. van Hialoopen Labberton: they joined the TS and moved left to right on ihc
political scale. On the other hand, people like J, Nehru, Wickremasinghe -from Ceylon TS
to communist leader-, Krsna Menon. Charlotte Despard, and Singaravelu Chettiar. in a
sense Krishnamurti, left the TS sphere and turned leftward in politics. A. P. Sinncti after
joining the TS, wrote more positively on Indians in his Pioneer. His opposition in
socialism, for instance, did not change though. More examples of movement in that sense
probably exist. They were mainly limited to views on non-European elites, seen as
'Aryan'; not to views on for instance Javanese villagers.

The political direction of theosophists varied; the 1913-1918 period marked both more
progressiveness and more influence than before or after. On the whole, it was more one
among various positions within relatively upper social layers, titan an opposition from
below. The TS lost favourable starting positions. The involvement of broader groups of
people in politics, with Indians and Indonesians both in their countries and in England or
The Netherlands, made keeping influence difficult.

399

SAMENVA1TING

De politiek van goddelijke wijsheid

Theosofie en arbeiders-, nationale en vrouwenbewegingen
in Indonesia en Zuid Azie, 1875-1947

Dit is geen volledigc geschiedenis van de in 1875 opgerichte Theosofische Vereniging (TV);
het gaal niet verder dan 1947 (onafhankelijkheid van India). Ook is net geen volledige
poliiieke geschiedenis van deze organisatie. Het onderwerp is de geschiedenis van het
snijvlak ervan met een aantal poliiieke vraagsrukken, in het bijzonder in India en Indonesia,
Hoe was de verhouding lot arbcidersbeweging, nationale bewegingen, en vrouwen-
Ijcweging? Wie waren in deze wor- en legenstanders van de theosofen? Dit onderzocht ik
aan de hand van bronnen, afkomstig van verschi lie ride standpunten in de tegenstellingen,

De TV bestond langerc tijd, in vrij veel landen. Zo was de vereniging noch te klein om
inieressant te zijn, noch zo groot. dat overzichi moeilijk werd, Dit maakt de relaties met de
poliiieke geschiedenis van die tijd beter le ondcrzoeken. Ik heb grafische voorstellingen van
gevonden gelallen. en andere illustrates, opgenomen.

Hoe ziel de Ittefatuur tot dusver de relatie van stromingen als de theosofie tot politick?
Ten eerste ziet men de occulic zienswijzen van ilieosofen vaak als politiek irrelevani. Dii
blijki o.a. ui< de geringe aandachi die zij lot dusver in de poliiieke geschiedschrijving
kregen. Ten tweede uorden ze in het bijzonder met de poliiieke linkerzijde in verband
gebrachl: James Webb associeerde occultisme met 'Nationalisms, Socialisms.' Daniel Hell
vcrbond zondcr ondcrbouwing gnoslisch esoterisme' en 'anarchisme'. Auieurs. zowel links
ais rechts in hei poliiieke specirum staand. en zowel ^oor- als legenstanders van de TV,
braehlen vaak cen van deze iwee slandpunlen naar vorcn. Na mijn onderzoek mocl ik beide
in iwijfel irekken. Daarbij beperk ik hei voor veel interpreiaties vaibare 'national isme' tot
dal in een silualie van koloniaal bestuur.

Deel I vai de belanerijksie ideeen van de theosofen. over kanvia, reinca mafic, het niet
liesiaan van loeval, astrologie. enz., sarrten. Ook geeft het de verhouding aan ioi verschillen-
ile godsdicnsicn, weienschappen, en geschiedenis, Toen wcicnschappers iraditioneel-
godsdienstige visies op de mens als belangnjksie resuliaai van een goddelijke schepping ter
discussie stelden. probeerden theosofen die te hcrstellen. Dii gebeurde via een ideal istisc lie
evolutieleer, aTwijkend van die van bijvoorbeeld Darwin.

Dcel II is een beknopt historisch overzichi van de Theosofische Vereniging van 1875-
1947, en van belangnjke personen daarin als Helena Blavatsky. kolonel Olcolt, Annie
Besant, Rudolf Sieiner. en C.W. Leadbeaier, Vanuil de VS verspreiden de ideeen zich naar
voornamelijk Wesi Europa, Zuid Azie, en Australia. Ondanks afsplitsingen bcrcikic men het
hoogtepunt qua ledental in 1928: 45.098 in enige lientallen landen.

Deel III gaal over posiiies in, en ideeen over, de maaischappij van theosofen. Uit welke
maalscha^pelijke groepen waren TV leden afkomstig? In het algemeen waren dii groepen als
adel, zakenwereld, en officieren. Theosofie, dat verwachtingen van een international elite
opriep, werkte onder meer als ideologische steun voor delen van bevoorrechte groepen, die
voelden dat ze misschien privileges zouden kwijtraken. In India meest Brahmaaen; als
beroepsgroep waren advocaten zeer sterk venegenwoordigd. In Indonesia veel totok

400

Samenvatting

Same rivalling

401

Nederianders, meer dan Britten in India, met goede posilies in regeringsapparaat en
zakenleven. Uit de caiegorie 'Vreemde Oosterlingen' waren vermoedelijk maximaal twintig
Indiers, geen Arabieren, en 190 Chinezen lid. Vele Chinese leden waren uit kringen van de
Chinese (civiele) offieieren. die toen onder kritiek lagen in de Chinese gemeenschap. De
Indonesische leden behoorden vrijwel alien tot de Javaajise adel. Twee kleine uiizonderingen
hierop waren (west) Sumatra, en, pas sinds de jaren dertig. Bali en Lombok.

In theorie was theosofie voor 'de gehele mensheid'. In de praktijk ontbraken arbeiders
en boeren vrijwel in het ledenbestand; men probeerde nauwelijks dit te veranderen. Als
uilzondermg ondernam de TV in Indonesie twee pogingen onder boeren. In 1915 probeerde
men een eind te maken aan de Samin-beweging, van geweldloos verzet in noord Java, door
hen tot de theosofie te bekeren. Dit mislukte. Naar verhouding langduriger en succesvoller
was de tweedc poging, in de jaren dertig toen als geheel de TV achteruit gtng. Toen functio-
neerde enige jaren de Pemiiran Umlija, een nevenorganisatie met (egen de duizend
aanhangers op Java, Bali en Lombok.

Deel IV (ot en met V! behandelen politieke geschiedenjs van de verhouding van de TV
tot drie stromingcn: arbeidersbcwegingcn, bewegingen vcor zelfbestuur binnen. of
onafhankelijkheid buiien. hei kolonialisme, en vrouwenbcwegingen, Deze stromingen kan
men, breed gedefinieerd, emancipaliebewegingen nocmcn,

Deel IV gaat over de verhouding van de TV tol drie stromingen in de arbeiders-
beweging: sociaal democratic, conimunisme en anarchisme. De verhouding tot het
socialisme was problemaiisch sinds het begin, zoals blcek in de beginselverklaring door
mevrouw Blavalsky in het eerste nummcr van Tlse Tlieosophisl in 1879; en de korte
afwijzendc commcniaren van Fricdrich Cngels op theosofie en verwante stromingen.

Hier speciale aandacht voor de tot mi toe in de geschiedschrijving weinig belichte strijd
rond tiel comite Indie Weerbaar, met name van 1916-1918 In dcze strijd, rond het invoeren
van dienstplichi voor hidoncsiers, siondcn vakbonden en social istcn als Sneevliei en
Semaoeu tegenover de Ncderlands-lndischc seclie van dc TV. Dc mecste bdangrijke voor-
standers van Indie Weerbaar waren daar lid van of politick verwant aan. Dit was in
overeenstemming met de visie van iheosofen, ook buiien Indonesie, op de eerste wereld-
oorlog en andere oorlogen als geeslelijke strijd lussen machten van lichl en duislernis. Men
kan Van Hinloopen Labberton, de leider van de iheosofen in Nederlands Indie, en Sneevliei
zien als de iwee Nederlanders die Indonesische politieke bewegingen hei meesi beinvloed
hebben, zij het in vcrscbillende richting.

Indie Weerbaar was het eerste politieke twisrpunt in de iwimigste eeuw in Indonesie, dat
massale aandacht trok onder alle bevolkingsgroepen. Dii conflict droeg veel bij tot
polarisalie lussen links en rechts in Sarekat [slam, in het algemeen in Indonesie, en tegen het
Nederlands gezag. Zo was hei effect van Indie Weerbaar tegengesteld aan de ideeen van zijn
oprichiers over harmonic tussen klassen en in het koloniale rijk. De eersie politieke artikelen
van latere leiders van de PKI. later de grootste niei-regerende communistische partij ter
wereld, als Semaocn, Darsono. en Alitnin, waren gericht tegen TV leden. Van Hinloopen
Labberton was in 1916-7 de meest bekritiseerde persoon in de sociaal democratische pers
van Indonesie, De eerste grote politieke meeting in Jakarta, in 1918, was tegen Indie
Weerbaar.

Onder Indonesiers in Nederland waren TV aanhangers als Noto Soeroto en
Sooryopoetro voor, Soewardi Soerianingrat tegen Indie Weerbaar, Soewardi keerde zich

later ook tegen de poliiiek van de Iheosofen rond Wederopbouw, In dit lichl kan men niet
zonder meer aannemen, zoals beweerd is, dat zijn latere activiteit in de Toman Siswa onder-
wijsbeweging op de ideeen van de TV of van Rudolf Steiner gebasecrd zou zijn.

Bij crises in het Tsarcnrijk voor 1917, zoals de boerenopsiand in Letland in 1905,
hadden mevrouw Blavatsky en kolonel Olcott zich tegen de opstandige bewegingen gekeerd.
De bolsjewistische regering verbood de kleine TV afdeiing in Rusland in 1919. De meeste
leden emigreerden, en vormden de enige TV sectie in ballingschap.

In haar boek over India bekritiseerde Sylvia Pankhurst hoe Annie Besant's ideeen over
maaischappelijke ongelijkheid veranderd waren. sinds de tijd dat ze socialiste en nog geen
iheosofc was gewecst. Ook met Indiase communis ten was de verhouding niet goed, Vanuil
ballingschap bekriliseerden M.N. Roy en Shapurji Saklatvala Annie Besant; evenals Dange
in Bombay, en Singaravelu Cbettiar in Madras. Muzaffar Ahmad in Bengalen. waar dc TV
rclatief zwak was, noemde haar daarentegen niei.

Mel de Indonesische marxisten, die in 1920 de PKI vormden, was de verhouding slechi
in 1918. Hun blad verweel de theosofen feitclijk steun aan dc autoriteilen, die op zcer
gewelddadige wijze de opstand in hei oliegebied Jambi hadden neergeslagcn. Ook
beschuldigde het iwec vooraansiaande TV leden. A, J. Hamerster en kapiiein Chrisioffel,
van nioord op een dorpshoofd in Borneo (Kalimantan) in een kweslie rond sexuele
niiiinidatie legen diens zusier. In 1921 leken de legenstellingen uit dc Indie Weerbaar
penode icts te slijlcn. Maar loen en daarna kwam de vraag Wcl of niel no n -coopers lie op,
Zoals in India plaaiste deze niet allccn communisien, maar ook anderen tegenover iheosofen.
Algcmecn sccrciaris Kruishccr beschuldigde dc PK) in 1926 van een complol tegen zijn TV.
Hij schrecf later, dai communisien minslcns een lid ervan doodden lijdens de opsiartd in
1927 in Wesi Sumatra.

Deel V gaat over de verhouding tol bewegingen voor meer naiionale poliiieke rechicn,
en uiteindelijk onafliankclijkheid, in koloniaal gcrcgecrde landen. Een kon inleidend
hoofdsiuk bcsprcekl dc ideeen in theosofischc kring over imperialisms Voor vormen van
zelfbestuur binnen inipcriaal verband bieck men vaak le voclcn. Maar tegen
onafhajikelijkheid verzelie men zich mel wereldbeschouwelijkc argumenlcn.

In Sri Lanka was de invloed na een veclbelovende beginfase al vroeg achteruii gcgaan.
Sri Lanka had weinig iniernalionale invloed. De laier populaire Dharmapala begon er als TV
lid, en bleef siceds irouw aan ideeen daaruit, maar niet aan dc leiding. Icrland had vrij vcel
invloed op India en Indonesie; maar de TV al sinds de jaren 1890 maar weinig in lerlancl.
Dit in legensielling tol Ijsland; daar woonden uiieindelijk naar verhouding de mecste TV
leden, maar het had internalionaal weinig betekenis.

In het begin van de twintigsie eeuw was dc verhouding mel de vertegenwoordiger van
het Britse gczag in India, Lord Curzon, goed, Zo bieek bijvoorbeeld in de strijd over de
deling van Bengalen in 1905. Dit veranderde lijdens de Home Rule actie van Annie Besani
lijdens de eerste wereldoorlog. Naarmate in India bredere bevolkingsgroepen bij de politick
belrokken werden, vcrminderde de invloed van de TV wecr. Binnen hei Indian National
Congress verloor Annie Besant van Gandhi en oud-TV leden Jawaharlal Nehru, en later
Krsna Menon. In feite was de strijd in 1918 ai beslisi, al probeerde mevrouw Besant nog
m ins tens lien jaar daarna het tij te doen keren. Dit deed zij onder meer door non-codperatie
poliiiek onverenigbaar te verklaren met haar spirituele beginselen. Leden van de Esoterische
Sectie van de TV mochten dat alleen blijven als zij de non-cooperatie niet aanhingen. Enige

402

Samenvaiiing

jaren later werden lndonesische leden van theosofische organisalies voor een dergelijke keus
gestcld. De Nationaal Liberale stroming. die mevrouw Besani samen met de latere gouver-
neur-generaal van Pakistan, Jinnah, opierte, werd echter geen succes in India. Omdat over
dcze fase veel minder geschreven is dan over de Home Rule League in 1916-7. besteed ik er
extra aandachl aan.

Sinds 19)6 zo'n tien jaar lang in Indonesie, leidden theosofische redacteuren als
H.J. Kiewiet de Jonge, Raden Djojosoediro, en Tabrani regeringsgezinde dagbladen, als
Baiaviaasch Nieuwsblad^ Pemitran, en Neratja. Ook hadji Agoes Salim was korte tijd actief
TV lid en medewerker van maandblad Pewana Thiosofie.

Van Hinloopen Labberton en drie andere TV leden kwamen in 1918 in de Volksraad.
het surrogaai-parSement van Nederlands Indie. Begin 192! waren vijf van dc negenendenig
leden TV lid, cvenals de burgemeester van Jakarta. Mr A. Meijroos, Maar net als in India
was hei hoogtepuni al voorbij, Zowel voorsianders van harde lijn kolonialisme als revolutio-
nairen waren Labberion gaan wantrouwen. Oil leidde tot isolement. en uiteindelijk toi
venrek van Labberton naar Nederland.

Annie Besani benadrukte in India boven-regionale eenheid: in Tamil Nadu was
regionalisme verbonden mel haar niet-Brahmaanse ie gens landers. In Indonesie lag di(
anders. De contaclen waren hei slerksi met op de adel van twee regio's gericlite
groeperingen. Ten eerstc dc Javaanse national isien rond prins Sociatmo Soeriokoesoemo's
lijdschrift Wederopbouw, een van de stroniingen binnen Budi Uiowo. De uitgave van
Wederopbouw was ntogelijk dankzij prins Mangkoe Negoro VII. Wederopbouw streefde naar
een cigen Javaanse siaat, lid van de Volkenbond; en naar tierstel van de Javaanse culruur in
aristocratische zin. Zich baserend op Annie Bcsant, en de in het Tlieosofiscli Maandblad
voor Nederlandsch-Indie veel gecileerde filosoof Bolland, keerde Soeriokoesoemo zich
principled legen democratic Annie Besani veranderde in kweslies als algemeen kicsrecht
van opvatung sinds zc TV lid geworden was. Zowel binnen nun organisatie als in de politick
dachicn llieosofen in lermen van hierarchic en gezag. Alihans de Japanse historicus Tsuchiya
ziei het doorwerken van Soeriokoesoemo's idecen als factor in l^ei inperken van democraiie
in Indonesie sinds 1959. Tsuchiya vernieldt overigens Soeriokoesoemo's band met de TV in
dezc niet. David Reeve ziet theosofie als een invloed op de regerende Golkar partij.
Auiontaire irekken in theosofische ideecn zouden zo Indonesie dieper beinvloed hebben dan
India, hoewel na 1945 de reputatie van de TV in India juist beter was dan in Indonesie.

Ten tweede had de TV een band met de Sarekal Adas Alam Minangkabau van Daloek
Soeian Maliaradja in Sumatra. Matoradja was vroegcr in zijn dagblad Oeioesan Melajoe en
vrouwenblad Soeruing Melajoe kritisch geweesl ten opzichte van Nederlands gezag en aristo-
craien. Sinds ongeveer 1916 veranderde dit. Toen schreven hijzelf, en medewerkers als
Abdoel Karim, voortdurend theosofisch gerichte artikelen. Kaoem moeda (Islam-
moderm'sme), socialisme, strijdbaar feminisme en heel-lndonesisch naiionalisme moesten hei
hierin ontgelden. Veelal liep Oetoesan Melajoe parallel aan Wederopbouw, dat hei
waardeerde.

Contaccen mel andere organisaties als Sarekal Islam liepen moeilijker, naarmace die zich
op bredere volksgroepen richten, en een scherpere lijn gingen volgen. In Jakarca waren al
sinds 1915 leden van de linker vleugel van Sarekat Islam rond dagblad Pamjaran-Warta
{met O.a. Soekimo, Marco, Goenawan, Alimin en Abdullah Fatah), uitgesproken anti-
theosofisch, Fatah, van de bond van peiroleumarbeiders, riep op tot gezamenlijke actie van

Samenvaiiing

403

moslims en sociaal democralen legen theosofische ideeen. Marco werd in 1917 veroordeeld
toi gevangenisstraf na publikatie van karikaturen, artikelen en een gedicht legen dienstplichi.
Mel de rechiervleugel van Sarekal Islam (Djojosoediro. Abdoel Moeis, hadji Agoes Salim)
was de vcrhouding zeker tot eind 1918 wel goed. Deze vleuge! was sterk vertegenwoordigd
in het landelijke bestuur, de Centraal Sarekat Islam. Hier was de invloed van de TV groier
dan veelal op plaatselijk niveau. De regering had een directc band russen landclijk en lokaal
niveau verboden. Zo konden persoonlijke verbindingen bijvoorbeeld van de actieve
Labberton naar Djojosoediro een grote ro! spclen; ondanks verschillende ideeen over
bijvoorbeeld hierarchic.

Mel Budi Ulomo was in 1919 de verhouding niet meer zo goed als tien jaar eerder, zoals
blcek bij de staking van leerlingen van de theosofische kweekschooi in Jakarta. In de jaren
iwiniig werden ex-TV leden als Salim en Soerjopranoto de meest uitgesproken anli-theo-
sofen binnen Sarekal Islam. Mel de Indische Partij, later Insulinde on Nationaal Indische
Pariij geheten. was geen goed contact. Met de Perhimpoenan Indonesia, de vereniging van
hidonesicrs in Nederland, werd de verhouding uiteindelijk slecln Pogingen lot invloed op de
nicuwe lichiing leden, zoals Mohammad Malta, mislukien. Dc PI vond de TV; 'een groof
gcvaar voor onze naiionale strijd.' Hocwel Sukarno theosofisch opgevoed was, en zijn eersie
poliiieke boeken in de bibliolheek der TV in Surabaya had gelezen, ging zijn Panai
National Indonesia er ook zo over denken.

Decl VI gaat over de vcrhouding toi dc vrouwenbeweging, Zowel uitgesproken
onhangers als uiigcsprokcn legenstandcrs waren minderheden in de theosofische stroming
Annie Besani vcriegcnwoordigdc een russcnposiiic. Voor zij lid van dc TV werd, zag men
haar wel als dc meesl uitgesproken feministc van haar lijd. Zoals ook op andere punien,
veranderde zij hierin in conservative richiing (ijdens haar sncllc opkomst als TV-leidsier.
Ook zoals op andere punien ging zij kort voor de eerste wereldoorlog wcer ieis
progressievere siandpuntcn innemen, mede inzake vrouwen in India. Zowel inzake kiesrecht
voor vrouwen daar, als inzake onderwijs voor meisjes, mede in Sri Lanka, is stimulerendc
invloed waarschijnlijk of aantoonbaar. In de periode rond 1915 had de TV, voor zover ik
kon nagaan, wel enig contact met de bewegiug van Nedcrlandse vrouwen in Indonesie. maar
niot met die van Javaanse vrouwen,

Annie Besant kreeg in I9H in Engcland en in 1920 in India enige kritiek dal zij niet ver
jTiiocg mel de vrouwenbeweging mecging. Langduriger was in 19)8-20 de (cgcnstelling mel
vrouwenbladen in Indonesie, die de theosofen rond Daloek Soeian Maharadja conservatisme
vcrweien.

In tegcnstelling lot bij anti-koloniale en arbeidersbewegingen, was 1920-1945 voor de
vrouwenbeweging, over de hele wereld bezien, een periode van neergang. Zo leidde de
sinds 1914 enigszins optredende wrijving toen hier niet toi zo'n verslechtering in de
vcrlioudingen als bij de iwee andere bewegingen.

Met die andere bewegingen verslechterde de verhouding als hun aanliang massaler
werd, en maaischappelijke lagen die in de TV weinig venegenwoordigd waren, er een
grotere rol gingen spelen. In Indonesie ging het scherpe conflict, sinds 1916, met de
arbeidersbeweging vooraf aan dat met de rationale beweging. In India daarentegen stond
ccrst, vanaf 1918, het conflict metde naiionale beweging op de voorgrond. Dit hangt er mee
sanien dat in Indonesie in tegenstelling tot India, de arbeidersbeweging eerder kracht won
dan de naiionale beweging (Sarekal Islam was een aantal bewegingen in een). De

404

Samenvaxting

legenstelling met de naiionale beweging in India had duidelijk invloed in Indonesie. India
was dan ook het land waar de Internationale leiding van de TV gevestigd was. Daarentegen
belnvloedde Indonesie voor zover Lk kon nagaan, de verhouding met de Indiase
arbeidersbeweging niet. Talenkennis zou hier een factor kunnen zijn: Engels en Sanskriet
waren bekender in Indonesig, dan Nederlands of Maleis in India.

De veronderstelling over 'apolitieke aard* van de TV blijkt niet te kloppen. Zowel
Annie Besanl, aJs tegenstanders zoals de Perhimpoenan Indonesia, bestreden dit. Wei nam
de TV in Indonesie een meer apolitieke houding aan in de dertiger jaren dan daarvoor. Dit
was niet typisch voor andere landen: hoewel ook in India de politieke invloed was gedaatd,
probeerde TV voorzitter Arundale dat tij te keren.

Tegen de veronderstelling pleit ook dat veel belangrijke politic! in diverse landen lid
waren van de TV, of erdoor beinvloed; of de vereniging belangrijk genoeg vondcn om
sielling legen te nemen.

Wat bctreft de veronderstelling over de verhouding tot in het bijzonder poliliek links:
James Webb zelf wees al op verbindingen tussen occultisme en conservatief Frans
monarchisme; in tegensielling tot zijn opmerking over 'Nationalisms. Socialisms'. Dit boek
relativeert die stcllingriamc verder.

Enerzijds vind men in de ondcrzochtc periode personen als Annie Besanl, Rudolf
Stciner. de Australische ex-Labor, daama rechisc senator M, Reid, de Nederlandse ex-
anarchist Van Sieenis, Datoek Soetan Maharadja, mevrouw A, P. Dekker-Groot, en als de
vermelding van Resink klopi, D. van Hinloopen Labberton. Dezen werden TV-lid, ongevcer
(egelijkerlijd met van links naar rectus gaan in het politieke spectrum. Anderzijds gtng bij
personen als Jawaharlal Nehru, Krsna Menon, M. Hatta, S.A, Wickremasinghe die van
Ceylon TV- tot Ceylon communistische partij-leider werd, en Krislwamurti. afstand nemen
van de tlieosofische sfcer sanien met een politieke onlwikkehng naar links. A. P. Sinned ging
positiever over Indiers schrijven in Tlie Pioneer nadat hij TV lid werd (maar bijvoorbeeld
zijn legcnstand legen socialismc bleef). Waarschijnlijk waren er meer voorbccldcn van
ontwikkclingen deze richting op. Zc beperkten zich ecluer voornamelijk lot visies op niel-
Europcse elites, die men als 'Arisch' zag; visies op bijvoorbeeld Javaanse dorpsbewoners
stonden hier buitcn.

Voor de Theosofisclie Vereniging was 1913-1918 zowel een periode van naar
verhouding meer progress! viteii (met name in India) als van meer invloed, Zowel in India
als in indonesie was 1917 een hooglepunt. Daarna verloor men die gunstige uilgangspositie.
De daling begon snel, ook al probeerde de leiding van de TV invloed le behouden in de
periode 1920 en later. Dal bredere lagen van de bevolking bij politieke bewegingen
betrokken raakien, bij indiers en Indonesiers zowel in hun land als in Engeland of
Nederland, bcmoeilijkie het behoud van invloed.

405

RINGKASAN

Politik kebijaksanaan dewata

Teosofi dan gerakan-gerakan buruh, nasionalis dan wanita

di Indonesia dan Asia Selatan. 1875-1947

Translation: Marek Ave

Makalah ini bnkanlah sejarah lengkap tentang Perkumpulan Teosofi (PT di ringkasan ini)
yang didirikan pada tahun 1875; hanya sampai tahun 1947 saja (kernerdekaan India). Ini
juga tidak merupakan sejarah politik yang lengkap dari organisasi ini. Pokok makalah ini
ialah sejarah tenlang persangkuiannya dengan beberapa masalah politik, khususnya di
India dan Indonesia. Bagaimana hubungannya dengan gerakan buruh, gerakan-gerakan
nasionalis dan gerakan wanita? Siapa pendukung dan lawan para leosof? tnilah yang saya
selidiki dengan memakai sumber-sumber. berasal dari berbagai pendapat dalam
penemangan-pertentangan.

PT sudah agak lama ada, di banyak ncgara. Persatuan ini tidak begitu keci! unruk
menjadi menarik dan tidak begitu besar, sehingga sulit untuk ditata. Karena itu kaiian-
kaitannya dengan sejarah politik dari jaman itu dapat lebih mudah dj selidiki. Saya
masukkan grafik-grafik dari angka-angka yang ditemukan dan beberapa ilustrasi lain.

Bagaimanakah gambar yang diberi dalam buku sampai sekarang tentang hubungan
antara aliran-aliran seperti teosofi dengan politik? Pertama pandangan okultis para (eosof
sering diartggap sccara politik tidak rclevan. Ini temyaia dari sedikimya pcrhaiian yang
diberi kepada mereka dalam sejarah penulisan sejarah politik, Kedua mcreka khususnya
disangkuikan dengan sayap kiri politik: James Webb mcngasosiasikan okultisme dengan
'Nationalisms, Socialisms.' Daniel Bell tanpa berdasar menghubungkan 'gnostic
esoiencism' dengan 'anarchism', Pengarang-pengarang, baik kiri maupun kanan dalam
spektrum bidang politik, dan juga para pendukung dan lawan PT, sering mengemukakan
salah satu dari kedua pendirian lersebut. Scusai penelitian saya ini, keduanya harus saya
ragukan. Dan nasionalisme', yang dapat diinterpretasikan secara macam-macam, saya
batasi dalam keadaan pemerintah kolonial.

Bagian 1 meringkas gagasan-gagasan terpen! ing para (eosof, mengenai karma,
reinkarnasi, tiadanya kebetulan, astrologi, dsb,,. Dalam bagian ini juga digambarkan
hubungan dengan bermacam agama. ilmu-ilmu pengelahuan, dan sejarah. Pada wakru
para ilmiawan meragukan pandangan- pandangan agama-tradisionil mengenai manusia
sebagai hasil terpenting ciptaan tuhan, para leosof mencoba memulihkannya kembali, Hal
ini dijalankan melalui sebuah ajaran evolusi yang idealis, berbeda dengan ajarannya
Darwin.

Bagian 11 merupakan linjauan sejarah mengenai Perkumpulan Teosofi antara 1875-
1947, dan tokoh-tokoh penting dalam sejarah itu seperti Helena Blavatsky. kolonel
Olcott. Annie Besanl, Rudolf Steiner. dan C.W. Leadbeaier. Dari Amerika Serikat
gagasan-gagasan menyebar terutama ke Eropa Barat, Asia Selatan, dan Australia.
Meskipun ada perpecahan mereka meraih puncak angka anggota 45.098 orang pada tahun

406

Ringkasan

1928 di beberapa puluhan negara.

Bagian III menguraikan tentang kedudukan di, dan gagasan-gagasan mengenai
masyarakat para teosof. Anggota-anggota leosof berasal dari golongan masyarakat mana?
Pada umumnya dari golongan bangsawan, dunia pengusaha dan perwira-perwira. Teosofi,
yang menyerukan harapan sebuah elite internasional, antara lain menjadi dukungan
ideologis untuk beberapa bagian dari golongan asas, yang mejasa bahwa mereka mungkin
akan kehilangan hak istimewa mereka. Di India kebanyakan orang tcrgolong kasia
Brahman; sebagai golongan pekerjaan banyak pengacara. Di Indonesia banyak orang
Belanda totok, lebih banyak daripada orang Inggeris di India, yang mempunyai jabatan
tinggi di pemerintahan dan kehidupan usaha, Dalam kategori 'Orang Tirrsur Asing'
mungkin orang India paling banyak 20 orang, tidak ada orang Arab, dan 190 orang
Tionghoa, yang menjadi anggota, Banyak orang Tionghoa dari lingkungan perwira (sipiJ)
Tionghoa, yang pada waktu iru dihujani kritik di kalangan orang Tionghoa. Anggota-
anggota Indonesia hampir semuanya bangsawan Jawa, Dua pcrkecualian kccil ialah
Sumatera (barat), dan, baru sejak tahun tigapuluhan, Bali dan Lombok.

Dalam leori teosofi adalah unruk 'seluruh umat manusia'. Dalam praktek hampir lidak
ada buruh dan tani dalam dafiar anggota; dan usaha unluk meruhah keadaan ini hampir
cidak ada. Sebagai perkecualian PT di Indonesia mcngadakan dua usaha di kalangan orang
lani. Pada iahun 1915 mereka berusaha menghentikan gerakan Samin, pemberoniakan
tanpa kekerasan di Jawa Ulara. dengan mengajak mereka memeluk aliran teosofi, Hal ini
(idak berhasil, Jika dibanding usaha kedua lebih lama dan lebih berhasil, pada iahun
ligapuluhan dimana PT secara keseluruhan merosot sama sekali. Pada waktu ini Pemitran
Tjahja, sebuah organisasi sampingan, berfungsi untuk beberapa tahun dengan hampir
1.000 orang anggota di Jawa, Bali dan Lombok,

Bagian IV sampai dengan VI membahas sejarah politik hubungan PT terhadap tiga
aliran: gerakan buruh, gerakan-gerakan autonomic didalarn. ataupun gerakan
kemerdekaan diluar kolonialisme, dan gerakan-gerakan wanita. Aliran-aliran tersebut,
kalau diberi definisi yang luas, dapat disebui gerakan-gerakan emansipasi.

Bagian IV membahas tentang hubungan PT terhadap tiga aliran dalam gerakan buruh:
sosial demokrasi, komunisme dan anarkisme. Hubungan terhadap sosialisme agak
bermasalah sejak permulaan, seperti dapat dilihat dalam pernyataan dasar oleh nyonya
Blavatsky dalam nomor pertama majalah The Theosophist pada tahun 1879; dan
komentar-komentar penolakan yang singkai dari Friedrich Engels mengenai teosofi dan
aliran-aliran yang serupa,

Disini saya beri perhatian khusus mengenai pertengkaran yang tidak banyak
diperhatikan dalam penulisan sejarah panitia Indie Weerbaar, yaim antara tahun 1916-
1918. Dalam petengkaran ini, mengenai diadakannya wajib militer uncuk orang Indonesia,
perserikatan buruh dan kaurn sosialis sepeni Sneevliet dan Semaoen rnelawan cabang PT
Hindia- Belanda. Pendukung terpenting Indie Weerbaar kebanyakan j ad i anggota PT atau
saw arus secara politik. Hal ini sesuai dengan pandangan kaum teosof, juga di luar
Indonesia, mengenai perang dunia pertama dan semua perang-perang lainnya, bahwa
inilah perjuangan rohani antara kekuasaan hitam dan putih. Van Hinloopen Labberton,
pemimpin PT di Hindia-Belanda, dan Sneevliet adalah dua orang Belanda* yang paling

Ringkasan

407

banyak mempengaruhi gerakan politik Indonesia, meskipun ke arah yang berbeda.

Indie Weerbaar merupakan sengketa politik pertama di Indonesia pada abad ke-20,
yang menarik perhatian masal semua golongan rakyat. Sengketa ini banyak menambah
polarisasi antara kiri dan kanan di dalam Sarekat Islam, di Indonesia pada umumnya, dan
menentang kekuasaan Belanda. Mala dampaknya Indie Weerbaar temyata bertentangan
dengan gagasan-gagasan pendirinya mengenai keselarasan antar golongan dan keselarasan
di wilayah kolonial, Artikel-artikel politik pertama dari orang -orang yang kelak menjadi
pemimpin PKi, keiak partai komunis terbesar di dunia yang tidak memerintah, seperti
Semaoen, Darsono dan Alimin, ditujukan rnelawan anggota -anggota PT. Pada tahun
1916-7 Van Hinloopen Labberton adalah orang yang paling banyak dikritik di kalangan
pers sosial-demokrat Indonesia. Pertemuan politik besar pertama di Jakarta, pada tahun
1918, ialah untuk rnelawan Indie Weerbaar.

Di kalangan orang-orang Indonesia yang berada di Belanda Noto Soeroio dan
Sooryopoetro mendukung PT, Soewardi Soerianingrat menentang Indie Weerbaar, Kelak
Socwardi juga menentang politik kaum teosof mengenai Wederopbouw, Dalam rangka ini
tidak dapat diterima, sepeni yang khalayak dikatakan oleh umum, bahwa kegiaiannya
kelak di dalam gerakan pendidikan Taman Siswa berdasarkan ide-ide PT atau Rudolf
Steiner.

Sebclum tahun 1917 pada keadaan -keadaan krisis di kerajaan Tsar, seperti
pemberoniakan lani di Letland tahun 1905, nyonya Blavatsky dan kolonel Olcott
menentang gerakan-gerakan pemberoniakan. Pemerintah bolsyewik melarang cabang kecil
IT di Rusia pada tahun 1919. Anggota-anggotanya keluar negeri dan membentuk salu-
satunya cabang PT dalam pengasingan.

Sylvia Pankhursi, di buku lewai India, mengritik gagasan-gagasan Annie Besant
mengenai ketidak samarataan masyarakat, yang berubah sejak waktu dia masih seorang
sosialis dan belum menjadi seorang leosof. Hubungan dengan kaum komunis India juga
lidak baik. Dari pembuangan M.N. Roy dan Shapurji Saklatvala mengritik Annie Besant;
begitu juga Dangc di Bombay dan Singaravelu Cheuiar di Madras. Muzaffar Ahmad di
Rcngalen lidak menyebutnya karena disiiu PT rclatip lemah.

Hubungan dengan kaum Marxis Indonesia, yang membentuk PKJ pada tahun 1920,
pada tahun 1918 jclek, Majalah mereka menuduh kaum leosof bahwa mereka dengan
nyaia mendukung auioritas. yang memakai kekerasan yang kejam untuk menekan
pemberoniakan di Jambi. sebuah daerah minyak. Majalah juga menuduh dua orang tokoh
PT, A. 3. Hamerster dan kapten Christoffcl, membunuh seorang kepala desa di
Kalimantan dalam sebuah kasus mengenai pelecehan seksuil terhadap saudara
perempuannya kepala desa. Pada tahun 1921 kelihatannya masalah penentangan Indie
Weerbaar sudah hampir dilupakan. Tetapi pada waktu itu juga muncul lagi masalah setuju
atau lidak seiuju dengan non-koperasi. Seperti halnya di India masalah ini tidak hanya
menempatkan kaum komunis tetapi juga golongan lain, menjadi lawan PT. Pada iahun
1926 sekreiaris umum Kruisheer menuduh PKI membuai komplot rnelawan PT.
Kemudian dia menulis bahwa kaum komunis paling tidak membunuh saw anggota PT
sewaktu ada pemberoniakan di Sumatera Barat.

Bagian V membahas tentang hubungan PT terhadap gerakan-gerakan yang menuntut

408

R'mgkasan

lebih banyak hak-hak nasional politik dan akhirnya kemerdekaan, di negeri-negeri dengan
pemerintahan kolonial. Dalam bagian pendahuluan yang pendek dibalias ide-ide leosof
tentang imperialisme, Dalam rangka imperialis banyak orang setuju dengan bentuk-bentuk
autonomi. Tetapi mereka menentang kemerdekaan dengan memakai pert imb a nga ri-
pe rtimbang an yang bersangkutan dengan pandangan dunia.

Di Sri Lanka pengaruh PT mula-rnula besar sekali tetapi kemudian cepat berkurang,
karena pengaruh internasionalnya hanya sedikii. Dharmapala, yang di kemudian hari
menjadi populer, bermula sebagai anggota PT. Dia tetap seiia kepada ide-ide teosofi teiapi
tidak setia kepada pimipinan. Walaupun Irlandia lumayan banyak berpengaruh di India
dan Indonesia, tetapi PT, yang sejak 1890 giat di sini. sedikit sekali pengaruhnya di
Irlandia. Sebaliknyz di Islandia terdapat relatip paling banyak anggota PT. leiapi hampir
tidak berarti secara imernasional .

Pada permulaan abad ke-20 hubungan dengan wakil kekuasaan Inggeris di India. Lord
Curzon, baik sekali. Ini terbukli dalam masalah persengketaan pembagian Bengalen pada
tahun 1905. Keadaan ini berubah sewaktu aksi Home Rule yang dilakukan oleh Annie
Besani pada Perang Dunia 1. Pada saat dimana di India semakin banyak golongan
masyarakat dilibatkan dalam politik, pengaruh PT berkurang lagi, Di Indian Naiional
Congress Annie Besant dikalahkan oleh Gandhi dan bekas anggota PT Jawaharlal Nehru,
dan sesudah itu Krsna Menon, Sebetulnya pada tahun 1918 PT sudah lak berkmik lagi,
meskipun nyonya Besani masih tenis berusaha sampai sepuluh lahun kemudian. Aniara
lain dia berusaha muncul tagi dengan menyatakan bahwa politik non-kopcrasi lidak dapal
disesuaikan dengan prinsip-prinsip spiriluilnya. Anggota -a ng go la PT Seksi Esoieris hanya
bisa tetap menjadi anggoia kalau tidak setuju dengan non-kopcrasi. Beberapa (ahun
kemudian anggota organisasi teosofi Indonesia juga diberi pilihan sempa. Aliran Nasional
Libcralis yang didirikan oleh nyonya Besani dan Jinnah, yang kelak menjadt Gubcrnur
jendral Pakistan, lidak bcrhasil di India. Saya memberi pcrhaiian khusus pada lahap ini
juslru karena mengenai ini lebih sedikii dilulis daripada leniang Home Rule League pada
tahun 1916-7.

Sepuluh lahun larnanya sejak 1916 redakmr-redaktur leosof. seperti H.J. Kiewiet de
Jonge, Radcn Djojosoediro dan Tabrani memimpin harian-harian pro pemerintah,
umpamanya Bataviaasch Nieuwsbtad, Pemiiran dan Neraija. Haji Agoes Salim juga
pernah sejenak menjadi anggota aktip PT dan bekerjasama di majalah bulanan Pewarta
Theosofie.

Pada tahun 1918 Van Hinloopen Labbenon bersama dengan liga anggoia PT lainnya
masuk Volksraad, parlemen surogat Hindia-Belanda. Pada awal 1921, 5 dari 39 orang di
Volksraad, menjadi anggota PT, termasuk Walikota Jakarta, Mr, A. Meijroos. Tetapi
sama seperti halnya di India puncaknya sudah liwai, Baik pendukung kolonialisme garis
keras maupun kaum revolutioner mencurigai Labbenon, Akibatnya isolemen dan
akhirnya Labberton berangkat ke Belanda.

Annie Besant di India menekan persatuan supra- regional; di daerah Tamil Nadu
regionalisme berkaitan dengan lawannya dari golongan non-Brahman. Di Indonesia duduk
perkaranya lain. Hubungan PT yang terbaik berarah kepada golongan-golongan
bangsawan di dua daerah. Pertama kaum nasionalis Jawa di kalangan majalah

Ringkasan

409

Wederopbouw milik Raden Mas Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo, salah satu aliran Budi Utomo.
Wederopbouw bisa terbit berkat bantuan Pangenui Mangkc^ Negoro VII. Wederopbouw
menunrut sebuah negara Jawa. anggota liga Bangsa-bangsa; dan juga menuncut pemugaran
kebudayaan bangsawan Jawa. Berdasarkan ucapan Annie Besant dan Bolland, tokoh
falsafah yang sering dikutip di majalah Theosofisch Maandblad voor Nederlandsch-Indie,
Soeriokoesoemo secara prinsip menentang demokrasi. Sesudah menjadi anggota PT Annie
Besant berubah pikiran mengenai masalah hak umum untuk memilih. Baik didalam
organisasi mereka maupun di bidang politik kaum teosof berpikir memakai patokan
hirarki dan kekuasaan. Begitu juga sejarahwan Jepang Tsuchiya rnelihat bahwa tde-ide
Soeriokoesoemo merasuk sebagai faktor yang membatasi demokrasi di Indonesia sejak
1959. Tetapi dalam hal ini Tsuchiya tidak menyebut hubungannya Soeriokoesoemo
dengan PT. David Reeve menganggap partai pemerintah Golkar dipengaruhi oleh leosofi.
Karena ini sifai-sifat autoriier dalam ide-ide leosofi lebih banyak pengaruhnya di
Indonesia daripada di India; meskipun reputasi PT di India sesudah tahun 1945 justru
lebih baik daripada di Indonesia.

Kedua PT juga ada hubungan dengan Sarekat Adat Alam Minangkabau pimpinan
Datoek Soetan Maharadja di Sumaiera. Sebelumnya Maharadja melontarkan banyak kriuk
lerhadap pemeriniahan Belanda dan bangsawan dalam hariannya Oetoesan Metajoe dan
majalah wanita Soenting Metope. Sejak lahun 1916 mulai ada perubahan. Sejak ilu dia
dan pembantunya Abdocl Karim lerus menulis artikcl-artikel temang leosofi. Kaoem
Moeda (Islam modernis), sosialisme. feminisms berjuang dan semua henmk nasionahsme
Indonesia, semuanya diganyang habis oleh mereka. Oetoewn Metope dan Wederopbouw
sering berjalan paralel, dan lemu hal ini dihargai oleh Wederopbouw.

Hubungan dengan organisasi-organisasi lainnya seperti Sarekat Islam semakin suln
karena organisasi-organisasi tsb. makin ditujukan kepada golongan rakyal luas dan garis
politiknya makin tajam. Sudah sejak 1915 para anggoia sayap kiri Sarekat Islam dan
harian Pamjaran-Waria di Jakarta (dengan a I. Soekirno, Marco, Goenawan. Alinun dan
Abdullah Fatah), lerang-terangan bersikap anti-ieosofi. Fatah, dari serikat buruh minyak
tanah, menyerukan agar kaum muslim dan kaum sosial demokrai mengadakan aksi
bersama mclawan ide-ide leosofi. Tahun 1917 Marco dijatuhi hukuman penjara seielah
mempublikasikan bcrbagai karikatur, artikel dan sebuah sajak unluk melawan wajib
milker. Hubungan dengan sayap kanan Sarekat Islam (Djojosoediro. Abdoel Moeis, hadji
Agoes Salim) bcrlangsung baik hingga akhir 1918. Sayap ini lerwakili luas dalam
pemerintahan nasional, Centraal Sarekat Islam. Disini pengaruh PT lebih besar daripada
di lingkat daerah, Pemerintah melarang hubungan langsung aniara lingkat nasional dan
lingkat lokal. Dengan demikian hubungan pribadi roisalnya aniara Labberton yang aktif
dan Djojosoediro tlapat mengambil peranan besar; kendati ide-ide yang berbeda mengenai
misalnya hirarki.

Pada tahun 1919 hubungan dengan Budi Utomo tidak sebaik sepuluh tahun
sebelumnya, seperti temyaia pada aksi mogok siswa-siswi sekolah guru teosofi di Jakarta.
Pada tahun 20-an bekas anggota PT seperti Salim dan Soerjopranoto tcrang-terangan
menjadi anti-teosofi di dalam Sarekat Islam, Hubungan dengan tndische Partij, yang
kemudian dinamakan Insulinde dan Nationaal Indische Partij, tidak baik. Hubungan

410

Ringkasart

dengan Perhimpoenan Indonesia, yakni perhjmpunan orang Indonesia di Belanda,
akhimya memburuk. Upaya unruk mempengaruhi angkatan anggota-anggoia baru, seperti
Mohammad Hatta, gagal. PI berpendapat bahwa PT: 'adalah bahaya besar bagi
perjuangan nasional kajni.' Walaupun Sukarno diasuh dengan ajaran-ajaran teosofi. dan
membaca buku-buku politik pertamanya di perpustakaan PT di Surabaya, partainya.
Partai Nasional Indonesia, akhirnya sependapat dengan PI.

Bagian VI membahas hubungan dengan gerakan wanita. Baik kelompok yang lerang-
lerangan pro maupun yang terang-terangan and merupakan minoritas dalam aliran teosofi.
Annie Besant mewakili posisi antar golongan. Sebelum menjadi anggota TV, ia dianggap
sebagai seorang feminis yang terang-terangan pada jamannya. Namun sepeni dalam hal-
hal yang lain, ia juga berubah menjadi konservatif sewakru dia cepai muncul sebagai
pemimpin TV. Seperti dalam hal-hal yang lain juga. sesaal sebelum pecahnya perang
dunia pertama pandangannya membalik agak progresif lagi. juga mengenai kaum wanila
di India, Baik dalam hal hak unruk memilih bagi kaum wanita disana maupun dalam hal
pendidikan untuk anak perempuan. juga di Sri Lanka, ada kemungkinan bahwa dia
member! pengaruh yang merangsang dan hal ini dapat juga dibukiikan, Dalam periode
sekitar lahun 1915 PT di Indonesia ada sedikit hubungan dengan gerakan wanita Belanda,
sejauh mana yang saya dapal selidiki, tciapi tidak ada hubungan dengan gerakan wanila
Jawa

Pada lahun 1914 di Inggeris dan tahun 1920 di India Annie Besant dikriiik bahwa dia
lidak cukup lurut sena dalam gerakan wanita. Peneniangan lerhadap majalah-majatah
wanila di Indonesia pada lahun 1918-20 berlangsung lebih lama, majalah-majalah icrscbui
menuduh kaum leosof disckitar Daioek Soeian Maharadja konservaiif.

Tahun 1920-1945 merupakan jaman kemerosoian bagi gerakan-gerakan wanila pada
umumnya diseluruh dunia, lain halnya dengan gerakan-gerakan buruh dan anu-kolonial
Persclisihan dengan gerakan wanila yang lerjadi sejak 1914, lidak menimhulkan
pemburukan hubungan seperti pada gerakan-gerakan lain.

Hubungan dengan dua gerakan lain menjadi buruk waklu pengikui mereka menjadi
iebih masal. dan gokmgan-golongan masyarakal yang tidak ikul sena dalam TV,
mengambil peranan lebih peniing, Di Indonesia sengketa sengil lerjadi, sejak 1916. Ichih
dulu dengan gerakan buruh daripada dengan gerakan nasionalis. Di India sebaliknya sejak
1918 sengkeia dengan gerakan nasionalis muncul jauh lebih dahulu, Berhubung dengan
keadaan di Indonesia dimana gerakan-gerakan buruh lebih pesal maju kekuaiannya
daripada gerakan nasionalis (Sarekat Isiam icrdiri dari beberapa gerakan yang bersaiu),
sebaliknya dengan keadaan di India, Pertenlangan dengan gerakan nasionalis di India jelas
mempengaruhi keadaan di Indonesia. Pimpinan PT iniernasionai berkedudukan di India.
Sebaliknya Indonesia lidak mempengaruhi hubungan dengan gerakan buruh di India,
sejauh mana yang saya dapat selidiki. Pengetahuan bahasa mungkin menjadi faktor dalam
hal ini: bahasa Inggeris dan Sanskerta lebih dikenal di Indonesia, dibanding bahasa
Belanda dan Melayu di India.

Asumsi mengenai 'sifal apolitik' PT temyata lidak betul, Baik Annie Besani maupun
penentang-penentangnya seperti Perhimpoenan Indonesia, tidak membenarkannya.
Memang betul bahwa PT di Indonesia lebih bersifat apoiitik pada tahun tigapuluhan

Ringhasan

memperbaiki keadaan. ' ^ ArUnd " C ™ sih **"**" «

Hal lain yang meneniang asumsi tersebut iaJah bahwa banvak k a ,,m ™iv ■ „■
negara menjadr anggota PT. atau dipengaruhi oleh rp2l7t^ a ^ *' ^
tersebut cukup p^ng untuk mengambfl sikap ™«W«"P perkumpulan

pendapat ini secara Jebih relatif socialisms . Buku ini membahas

anggota PT k^a kira al T § ' ^ ™ HmlO0pCn Ubberton - Merek * ™. M
Menon, M Harf A wt~ l "T*** 1 ^ JaWal » rhl ^ K ™

Umuk Pcrkumpulan Teosofi periode 1913-IQiR m,-™,L.

pengaruh menjad, suli, wakw masvaraka. Z, , i ! ^rusnya. Penahanan

dalam gerakan politik baik d inZ, , "'" **" lapisan luas ter '^<

g polii.k, ba,k d, negen mereka send.ri maupun di Inggeris dan Belanda

412

REFERENCES

ARCHIVES: Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis in Amsterdam: Sylvia Pankhursj
H J. Kicwiet de Jonge, and Henk Snecvliet archives.

NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS

* many issues of this publication lacking in liSG or Leiden university library collection

Adyar Bulletin 1908-19U.

Buddlust Annual of Ceylon 1920-1921.

De Indische Gids 1914; 1916-1921.

DeLocomotief 1916-1917.

De Nieuwe Tijd 1917.

De Theosofische Beweging 1917; 1931-1932.

De WapensNeder 1916*19)7.

Het Indische Volk 1917-1919.*

Uei Vrije Woord I9l5-I9iy

llmdia Poetra 1916-1923,

Indische Siemmen 1919.*

Indonesia Merdeka 1924-1926.

Jong Sumatra 1918-1919.

Koloniaat Tijdschrift 1914-1921.

Koloniale Studieen 19)7.

MahaBodht 1928-1940.

Neraija I9IH-I919

Nteuw Indie 1922-1924.

O.E. Library Critic 1931-1939,

Opbouw 1927-1928.

Orgaan van de Vereeniging "Indtt

Weerbaar" 1918-1923.

Pantjaran-Warta 19)6-1917.

Pewana Theosofie boewat tanah Hindic

Mederland 1915-1921.

Soeara Merdika 1917.

SoearaRajat 19)8-1921*

Vie Tlieosaplust 1 879- 1 940; 1 945- 1 947

Tiieosofie in Nedertandsch-lndie 1932-1939.

Tlieosofisch Maandbiad voor Nederlandsch-

Indie 1913; 191 C- 1923. 1926-1927.

Wieosophia 1920.

Vrije Arbeid 1921.

Wederopbouw. Maandichnft gewijd aan de

Jong-Ja\o)\en-beweging en het Jmvansch

geestesleven 1918-1923.

BOOKS. PAMPHLETS, ARTICLES

Magazine anicles, cic, which ) only quoted once or a few limes, are (bund where quoted, no:

here.

1 added letters A. B, C, etc, after years if I quoted more than one publication per year per author

Theosophy. Vie history of a nineteenth century imposture, Tlte new religion of Mrs. Besanl, by a

former associate of the S. P. R. London. W. R. Bradlaugh, n.d. (1892)

'The Adyar library', TT, Apr, 1899, suppl , ixx.

"The Maori race doomed'. 77", June 1905, 573-74.

The Besom Privy Council Appeal. Full Arguments and Judgment. Mylapore, Law Weekly Office,

1914,

Overzidu van de gestte der Centraal Sarikat-lslam in het joar 1921. Gehetm. Voor den dienst

Weltevreden, Landsdrukkerij, 1922.

Tlie Ttieosopltical Movement. 1875-1925. N.Y.. Dutton, 1925,

'Doesburg's vroegste historie', manuscript for Doesburgsche Courani, n.d.[l93l7]

'Asiatic students' congress in Rome'. MB, Feb. 1934, 90-1.

'Racial Unity in South Africa*, 77, Aug, 1938, 423ff. i

References

413

P Abrahams
Abu Hanifah
W.L. Adamson

G. Adhikari

A woman world-honoured: Annie Besanl. Warrior. Adyar, TPH, 1943.

Tlie Theosophical Movement, 1875-1950. L.A., Cunningham Press, 1951.

Personal memories of C.S. Arundale. London. TPH. 1967.

45 Tahun Sumpah Pemuda. Jakarta, 1974.

Le congres matxiste de 1889/Le congres possibiliste de 1889. Geneve, Minkoff, 1976.

Heengaan en terugkomen. Amsterdam, Bhaktivedama Book Trust, 1983.

De wereid van Pessoa. Brussels, 1991,

Abdul Karim 'Islam: A Study'; TTDcC. 1930, 122-32.

Taufik Abdullah Schools and politics: the Kaum Muda movement in West Sumatra (1927-1933).

Ithaca. Cornell University Press, 1971,

'Modernization in the Minangkabau World: West Sumatra in (he Early Decades

of the Twentieth Century', in: Claire Holi (ed). Culture and politics in

Indonesia. Ithaca, Cornel) University Press. 1973; )79ff.

'Karin Spaink: 'Niet ik ben ziek, het is mijn lichaam." NRC, 18-4-1992.

Tales of a Revolution. Sydney. Angus and Robertson, 1972.

'The Language of Opposition in Early Twentieth -century Italy Rhetorical

Continuities between Prewar Florentine Avant-gardism and Mussolini's Fascism'.

JMH, 64 (March 1992). 22-51.

Documents of the History of the Communist Parry of India. Vol. 2, 1923-1925

Delhi, People's Publishing) louse, 1974

Documents of the History of the Communist Party of India. Vol. 3a, 1926 Delhi,

People's Publishing House, 1978.

Documents of llie History of the Communist Party of India Vol 3b, 1927. Delhi.

People's Publishing House, 1979

Elite Women in Indian Politics. New Delhi, Vikas. 1979.
Ahmad Subardjo Djoyoadisuriyo Kesadaran National. Jakarta, Gunung Agung. 1978.

Tanq Ali An Indian Dynasty New York, G.P. Putnam's sons. 1985.

Alimin Prawirodirdjo Louleren wij ons! Open brief aan Elk Lid van De Sarekat Islam.
Bandoeng, Nationale Bibliotheck, 1919.

'Rondom een Indisch Jeugd-Congres' . OP, 1927-8, 76f-

The White Slave Traffic and Slate regulation of vice', 77", Jan 1909, 299f.

Review of: FENNEMA and VAN DER WOUDEN, AP, July 1983. 373-9,

Farabundo Marti. Fsbozo biografico. Ciudad Universitana Rodrigo Facio,

Educa. 1972.

The congress in Tamilnad. London, Curaon Press. 1977.

'Indische Brieven'. De Tribune, 4-9-1915.

'On the Watch-Tower'. 77", Nov 1919A, 103-10.

'Members of the Theosophical Society and the new citizenship', TT, Nov. 1920,

1)1-24.

'Motherhood', 77, July 1930, 569-571.

WT, 77", May I933A, 129ff.

WT, TT, July 1936, 281ff.

WT, TT, Jan. 1937, 285ff.

'Biahmanism and the future of Brahmans', TT, Aug. 1897, 653Tf.
Sir C.P. Ramaswami Ayar 'Dr. Besant as comrade and leader', TT, Feb, 1934, 616.

A. Rangaswami Ayar M, 25-8-1924, 60ff.

'Work for (he Theosophical Society*, TT, May 1931 , 223.
Tara A. Baig India's woman power. New Delhi, Chand, 1978,

Vijay Agnew

M. Amir
Louise Appel
A.J. Aouina
J. Arias Gomez

D. Arnold
Aroen |J. Slam]
G. Arundale

A.S.I.

414

References

Alice A, Bailey Initiation; human and sola). N.Y.. Lucifer, 1922A.

Letters on Occult Meditation. N.Y., Lucifer, 1922B.
The Consciousness of the Atom. N.Y., Lucifer, 1922C.
The Unfinished Autobiography. London, Lucis, 19S1.
S.R, Bakshi Home Rule Movement. New Delhi. Capital, 1984. -
Edward Balfour Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia. London. Bernard

Quaritch, 1885.
H. Baruierji 'Mothers and Teachers: Gender and Class in Educational Proposals for and by

Women in Colonial Bengal'. Journal of Historical Sociology. March 1992. 1-30.
Margarida Barahona & Pierre Liglise-Costa 'Cbronologisch overzicht' in: De wereld van

Pessoa, 26f.
John Barron 'A reply from Belfast', TT. May 1921, 188-9.

Many Bax 'Sanskrit. iheosoHe en kunst', in: VAN DEN MUYZENBERG and DE BRUIJN,

46-64.

'Mathicu Schocnrnackers, ten csotherische kaiholiek', NRC. 8-5-1992.
Theosofisch schildcren. Kunst als occulle welenschap', Vrij Nederland 17-12-
1994.
H Becrends & M Broere Wml New Age terrein in Groen Links?'. Groen Links.

Oct 1992.8-9
H. Becrends 'Zweefkczerij of nieuw elan 1 ', Groen Links, Jan 1 993, 2-3

Pcler L Bergcr Sociologisch denken Rotterdam, Universitaire pers, !967 ;

■U Luckmann Tlse Social Construction of Reality. London, Penguin. I97I
I. Berlin 'Enlighicnmem' in: P, Wiener (ed ) Dictionary of the history of ideas. N Y .

Charles Scribner's sons. !973 Vol. 2. 89f
P.E Bernard The soul of India', TT March I907. 439f

A Besant The legalization of female slavery in England*. National Reformer. 4 June 1876.
T!\e story of Afghanistan London, FPC. I877A.
English republicanism. London, FPC, I877B.
77ie Transvaal. London, Annie Besant and Charles Bradlaugh, I88I
Wlty I became a Theosophist. I^ondon, FPC, I889
An autobiography . London, Fisher Unwin, 1893.
Tlieosophie en Malerialistne Eene iezing Arnhem. De Muinck, 1 1 894)
Eastern castes and Western classes Benares. TPS, I895.
Evolution of life and form. London, TPS. I900 ; .
'East and West', TR. 1901-I902. vol. XXIX, 297ff.
nought power. London, TPS. 1903.

"The relationship of Theosophy io life', TT. Feb. 1905, 300-304: March 1905. 364-369
WT, TT, Oct. 1907A.4.
London lectures of 1907. London. TPS, I907B.
Buddhist popular lectures. Adyar. Theosophist Office. 1908C.
'IIP. Blavaisky'. TT, Apr. 1909A, 84-9.
'William Quan Judge". TT, June 1909B, 35 Iff.
'Headquarters' Notes', AdB, Jan. 1910A, Iff; 38.
"The immediate future', AdB, June 1910B, 168-180.
TTie changing world. London, TPS, 1910C.
"Theosophical worthies. Rudolf Steiner', TT, Oct. 1910D, 120-2.
The inunediate future and other lectures. London, TPS, 191 1C.
Theosophy. London, Jack, 5912A.

References

415

Elementary lessons in Karma. Adyar, Theosophist Office 1 9 1 2B
"The unrest in England', TT. Jan. 1913A 611-3
WT, TT, May 191 3C, I56ff.
India and the Empire. London. TPS. I9I4A.
Women and politics . London. TPS, 1914B
WT. TT. July 19168, 362.

'Theosophy and Imperialism*. TT. Aug. 1916C, 473-82
Duties of the theosophist. Convention lectures. Adyar, TPH 191 7 A
Coercion and resistance in India. London. Adelphi. 1919a '
Lectures on political science. Adyar, Commonweal office 1 919B
'On the Watch-Tower', 77, Dec. 1920A, 205-10.
'On the Watch-Tower'. 77, Nov. 1920B, 103-10.
'Slavery and its Nemesis'. 77. Oc(, I920C, 9-15
Sociale vraagsiukkcn*, THA July 1920D, 104-2S.
On the Waich-Tower', 77, Jan 1921A, 305-312.
The class war'. 77. Nov 1921B. 1 1 Iff
WT. TT. Dec. 1921C, 212

'On the Watch-Tower*. TT. March I92ID, 513-20.
'The Presidential Address', 77, Feb 1921 E, 495-508
'On the Watch-Tower', 77, Feb. 1921 F. 407-14; 509^12
On Hie Watch-Tower', 77. Apr J921G. 1-8,
'How to build the new era', 77. Apr. 1921 II, 9-28
Tlie Great Plan Adyar, TPH, 1921 f.
Tlic Story of the Great War. Adyar, TPH. 1927,
The Ascent of Man'. 77, Apr. 1937. 9ff
The Teutomc Race a Prophecy', 77 Apr 1938 24
-andCW.Leadbcaicr Man: Whence. Ho, and Whither. A Clairvoyant

Investigation of Pre-History. Anthropology and
Cosmogony with Predictions for the Future Adyar
TPH. 1913. '

What is socialism? a discussion. Glasgow. SDF 1892
(reprint from Justice, 1888)
Tlvodore Usite Cromoie B A.. Bar-afla*, Bangalore, W. Q. Judgc Press ,

Susan Biackburn Politico, Relations among Women in a multi-racial dry. colonial Batavta in the

7jTl T/ ? *T "~* '° CNWS «**** The History and id Z
of Jakarta. 12- IS April 1995. Leiden University

II P. BlavatsXy HP. Blavatsky Collected Writings, Firs, cdttion. Compiled by Boris de ZirkolT
Wheaion, Theosophical Publishing House, I966ff

''Historical difficulty '-why?'. 77. Oct. I883A, 3-10. Reprinted: BCW, V (1883)
LA., Philosophical Research Society. 1950; 198-226
'Adepis and polities', 77. Dec. 1883B.

The Secret Doctrine. Vol. 11, Third and revised edition. London, TPS 1908<
71m votce of the silence. Peking, Chinese Buddhist Research Society 1927
Occultism versus the Occult Arts', in: TIRYAKJAN(1974), 71-9
Tlie Secret Doctrine. Pasadena. TUP, 1977.
The key to Theosophy , L .A TTC 1987
Kathleen M. Blee -Women in the 1920s Ku Klu* Klan Movement', Feminist Studies,

I.. Berwick

416

References

spring 1991, 571f.
Ernst Bloch Erbschaft dscser Zeit. Frankfua/M, Suhrkamp. 1962.

Boemi Poetra 'Among Lare', WED, 1921. 166-72,
G.J. P. Bolland Schilling. Hegel, Fechner en de nieuwere iheosophie. Leiden. AH, Adriani,

1910,

Mevrouw Blavatsky. Leiden, A.H. Adriani, 1911.
T.E. Bontkes 'De eeuwige volksgeest', Nieuw Sederland, Nov. 1936. 349-51.
Marja Borkus (cd.) Vrouwensiemmen. iOOjaar Vroswenbelangen, 75 jeer VrotnvenJdesrecht.

Walburg, 1994.
W, Borman Gandhi and non-violence. Albany. SUNY Press, 1986.

N. Bosboom In moeilijke omstandigheden. Gorinchem, Noorduyn. 1933

Subhas Chandra Bose The Indian struggle. London. Asia Publishing House. 1964.
B. Bouman Van Ortekieur tot Rood-Wit. De Indonesische officieren uit iiei KNIL

19001950 "s-Gravenhage, Sectie Milkaire Gcschiedenis. 199S,
H. Bouman Enige beschouwingen over de ontwikkeling van Iter Indonesisch

nationalisme op Sumatra's Westkusi. Groningcn, Woliers, 1949.
Diana Bowdcr (ed.) Wlto was who in the Greek world. Oxford. Phaidon. 1982

H. Braslcd Indian nalionatisl development and the influence of Irish home rule 1870-1886".

MAS. 14(1980), 377ff
M Urecher Nehru. A Political Biography London. Oxford University Press, 1959.

J Breman {ed ) Imperial Monkey Business. Amsterdam. VU University Press, 1990.
Jeanne Broeze Een paging lot onunoeting. De Tank. Algemeen Indiscii Weekhlod. 1917-1925

Amsterdam, typescript, 1972.
FT. Brooks 'Durga PujT. 7T, Nov. 1905, I40f; Dec. 1905. 179f

Myheresies. (Cocanadaj, I913A.

77/1* Tlieosoplucal Society and its esoteric bogeydom. Mylapore, Vyisashmim.

I9I4A.

My resignation. Mylapore. Vyasashrama, I9I4C,
T. Brosse 'Blood groupings and racial evolution'. 77", Jan 1936. 342ff

lem Brown Tlie Revival and Survival of Buddhism in twentieth century Indonesia Adelaide.

drafi thesis, typescript, 1996.
Kate Browning Thcosophy and Poverty', 77". July 1916. 369-380

R.P. Brugsma Tile beginnings of the Irish revival Groningen. Noordhoff, 1933.

H. Brugmans (ed ) PersoonlijkJieden in het Komnkrijk der Nederlanden in woord en beeld

Amsterdam, Van Holkema en Warendorf. 1938.
R.C Buffmga Anlhroposofie en racisms. Leiden, typescripl, 1984.
Diana Burfield 'Theosophy and feminism', 27-55 in' Pat Holden (cd.) Women's religious

experience London, Croon Helm, 1983.
Radha Burnier Two talks At the Centenary of die Lows Lodge, Vellore. Varanasi, The Indian

BookshopAtieosophical Society, 1986.
John F. Cady Southeast Asia: its historical development. N. Y., McGraw-Hill, 1964
A.L. Caillet Manuel bibltographique des sciences psychiques ou occulles. Nieuwkoop,

de Graaf, 1964'. vol. t, 172.
Cambridge Encyclopedia of India. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984.
Bruce Campbell Ancient wisdom revived. Berkeley. University of California Press, 1980

H.G. Cannegieter Pangeran Adipati Ario Mangkoe Nagoro VII. Dordrecht. Morks. 1937.

P. Cannistraro (ed.) Historical dictionary of Fascist Italy. London, Greenwood, 1981.
P. Cardoso 'De aslrologie in het leven en het werk van Fernando Pessoa' in.

References

417

De iveretd van Pessoa, 1 19f
AS Carpentier Alcing Woordenboek voor Vrijmetsetaren. Amsterdam, Schors 1884
llanl "Justice pour les Nations', 77" Oct. 1936, J22ff,

'Through Italian eyes', 7TDec. 1937, 251ff
(.avendish Encyclopedia of The Unexplained. London, Roudcdge 1974
L. Ccllier Fabred' Olivet. Paris, Nizei 1953

Tar, Chand History of tlte freedom movement in India, vol. IV. New Delhi. Ministry of

Information and Broadcasting, 1972. * "<>iry 01

Oirtsteiijke encyclopedie. Kok. Kampen. 1929.

C MM iS n fC ! ; C / °; r « p0ndenCe - ^ T - S. and the war', TTMarch 1916. 682-3

1, Cafl! * "^V of Australia. Vol V. Melbourne, Melbourne University Press J98I

Ato Leigh.onCleather HP. Biavatsky. a great betrayal. Cafcuna. Thaeker, Spink ^2A

" P L B mm~ "" Hfe ° nd w ° rkfor ""°' Calc " lla ' Tl,3Cker '

' .._ HP s ' cl ^7 as I knew her Calcutta, Thaeker, Spink 1923

•ndltaH Crump "Editorial foreword' ,0 BLA VATS KY< 1937)

< -h, , M CaU -W B "t"rf"' "" ^^ ° /l,/e PCking ' Chi " a Bookseller,. 1928.
1 uu M. Codd Women s Suffrage', TT. Nov. 1937 I t4ff

Ahner Cohen The Politics of Ri,ua) Secrecy', in: T1RYAK1AN(1974) IM-I4I

Margaret Cole Women of Today, London, Thomas Nelson 1938

A I. Constant liedendoagsch bijgeloaf Sptriusme en Theosafie. Den Haag. Ataros.

Clerk* A. Coppe, The Ori e ,„ s of Confucianism as an Organs Religion ,n Java ,900-

U.3, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 12:1 (March (981) 179-96
"Fron, Chrisum Mission to Confucian Rehgion: The Nederlandsche
Zcndmgsverecnigmg and ihe Chinese of West Java 1870-1910' in
D.P Chandler & M.C, Ricfclefe (eds). Nineteenth and Twemieth
Century Indonesia- Essays in honour of Professor J. P. ljeggt _ m
Monash University Centre or Southeast Asian Studies 1986
'" ■' • toppciis 'Eon wilde roos in Domburg', NRC. 17-6-J99T

I H Cornoraal-vaii Aclllerbrri'li •■*ti,- j

Acn^rDcrth T)ic wider outlook"'- 00k voor de Theosofe' TMM

1918. 11823

iZ ,'Tf M P" a C ° US,nS ^ !W ° l0Se ' her ' Madras ' G -«" * Co ,950

M ir^k-i t Cousins m : Nl, 25-8)924, 34f

'Annie Besanc Super-woman". 7TJan. 1934. 386-91

" f "^ a,! womanhood 10-day. Allahabad, Kitabijtan 1947

M./..^.h Cchead Daugl!WS ofErm Gerrafd5 Cross Co|m Smy(h£ ( m

AH.Coxon "Pythagoras , in N. Hammond/H. Scullard (eds.). The Otford Classical
Dictionary. Oxford. Clarendon Press, 1972=. 903f ^wtcat

BhI Crump a posthumous attack on HPB'. addendum ,0 LEiGHTON ''LF,< >]ERi 19531
' Cuinbey De Verborgen Gev ren van de R^enboog. H,\ v ^ um , M W ,. >*■'

"" Dah,S£ard oS.:; : r' °- ^^ — ■ - «." -nhavn,
Bernard Dahm History of Indonesia in the twentieth century. London. Pall Mall Press, 1971
S. uange Selected writings. Bombay, Lok Vangmaya Griha 1979

V L, Dar and S. Somaskandan History of the Banaras Hindu University. Ba.aras, Hindu

University Press. 1966.
DXpun Das Vie philosophy of non-cooperation. Madras, Tagore, 1922.

418

References

M.N, Das

Rama Prapanna Das
P. Dauttenberg
F. Davidson

Richard Davis

P. de Abrew

P.K.G, de Bom

Indian ideals of women's education. Adyar, TPH, 1930
Ancient vs. modern 'scientific socialism'. Madras, TPH, 1934.
The essential unity of alt religions. Benares. Ananda. 1947.

India under Morley and Minto. London, Allen and Unwin. 1969

'The Theosopnical Society and its members', 7TO«. 1902, 28-33.

Rudolf Steiner en de antroposofie. Leiden, typescript, 1985.

'Hawaiki. The Ancient Home of the Maori', TT. Oct. 1903, 20-5;

1903, 77-84.

'The influence of the Irish revolution on indian nationalism', in

Dec. 1986, 55ff.
Black magic or demonology in Ceylon', TT, Nov. 1902, 103-10.
A. Schwam', TT, Aug. 1933. 579f
Praktijk'. TMNl, 1921, 313-8,

Nov.

SA,

1. de Brtiijn and G. Puchinger (eds.) BriefH'isseting Kuyper-ldenburg Franeker, Wever, 1985.

van Ghert, een hegeliaan in de Nederlandse politick'; in: KLEVER ei al.

R,J de Falter 'P.G,

50ff.
GJ.G.deGier Alfred Haighton. Financier van het fascisme Amsterdam, Snthoff. I9SS
H.J de Graaf Geschiedenis van Indonesie 's-Gravenhage, van Hoeve, 1949
Albert de Jong Domcla Nieuwenhun Den Haag, Kruscuian, 1966.
L. de Jong Hel komnkrijk der Nederlnnden in de tweede wereldoortog, vol, 1-14. The

Hague, Staalsuilgeverij, 1969-1991.
Sjoerd de Jong 'Schier contra de Verlichting', NRC, 13-9- 1993.
A. A. de Jonge He( Nationaal-Sociattsme in Nederland The Hague, Kruscman 1968,

F. de Kruif Twee Weense occultisten. Leiden, lypescript. 1985A.

Otto Weittinger. Leiden, typescript, I985B.
Schopenhauer: racistne en irrationahsme Leiden, typescript, 1986
'De vrouw Hep voond. ,r 4nd ...oak ais zfj objeclief de waarlicid spreck;''
eiden. typescript. 1988
K de Mik Marie Elise Lokc; vrouw en gclcerde'. NRC, 7-4- 1993

G. de Purucker . vie Opstellen over Tlieosophie in verbaad met Vraagswkkttn \an den Dag

Groningen, Universce'.e Brocdcrschap en hei Theosophisch Genootschap, 1906
Vie esoteric tradition. Pasadena, TUP, 1940.
Man in evolution Covina, TUP, 1947.
Occulte woordemolk. Den Haag, TUP, 1981.
Friederike de Raat "s Lands mooiste indusiriecomplex. Van Nelle. gaat dicht'. NRC 30-5-

1?95.
A. de Roode/E. van der Tuin/G. Zondergeld Antroposofisch racisme. Nijmcgen, Nijmcegs

comite van waakzaamheid tegen fascisme, 1988*.
P. de Rooy 'Of Monkeys, Blacks and Proles. Ernst Hacckel's Theory of Recapitulation.' In

BREMAN. 7ff.
H. de Tollenaere 'Marx and Engels on Spiritualism and Theosophy', Til, Vol. 4, No. 2.

Apr. 1992; 45-9.
Inge de Wilde Een beminnelijke romaniste. Marie Elise Lake (1870-1916). de eerste vrouwelijke

lectot n Nederland. Groningen, Passage, 1993.
H.W, DekJcer 'Ais i. . vos de passie preekt, boer pas op je garezen', HVW, 10-9-1916, 235,
A.P. Dekker-Groot 'Karma en Reincarnatie', TMNI, 1919, 20-37.

R. den Dulk/J. van der Meulen/M. Ockeloen/T. Steiner Antroposofie ter discussie. Zeist,

Vrij Geestesleven, 1985.

References

419

I !'• |.u<! "Women in the new era', in; Brougham Villiers (ed.). T),e case for women's

suffrage. London. Fisher Unwin, 1907. 190-7.

V/omen in the new era. s.l. [London?]. Suffrage Shop, 1910,
I'"! nimi Devi 'The sense of beauty', 7TJune 1936, 197ff,

'Annie Bcsant', in; S.P. SEN, vol. I (1972), 152f.
i .. Dmiitrof Eenheid regen het fascisme. Amsterdam, Pegasus, 1973.
linw ..yDinnage Annie Besant. Hannonds worth. Penguin. 1986.

Mji!i-Ioii Djajadiningrat-Nieuwenhuis 'Nolo Soeroto: His Ideas and the Late Colonial

Intellectual Climate', Indonesia, Apr. 1993, 41-73.

I . Do.iicla Nicuwenhuis in: DVS, 1 1-6-1898,

II D«*er 'Maharishi zet natuurwei in voor landsbesluur', NRC. 3-6-1992.
M. I Kmrman 'Hunkeren ruar houvast', NRC. 25-4-1992,

I i Auhur Conan Doyle 77te History of Spiritualism. London, Casscll, 1926,

' .. I mda ei al. Rassen und Volker im Lkht der Wissenschafien und der Goiterkenntnis

M. Uidendorffs. Pah], Hohc Wane, 1987,
w "' **?*** 'Crowley'. 283f and 'Lcadbeaicr', 700f. in. Encyclopedia of

Homosexuality. N.Y., Garland, 1990.

'Goed reizeu laai wegen noch voetsporen na\ BAH, spring 1993, 15f.
1 "•*" '- d !; cr Tiie elements of theosophy. Benares, TPS, 1903.

l.v.il, Dudley Edwards Patrick Pearse. Tlie Triumph of Failure. London. Faber, 1979.
1 IU twkecrdc 'Dc boodschap der Jndische iheosofen*. HVW, 30-4)918.

1 in Imtische Stem 'Politick', TMNl, 1921, 506-9.

M I I P«S 'De RK-vrouw', OCA, 17-2-1993.

Mn-:r:i Eiiade (ed ) The Encyclopedia of Religion. N, Y,, Macmillan. 1987

'•' ' llwood 'Making New Religions: The Story of the Mighty I Am'. HT June 1988

P l-llwood and C. Wcssinger 'The Feminism ol 'Universal Brotherhood': Women in

(he Tlieosophica! Movement', in. WBSSINGER( 1993),
68-87.
<■• tt'hjjoedie van Nederlandsch-lndte, 's-Gravenhage, Nijhoff, 1917-1939'.
J n. y> lopedia Universalis. Paris. Encyclopedia Universalis. 1985.
, I ;els Marx Engels Werke, Berlin. Dietz. 1962rf.
i I rain Metophpique du sexe. Paris. Payoi, 1976,

I J.W.S. De waarheid over de Vrij-Katltotieke kerk Amsterdam, 'i kasteel van Aemsiel, 1928.
I I . Farwerck Noordeuropese Mysterien. Devenler, Ankh-Hermes, 1978.

I I m wcrck-Dorrius De vrouw en de vrijmetselarij . Amsterdam. N.V. Maconnieke Uilgevers

Maatschappij, [1920|.
C Passeur 'Nedcrland en Nederlands-lndie 1795-1914', Algemene Geschiedenis der

Nederlanden, XL Bussum. 1983, 348-372.

De weg naar het paradijs en andere indtsche geschiedenissen.

Amsterdam. Ben BakJ<er, 1995.
Abdullah Fatah 'Pemandangan tentang Theosofie jang di kembangkan oteh toean

Labberlon, bapa Indie Weerbaar', PW, 12-4-1917,
J A. Faucher Dictionnaire Maconnique . Paris, Pico I lee, 1984.

I larriet Feinberg 'A Pioneering Dutch Feminist views Egypt; Aletta Jacobs's Travel

Letters', Feminist Issues, fall 1990, 65-78.
tl. Feith/L, Castles <eds.) Indonesian Political Thinking, 1945-1965. Ithaca,

Cornell University Press, 1970.

420

References

Paul Fekcte -Hungary'. 77", Apr. 1936. 84f

M. Fcnnema and R van der Wouden (eds.) Het politicologendebat: wat is polittek?

Amsterdam, van Gennep. 1982.
J ean Finot Le p rijugi des races . Pa ri s . A lean , 1 905 .

K. Fischer 'The simplest formula', MB, Nov. 1933, 439f,

L. Fischer Mahaima Gandhi. The Hague, Sirius and Siderius, 1984.

Claude Fiscliler 'Astrology and French Sociery: The Dialectic of Archaism and Modernity', in:

T1RYAKJAN<1974), 281-95.
Swami Deva Amrilo (Jan Foudraine) Bhagwan. Krishnamurti. Jung. Deventer, Ankh-Hermes,

1984.
P. Fournicr Een Inleiding in de Tlteosofie. Weltcvreden, lndonesische Drukkenj, 1917.

'De Beteckenis van het Overheerschingstijdperk', WED, Feb. 1920, 30-9.
L, Frederic Encyclopaedia of Asian civilizations. Paris, Jean-Michel Place. I9S4

Jean Ovenon Fuller 'The Coulombs'. 777 Jan. 1987, 1-4

M Gandhi An Autobiography or the story of my experiments »'<r/( truth Alimcdabad,

Navajivan. 1940

Collected Works. Delhi. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, l95Sf
C Geem 77if Religion of Java. Glcncoe. Free Press, 1960

Sankar Gho.sc Political ideas and movements in India Horn bay, 1975

Modern Indian Political Tltougltt. New Delhi, Allied Publishers, 1984
SI Gillespie Theosophy and the Commonweal'. TT Jan 1938, 343ff. Feb 1938. 448ff.
GJ Gocdhan 'Indie autonoom of onafhankehjk''. HI'O, Apr. 1922 . 50-2
Goenawan Mangoenkocsriemo Bocdi Octomo in de periode 1908-19)8', Soetribtwiisih,

If
N Goodrick-Clarke Tiie occult roots of naztsni Wellingborough, Aquar;an Press. 1985.

'The modem occult revival in Vienna', TH, Jan. 1986, 97-1 1 1,
Frances Gouda 'The Gendered Rhetoric of Colonialism ajid Ami -colonialism in

Twentieth Century Indonesia', Indonesia. Apr 1993, 1-23.
Stephen Jay Gould Lecture at Leiden university, 20-10-1992 (unpublished).

Grande Enctctope'dia Portuguese e Brosileiro. Lisboa, Editorial Enciclopcdia. n.d
Robert Graves and Alan Hodge Vie long week-end. A Social History of Great Britain.

1918-1939 London, Four Square, 1961
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. A translation of the third edition. New York, McMillan. 1980
J. Griffiths "The half-caste and the racial problem', TT, May 1932. I69ff

B L. Grover A Documentary Study of British Policy Towards Indian Nationalism IKX5-I909

Delhi. National Publications, 1967
Rene Gu&iOfi Le Tlteosophisme . Paris, Nouvcllc Libraine Nationale, 1921
A. Gupta <ed.) Studies in the Bengal Renaissance. Jadavpur, National Council of Education.

1958.
M. Gurry and R. Jeffrey 'Indo-Austrahan Relations. A Perspective', India Perspectives. April

1991, 29-33.
H. 'Ceylon', TT. Apr. 1909, 118-1 19; May 1909. 266.

A, Haighion 'Ds. Zaalberg redivivus'; in: De Nieuwe Gids, 1943. 7ff,

Th.L, Haiijema/H. Schokking/J, Kromsigt Christusprediking tegenover Moderne Gnostiek:

Anthroposophie. Tlteosophie. Christian Science.
Wageningen, Veerunan, 1929.
D.G.E. Hall A History of South-Easl Asia. N. Y,. St. Marlins Press, 1968.
R. Hall Dieren zijn ais mensen. Dcventer, Ankh-Hermes, 1977,

References jp |

A.I. Hamerster 'De Hierarchic', TMNI 1923, 133-49.

Fio Hara The Secret Doctrine of racial development', TT, July 1904 596ff Aus 1904

660ff. ' ^" '

G, Harmsen Btauwe en rodejeugd. Nijmegen. SUN, 1975.
A. Harrisusanlo Teosofi'. Ensiklopedi Hasionat Indonesia, vol. I6.s249. Jakarta PT Cipta Adi

Puslaka. 1991,
Mohammad Harta Memoir. Jakarta, Tintamas, 1978.

Indonesian patriot. Memoirs. Singapore, Gunung Agung, 1981.
C Hcimsalh Indian nationalism and Hindu social reform. Princeton, University Press 1964
B Hering Mr. Ir. H.J. Kiewiet de Jonge and the Indonesian Nationalist movement of the 1920S

and early 1930S. Townsvillc. James Cook University of North Queensland, 1992.
J. Hcrkless 'Neo-idealism and finance capitalism': HEI, vol. 14 (1992), No. 4. 509-30

S. Upez Herrera Tite Canary Islands through history. Madrid, Dosbe, I97g!

P. I leuze Hoe stoat her met de Metapsychica (occuitisme) ? Le iden . LUM , 1 928

A. H[eymans], 'Het Batavia-Congres', TMNI 1926, 203-9.
W 1 Heyung 'Woman's place in polities', TT. July 1926, 402-10.
Humphry Hillary 'Gedachten over het koningschap', TMNI 1920. 394-401.

Verandenng noodig in de T. V.?'. TMNI. 1921. 319-23.
IL llobsbawm Mass-Producing Traditions Europe. 18704914', j„ ' £ Ho&sbaum and T.
Ranger (eds,). Tl,e Invention of Tradition. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 1983. y

77>e age of empire. London, Weidenfeld, 1 987.

0. Hudson 'Occult research into flic early American inhabitants', TT, Oct 1932. 85ff.

Relics of Ailantean Occultism', 77". May 1936. 185f.
I-.G Hockstra Wat gelavm z'tj? Jeugdreltgies. Kampen. Kok, 1 981,

1. Hooper The Pengap chants', TT. June 1902, 531ff.

Urines Houkes 'Willem Meng en zijn verenigingen 'Hei Vrije Woord' en 'Wie dent! ovcrwinl"

SNA 37. Mar. 1995, 19-40.
W. llubbe-Schlciden 'The coining period of our movement', 77", Oct, 1905. 36-40
J. Hubner/L, Gruson Monkey on a stick. Murder, madness and the Hare Knshnas.

Harmondswonh, Penguin, 1990
t-h( Itesey Tlte life of Sir Edwin Utryrm. Woodbridge, Antique Collectors club, 1989
S. Huiw -Le Spiritisms el la Socieic Theosophmue', Encyclopedic de la PUmde Histoire

des religions . Parts. GalJimard. 1976. vol II, 1363-82.
Kun Kunen Seher. Grubter. Enthusiasten. Stuttgart, Quell. 1954,
IIA.Idema Parlememaire Geschiedenis van Nederlmidsch-Indie. 1S91-I91S 's-Gravenhaae

Nijhoff, 1924.
Rcynaldo Jleto 'Religion and anli-cotomal movements', in N. Tarling <ed.), Tlte Cambridge

History of Southeast Asia Vol. two. Tlie nineteenth and twentieth centuries

Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992; (97-249.
J D Imelman/P. van Hoek Hot vrij is de Vrije School? Ntjkerk, Intro. 1983.

John Ingleson Road to exile. Vw Indonesian Nationalist Movement 1927-1934. Singapore.

Ileinemann, 1974,

Perlii/npunan Indonesia and the Indonesian Nationalist Movement 1923-192&.

Clayton, Centre of South East Asian Studies, 197S.
Eugene F. Irschik Politics and social conflict in South India. The non-Brahmin movement

and Tamil separatism 1916-1929. Berkeley, University of California
Press, 1969.

422

References

Manjcn Venkaia Raya Iyer 'Is the TS really democratic?', 77\ Jan. 1934. 455-8.

Rita JaUli 'Caste and Class', in E. Borgatia/M. Borgsfta (eds.) Encyclopedia of Sociology,

N.Y., MacMillan, 1992. 172-5,
K.A. James 'Hei Nederlandsch in onze Oosi-indische kolonien', 1G 1903 (25), 373-9.

M.F. James Esotirisme et christianisme: autour de Ren£ Gutnon. Paris, Nouvelles Editions

Latincs, 19S1.
Manaki* 'Problems in Anthropology', TT Aug. 1937, 41 Sff.

J.M.A, Jansscn Spreken de pyramiden? Wetenschap en schijnv/etenschap over het faraonischc

Egypie. Leiden. Brill, 1954.
C. Jinarajadasa Christ and Buddha. Adyar. TPH. !913.

Tlie heritage of our fathers. Adyar, TPH, 1918.

'First Principles of Theosophy. X1I1, The inner Government of the World'.

TT, Apr. 1921A, 41-9.

Vie reign of law. Adyar. TPH, 1923.

Vie golden book of the Theosophical Society. Adyar, TPH. 1925.

Tlieosophy and theosophists . Adyar, TPH, 1929.

'A year's travel in Latin America'. TT [US edi(ion). May 1930A, 393ff.

'Labour problems in Adyar'. TTJAdyar edition], Feb. 1931 . 393-7.

Abu Fail and Akbar. Adyar, TPH, 1934.

Occult investigations, Adyar. TPH, 1938

Tlie war- and after . London, TPH, 1939

Tlie return of Julius Caesar. Adyar. TPH, 1941 .

Women \n Freemasonry. Adyar. TPH. 1944

Economic en Tiieosofie. Amsterdam, TV, 1948.

A short biography of Annie Besanl. Adyar, TPH, 1986
Hieke Jippes fyloderne lingerie op Etruskisch graf", NRC. 26-3 1990.

B Johnson 'On Founders and Followers - some Factors in the Development of New Religious

Movements', SAN, 53, SI-SI3.
Paul Johnson In Search of the Masters, Madame Bhvatsky's Secret Quest. Typescript, n.d.

In Search of the Masters. Behind the Occult Myth. South Boston, Hedderly-

Beitton, 1990.
Kenneth W. Jones Arya Dharm. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1976

'Socio -religious reform movements in British India'. 77ie new Cambridge
history of India, vol. [II. I, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1989.
L.M H. Joosten Kaiholieken en fascisms in Nederland 1920-1940. Hilvcrsum, Paul Brand, 1964.
J.T.F. Jordens Daymanda Sarasvati. Delhi, Oxford University Press. 1978.
J. Joseph 'There's one born every minute'. Tlie Dominion, 28 Dec 1992.

W.Q. Judge Cyclische impressie en lerugkeeren anze evolutie. S.I., n.d.
SK 'Yeats als onafhankelijkheidssirijder' , Mare, 4-2-1993.

Anna Kamensky 'In Memoriam Barbara Poushkine', TT, May 1932. 201
Karno 'Katrangan tetenger kridaning wiromo sano loeq-ing wieled', WED. 1921. 177-

Sl.
Karu'ni Brieven can mevrouw R. M. Abenadnon-Mandri en haar eclugenoot. Dordrecht,

Foris, 1987,
Katholieke Encyclopedic. Amsterdam, Joost van den Vondel, 1954.

Harish P. Kaushik The Indian National Congress in England (1885-J920). Delhi, Research,

1971.

References

423

1 I'-ri-cl 'Ik weet niet wal ze bedoelen'. LucH, SeptJOct. 1989, 136f,

I,' ikliovcn De Nederlandse magisch reaiisten en de nationaal-socialisten. Leiden,

typescript. 1985,

I • II Renter Occultisme. Amsterdam, Onlwikkeling, 1925.

M Krv. de Vrics 'De selectie van zombies, kcien en werkmieren', NRC, 3-12-1992.

llcnnannKeyserling "Adyar' from 'A Philosopher's Diary", TT. Aug. -Sept,

1921, 456-72; 5S4-69.
ii i: i hlvata 'Some reflections regarding the Theosophical Movement', 77", Oct. 1907, 33ff.

I I j Km-iia<ii de Jonge 'Het ' 'ware karaher" der T. V. ', TMNl, 19I7A. 164-94.

De politick der toekomst. Een wetenschappelijk onderzoek. Amsterdam,
VanKampen. 1917B.

'De Tweede Vol ksraadzi King'. De Gids, 1919, [I, 97f; 328f.
Indische besniurshervorming . Batavia, Kolff, I920A.
'• ' 1 1 i" r 'n 'De problematisering van hei mannelijke en het vrouwelijke'. Mare, 4-3-1993.

'1 I- 1' in 'Hei verborgen leven van Cecile van Even. Een theosoftschc interpretalie van

Coupems' Exiaze'. De Revisor, 1983, #6, 84-91 .
ft' N A Klevcretal. Hegel omstreden . Bussum, Het Wcreldvenster, 1983.
II i Klioster Indonesiers schrijven hun gesehiedenis. [Leiden], n.p., !985

I KIiItti Scliriftelijk verslag van het refemat over de Ekologische Beweging. Leiden,

typescript, 1985.
|- Klvwo- 'Afscheid van Paul Kluwer', BAH, spring 1993, 2.

i' Mi. Koch Letter to 11. Sneev/iet, Semarang. 12-10-1915 Amsterdam. IISG, Sncevlici-
archief, 1559/12

Verantwoording. Een halve eettw in Indonesia 's-Gravenhage. van Hoeve, 1956.
Batig slot. Figuren w het oude Indie. Amsterdam, de Brog-Djamtiaian, I960.
V Kittikr 'Gcnccswijze ialrosofie is 'verzameling nonsens", NRC, 6-8-1993.

I •iiodiningral] l^mpapihoen Kangdjeng Pangiran Arja Koesoemodiningroi ngiden

blioewana. Weltevreden, Volkslecmur. 1921.
i "I 'Besanf, vol. 1. 577; 'Blavatsky', vol. I, 660; and 'Theosophiscrie

genootschappen', vol 6, 361; in Christelijke encyclopedic', Kanipcn, Kok, 1961.
■'■ ' '' l>"k Evolutie en erfetijklietd . Den ilaag, I S.I S., 1981

I "It Honing Een gast in de Nederlandse letlerkunde . Amsterdam, typescript, 1968
M KtHilr Tijdschrifien Leiden, typescript, [1985].

' 1. 1 ml 'Zaken, die Theosofie raken'. TMNl 1913. 260-5.

I' I Li.iver Sarekat Islam 1912-1916. Opkomst. bloei en struetuur van Indonesie's eerste
niassabeweging. Amsterdam. Historisch Scnnnarium van de Universiteit van
Amsterdam, 1982.
i Kui /pi- *De verborgen blauwdruk', HP/dT 5-4- 1991 , 49ff.

i-Ik » L. Koss John Morley at the India Office. 1905-1910. New Haven, Yale University Press,
1967,

II PivOuiHik 'Moeder Indie'; in: VAN DEN MUYZENBERG and DE BRUUN, 116-23.
II KrinnnboTg Oosterse geloofsbcwcgingen in het Westen. Ede, Zomer & Keunirig, 1982.

•' K> l-i/B, Batson 'Nationalism and Modernist Reform', in N. Tarhng (ed.). T!w Cam-
bridge History of Southeast Asia. Vol. nvo. The nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, 1992; 249-325.
I i"ll 'Hermes Trismegistos' , in Pauty's Real-Encyclopadie der classische

Attertumswissenscliafi. Vol, VIII. Stuttgart, Metzler. 1913.
\n\* KiWIma 'The varnasrama syndrome of Indian sociology', CIS 26, 2 (1992), 281-99.

424 References

P ft Kmhnaswami 'Vivekananda's disciple', Hindi wefc/y reriw, 1-4-1963.

rSiST 'Reconstruct, in de T. V.'. TVMt .920^204-17.

A Kuilenburg Spiritistische tijdschrifttR, Leiden, typescript, 1985.

B S 1L tart ™ »l*w « Wtep-W* '««»* N« M£ «' 198 ' ■
P Kurtz 'The New Age. A Humanist View', International Humanist, Apr 1990 10-1.
R.C « S * JL«df* - * ******* ^m » «***"*■
Sronnenpublikatie. Vol. 1 . Groningen, Tjeenk Will nit. 1975.
De mmkketmg van de natianalistische bewegmg m Nederlandsch-imhe.
Bronnenpublikatie. Vol. 2. Groningen, Welters. 1978.

D e entwikketing van de natianalistische begging in Ntttataulxk-toia
Bronnenpublikatie. Vol. 3. Groningen, Wolters. 5984.
La Grande Encyclopedie Urousse. Paris, Larousse. 1975.

S Lane-Fox 'The metal Aryan civilization and modem progress , TT. Jan. 1885, MBit.
J.UnzvanU e benfe1s(A) f*r 4#~* *, BibeL Gross-Dchterfelde, Paul

Zillmann. n.d,

Di> Theosophie and die assyrisclien -Menschemtere .
Gross-Lichterfclde. Paul Zillmann, n.d,
G D. Urson Prelude to ration Peaces and polincs in Surokarta. 1912-1942. Dordrecht,

C Latkin 2e!ng Red; A Social- psycho logical Analysis of the Rajneeshpuran. CotifliC.

SAN. Fall 1992. 257-271
J-P U ur*U 'Guenon. Rene", Dituonnaire de Biograplne France, vol. XVI. Pans.

Ulouzcy a Arte. L9S5. 1447.
Halldor 1— ss 'Die Voluspa auf Hcbraiscn'. in Die gute Jungfrau. Hamburg Rowohk, 1958
C W Leadbealer "The necessity for reincarnation', 7T, Apr. 1903, 4UI-IU

■Magic, white and black', TT, July 1904, 583-92
■Successive Life-Waves', TT, Oct 1905A, 12-24
The future of humanity', TT, Nov. 1905B, 88-96
Man visible and invisible. London. TPS. 1907.
[ The Intervals between Lives', TT Nov 1910. 270-80

Saved by a ghost'. TT, Jan 1911. 51 1-69.

L'occullism dam la name Pans. Bibliotheque theosoptiique. 1913
De Oud-Ka.holieke kerk Een gesprck mc, Mr. C. W Leadbealer .
TMNI 1919, 372-83.

■De Vereering der Heiligc Maagd Mm', TMN! 1920A. 4«f . «4f,
7ato0fl 'At Use fee! of the Master. Adyar. TPH, 1922.
'Sacrifice', TT. April 1931A,4T.

•Reminiscenses of Madame Blavatsky', TT, Oct. 193IB. 42fT.
'Some aspects of the World-Mother', TT. June I933A, 278ff.
■Occult Effect of an Eclipse in India'. TT, Oct. I933B, 89.
■C. Jinarajadasa'. TT. Nov, 1933C. 197.
Vie beginnings of the Sixth Root Race. Adyar, TPH, 1971'.
J D Leege Sukarno. A political biography. London. Penguin, 1972.

Pierre ^glise-Costa 'Parcours van de tentoons.elling' in: De ^^^1^-91
C I /-Ickerkerker 'Oud Hindoeisme en Jong nationalisms', De Guts. Sept. 1918. 467 9/

W.I H Met i„u>erialis,ne ats noogste stadium van he, kapitalisme. Moscow. Progres.

1966.

Materialisme en empiriokriticisme. Moscow, Progres, n.d.

References

425

G.J. Lerski Origins of Trotskyism in Ceylon. A documentary history of die Lanka Soma

Samaja Party. 1935-1942. Stanford, Hoover Institution. 196S,

J. Libbcnga 'Triodosbank; ethisch en milieuvricndelijk geldbeheer als groeimarkt', NRC, 8-1-
1991.

Joanna Liddle and Rama Joshi Daughters of independence. London, ZED, 1982.

D. Ligou (ed.) Dictionnaire de la Franc-Maconnerie. Paris, Presses Universitaires de

France. 1987.

E. Locher-Scholten 'Indie en net collectieve geheugen'. NRC, 9-4-1994.
E. Longford Victoria R. I. London. Pan, 1966.

IIP. Loveit/P. Cadcll 'Annie Besant'. in L.G. Wickham Legg (ed.). Dictionary of National

Biography 19H-I940, London. Oxford University Press, 1949; 72-4.
MaUiilde Ludendorff Die erolische Wiedergeburt . Munchen, Rcinhardt, 1923.
T, l.uns De broederschap der witte Loge of de Theosopbie in Nederland.

Amsterdam. C.L, van Langenhuysen, 1906,
Charles E. Luntz 'Shakespeare and ihe Jews'. TT, Dec. 1945, 121.

Lady Emily Lulyens Candles in the sun. London. Hart-Davis, 1957.
Mary Lutyens Krishnamitrti. The years of awakening. N. Y., Farrar. Strauss, 1975.

Margaret Mac Millan Women of the Raj . London, Thames and Hudson, 1988.
Annie McQueen 'The tenet of BroiheThood'. TT, Nov. 1901, 71-7,

Kuih T. McVey 77ip rise of Indonesian communism. Ithaca. Cornell Universiry Press. 1965.
k.C Majumdar (ed.) Centenary memorial volume. Calcutta. Swami Vivekananda Centenary

committee. 1963.
R C Majumdar (ed.) Tiie history and culture of the Indian people. Vol- XI, 'Struggle Tor

Freedom'. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidiya Bhavan, 1969.
U.C Majumdar/H C. Raychaudliuri/Kalikinkar Datta An Advanced History of India. London,

MacMillan, 1948.
I'.in Malaka 'Deli en de arbeidersbeweging', HVW, 18 March 1921A

'Mijn Verbanning'. De Tribune. 15 May 1922.
K. Maialgoda Buddhism in Sinhalese society. 1750-/900; a study in religious revival

and change. Berkeley. University of California Press. 1976.
Mmijjocnpoerwoto 'Pcrdjatanan ka Onderneming Sindang Wangi', PT 1916-17 (10), 73-7.

A. Mani(A) 'Indians in Nonh Sumatra', SANDHU & MANl, 46-98

A. Mani(B) 'Indian; in Jakarta'. SANDHU & MANl, 98-131.

I. Mansion Indie en hel Westen. Antwerpen, Kalholieke Vlaamsche

Hoogeschooluitbrciding, n.d. (1928)
J, Emile Marcault 'The value of ceremonial in racial evolution', TTAug 1930, 67 1 ff .

i Marictte 'Plague and rats'. TT. Aug 1911.738.

t ountcss Markievicz Prison letters of Countess MarkJevicz. London, Longmans, Green, 1934.
|W.E. Marshl 'Should Ihe Native Kaffir be educated?' TT, Aug. 1904, 700-2
Martin Marty 'The Occult Establishment', Social Research 37 (1970), 212-30.
I. II Martyn 'Politics and Theosophy', TT, Dec, 1914,257-65.
'Australia's national ideals'. TT. Jan. 1919, 3l5ff.
K. Marx Marx Engels Werke. Berlin, Dietz, )962ff.

Het Cotnmunistisch Manifest. Amsterdam, Pegasus. 1968.
V.B. Mathur Women's Education in India. 1813-1966. London, Asia Publishing House, 1973,
W.A. Mayers 'Contemporary national evolution', TT, June 1898, 523f.

The trend of international evolution', TT, July 1902, 592-604.
K. Mayo Mother India. London, Jonathan Cape, 1928*.

426

References

M. Meade Madame Btavaxsky. N.Y., Putnam, 1980-

Ph[iljp]. M(echanicus]. 'De Brilsche regeering en Mrs Besant', LOC, 19-1 1-1917.

P. Meeuse 'Literatuur en gnosis', De Revisor. 1983, #6, 15-23.

Gita Mehta Karma Cola. Glasgow, William Collins son, 1979.

S. Meijborg De Duits-ideologische beweging en hoar occuite en rascisrische componenten.

Leiden, typescript. 1985.

Feminisme ah taalstrijd. Leiden, Afrika Studiecentrum, 1992.

Domela. Een heme! op aarde. Amsterdam, Arbeidcrspers, 1993.

Verslag van tijdschriftenonderzoek. Leiden, typescript, 1985.

'The South African Youth Movement', TT, Feb. 1935, 454ff.

Wer war Rudolf Steinerl Stuttgart, Freies Geisteslcbcn, 1961.

Ami-Homo. Amsterdam, Christophore, 1929.

Lexicon des Geheimwissens. Freiburg i. B.. Bauer, 1970.

'In defence of Alice A. Bailey', TH Apr. 1988. 190-208.

Bare-faced messiah. Harmonds worth. Penguin, 1987,

When Prophets Die: The Poslchartsmatic Fate of New Religious Movements

Albany. SUN Y Press. 1991.

'Bhagwan Dass', in S.P. SEN, vol. 1, 156-8.

Tlie Indian Political Parties- Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1976

A schismatic b rot Iter hood', Tlie Statesman (Calcutta), 16-1-1924.

Op reis voor de weerbaarmaking van Indie', LOC, 19-1-19I7A, le blad.

'Racism and rationaluy in Hegel's philosophy of the subjective spin!', in History

of Political Tlwught. Xill, 2, 243-255.
Brain Moerland Rassenieer met charisma. Den Haag, Haagsc Academie Pers. 1989.
R Mohan First Lady or the silver screen'. Discover India, Dec 1991 . 12-15.

Edwin S. Motiiagu et al. The insistent claims of Indian reform London, Warner, 1919
James Moore The spoor of ihc guru'. Times literary supplement, 20-8-1993.
Joanne Stafford Mortimer 'Annie Besani and India, 1913-1917', JCH, XVIII

(1983), 61-78.

'The mystical origins or National-Socialism', in: Journal of the History of Ideas,

22:1 (1961), 81-97.

Tlie Crtsts of German Ideology. London, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1966

Toward the Pinal Solution: a history of European racism. London. Fertig, 1978

'Allan O. Hume and the Indian National Congress', SA, June/Dec. 1985, 5-23,

Yankee beacon of Buddhist light. Life of Col. Henry S. Oicott. Wheaton, TPH.

1988.
Cleona Murphy Tlte women's suffrage movement and Irish society in the early twentieth century

N. Y., Harvester Wheatsheaf. 1989.
K. Murugesan and C.S. Subramanyan Singaraveiufirst communist in South India. New Delhi.

People's Publishing House, 1975.
l.M. Muthanna Mother Resant and Maliatma Gandhi. Vellore, Thenpulam, 1986,
Akira Nagazumi Tlie Dawn of Indonesian Nationalism. The Early Years of the Budi Uiomo I90S-

1918. Tokyo, Institute of Developing Economies, 1972.

Maaike Meijer
J. Meijers
N, Mekel
A Member
Rudolf Meyer
E, Michel
Horst E. Micrs
J. Miller
R. Miller
T. Miller (ed).

Akhilesh Misra
B,B. Misra
M.N.O
Abdoel Moeis
D. Moellcndorf

G. Mosse

E.C. Moulton
H. Murphet

G.B. Naim/G. Serle

B.R. Nanda
Rob H. Nanninga

Australian Dictionary of Biography. Melbourne, Melbourne University
Press, 1 98 1 ff .

Gondii! and his critics. Delhi. Oxford University Press, 1985.
Parariieiten. Een kritische btik op het paranormaie. Utrecht. Het
Spectrum, 1988.

References

427

Nationalist

1. Ncdcrveen Pieiersc
Mary K. Neff
1 Nehru

A Nethercot

'De taak van den nationalist bij den strijd tusschen kapitaal en arbeid'
WED. Feb. 1921,29-32. '

Empire and emancipation. Studies in power and liberation on a world
scale. Nijmegen. 1988.
'Firsi contact of the lives of the Founders and Annie Besant', 7T Nov. 1933

i84rf. *

Tlie Discovery of India. London, Meridian. 1956.
An Autobiography. London, Bodley Head, 1958,
Selected Works. New Delhi, Sujit Mukherjee 1972f

The first fi V e lives of Annie Besant. Chicago, University of Chicago Press 1960
Ihe last four lives of Annie Besant. London Hart-Davis 1963
*r Catholic Encyclopedia. Washington DC, 1967: vol, 14, 74; article' 'Theosophy'

' "'" nl0d ' miSI Muslim «»«w* « '"donesia. 1900-1942. Singapore Oxford

University Press. J972. '

fafl&Norhnder 'An vara kvinnlig kapitalist. Anna Hierta- Regius, Ebba Lind af Hageby

och Liljeholmens Siearinfabrik'. Historic Tidskrift. 4/1992 446-467
Norrps 'Alfred Deakm', NA1RN/SERLE vol 8 (19St) 248ff.

P Klen Mas Noto Socto.o "Aziatisch Imperiahsme', WED ' ]920 18f

'» -I- P Nugraha Geraten Thcosofi di Indonesta dan pengandinya ' dalam pergerakan
national (1901-1933). Depok, Universitas Indonesia. 1989,
My father's son. London, Pan, 1968,

OIcolis role as western champion of Buddhism', DN, 27 Jan. 1992A
'Influence of European Enlighienmenl on Oicott', DN, 28 Jan. I992B
Limuaiions of Olcoit's rationalist religion', DN, 29 Jan. 1992C
Buddh,si conscience and popular religion', DN, 30 Jan J992D
De relatie tussen racism en occuitisme bekeken vanui, Adornos hypothese
Uiden. typescript, 1985.

De overlapping , mit „ mdme M occu!ijs , ni , uidcn lypcicrip(< l0g7
'The Pickett iragedy', IT, Jan. 1892, 193ff.
^Old Diary Leaves', TT, Dec, 1898. 132; TT, Apr. 1904, 388.
'Hindu orthodoxy and theosophy', TT. July 1904, 638-639
'The awful karma of Russia', 77, Oct. 1905. 56ff.
Eastern Magic and Western Spiritualism'. TT. Oct. /Nov, 1907, |gf I03f
Old Diary Leaves. Adyar, TPH, 1954 (3),
ill [-Darsono] Javaansch nalionalisme of internalionaal social isme' HVW 20-1-1918
I Oppenheim Mane Loke', De Nieuwe Gids. June 1916.805-28.

I i.iiik O'Connor

I • nun Mi Ohevesekera

J J Ol'fcrmans

II '. Oteoti

■\ilinr
I riiiu

it.' I'll

'■•■ ■ JBtrepeer

Hi. Qweti

1 1 I Owen

■Annie Besam'. in: J Baylen/N. Gossman (eds). Dictionary of Modern British

Radicals. Vol. 3. NY., Harvester -Wheatsheaf, 1988; 85ff.

'Bolland en Blavatsky'. in: VAN DEN MUYZENBERG and DE BRUIJN, 37-

Tempestuous Journey. Uoyd George Ins life and times. London, Hutchinson
1954.

Towards nationwide organizalion: the home rule leagues, 1915-1918' in-
D.A. Low (ed). Soundings in modern South Asian history. London Weidenfeld
and Nicholson, 1968; 159-J96.

-Organizing for the Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919'. in: R. Kumar (ed ) Essays on
Gandhian Politics. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971- 64-92
1 **mi Pandit The Scope of Happiness. A Personal Memoir. London, Weidenfeld and

42E

References

Nicholson, 1979.
R. Palme Dun India to-day. London, Gollancz, !940.

S. Palmer/F. Bird 'Therapy, Charisma and Social Control in ihe Osho

movement 1 ; in: SAN, 53, S 571-585.
Dame Christabel Pankhurst Unshackled. London. Hutchinson, 1959,

E. Sylvia Pantchursl India and the earthly paradise. Bombay, Sunrise, 1926.

The suffragette movement. London, Longmans Green, 1931.
A. Pannekoek 'Twee natuuronderzoekers in de maatschappehjk-geesielijkc strijd', DAT

1917, 300-14; 375-92.
Papus [Gerard Encausse] 'Introduction \o the Tarof. in TIRYAK1AN(1974>, 59-

71.
8. Parekh Colonialism. Tradition and Reform. An analysis of Gandhi's political

discourse. New Delhi, Sage, 1989.
J.J. Parodiz Darwin in the new-world. Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1981.

G. Parrinder Dictionary of Non-Christian Religions. London, Hution, 1972,

L.L. Panlow 'Black magic in old Hawaii', IT. Aug. 1930, 721ff.

Louis Pauwels and Jacques Bergier 'Theosophy and Nazism', in: TIRYAK1ANU974), 169-

179.
A. A. Perera 'The supernatural in Ceylon". 77", May 1902, 487ff

L. Perrone-Moises 'Het oeuvre van Fernando Pessoa' in: De wereld van Pessoa, 8 IT.

J.Th. Petrus Blumbcrger De nationalislische beweging in Nederlandsch-Indie. Dordrecht, Fons,

1987.
A Phitipps The Secret Doctrine. Leiden, typescript, 1985.

Edith Pinchin 'Theosophy; nationalism and internationalism', TTMay 1936. I50f.

J.M. Pluvier Overzichl van de ontwikkeling der nationalislische beweging in Indonesia

in de jaren 1930 tot 1942. 's-Gravcnhagc. van Hoeve, 1953.
H. Poeze Tan Maiaka. Strtjder voor Indonesia's vnjheid. 's-Gravcnhage. Nijhoff. 1976

Poliliek-politioneie overachten van Nederlandscli-lndie. Bronnenpublikalie . Deel

I 1917-1928. The Hague, Nijhoff. 1982.

Poliliek-politioneie oveaichten van Nederlandsch-lndie. Bronnenpublikalie Deel

II 1929-1930. Dordrecht. Foris, 1983.

In he! land van de overhcerser. I. Indonesiers in Nederland 1600-1950

Dordrecht., Foris, 1986.
L.J. Polderman 'Overzeesche brieven', WED, 1922, 2-7,

S. Poldervaart/B. Reinalda 'Vrou wen studies, politicologie en de omschrijving van

poli(iek\ in: FENNEMA and VAN DER WOUDEN,
35ff.
Reva Pollock Greenburg Fabian Couples. Feminist Issues. N.Y., Garland. 1987.

Cathy Porter Alexandra Kollonmi. The Lonely struggle of the Woman Who Defied Lenin.

N.Y., Dial Press, 1980.
L. Price Madame Blavatsky unveiled? London, THC, L986A.

'Esoteric Sections and the historian', TH, Jan. !986B. 90f.

'A century of history', TH, Apr. 1987, 49-S0.

'Textual differences', 77f, Jan. 1988A, 141.

'New editions of oid books', TH, Oct. J988B, 274.
S, pTokofieff Der Osten im Lichte des Westens. Dornach, am Goelheanum, 1992.
MA, Rabbie 'De theologie in haar laatste scbuilhoek', DVS, 1-6-1898A, 1-2.

'Aan het (onbewuste) medium van Mrs. Katherine A. Tingley .. J. STERRINGA

References

429

z\z\\ noemend anarchist', DVS. 8-6-1 898B.
Ruby Lorraine Radford 'A Blending of Races'. 77, Feb. 1939, 367-9.
Radjiman 'Dc Vertegenwoordiging der Inlanders', KS 1917 (1), 3, 147-55.

[Radjiman] Wediodiningrat 'In Memoriam 2. V. H. den Soesoehoenan Pakoe

FJoewana X 1 , Djdwa 1939 (19), 83-5.
Antonia Raeburn The Militant Suffragettes. London, Joseph, 1973.

A. Raftery <ed.) Lenin on Ireland. Dublin, New Books Publications, 1970,

Pandita Ramabai Sarasvali 77i<? high caste Hindu woman. New Delhi, Inter-India

Publications, 1984.
J. Ransom 'Racial problems in South Africa', TTJune 1932, 273ff; July 1932, 395ff.

A Short History of the Theosophicat Society. Adyar, TPH, 1938.

The Seventy-fifth Anniversary Book of the Theosophical Society. Adyar, TPH.

1950.
V.P Madhava Rao. Esq . CLE. 'A great Indian on Theosophy', 7T. Apr. 1913, 150-2.

T. Ravcnscroft Tlte Spear of Destiny London, Sphere, 1990.
A.L. Rawson 'Mme. Blavatsky', in: Frank Leslie's popular monthly, Feb, 1892; reprinted TH,

Apr. 1988.209-220.
N.R Ray Dictionary of National Biography. Calcutta. Institute of [Historical Studies.

1986ff
D Read (ed ) Documents from Edwardian England. London. Harrap, 1973.
David Reeve Golkar of Indonesia: An Alternative to the Parry System. Singapore. Oxford

University Press, 1985.
A. Reid 'The Nationalist Quest for an Indonesian Past'. RFJD/MARR. 281-299.

A. Reid/D. Marr (ed.) Perceptions of the Past in Southeast Asia. Singapore. HEB, 1979
A.J. Resink De Tlieosofische Vereeniging en De Klassenslrijd Amsterdam, Amsterdamschc

Boekhandel, 1908A.

Socialc Paedagogie . Amsterdam, Amsterdamschc Boekhandel, I908B

'De Heer Hinloopen Labbenon', De Tribune, 19-7-1917; as reprinted, HVW, 30-

10-1917, 19.
P. Richardus The Dutch Orientalist Johan van Manen. Leiden. Kem Institute, 1989.
W R Richler 'Buddhaday celebrations at Hamburg', MB, July 1934, 325-6.
M.C. Rieklefs A History of Modem Indonesia since c. 1300. Basingstoke. MacMillan. 1993 ! .
D. Riesman Vie lonely crowd. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1950.
C. Risseeuw 77ie Fish don't talk about the water. Gender Transformation, Power and

Resistance among Women in Sri Lanka . Leiden, Brill, 1988.
Jill Roe Beyond belief. Tlieosophy in Australia 1879-1939. Kensington. NSW University

Press. 1986,
Roestam Effendi 'Menyusuri kenang-kenangan perjuangan masa mudaku'. in Bunga rampai

soempali pemoeda. Jakarta, Balai Pusiaka. 1986 1 , 397-402.
John D. Rogers 'Cultural nationalism and social reform: the 1904 Temperance Movement in Sri

Lanka*; in: IESHR. 26, 3 (1989), 3l8ff
K. Rohm Die Truggesialt der Annie Besant und andere Srrlichter der theosophische

Gesellschaft. Lorch. Rohm, 1916.
J. Romein Machten van deie tijd. Amsterdam, Wereldbibliotheek, 1950.

Op het breukvtak van twee eeuwen. Amsterdam, Querido, 1976 ! .
Annie Romein-Verschoor Onaien in verwondering Amsterdam, Arbeiderspers,

1970.
W.A.L. Ros-Vrijman Een misleidend boek: weerlegging van prof. Verhaar's boek de

430

References

Theosophische bev/eging. Den Haag, Boekhandel en Uitgeversmij, 1933.
Th, Rosiak Unfinished animal. NY., Harper & Row, 1975.

C. Roth Standard Jewish Encyclopedia. London, Allen, 1962.

M,A. Rothman 'Two 19th-century skeptics: Augustus de Morgan and John Fiske'; in Skeptical

Enquirer, spring 1992, 292ff.
Manabendra Nath Roy India in transition. Bombay, Nachiketa, 1971 .
L. Ruge Zum Geddchmis an H.P. Btavatsky. Den Haag, Couvreur, n.d.

E,S. (Elisabeth Severs?] 'The magicians of Chamo', TT, Apr, 1914. 129,
K..S. Sandhu & A. Mani Indian Communities in Southeast Asia. Singapore, Institute of Southeast

Asian Studies, 1993.
A, Sankariah 'The Secret Doctrine and castes', 77, Oc[. 1889, 63,

J. Sanrucci 'H.N. Stokes' early contact with the Theosophical Society', TH, Jan, 1987, 4-22.

DR. SarDesai Southeast Asia. Past & Present. Boulder, Westview, 1994\
S. Sasirasocwignja 'Her inner ingen aan B.K.P.H. Koesoemadimngrat', Djawa 1932 (12),

318-26.
John Savillc (cd.) A selection of the social and political pamphlets of Annie Besan:

N. Y., Kclley, 1970.
J. Schdffcr Net nationaai-socialistische beetd van de geschiedems der Nederlanden

Amsterdam, Meulenhoff. 1956.

Dutch 'Expansion' and Indonesian Reactions: Some Dilemmas of Modern

Colonial Rule (1900-42)'. in: WESSEUNG(!97S). 78-99.
P. Schollc De stille kracht. Leiden, typescript. 1985

Marian Schouten (cd.) Rondom de Btiitenzorgse Troon. Indtsch Dagboek van C.L M. Bijl tie

Vroe 1914-1919. Haarlem, Fibula-van Dishoeck, 1980.
J.J. Schneke Ontsiaan en groei der stads- en landgemeenten tn biederlandsch-lndie.

Amsterdam, De Bussy, 1918
Joseph L. Sdiwartzbcrg A Historical Atlas of South Asia. Chicago. Universii) of Chicago Press,

1978.
A. Schwar-t 'Notes on the pedigree of man', TT, June 1905, 545ff

G, Scholem 'Kabbalah'; Encyclopaedia Judaica. IX, Berlin, Eschkol, 1932, 630f

Emilc Schwidder/Fmjof Tichetman Soctalis/ne tn Indonesie. Dee! 2. Met Proces Sneevliet.

1917. Leiden. KITLV. 1991.
Semaoen 'Aan den land gevoeld. Uit ecn vergadering*. HVW, 25-8-19)6, 223.

'Tidagampang'.SM, 25-8-19)7, 66-8.

'An F.arly Accouni of the Independence Movement' [translation and comments by

Ruth T McVey). Indonesia, Apr. 1966, 46-72
Sri Chandra Sen 'The VenbleSri Devamitta Dhammapala', MB. Sept. /Oct 1933, 326-57
S.P. Sen Dictionary of National Biography . Calcutta. Institute of Historical Studies, I972f.

G. Senfi Gesichier der Esoterik. Vienna, Monte Verita. 1991.

Padmini Sengupta Sarojini Naidu. London, Asia Publishing House. 1966.

K.D, Sethna 77ie problem of Aryan origins. Calcutta, S. & S., 1980.
J. Sharma The National Biographical Dictionary of India. Delhi, Sterling. 1972,

J.S, Sharma India's struggle for freedom. Select documents and sources. Vol. 11, Delhi,

Chand, 1964.
George B, Shaw 'Annie Besarn as a Fabian socialist', TT, Oct. 1917, 9ff,
Th.L. Shay The Legacy of Die Lokamanya. The political philosophy of Bai Gangadliar Tilak.

Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1956.
Takashi Shiraishi 'The Disputes between Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo and Soetatmo

References

431

Soeriokoesoemo. Sauia vs. Pandita', Indonesia, Oct. 1981, 93-108.
An Age in Motion. Popular Radicalism in Java, 1912-1926. Uhaca, Cornell
University Press, 1990.
B.D, ShukJa A history of the Indian Liberal Party. Allahabad, Indian Press, 1960.
Diwakar Prasad Singh American attitude towards the Indian nationalist movement. Delhi.

Munshiram Manoharlal, 1974.
SangaL Singh Freedom Movement in Delhi (1858-1919). New Delhi, Associated

Publishers House, 1972.
Paitabhi Silaramayya History of the Indian National Congress, vol. I. Delhi, Chand, 1969.
Dusty Sklar Cods and beasts. The Nazis and t/ie Occult. N. Y., Crowd!, 1977.

V. Wallace Slater 'Aryan origins', IT, Jan. 1936. 364ff.

'The race problem in Europe', IT, March 1936, 570-571 .
Warren S. Smkh Tlie London Heretics, 1870-1914. London. Constable, 1967.

H. Sneevliet "Theosofisch militarisme', HVW. 25-3-1916A, 1 10.

'De meuwekiesvereeniging', T/VW, 25-3-1916B, 110.
'Overgeleverd aan hei militarisme'. HVW, 2S-7-I916C, 193.
[H, Sneevliet] 'Actie en Tegen-actic voor Weerbaar Indie', HVW, 25-8-19I6D. 220-2.
H. Sneevliet Postscript to VAN GANSWUK, HVW. 2S-9-1916E, 248.
Ethel Snowden Russia and (he grcai choice'. TT. Oct. 1920. 33-8.
Linda Snijders \Jongercn en religie: God lij met ons, gelovcn wij dat nog?', Horus, Jan. 1994,

16-8.
Ijjuis Snyder Encyclopedia of the third reich. NY., McGraw-Hill, 1976.
Soembatigsih. Gedcnkboek. Boedi-Oetomo 1908-20 mei-1918. Amsterdam, Tijdschrifi Ncderl. Indie
Oud en Nieuw. 1918.

Socwardi Soerianingrat 'Indie Weerbaar', HPO. 1916-7, 145-53; 177-81; 211-4
[Soewardi] Surya Ningral Siromingen en panijen in Oosl-lndie', De Nieuwe

Amsierdammer , 26-5-/2-6-19)7.

'Hel Javaansch nationalistic in dc Indische beweging'.
SOEMBANGSIH, 27f
R. M. S. Soeriokoesoemo 'Ons Ziclelcvcu', HTOJune 1916,97-101.

'Woehge Tijdcn', WED. 1919A. 12-6.

'Een beschouwing over de vormen der overheersching'. WED. 1919B.

69-77.

'Democratic en Wijsheid', TMN1, I920A. 308f.

Sobdo-Pandito-Ratoe. Het recht ts van den wijze. Wehevreden.

lndonesische Drukkerij. 1920B.

'Ons derde levensjaar', WED. Jan. 1920C, If.

'Drcigend gevaar van het land der rijzende ion'. WED, Jan. I920D, lOf.

'Theosofie en Javaansch National isme', WED, May/June 1920E, 73-7.

'Ongeschreven wettcn*, WED, Ocl./Nov./Dec 1920F. 230f.

'Hetraadsel van Djowo-Bali-Noto...'. WED, Jan. 1921 A, 1-4.

'Uit Hindostan en Java'. WED, May 192IB, 69-73,

'Rede, uitgesproken op de 13e bonds vergadering van Boedi Oetomo',

WED, 1921C. 243-49.

Astogini. Het spei van vijf. Weltevreden, lndonesische drukkerij, 1921D.

'Rede in den Volksraad van den hecr Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo', WED,

1922A, 8-19.

'Rede van den hecr Soeiatmo Soeriokoesoemo', WED, 1922B, 69-83.

4 32

References

Toto Tentrem. Orde-Vrede.'. WED. Aug. 1923A, 13-7.
*Hct Heilige Schrift in beeld, Dc Wajang,', WED, Aug. 1923B, 30-9.
M. S. Soeriokoesoemo et a!. Javoansdi of Indisch JVaj/ona/iinW Scmarang, Benjamins, 1918.

F. Soontiens

L. Soper

H, Spierenburg

Sri Prakasa
Paul Siange

R. Siark

Rudolf Steiner

J. Slcrringa

Th. Stevens

MR. St. John
H. Stoecker

W Sinive

Sukarno

R. Sullivan

K H. Sumathipata

'Evolulion, teleology and theology', in: Bijdragen. 1992. 394-406.

'The "menace" of communism', TT, Oct, 1932. 96-8.

'Dr. Rudolf Steiner on the Mahatmas, Part II', TH, Jan. 1987, 23-31.

'Nagarjuna', TH, Jan. 1988. 158ff.

Annie Besom. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 1954.

'Religious Change in Contemporary Southeast Asia', in N. Tarling (ed).

77ie Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Vol. two. The nineteenth and twentieth

centuries. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 1992; S29-82.

'Class, radicalism and religious involvement in Great Britain'. American

Sociological Review. 1964, 698-706.

Onze Ailantische voorouders. Amsterdam, TUM. 1909,

Mein Lebensgang. Dornach. Philosophisch-Anthroposofischer Verlag, 1925

'Eengemeenstuk'. DVS. 4-6-1898A.

DVS, 11-6-1898B.

Vrijmetselarij en samenieving in Nederlands- Indie en indonesie 1764-1962

Hilvcrsum, Verloren. 1994.

"The world crisis its cause'. TT, Oct. 1933, 95ff.

'Prc-1914 efforts 10 secure a larger share'; in H Sioecker (ed), German

Imperialism in Africa. London. Hurst. 1986; 230-70.

Elites against Democracy. Leadership Ideals in Bourgeois Political
Tiiought in Germany, 1890-1933 Princeton, Princeton University Press.
1973.

An Autobiography. As told to Cindy Adams. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill, 1965.

'Matthew Rcid", NA1RN/SERLE. vol 1 1 (1988). 355-6.

Ceylon. 1796-1965 Dehiwala, Tisara

History of education

Prakasakayo. 1968.

'Theosophy'. in: Dictionary of American History. N, Y.. Charles

Scribners' sons, 1942, vol 5, 262,
'A Greeting from Germany'. TT, Oct, 1936. 66-7.
'De onlustcn in Indonesie en hare bestrijding', OP, 1927-8, 504-16
Oris wapen. De nationaal Indonesische pers en hare organisatie. Den Haag. n p ,
1929.

Konggres Pcmuda Indonesia Penama', in 45 TAHUN SUMPAH PEMUDA. 307-
18.

Annie Besant. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1992.

77ie Dutch colonial army in transition. The militia debate, 1900-1921. Rotterdam,
CASP, 1980.

Anaiomie van de Indische defensie. Leiden, n.p., 1988.
'Remarks on evolution', TT. Dec. 1898. 160.
'Standsbesef en pUchtsgevoel', NRC, 13-3-1993.

'Women as activists, women as symbols', Feminist Review, summer 1993 (44),
81-97.
W. Theimer (comp.) Penguin political dictionary. Harmonds worth. Penguin, 1939.
S. Thissen 'lets over de anlroposofische zuil in Nedcrland'. Buiten de orde, 1 (1992), 14-17.

E.W. Thompson 77ie Theosophy of Mrs. Besant. Mysore, Wesleyan Mission Press, 1913.

W.W. Sweet

Maria Taaks
M Tabrani

Anne Taylor
G. Tenler

J.G.O. Tepper
H. te Velde
Suruchi Thapar

References

433

77ie Christ of Theosophy and of the Bible and Experience. Mysore, Christian

Literature Society. 1914.

Esoteric Theosophy and Public Education. Mysore, Wesleyan Mission Press,

1915.
T, Thotsteinsson (ed.) Iceland. A handbook. Reykjavik. Prentsmidjan Gutenberg. 1926.
J.L.G. Tichelaar Episoden uit de geschiedenis van de Vrij-Katholieke Kerk in het voormalige

Nederinnds-Indte. Reprint from: De Vrij-Kaiholiek, July-Dec. 1977.
F, Tichelman Socialisms in Indonesie. De Indische Sociaal Democratische Vereeniging, 1897-

1917. Bronnenpublikaiie. Vol. !. Dordrecht, Forts. 1985.

'Hinloopen Labberton. Dirk van. orientalist en theosoof. in: Biografisch

Woordenboek van Nederland. IV. Instituut voor Nedcrlandse Geschiedenis. 1994.

186-8.
L. Ticmersma 'De huidige theosophie in betrekking toi de Zending', in Ovenichi van de

twaalfde Zending<onfereniie gehouden te Mr.-Comelis en te Depok van 18 tor 26

Augustus 1906, Weltevreden, Visser & Co.. 1907; 208-249.
Douwc Tilkema Opmerkingen over Tlicosqfie en opvoedmg. Batavia, Plantijn. 1932.
G Tiller: Tlie Eider Brother. London, Rouiledgc, 1982.

'There is no religion higher lhan : Approaching Theosophical History', TH,

Apr. 1989, 42-50.
K. Ttngay The English Section and the House of Commons'. TH Apr. 1988, 221-5.

K Tingley De Tlteosophie en enkele brandende vraagitukken van den dag S.l , Universcele

Brocderschap en hci Thcosopliisch Gcnooischap, n.d. [I915 7 ]
\\. Tiryakian 'Toward the Sociology of Esoteric Culiure', AJS Nov. 1972, 491 f.

- (ed ) On the margin of the visible: Sociology, the esoteric and the occult. N.Y.. John

Wiley. 1974.
Tjipto Mangoenkoesocmo 'De Wajang', IG 1914. 530-9.

De Beweging in India. Met een voorn-oord van Ir.
Soekarno. [Bandung], Socloch Indonesia Moeda, |1928|
M. Toonder De Allanticr'. in: HM, Amslerdam, Dc bezige bij. 1979. 7-76

J.T. Trebilsch-Lincoln De grootste Avonturier der Twmtigste ceuw. Zulphen, riiicme. 1932.
I.. Tristram 'Messengers of light in Africa', 77*. Jan. 1934, 450ff.

Marcelln Truzzi Definition and Dimensions of the Occult: Towards a Sociological Perspective',

in: T1RYAK1AN( 1 974),. 243-257.
Kenji Tsuchiya Democracy and Leadership. Tlie Rise of the Tamnn Siswa Movement in

Indonesia. Honolulu. University or Hawaii Press, 1987.
J. Uglow (cd.) Tlie international dictionary of women's biography. N.Y., Continuum. 1982.
V Urban 'Reflective rcirospecnvc', TH Jan, 1989. 4-14.

D. Valisinha 'Right Effort', MB. Apr. 1934. 155fl.
D. van Arkel Antisemitism in Austria. Leiden, typescript, 1966.

'Een voorzichlige prognose', in D. van Arkel/ S. Wiesemhal et al Veerrig jaar

na '45. Amsterdam, Meulenhoff, 1985; 9f.
Ixo van Bergen Hoe in Nederland en Indonesie de geweldtoze bevrijdingsstrijd van M.K. Gandhi

beoordeeld werd tussen 1920 en 1965. Zwolle, Slichting Voorlichting Aktieve

Geweldloosheid, 1987.
A. van Bosbeke Ridders van nu. Over occulte genootschappen en ridderordes in de twintigste

eeirw. Antwcrpen, EPO, 1987,
W.K. Baron Van Dedem 'Brieven uit Britsch-lndie'. De Gids, Sept. 1895, 465ff;

Oct. 1895. 96ff.

434

References

H.W. van den Doel De suite macht. Het Europese binneidands besatur op Java en Madoera,

1308-1942. Amsterdam, Ben Bakker, 1994.
R. vanderDonk 'New Age', De Tribune, 24-12-1992. 8-1 i.

Taco van der Mark 'E.F.E. Douwes Dekfcer. Een konstondige messias schudde Indie

wakker', Spiegel Historiael May 1995, 198-202.
J. A. A. van Doorn/C.J. Lammers Modeme Sociologie. Ucrecht, Aula, 1968?.

Frederik van Eeden De Breeders. Leiden, Nijhoff, 1983.
Monique van Eeden 'Onsterfelijkheid voor iedereen*. LD, 21-8-1993.

C.C.W. van Ganswijk 'lngezonden. De Heer v. Hinloopen Labberton en de Weerbaarheid',

HVW, 25-9-1916, 247-8.
H.J. van Ginkel Oorlog. Oorzaken en gevotgen van de huidige crisis. Theosofische

beschouwingen. Amsterdam. TUM, 1915.
E.A.A. van Heekeren 'Umenant-Generaal G.C.E. van Daalen', 1G 1914, 309-21
W.C, van den Heuvel Theosophische disiracries omtrent de onsmaskering van Mevr. Blavatsky
le Adyar. Antwoord aan den Heer D. van Hinloopen Labberton,
Voonitter der N. 1. Theosophische Vereeniging. Soerabaia, Fuhri & co.,
1918.
Mrs C, van Hinloopen Labberton 'Verslag van het Zesde Congres der Nederlandsch-

Indische Theosofische Vereeniging gehouden le

Soerakaria op 21-23 Ma3« 1913', TMNI, 1913, 460-76
De Grondslag van een Godsdicnst', TMNI, 1916, 71-8K.
D. van Hinloopen LatabcrLun tnvioed van de suikerfabriek op hare omgeving. Baiavia,

H.M. van Dorp en Co.. 1908.

Theosofie in verband me! Boedi-Oetomo. Buitenzorg,

Evoluiie, 1909.

Geillustreerd handboek van insalinde. Amsterdam,

Vivat, 1910.

'Activity, Desire and Color'. 7T, Mar. 1911.962-3

'De Gouden Pen', TMNI, 1913A, 597-609.

'Uit de Pen der Redaclie', TMNI, 1913B, 1-8.

'Uit de Pen der Redaclie'. TMNI. 1913C, 113-23.

'Uit de Pen der Redaclie. Soematjitra en zijn kring'.

TMNI. 1913D, 49-56.

'Uit de Pen der Redaclie*, TMNI, 191 3E, 445-59.

Netherlands East India. Geographical and Ethnological

No. I. Essays, published by Netherlands East Indian San

Francisco Committee. Department of Agriculture,

Industry and Commerce. Semarang, v. Dorp & co.,

1914.

'De Gouden Pen', TMNI. 1916A, 51-4.

'De Gouden Pen', TMNI. 1916B. 195-7,

'De Gouden Pen', TMNI, 1916C, 243-50.

'De Gouden Pen', TMNI, 1916D, 515-9.

'De Gouden Pen', TMNI, 1916E, 147-51.

*De irivoering van eene militie in Indie, we Ike rekening

houdi met het karakter van den Inlander en de

stroomingen in de Inlandsche Maatscliappij', Orgaan der

Vereeniging ter beoefening van de Krijgswetenschap,

References

435

J. van Holsieyn and C. Mudde

1916/17. 577-622.

'Indie en Nedcrland', TMNI. 1917A, 393-6.
Grondwetsherziening. Buitenzorg, Archipel, [1921].
Magna Carta Libertatum en Wtena Gemot. De
Mtddeleeuwsche Oorsprong en Geschiedenis van het
Engelsche Parlementaire Stelsel. Amsterdam,
Universiteii van Amsterdam, 1931.
' Rechis-extremisme vail met samen met racisme' .
Volkskrant. 27-2-1993.
M. van Langenberg National revolution in North Suntatra. Sydney, University of Sydney,

1976.
J . van der Leeuw Histonsch-ideatistische poiitiek. Amsterdam, Maaischappij voor goede en

goedkoope lectuur, 1920.

'Levensarmoede als were Id vetschij rise l\ TB May 1931, 222ff.
A. v[anl L[eeuwen] 'Uit de Pen der Redaclie', TMNI I917A. 435-9.

'Uil de Pen der Redaclie', TMNI 19178, 337-46.
'Uii de Pen der Redaclie'. TMNI 19I8A. 579-84.
'Uit de Pen der Redactie'. TMNI 1919A, 1-5.
Uii de Pender Redaclie'. TMNI 1919B. 347-52.
'Botkbcspreking', TMNI I9I9C. 435-6.
'Uii de Pen der Redactie', TMNI 1919D, 485-9.
Vragen en antwoorden', TMNI I920A, 93-5.
Uil de Pen der Redaclie'. TMNI 1920S, 97-103.
A van Leeuwen Hierarchiccn in de Geeslelijke Werelden', TMNI 1920C, 232-45.

A v'an] L|eeuwen| 'Un de Pender Redaclie'. TMNI 1921A, 1-10

'Un de Pen der Redactie'. TMNI 1921B, 169-72.
'Uitde Pendet Redactie", TMNI 192IC, 249-55.
'Uilde Pen der Redaclie'. TMNI 192ID, 343-7.
'Uil de Pen der Redaclie'. TMNI 1921E, 439-42.
'Uitde Pender Redactie'. TMNI 1921 F, 533-7.
A van Leeuwen "Dc onlwikkeiingsmogelijkheid der Javaansche muziek'. TMNI, 1921G.

297-312.

'Graaf Wine over Mevr. Blavalsky'. TMNI, I92IH, 109-112,
'Jaarverslagvan de Ned. Ind Afd. der T. V.', TiNI Dec. 1934, I43f.
Anne van Leeuwen De Perhunpoenan Indonesia 1929-1941 . Leiden, typescript, 1985.

[, van Lume 'Is elk volk 'goed volk "*', LucH, Feb. 1992, 4ff

J. van Manen 'The second Set of Rules of the Theosophical Society'. TT. July 1916A, 423f.
J Van Maier 'The genesis and aims of Theosoplncal University Library', TH July 1987. 86-

96.
J, van der Mer we Het zwarte schaap nan de rooie f ami tie. Amsterdam, Nijgh & Van

Dilmar, 1989
H. van Mien 'The Rjse and Fall of Javanese Nationalism: Boedi Oeiomo in ihe 1920s.'
Paper, conference on Comparative Approaches to National Identity in Asia,
Nordic Institute of Asian Sludies, Copenhagen, 26-28 May 1994.
Een koel hoofd en een warm hart. Nationalisme, Javanisme en Jeugdbeweging in
Nedertands-Indie, 1918-1930. Amsterdam, De Bacaafsche Leeuw, 1995.
H. van den Muyzenberg and T. de Bruijn (red.) Waarom Sanskrit? Leiden, Kern. 1991,

R. van Niel 77te emergence of the modem Indonesian elite. The Hague, van Hoeve, 1960.

436

References

J.L. van der Pauw De Actualisten. Amsterdam. Sijthoff, 1987,

W. van Ravesteyn 'Boekbespreking', DtVT 1917, 628-36.

'Idealisms', De comnumistisdie gids, July 1923, 412f,

E. van Rooyen In hel kadervan hetDWC 'racisme'. Leiden, typescript, 19S5A.

Deideeen van Erich en Mashilde Ludendorff. Leiden, typescript, 1985B.

F. van Stek "Geen godsdienst hoger dan waarheid', Trouw, 21-1-1991 .

P.J, van Strien 'Heymans' 'toekomstige eeuw der psychologic' en de drievoudige verwording
ervan'. in: Nederlands Tijdschrifi voor Psychologie, 1/L993, 316-326.

E. van der TunVG. Zondergeld 'Rudolf Stciner'sra&senleer 1 , 77C4, 1984(4), 48-55.

'Prikken we in eigen vlees? Nogmaals anthroposofic',
TKA, 1985(3), 33-43,
M. van Veen- Vietor 'Club van Schiermonnikoog hanteert versleten leuzen'. NRC. 8-1-1993.

F. van der Vcn 'Wanneer verdwijnt Atlantis einde I ijk eens voorgoed in zee', DGA. 23-3-1986.
Paul W, van der Veur 'Cultural aspects of the Eurasian community in Indonesian colonial

society 1 , Indonesia. Oct, 1968, 38-53.

Freemasonry in Indonesia from Radermacher so Soekanto, 1762-1961

Ohio University. Center for international Studies, 1976.
B van Vugt 'Occulte beweging Gcmrod: 'De wereld is slecht en wij zijn je redding'.

SUM, Dec. 1992. 20ff.
S.L. van der Wal Hel onderwijsbeletd in Nedertands-lndie 1900-1940 Een

bronnenpitblikntie. Groningen, Woliers, 1963.

De Volksraad en de siaatkundige ontwikketing van Nederlands- indie Een

bronnenpublikatie. Vol, I. 1891-1926 Groningen, Woltcrs, 1964.

De opkomsl van de nattonalistische beweging in Nederlonds-lndie Een

bronnenpublikatie Groningen, Wo Iters, 1967
Mfa)r(ie). Sfimone] v(an]. dferl- Wlilligcn). Het Vrouwenvraagstuk ml een theosvfisch

Oogpunt Soerabaia, E Fuhri & Co , 191 1.
M. v|an). d(er). Wfilligen). 'Binncnland'. TB 1917, 67-78.

Daan van der Zee

De Historic van het Religieuze Socialismc in Nederland', III, IV, 10-R-
1918, and IV, IV. 17-8-1918A.

Algemeen reperioriurn . Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1955.
'L'Hmdouisme contemporain'. Encyclopedic de la Pleiade. Histoire des
religions. Paris, Gallimard, 1976. vol. Ill, 180l\
'The case of a peace-lover against pacifists'. 77", April 1916, 95-7.
'Gehandicapten, joden en Tamils hebben hun lijden aan 2ichzeir ie danken',
DGA, 15-10-1986.

Versiag: dwe Racisme. Leiden, typescript, 1985.
Racisme-occultisme: Heinrtch Himmler. Leiden, typescript. 1985.
J.W. Verweyen 'The idea of brotherhood', TT, Aug, 1930. 675.

Carolijn Visser & Sasza Malko 'En nog steeds hebben wij twee vaderlanden. ' Op

avomuur in Nederlands-lndie. Amsterdam, Meulenhoff,
1995\
Complete works. Almora, Advaita Ashrama. 1931.
Geschiedenis van den Indischen Archipei. Roermond. Romen, 1947.
'Correspondence', 77", Oct. 1933. 110-1.
Der Gral. London, Panther, n.d. 11992]

'Het fascisme- een wssenbalans', Internationale Spectator, 1975, 32-50.
In de schaduw van de depressie. Alphen aan den Rijn, Sijthoff, 1982.

W. van Zeyweld
J. Varenne

Helen Veale
Judith Vega

M. Vcrdonck
P. Vers peek

Swami Vivekananda
B.H.M. Vlekke
Dr. HugoH. Vollrath
A. von Avalon [ps.]
H.W. von der Dunk

References

4?7

Kurt von Fritz ' Pythagoreer ' , in Pauly's Real-Encyclopadk der classische Altenums-

wissenschaft. Vol, XXIV', Stuttgart, Drucker, 1963, 209f.
II. von Plato De Amroposofische Vereniging. Zeist, Vrij Geestesleven, 1 986.

C.A.H. von Wolrogen Kiihr 'Wat Indie aan het vasteland van Azie verschuldigd is',

IG 1914. 790-9.
II, Voorham 'Atlantis'. DGA. 13-4-1988, 20.

'H,P. Blavatsky verdedigd', LucH, March-Apr, 1989A, 36-42.

'Waarheid of liefheid'.Z^cW, Sept,-Oct. 1989B, 139-143.
A,G. Vreede 'De Thcosofen als werkers in de Maatschappij'. TMNI. 1917A, 57-71,

*De home-rule beweging in Engelsch-lndie', KS, April 1917B, 1-61.

'Treub's "Toekomst van Indie"', IG 1925, 1, 1-13.

Tit F Vreede

Elisabeth Vrccdc/Th.H

I*, Vroon

Countess Constance Wachtmeisler

Meyer

Die Bodhisattvafrage. Basel, Pegasus. 1989.
'Wondcrgenezing', Voikskrant, 4-9-1993.
'HP, B,. and the present crisis in [he Theosophical
Society', reprinted TH. Apr. 1989, 51-61.
- et al. Reminiscences of HP. Btavatsky and the Secret

Doctrine. Wheaton, TPH, 1976.
IJ P. Wadia Tlie Wider Swadeshi Movement Adyar. TPH. 1917.

The Theosophical Outlook on problems of National and International Polities',
7T, May 1918. 135-50.

To alt Fellow Tlteosophists and Members of the Tlteosophicai Society. L.A.,
1922.
Kny Wallis (ed,) Sectarianism. London, Peter Owen. 1975.

Judith li Walsh 'Annie Besanl'. in AT. Embree (ed ). Encyclopedia of Asian History.
N Y . Charles Scribner's sons. I. 1988: 153,

70 jciar konsekwent . Bandung, Nix, 1949

Unmanageable revolutionaries. Women and Irish nationalism London.
Pluto. 1989.
I) Washbrook Tiu Emergence of provincial polities Tlie Madras Presidency 1X70-1920.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1976,
Tlie Flight from Reason. London. Macdonald. 1971.
'Rudolf Steiner', in CAVENDISH(t974)B. 235-40.
Theosophical Society', in CAVENDISH(1974)A. 248-54.
Die protesianiische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus', in: Die
protestantische Ethik. Eine Aufsatzsammlung, Gutcrsloh. Mohn, 1979.
Bismarck und der Imperialisms . Cologne, Kiepcnheucr & Wilsch, 1969.
Ileren eti arbeiders in de vroege Nederlandse arbetdersbeweging, 1870-1914.
Amsterdam, van Gennep. 1978,
Arthur A. Wells Caste in East and West', 777, Sept, 1901, 83f.

VV.F. Wertheim East -west parallels. Sociological approaches to modern Asia. The Hague, van
Hoeve. 1964.

Evolutie en revolutie. Amsterdam, van Gennep, 1971 .
Wesseling (ed.) Expansion and reaction. Leiden, University Press, 1978.
Verdeel en heers. Amsterdam, Bert Bakker. 199),
Annie Besant and progressive messianism. Lewiston. E. Mellen. 1989.
'Service to India as Service to the World: Annie Besant's Work in India
for Human Rights (Part !)', TH Jan. 1990, 19f.
'Democracy vs. Hierarchy; The Evolution of Authority in the

Ihirumi Wanastla
Margaret Ward

I, lines Webb

M, Weber

II -U Wehler
J Welckcr

II I.

II L. Wesseling

Catherine L. Wessinger

438

References

Tbeosophical Society', in: T. MILLER, 93-107.
Catherine Wcssingcr (ed.) Women's Leadership m Marginal Religions. Explorations

Outside the Mainstream. Urbana, University of Illinois
Press, 1993.
D. Westerveld 'Opwekking lotden klassenstrijd'. HVW. 10-8-1916. 209-10.

I. Westrik-Westers 'Theosofie in dcie lijden'. TMNI. 1919, 353-64.

S. White Britain and the Bolshevik revolution. A study in the politics of diplomacy.

1920-1924. N,Y,. Holmes* Meier, 1979.

Vrije School Mar eland. Leiden, Zondag, 1984.
The Future and the Theosophical Society', TT. Jan. 1932, 399-403.

C. Wichertetal.
S.A. Wickremasinghe

Saskia Eleonora Wieringa

H.L.S. Wilkinson
John R. Wilkinson

A. Willemsen

B. Wilson

R Wisirich
J Withuis

S.A, Wolnen

E Wood

F L Woodward '
Claude Wrighl
Leohne L. Wrighl
Sue Marie Wrighl

K.C. Yadav

Igor Yushin

[.[. Zareisky
J.Y. Zirkzee
K, Zoeieman
D. Zvabitel
Rene Zwaap

77ie Polisicization of Gender Relations in Indonesia. The
Indonesian Women's Movement and Cerwani Until the
New Order Stale. Amslerdam, Universiteil van
Amsterdam, 1995.

Sixth sub-race economics: Henry Ford'. TT. Oct. 1924, 11-22.

The Theosophical Society in Western History". TT, June 1930, 489ff
'De kennis-crisis bij Fernando Pessca', Dc Rewsor. 19S3, #6. 68-70

Religious Sects. London, Weidenfcld and Nicholson. 1970.
Magic end the Milenmum St. Albans. Paladin. 1975.
Wer war wer im dritien Reich? Frankfurt. Fischer, 1988.

'Spiritismc, magnetisms en de Vtcioriaansc vrouwensirijd', NRC, 26-9-

1992.
Ttlak and Gokhate. Revolution and Reform tn the Making of Modern India.
Berkeley, University of California press, 1962.

Morley and India. 1906-1910. Berkeley, University of California press, 1967
A New History of India N. Y., Oxford University Press. 1977,
The secret docirinc', TT. Nov. 1931. I67ff,
The fen commandments'. TT. Oct. 1919, 87-8.
Ireland", LucL. vol. VI. 1890, 343.

De theosofie geeft hei anfvoord. Bussum, van Dishoeck, n d

'Women and [lit Charismatic Community: Defining (tie Attraction'; ui

SAN. 1992: 53, S35-49
'Universal problems'. TT, Aug, 1903. 695.

Autobiography of Swami Dayananda Sarasvati. Delhi. Manohar, 1976.
The Integral Classification of ihe Disfranchised People in Moscow, 1925-1936'.
In: Structures and Contingencies in Computerized Historical Research. Nijmegcn.
Vakgroep Gcschiedenis. 1994. 56-7.
'Series Editor's Forword*. inTlRYAK!AN(l974). vii-ix.
Mellie Uyldert. Leiden, lypescripl, 1984.
Gaiasofie. Deventer, Ankh-Hermes, 1989.

'Indian culture in Czechoslovakia', India Perspectives, Jan. 1992, 1012.
'Instam-Karma', DGA, 30-3-1994.

INDEX OF PERSONS

439

V..WI

/•I

v-,,1,,-1 Hamid230

MkIiwI Karim 333, 334, 387,

396, 402, 409
M.V'H fvfoeis 165, 177, 178,
186, 196-198. 203,
206-209, 212-214,
222. 223. 227-228,
288. 296, 298-299,
307, 331. 397, 403.
409. 426

Rachman 306. 327.
345
[i.lhih Fatah 176, 397.

402, 409, 419
-i>fl:,non 199. 422
MU H:utif.ih 47. 191, 347,

354, 35R, 413
i hiiind. Radcn 163, 178
ftpi^i?:37

A .ifl. Muuffar 237. 401

li.r .37, 422
i >i 'V 23. 43
* Nardil 198

i - m.Vr II 52. 142
AJatttftrt 111 142

■ ■■lrl.-r ihc Cre:il 246

ii I ruis26l. 264

T*rT«] 14. 15. 86, 93.
156, 251. 253. 258,
271

i\Hi .'2!, 296, 297, 313,

395, 397, 400, 402,
407, 409,413
An™, Frederick J, 23
'• rjiwi Dhanoe Pamekas,

Radcn 179
M.„ wic 189
■ ii:.ii,i'.unya 277
ii ii . of Servants of the
Indies 229, 310. 332,
347, 350. 352. 353,
413
Amir. Suniairan muslim 313
'■inii Sjarifuddiri 347
ftlp H2
,\j r.ioilc 22, 78

Arjuna 108, 116, 153, 154,
205, 307. 336, 337,
350, 354, 388

Arnold, Sir Edwin 258

Aroen 163, 413

Arundale, Franceses 90

Arundale, George XVHI,
XX, 8, 17, 22, 28,
31, 38, 77-80, 83,
89-93, 101, 117, 127.
135. 226, 235-236.
243. 275. 278, 279,
317, 320. 363,
378-380, 393. 398,
404

Arundale, Srimali Rukmim
Devi 90, 94, 117.
375, 378. 419

Ashoka 62. 94

Asquilh. H.HL 150

Asquirti. Lady 43

Alkinson, Sir Harry 127

Augustine 37, 372

Aurobirido 103

Baars. A 84, 123, 163-164,
168. 179, 188- 190.
193. 196. 211, 214,
221-223, 226, 232,
295. 354

Baartman205, 206

Baden- Po^ll 90

Bagocs Kasanbcsari 298

Baha'u'llah 27

Bahder Johan 347, 387

Baig, Mirza Wali Ahmad 300

Bailey, Alice XVII!. 20, 10),
147, 151, 158, 159,
260,370,414

Bai II ie- Weaver 98, 235

Bakunin 138

Balfoiu, Arthur 56, 104

Ball, W.P. 372

Ballard 7, 35

Banon 376

Bamum 45

Barry more 98

Basu 7, 75

Basuki 347

Bates, Rosa 57

Belfort -Bax2l2

Bellamy 144

Belloni, F. 220

Bernhardt!

Benrand, G.H. 147

Bcsant V], XVIJI. 1-6. 8-11,

14, 15, 17. 20, 22.

23. 25-32, 34-38. 40.

41, 46. 47. 49. 50.

58, 60. 61. 64-99.

101, 103. 104. 106.

107, 114, 125, 126.

128. 130. 132-136,

140-144, 149-151.

153-160, 192-195.

210, 218, 225, 229,

232, 234-244,

246-275. 277-279,

281, 282, 284, 285,

287. 288. 290, 297,

309, 311, 314.

319-321. 326, 335,

338. 340. 356-359.

366368. 370-377.

379-386, 388. 390.

392, 393, 395-399.

401-405, 407-414.

417, 419. 422, 426.

427, 429-432, 437
Bijl de Vroc 195, 221. 335.

430
Bismarck 157. 245. 437
Blavatsky VJ, XVIII, 8,

10-13. 15, 17, 19,

20, 22, 23, 22, 24,

25, 30, 32-35, 37.

38. 40-47. 49, 50,

53-59, 61. 63, 64.

66, 67. 72. 75. 76.

81, 89, 92, 100, 103.

121, 126, 130-132,

135, 139-143, 153.

154, 205, 217. 226,

440

231, 241, 244, 252,
258, 265, 276, 281,
316, 320, 321. 325,
326, 366. 369-373,
379, 384. 386,
399-401, 405-407,
415-417, 425, 428.
429, 434, 436

Bloch, Ernst 43

Bolkcslem, G, 355

Bolland 22, 56, 128. 148.
189, 276, 316. 32 J,
326, 369, 396. 402.
409. 416

Bondan. Molly 356

Borcl, H. 111. 206

Bosboom 200-202. 416

Bose 47, 61. 74, 134, 273.
416

8radlaugti7l, 412, 414

Brahma 17, 22, 79.

Brandsteder 191. 221

Origin. John 81

Bright, Mrs (Australia) 157

Bright, Ursula 373

Brooks 1, 25. 73. 74, 76, 98.
125. I2S, 131. 153,
27], 272, 279. 3«0,
416

Brololcnojo 1 1 7

Brouwer Popkens, J.J W. 330

Bruno 91

Biichncr 46, 371

Buddha 38, 40, 77. 90, 106,
158, 192. 210, 236.
253, 422

Bulwer-Lytton 44

Bumicr 1 54, 4 16

Burrows. H.141

Butler, Josephine 374

Caesar 156, 246, 422

Canities, Luis de (Portuguese
poet) 245

Campbell 1, 57, 65-68, 77,
98, 132, 138. 416

Carlyle22, 28, 38, 354

Catherine the Great 42, 150

Can. Carrie Chapman 158

Chakravarti, B. 106
Chakravarti, G.N. 53, 271.

376
Chamberlain. Austen 83, 84
Chamberlain. Joseph 156
Chandra 231
Charleton 87
Chrisloffel, H. 219-220
Churchill. Viscount Victor

Alben 97
Churchill, Viscountess Verena

Maud 97
Churchill. Winston 235
Cleather. Alice Leighton VI,

II, 12, 17, 25, 38.

40, 41, 45, 50, 61.

63-66, 68. 69, 72,

76, 79, 80, 100, 101,

126, 127, 151. 250,

278, 372, 417
Codiiui 99, 205
Cohen 4.417
Coleiibrander 171
Colijn 196, 202, 207, 213.

223. 318
Collins, Mabel 31. 40. 81,

385
Conan Doyle 26, 139, 419
CoiidilUc VII
Confucius 108. 193
Conger, Arthur 100
Connolly 74, 83
Conslandse, A. 45, 132. 157,

243, 417
Cooper-Oakley 57. 66
Copernicus 27, 47
Cordes. J.U. 132
Corporaal, W.P.D- 224. 308,

314, 341
Corporaal -van Achlerbergh

114, 232, 369,417
Cosma 101
Cosier. B. 163. 196
Coues7, 58, 59
Coulomb 56, 57, 59, 64
Courtrighi 132. 1.33
Cousins, James 65, 83, 264,

379

Cousins. Margaret 70, 104,

360, 373, 374,

377-379, 381, 384,

386
Crosbie, R. 242
Crowley, A. 67,99
Crump, B. 12. 40, 41, 57,

63, 94. 101, 417
Cu now 212
Currie 101
Curzon 250-251. 267, 286.

395. 401,408,413
Cuvier 37

Dadhabltai Naoroji 253, 255
Dangc60, 87, 237, 238, 253,

395. 401. 407.417
Daniken, E. von 28
Danoesoegondo 168, 180
Darna Koesoema 191. 301 ,

302, 309, 310
Darsono 2. 184, 222, 223.

227, 305, 312. 313,

394 , 400. 407
Darwin 27, 29, 32, 139, 257,

371. 399, 405, 42$
Das, Bhagavan 17. 19, 79,

100. 103. 106, 134.

151, 153, 159. 239.

270, 378. 382-383
Uas.C.R. 237.238.274
Das, Durga 267
Das, M.N. 251,262
Das, R.P. 26
Daloek Rangkajo Maharadja

333, 334
Datoek Soetan Mahaiadja

330334, 346, 386,

387. 396-398,

402-404. 409-4)1
Datta. Hirendra Nath 91
Dayananda, Swami 51-53. 55
dc Abrew 125. 385
dc Bom 340. 341
de Cock Bumng 286. 340,

355
de Graeff286, 357
de Heer, P. 330
de Jong-Blankwaardt, Mrs

441

329
I >* [ nrculo 37
.1. Mi.i.i, A.J.J. 147
.1, I'urucker 3, 17, 19, 21,

28, 30-32. 34-38, 40,

41. 60, 89. 93, 100,

101. 129. 240,278
.1. Kniilcr, Tony 359

,1. 1' k, J.D. 191,282

n Sifircr 70, 71

.1 ■/,.■.. Mis C.G. 147

i '. .1 hi 126

(ill.. H.W. 162. 175, 191-

194. 213, 217
n. I-- i:ooi, A. P. 21, 162,

191-194,291
i -, urn' r
I *» ■■< i»i ics 3 1
bunurd. C. 36. 37, 158.

253, 377, 398
I i| pula 151. 253.

276-279. 401, 408
I i i irli 44, 320
I ii • | • :■] Irawan 1 16, 281
I I , ■ilifumo 1 17
IVIuink 329

I I, ■! II nil 176

n, . -j, .ni.i 297

dim 122. 158. 165,

1/6, 187, 213. 214,

','7-228, 291,

295-297, 299. 308.

3'J6, 397, 402, 403,
408, 409

I Ti'iwiiidlO 21 1

I i(p,lii..irwano 336

UK XVIII. 261

i...f|.. 'in

I liuiiM.i Nieuwenhuis 240-243

|...iii!),-i).iv 50, 62

i i.iii|;h-., Jennie 129

ii urn. i Dckker, E.F.E. 161.

■73. 206, 209, 240,

100. 303, 307
Hi mini rJ 142
linnli|i99

l 'ii|liih dc Nemours 98
I inn . Clemens 273

Dwidjosewojo 168. 169, 179,
180. 196. 198, 199,
201,207,208,348
Dyer 87
Edge, S.V. 66
Edger 13, 127, 381
Edison 98

Edward VII 80, 97. 320
Ehrij Puhraama, Raden Ajoe

387
Em pa in 96

Engels. F. V. XIX. 15. 45.
72. 138-141, 148.
177, 372, 394, 400,
404,406
Ervas(7, 149, 158, 160
Fabius, Colonel 287
Fabre dOlivet 37. 417
Fachrodin, H. 300
Fairbanks, Douglas 98
Farwerck, F E 99
Fa r we re k- Bord us 369
Fechner 2S

Fernandez 101. 152, 153
Fiske 19

Fock, D. 338. 340, 353, 356
Folkeisma. A F. 165, 172.

189
Fooie. G W. 142
Foudraine. J. 26
Fournier 107, 152. 216. 288,
328. 337, 346-350,
354. 356-357, 363,
365
Fo\ sisters 45, 62
Francois, J.H. 197
Frank, Ludwig 160
Frederick the Greai 323
Freeman 87
Freud 20, 27, 303, 455
Frickc 74, 24 1
Fullerton, A. 101
Galiuine, Princess 150
Gamba, Count 101
Gandhi 13. 81, 82. 85, 86,
93, 102, 106, 132,
133, 235, 236, 240,
253. 256--270. 274,

290, 343-346. 351,

355, 375. 377.

379-381. 395, 401,

408
Gardner, Cornelia 142
Gardner, Edward 26
Gelffman. Jessie 142
Gerke, P.J. 161
Gibbon Chambers 236
Gmeiner 259
Goblok210.2ll
Goenawan 174, 177, 179.

184,223. 296
Goenawan Mangoen-

koesoemo 201, 233.

289.315
Gokhale, G-K. 251. 258. 347
Goknale, Kami aba i 379
Goldman, Emma 371
Gonggrijp-van Blokhuizen,

Mrs A J.C. 282
Gonnc, Maud 74. 253
Gordon, Major-general 104
Gordon. Sir Arthur 277
Gould, Stephen Jay 20, 27
Graham Pole 87, 100, 273
Greeley, H. 62. 64
Griffiihs, Frances 26
Guenon. R. 8, 10, 42, 47. 50.

51. 66, 81. 84, 124,

128, 133. 135, 142.

160, 249. 252. 253
lladeii Guest 87
Hadji Agocs Salim 165, 224,

228, 233, 288, 289,

291, 296. 298-300,

352, 396, 397, 402,

403, 409
Halm, Albert 215
Haighlon, A, 47
Hamerster, A,J. 100. 112,

219-220, 231, 288.

311, 327, 364. 395.

401.407
Hamilton, Duchess of 95
Hamilton, Lord George 250
Hara, F. 283
Harcourt, W. 143

442

Hardinge Britten. Emma 49

Hargrove 68

Harioff 344

Hartmann 57

Hartogh, C, 229

Hastings, Warren 64, 250

Haua 233. 346-349. 356.

397, 403, 404. 410.

411
Havens 2)

Hazeu 182.223, 299
Hegel 138. 285
Heindel. M. 204
Heine, Heinricli 202
Heinnch, Prince Consorl of

The Netherlands 203-

204, 2)5,284
Heldrmg, Balthasar 1 19
Helios 13

Henderson. Arthur 235
Heraklcs 69
Herder 31

Hermes XVIII. 25, 98
Herodotus 21
Hess 95

Heymans231. 351
Heyimg. Lien 224
Hill. Joe 194
Himmler 5
Hitler 92

Hobsbawm 2, 459
Hodgson 57
Hodson. G. 26. 365
Hogan, C P. 252-253
Hollc. W. 171. 201
Holloway, Mrs 370
Home. Daniel D. 252
Hooper 283
Homiman 261
Horthy 249

Hotchcner I. 98, 159. 160
Hubbe-Schleiden 13, 23, 78,

81. 144. 245
Hume, A.O, 252, 268
Hunt. Governor ) 12
Huxley 139, 257
Huygens, Cornelie 48
Hyndman 212

lamblichos 19

Idenburg 1U-112, 169. 286.

296. 303. 336
Jacob, H. 's208
Jacobs. Aletta 158
James, K.A. 109, 112
Jerome, St. 21
Jesus 21, 25. 41. 59, 78. 85.

129. 191-192, 235
Jinarajadasa XVU1. 3, 8. 13,

20, 26-28, 33. 43,

48, 65, 67, 69-71.

75, 86. 90, 92-94.

96, 99, 103, 126.

147, 236, 237, 239.

240. 247, 250, 252,

254-256, 259, 262.

267, 272. 273, 275.

278. 291, 297, 316.

320. 364. 368. 374.

379. 380, 384. 422
Jinnah 82. 86, 259, 270, 402.

408
Johnson. Andrew 64
Jusowidagdo 186, 231
Judas 236
Judge, W.Q VIII, II. 19,

27. 45, 49, 65-68,

72, 73, 95, 97, 99,

100, 261
Jung. C. 20
Kadiroen Mangoenpoemonio

365
Kamensky, Anna 151
Kami], Raden209
Kawjana Ningral, Raden Ajoe

387
Kardec 46, 96
Kartini 112, 147, 199, 359,

388
Karve. D.K. 381
Kauisky 140. 141, 303, 372,

394
Kaviratna VI, 125, 279
Keiehlley, A. 41, 66
Keightley, B. 19
Kerensky 160
Kerkkamp 207

Kemkarnp, G.W. 168, 198

Kewer, G.H. 147

Ketner, H. 179

Keyserling, Couth H, 78,
145.239, 314

Khan. Pestonji 106

Khandalvala73. 102

Ki Hadjar Dewamoro, see
Socwardi Soeria-
ningrat 300

Kiewici de Jonge 113. 162,
164. 212, 213, 218,
219. 221-223, 228-
229, 233, 241. 245,
246. 283, 288. 291,
294-295. 299, 309,
310. 317-319. 328.
337-338, 340, 342.
356. 396, 402. 408

Kiewici de Jonge, Mrs 337

Kingsford 5. 23. 50. 101,
240. 349, 258

Kislingbury, Emily 66

KlmgsOr 78

Knudsen 126

Koch 113, 164. 202. 232,
290. 291, 340, 356.
369

Kotsocmodihardjo 329, 365

Koesocmodiningrat 114, 116.
117. 16S. 180-182,
185-187, 195-196.
199. 200. 203-209.
215

Koningsberger 286

Koperberg.S. 164. 232, 288

Krijgsman, C.R, 114

Krishna XIX, 17, 38. 103,
153, 359

Krishna Dasa 234. 376

Krishnamurti Vlli, 1. 77-80.
87, 88, 90, 92. 124.
136. 157. 160, 174,
204, 233. 279, 281,
349, 379, 380, 398.
404, 411

Krishnaswami 70

Krsna Menon 270. 396, 398,

443

401,404.408,41!
Kruisheer )7, 98. 151, 152,
231, 282. 322, 351,
358, 395. 401. 407
Kruisheer-Bohen. J. 355
Kumaraswamy, D. 109
Kunz. Dora 73
Kuyper, Abraham 111, 183
Kuyper, Frederik 1 11
l-andouw, Th. 186, 304
Ijnc-Fox 424
l-ansbury 13, 87, 235-236,

259, 273
Lin?, von Liebenfels 12, 30.
32, 34, 40, 103, 160.
370, 424
Uoh 186,209
Uski, Harold 271
I .atf", A. 335
Uiuwcriks 242

Usncss, Nalldor 14, 15, 424
It Roujl 101

Unlbeater VI-VIII, XVIII, I.
12, 15, 17, 2022.
25. 28-31. 34. 36.
3R, 40. 41, 55, 60,
62, 64, 67, 69.
75-77. 79, 81. 8991.
93, 94. 97, 99. 101.
112. 114, 117. 121.
124. 132, 141. 153,
156, 160. 243, 247.
254, 258, 259. 284.
311, 319, 326, 330.
341, 351, 356, 36S.
378, 379. 386, 392.
399,405.415. 424
'-mil 83, 151, 245, 267
•'.>, Alan 28, 66, 99
icr204
it-vegoed 8 1

i*t, Guido von 30. 100. 160
lnyd George 264
nkc. Marie 102, 158
mik XVI 100, 194
inirunsz, E- 240
iihbcrink 288
tnlrndorff 34

Lueger 24 1

Lutyens, Lady Emily 20, 44.

61, 77. 90, 104, 157,

160, 235, 259, 368,

373
Lutyens. Mary 126. 279
Lutyens, Sir Edwin 262. 320.

368
Lylton, Lord 44, 104
M'eNeile23

MacCartic, Jusiin C. 150
MacDonald. Ramsay 158,

257, 274
Maharishi Mahcsh Yogi 4
Maitreya77. 91. 279
Malaviya. M. 86, 259, 274
Malon, Benou 142
Mangclaar Mccrtcns. L, 123,

191, 359
Mangkoc Negoro VI J 96, 317
Mangkoc Negoro VII 116,

121. 161, 169, 196,

206. 227, 285, 289,

301. 313, 315. 317-

319, 324, 329. 343.

344, 359, 396, 402,

409
Maniioenkoesocmo, Radcri

MasT S. 116
Mangoenpocrwoto 114, 286
Manu 38. 80, 155, 249, 265.

266
Marco. Mas 174-176, 198,

203, 222. 23). 232,

240, 296, 325
Marialegui 78
Marie Antoinette 100
Manyn 19. 22, 126-127, 254,

379

Marx, Eleanor 372

Marx, K. XIX, 45, 62, 81,
131. 138, 139, 141,
162, 164, 193, 239,

241, 325,394
Mary, Queen of Scots 78
Mayers 26, 154

Mayo, K. 106, 159
Mazzini 49, 64, 209

McQueen, Annie 326
Mead, G.R. 12, 66, 75, 100
Mehta, Rohil 239
Meijroos, Mr A, 192. 215,

338, 356, 362
Mendels 198-199,211-212
Menon, K.P.S. 90
Meyer, Johanne 149
Michel. Ernest 23, 31,88
Michel, Louise 241
Minami, Yoroyoshi 184
Minto, Lord 251. 321
Misbach, Hadji 230
Mocndyah, Siti 388
Moesso224, 231, 341
Moet, F. 339
Mogilluwaue 55, 64
Mohamad Kanoen 332
Mohamed Joesoef 180, 182,

187. 228
Mohammed Kasan 191
Molikc. General von 156
Mondnaan 4
Momayu 84, 86. 87. 159,

256, 257, 262. 377
Montaigne 31
Morgan, General 104
Moslcy 251
Mouw, H 184
Mulilenfeld. A. 310
Mukcrji, Kali Prasanna 376
Muller, G. 114
Mullcr. Max 47, 55
Multatuli 161, 174
Musaeus 101. 125. 384. 385
Mussolini 38. 92, 239
Mulhanna 1. 15. 50, 70, 74,

240, 258. 269-271,

275. 377
Muurling 171, 215, 291
Myers 56, 59
Naidu. Sarojini 86. 87, 360,

377
Narada Thera 364
Nazif347,355
Ncff47,53
Nehru, Jawaharlal 3. 15, 18,

25, 74, 76, 82, 94.

444

128-129. 132, 239,
253. 257, 258. 267,
269, 271-275, 355,
366. 376. 381

Nehru. Motilal 82, 271, 273,
274

Nehru, Srimati Uma 382

Newton, H. 18

Ngabehi IV, see Pakoe
Boewono XI 294

Nicholas [( 58. 146

Nietzsche 37, 322

Nivediia 70, 251

Noothoul. HE. U5, 297

Nolo Soerofo 118-119. 161,
199. 206, 211. 290,
293, 313. 317. 319,
324. 336, 345. 346,
357-359, 395, 400,
407

Notoatmodjo 171, 172, 221

Nolosdediro295, 330

Nolowidjojo 178. 210

O'Comieil 81

Ocmar Sikoci Tjokro-
uieiiggolo 212

Olcott XIX, 3. 8. 12, 19. 24,
25, 35. 37, 45,
49-55, 57-59. 62-69.
72, 73, 75. 76. 96,
99, l(W, 106,

125-127. 132-133,
135, 139, 143-146,
155, 234. 245, 250,
252, 271, 276, 277,
321, 336, 366. 380-
381, 384, 386. 399,
401, 405. 407

Old. W, 66, 99

Ong Soe Aan 364

Orostus 1 1

Osman. Caliph 334

Ollolandcr 210

Oud. P.J. 355

Padshah 54

Paepe. Cesar De24l

Pagan. Ssabelle 21

Paisley 13

Pakoe Boewono VI 203
Pakoe Boewono X 116, 209.

294
Pakoe Boewono XI 1 16. 294,

365, 396
Palme Duel, Rajavi 14, 52,

87, 234. 275
Pankhursi, Dame Chris label

79, 369, 373
Pankhurst, E. Sylvia 79, 133.

141, 238, 372. 373,

389,395.40)
Pankhursl, Emmclinc 79. 373
Pannekoek48. 148
Papus 7.25, 146, 321
Part low 34

Partoalmodjo, S. 154, 229
Paiel. Sardar Vallabhbhai

103, 259
Paiel. Vuhalbhai 377
Palwardhan 379
Paul. Si 129
Peacocks, Lieut. -Co lone I

248-249
Pearse. P. 83
Pcntland. Lord 83
Perovskaja. Sophia 142
Pessoa, Fernando 1, 99, 245
Pclerson 62
Peverclli 19
Pickeit 384
Pickford. Mary 98
Pilchcr. Major-general 254
Pius IX 52
Plato 25-27, 71. 84, 167, 315.

320, 326, 358, 386
Pleyte 168, 202, 206, 207,

215.335,340
Po Tong Hicn 330
Polderman. L.J. 282, 288,

289. 312. 317. 340,

347, 361
Pop, G.J. C.A. 209
Posi, P. 314.336.350. 351
Poushkine. Barbara 150-151
Pramoe. Raden 191
Prawira Ningrat 176
Prawirosoedarso 294

Piawoiosoedibjo 228

Pribatin 179

Prowr97. 147

Pryse 68, 101

Pythagoras 19, 22. 25, 77.

78. 84, 167, 379
Rabbie 1, 14, 45. 67, 128.

242
Radjiman U6, 118. 119.

168. 181. 186, 189.

194. 195. 201. 285.

288. 289. 294, 305.

313. 314. 318. 336.

343, 349
Rahman gelar Datock

Maharadja 231
Raj, Hans 376
Rama 154. 260. 320
Rama V Chulalongkorn. king

of Siam 125
Rauiaswami Ayar, Sir C.P.

82.84
Rambo 66

Rangaswami Aya(, A. 239
Ransom, Josephine VIII, 4,

24. 45. 46, 49, 59,

63. 64. 79. 80, 90.

93, 9J. 96, 100, 125,

127, 130, WO, 142.

163. 243. 250, 270,

275.279
Ransom, Sidney 100
Rao. V.P. Madtiava 95. 106.

254
Raspuun 146
Rawson 34. 40, 43, 53
Razoux Ruhr 184, 187
Reagan 30

Reid, M. 150, 157, 398
Renan, Emesl 310
Resink. A.J. 147, 148. 161.

162. 170, 171. 205-

206, 244. 272
Resink. Th.GJ. 113
Resink-Wilkens, Mrs A.J,

113
Rhee, Syngman 317
Rhodes 72

445

KuiLn 177, 285, 286, 294.

I'. w, Carla IV. VI. 10.

781,429
1'.. xun I.-ffendi 355, 429
1'. iim! [[old. Uenrieile 148,

198. 204
ii.in.-iii, J. 14. 27. 149, 158.

I'M. 429
|i"inaii-V(--rschoor, A. 56.

112. 156. 390, 429
I'.Mivvi'li, Theodore 156
I ■■■- Vujin,™ 389. 429
l I i...rnl.ici]lz78, 129-130
I'.iulxMliam. Sheila 61, 140
M.iv M.N. 84, 209, 237,

>7-269
I >> t i.:li 101. 130

I-., ik ;>

1.I...II, Iknrand 154
I'm ■ II, George 83, 253
li iti>, Matin dc 99

i.l ii' ui >\4
\1iIiLik:ii 169
Ml. n:\Mohamcd 296
Niitu (lenniin. Count de. 35.
110
i' .iv i, Stiapurji 234. 256.

_.'3
li i.i.y. Dr. J 68
'imiiii 118. 122-123. 300.

-100. 406
'iiiii Kumara 40, 79
Urrif 4 1

'■■•.lino 147

',- ii iidchatya 40

'iwiuiiiv Mrs Roekmini 359-

360
>..;.liu 125
'- Lr.i;.vali 106
Smru.S. V 250
■ ■iiui.Ij 354
'hit nut, Albert 286
'...r' ■ ■ i : i 355
SitlrDwirjo 230
',*tmmn 171, 285. 306. 308.

315, 348, 351-352.

364

Salycndr« ,' l >4

Schtestojp 241

Schmidl. Karel 224

Schoenmaekcrs 101, 156

Schopenhauer 37, 242, 388

Schoiman 221

Schure 8 1

Sctiuurman 205

Schwarz 32, 33. 125. 248,

283. 385
Scriabin 4
Scurr 87
Sebasliao. king of Portugal

245
Sclby, Counless Bille Brahe

97
Sellon, Barbara 100
Sellon. Captain 100
Sellon. Gmity 44
Semaoen 2, 69, 81. 85, 162,

179. 181, 183 185.

188. 190, 191, 210.

226. 228, 282, 297,

303. 304, 346. 394.

400. 406, 407
Scnoessi 219
Shaw, G.B. 71
Shiva Rao. B 271
Si Smga Mangaradja 219
Simon 257. 273
Sinha, Lord 256
Sinha, Rai Bahadur Punendu

Narayana 270
Sinnclt 28, 45, 54. 56, 57.

63. 72. 94, 144. 252,

366. 398. 404.411
Siswodioardjo. Raden Ajoe

162-163
Siva 22, 84, 321, 378
Sjahrif, Sulan 361
Smedley. Agnes 209
Smith, Professor John 126
Snecvliei 14. 85, 149, 161,

163-170, 173.

179-189, 191, 193.

196, 202. 211. 212.

214. 215, 221-222,

225-229, 232. 286,

288, 289. 293, 304,

306, 354, 394, 400,
406,407,412

Sneevliel-Brouwer, E.J. 196
Snijders, General 200. 204,

233
Snowden259, 431
Soedjono 168, 169, 203
Soegondo 359. 360
Soehario 365
Soekirno 119. 228, 296, 297,

397, 402. 409
Soclaslri, Mas Adjeng 387
Soemadipradja 306
Soemardjo 365
Socmarsono 169
Soemijaringprodjo 1 1 2
Soemoljilro 120
Soenarjali 359, 360
Soeriokoesoemo 43, 115.

118, 213, 226-227.

286, 290. 291. 293.

298, 301, 305-330.

332. 339, 340.

342-345. 355, 358,

362. 389. 396. 397.

402.409
Suenpto35l. 352. 357, 358
SoeTJali. Mas Adjeng 387
Soerjopranolo213. 228. 290.

298. 300. 397. 403.

409
Soelad) 230
Soelomo 364
Soctopo285, 345
Soewardi Suerianingrai 161 .

178, 190, 197-199,

203, 289. 298, 300,

307. 308. 314. 315,
343.395.400,407

Sooryopoeiro 161, 197, 205.

290. 308, 343. 345.

395. 400, 407
Sosrokardono 179, 212,228
Sotheran, C, 141
Speenhof, J.H. 197
Spencer 257

446

Sri Prakasa 74, 104, 261,
269,210, 319

Slack 57

Stam 163

Slead55, 72, 142, 250, 374

Sieiner, Rudolf 2. 6. 8, 12.
21, 28, 30. 36, 38,
40. 50, 58, 59, 75,
76, 78, 80, 81, 113,
145, 151. 160. 283,

351, 362, 399. 401.
404, 405. 407, 411

Slcinmetz, H.E. 119
Sierringa 242-244
Siokcs 264
Siokvis. J.E, 338
Slrindberg 392
Siruik, D.J. 205
Smart Mill. J 369. 371
Subba Row 54. 57. 59. I \4
Subramaniya Iyer 102, 143.

159.261
Sudekuni 160
Sukarno VIII. 161, 313, 343.

352, 354-356, 359.
396,403,410

Sumangala 55, 64

Supomo 354

Suwarni Pringgodigdo 375

Swiney. R.100

Taaks. Maria 432

Tabrani 347. 349, 352-358.

364. 396, 402. 408
Tagore, R. 84, 293, 319,

337, 343, 345. 346
Tan Malaka229, 313, 330
Tala, Mi(han377
Tala, Mrs Herabai 377
Tedjapoernrcana, Raden

Adjeng 3B7
Teeuwen 163, 183. 187, 188
Tej Bahadur Sapru 272, 274
Telg 183
Ten Berge 230
Tengnagell, Baron von 281
Tepper283, 457
Ter Laan, D. 221
Tenius 202

Thamxin 165, 355, 356, 364
Thomas Aquinas 26, 78
Tilak 81. 251. 254, 255,

257-258, 260. 268
Ti!leti,Ben87. 158,212
Tinglcy XIX, 19, 38. 42,

66-68, 83, 89. 159,

242, 278, 390
Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo 85,

118, 122, 161. 173.

174. 184, 191. 238.

251, 262, 266, 274.

290. 300-311, 314-

317, 344. 355, 389
Tjokroaminolo 165. 169,

177-179. 212. 227.

228, 289, 294, 296.

298,299. 312
Tjokrosoedarmo 228
Togo 155
Tolsioy 144, 265
Toonder, M 36
Topee. C L 185, 304
Tranmer. A. 351
Troelslra, P.J 178, 190, 198.

202, 212, 224. 225,

232, 303
Trotsky 83, 151, 303
Troubelikoy. Princess Ada 97
Usher. Bishop 32
van Aalst, G 284
van Asbeck. Baroness M. 282
van Blommcslein-Land, Mrs

J.A.E. 363,365
van Daalen, General 207
vandc Kamer, C 180. 304
vande Kasteele 163, 185.304
van Dedem, Baron 43, 62.

86, 125, 245, 253
van den Brock 1 12, 294
vander Jagt, M.B. 112
van der Leeuw, J. 38, 114,

151. 156, 227, 282,

321, 322, 358
van der Ley. J.N. 332
van der Veer, F.J. 362
van der Velde (Bogor) 166
van der Willigen, Marie

Simone206, 385, 386
van der Zee 147,222, 298
van Eeden, Frederik 1, 59,

195
vanGanswijk 154, 191-193
van Gelder-van Mounan. Mrs

M. 114
van Geuns, M. 1 1 1
van Ginkel 26, 37. 157, 160,

248
van Heekeren, E.A.A. 207,

291
van Heuisz 201, 202, 206,
207. 213. 219. 283,
284.287, 346
van Hinloopen Labberton, D.
32. 35, 37, 59, 63.
77, 79, 108-109,
112-114. 116, 120,
122, 123. 132, 154,
161-168. 170-173,
177-193. 195-217,
219. 220, 223. 224,
229. 244, 278,
281-291. 293-298,
300-301. 303-305.
314. 322. 326. 329,
331. 335-341, 363,
371, 375, 380. 386,
388, 394. 396-398,
400, 402. 404. 407,
408, 411
van Hinloopen Labberton,
Mrs F H J. 107, 116,
291, 317, 326, 347.
386
van Holihe (Oi Echien.
Jonkheer Mr. R.O.
56
Van Hook 75
van Karnebeek 100, 342
van Kol, H. 147. 225, 340
van Leeuwen. A. 13, 26, 36,
48, 74, 85, 109, 112,
116, 122-124, 135,
159, 180, 189, 195,
213, 222, 225-226,
228. 252, 263-265,

447

287. 301, 302. 308.

321-322. 326, 329,

337. 338. 346-347,

349. 362-365
van Lennep, K.. 198
van Limburg Slirum 167,

180. 183-185, 187,

204, 215, 221, 223,

299, 318, 335, 338,

342, 345-346, 356,

357
vanMancn48, 50. 219, 242
van Mook, A. 1 12
van Mook. H 113, 199. 354
van Mook, Mrs C.R 112.

354
van Moinian 113, 114. 183
van Nugicren, J F. 221
v,m Pallaudi van Herde, P.D ,

Baron 204
v.iu Raveslcyn 2, 14, 48.

148 149
viin Sleenis 242, 243. 398.

404. 411
vanTijeu. Wit. 179
van Tuyll van Serooskerken.

H.P.. Baron 204
van Zuylen, 15. J 99
Vealc 158
Vcrlrage. A. 158
Velh 121

Viuoria, Queen 46, 95, 320
Vijaya Lakslimi Pandu 253.

271, 376. 377
Vink. D.L.N. 46, 70. 354,

355

Virchow 48

Vishnu 21,40. 177. 199.376
Vivekananda 26. 70
Vollraih78. 81.92, 204
von Bdhm-Bawerk, Eugen

164
von Schemua 100
von Sievers, Marie 75. 145
von Wolfcogen KOhr, C.A.H.

122, 302. 303, 328
Vreede, AG. 113, 157. 167,

172, 173, 191, 195,

211. 215-216, 232,

255,288. 341 .
Vreede, Elisabeth 28. 40. 75,

78
Vreede. Th. S3. 84. 191,

284. 28S, 290. 340.

341, 342,355
Wachmieisier 24. 43. 66, 97,

370
Wadia 11. 82. 83. 87, 234.

236, 237,260,261
Wagner, Richard 37, 78
Walbeehm. Bertha 310
Warringlon 36.94, 160. 208
Webb. Alfred 86
Webb, James 15. 42. 62. 97,

98, 393. 399
Wedgwood 21, 98. 130
Weissenberg 41
Welier 211
Wens. J B. 311
Weslcotl 95
Westerveld 167. 168, 183.

286

Wesipalm van Hoom van

Burgh, Jonkheer N.J.

114
Wickremasinghe 88, 240,

360.398,404.411
Widigdo, S.T. 337
Wiggin 24

Wijbrands. K. 189,332
Wilhelmll 156
Wilhelmina. queen of The

Netherlands 172, 180.

181. 203, 204, 224.

286,318.341, 389
Wilkinson 36, 245
Willingdon, Lord 262
Wilson. Woodrow 70, 84,

159, 326
Wiite, Count 13. 43. 46. 252
Woerjaningral 1 15, 1 16. 364
Wood. Ernesi 10. 91, 132
Wood Jones 34, 35
Woodward 101, 234, 277,

279
Wrighl. Claude 56, 66, 68
Wrighl. Elsie 26
Wrighl. Leolinc L. 17
Wu Ting Fang 124
Wyld 24

Yaniin, Muhammad 347, 355
Vaiker 99

Yeals. W.B. 95, 253. 266
Young, Doreen 240
Zainoeddm Labai 334
Zoebaidali Rama Djoewila

386

448

CATCHWORD INDEX

Aceh 180. 207,219, 283

adat XX, XXII. 231. 331,
332. 334. 387, 396.
402, 409

Adhi Dharma213, 298

Adyar V11I. XVIII. 1 , 8, 9,
12, 19. 20. 26, 35,
36. 38. 41. 46, 47,
54. 55. 57. 58. 64,
66. 68. 76. 87. 89.
92-94, 96, 99, 100,
103, 112, 113, 117,
125, 126, 130, 132.
133, 145, 147. 151.
156-158. 208. 219.
238. 239. 241. 250.
259, 265, 267, 276.
279, 282. 364, 376.
381. 385. 390

Afghanistan 43. 267. 360

Africa, see also South Africa
33, 81, 192, 221,
245, 249. 287, 317.
351

Ahmadiyyah 27, 301

Aisjijah 388

akasha V, 36

Algcmeen Nuderlandsch

Verbond 113. 192.
346

Ahgarh263. 264

Allahabad 54. 58, 132. 271.
272. 382

Amritsar 87

Amsterdam VI, XIX. XXI.
35, 74, 89, 114. 164,
178. 198. 199. 206,
217.229,241.261

amulets U8-U9. 231

anarchism 1,6.9, 14, 44. 48,
118. 128, 131, 138,
146, 217, 225, 234,
240-244. 265, 269,
371. 394, 398

Anti-Revolutionaire Parlij
111,207,214,336

Arabs 108, 223, 297, 304,
312,334

Argentina 96. 147. 152

arhal26, 77, 247

arisio-democracy 322, 358

an 4, 9. 17, 42, 49. 67. 97,
100, 303. 351

Arya Samaj 27, 51, 53, 54,
133

Asahan 330

astrology V. 3. 25, 28, 29,
66, 70, 134, 157,
158, 291. 305, 390

astronomy 28. 29

Atlantis 26

aura 3, 252

Australia XXI. I, 9. 24, 5fi.
76. 85, 91. 100, 114,
126. 127, 149. 150,
154. 157, 207, 213,
241, 244, 248. 251,
254. 283, 341. 346,
356. 365, 368. 379,
384. 393. 398. 405

Auslria 78. 100, 160

Ayodhya 260

Baddegama 51

Bali 124. 282. 293. 305, 329,
339. 343. 394. 400.
406

Balikpapan 330

Bandung IV, 109. III. 112.
114. 169, 179-180.
205. 215. 230. 233.
281. 282. 290. 306,
336. 338. 354, 358.
361, 364,366

Bangalore 254

Barsgla Desh 2

Baiak 219. 310

Baiaviaosch Nieuwsblad 177,
179, 221, 222, 285,
289, 291, 317, 351,
396, 402, 408

Benares 35, 50, 70, 74, 98.
103. 125. 135, 259.

264, 270, 275, 378,
380
Bengal 84. 106. 138, 237.

240, 251, 253, 254.
277, 376, 395

Bhagavad Giia 1, 153, 193,
258

Blavaisky Park2l7. 231. 347.
366

Olitar 179,212

Boer 74. 75. 93. 154. 246.
249,258, 331

Bogor XXII. 108. 109.
112-113, 164. 166
167. 183, 192, 281
282. 305. 336. 338
387

Bombay XXI. 8, 24. 26. 3K
50. 52, 53, 67, 68
90, 102. 106, 127
236. 237, 252, 253
258. 259. 261-264
269. 379, 381, 395
401, 407

Bond van Vnje LiHeniteii
198, 206. 287, 289

ISumw 109. 122, 219-220,
230, 283, 287. 385,
395, 401

Burobudur 125. 192. 311,
313, 358

hoy scouts 90. 204, 205. 215,
318, 362

li rail mo Samaj 27, 53, 343

Brazil 93, 94, 96, 147

BroloJudo 154, 193

Buddhist VI, XVIII, 12. 20,
25, 34, 36. 37,
51-53. 55. 56, 62.
64, 65, 70, 93, 94,
106, 108. 123, 125,
131, 133, 208, 240,

241, 276-281, 284,
308.311,364, 385

Budi Utomo XV11I, XXII. 37,
116, 161, 168-170.

449

172, 173. 179, 180,
186, 201. 211, 224,
231. 233, 281, 284.
285. 289-291, 293,
298, 301. 309. 314.
318, 326. 329, 330,
336, 338. 343. 348,
352, 356. 358, 364,
389, 396. 397, 402.
403, 409

Hukiiiinggi 331. 333, 361

imp.iiis' union 289. 294

Burma 2, 65. 380

C iilnm.', XX. 49, 102. 118,
238. 250. 263, 274,
377, 381

quae 20. 21, 51, 64. 73. 79,
95, 102-104, 106,
115, 118, 134, 145.
151, 155. 170, 179.
1 99, 205, 220, 224.
236-238, 261, 263,
290, 294, 302. 314,
329, 358

t Viili.il Hindu College XVIII.
74, 77. 79. 90, 103.
106, 250, 251. 380,
381

1 rvlon XVIII. 9, 13. 37.
51-55, 58, 62, 64.
65. 68. 74, 88, 93.
94, 104, 119, 125.
126, 133, 204. 234,
239-240. 253.

276-281. 364, 379,
380, 383-385, 388.
389, 398, 404, 411.
412

irtMTij 22, 143

. hr-niiscry 3, 29, 94

i lnlil marriage 3, 285, 371,
376

China 107, 108, 124, 155.
163,209, 323

I hiiicse 55, 96, 107-109.
Ill, 116, 118, 121,
124, 126, 127, 166,
172, 173, 187, 190,

197. 201, 223. 304.

310, 330, 340. 362,

365, 388, 394, 400
Christian Science 18. 23, 63,

118, 151
Christianity 6, 19, 21-24, 27,

31, 35, 47. 51, 5S,

70, 111. 129, 131,

!32, 144. 166, 167.

194, 243, 278, 287,

294, 300. 312
Ciamis 125. 387
Cimahi48. 224
Cirebon 187
class V. 1. 10. 11, 14, 21,

42, 46, 58. 71, 73,

87,95, 102-104
Colombo XVIII. 56, 68, 93.

106. 125, 196. 276,

278. 279, 384
communism 10, 50. 138, 141 ,

230, 234, 300, 325.

350, 352-353, 394
Covina 3
co-masonry 67, 99. 112. 113.

361
creation 30, 32, 33
Darjeeling 68
Darmo lialmoko 191
Darrno Kondo 224, 285. 329.

336, 337.341
De Tank 59, 211. 232, 288
De Tribune 89. 163, 204,

229, 293
De Wapens Neder 174, 198
Delhi 86, 134. 159,259, 377
Deli 108, 109. 179.208. 220.

330
democratization 147, 163,225
Denmark 97, 149. 324. 342
Djawa Tcngali 169, 173, 175.

203, 207, 221, 296.

317
Dublin 23, 32. 66, 99-101,

160
Dutch East Indies, see

Indonesia
East India Company 195,

198, 282, 297
education VI, VII 1, 9, 30, 42,

52. 55. 56, 70, 84,
96. 114, 132. 151,
161. 162, 169, 177,
180, 183, 189, 192,

199, 202, 206, 218.
223, 227, 238, 250-
251, 263-264, 271,
276. 279, 2S3, 286.
307, 311-3)2. 327.
333, 336-337, 339,
343, 350-351. 354,
361-362, 375, 377,
379-385, 388-389,
395, 397

Ecrdc 77, 204

Ggypl 21. 25, 31. 45, 47, 57,
96, 245, 323, 362

Elmira 219

ESXV111, 12. 65, 73, 75-78,
89. 94. 126, 130,
135-136. 260, 321,
348, 380

eugenics 96. 372

evolution VI, 12. 13, 20, 21,
29-32, 34, 35, 37,
75, 85, 199. 235

fascism 6, 9. 14. 93, 239. 362

Tiiiland 149, 244

Mores 219

Prance 4, 46, 100, 124, 128,
129, 134, 135. 141,
142, 155, 165. 194,
196, 240, 246. 320,
324

freemasonry 4, 25, 112. 116,
284, 316. 366

Galle53, 125, 276. 277

Gambir 108, 164, 284, 291,
336, 350, 352. 389

gamelan XXil. 217, 302

Garut 111, 118, 233

gender 9, 14, 67

geology 10, 27, 36, 37, 147

Germany 68, 71, 75, 78, 80,
81, 94, 100, 101,
145, 156, 157, 160,

450

198, 199. 202, 206,

264, 281, 362
Ghadar pany 209
Goenoeng Sari 177, 224, 230,

282, 285, 300, 336,

341,385
Golden Dawn 7, 95, 253
Gorontalo 330
Greece 29, 50, 102
Gujarat 108

Habi Projo building 186, 230
Harvard university 29
Het Nieuws van den Dag 189.

203, 217,290.332
Hel Vaderiand 118, 201,206,

207, 389
lies Voik 178. 183. 198. 289.

290
hierarchy 5, 26, 63, 97, 141.

225-226, 250, 295.

321, 327, 396
Himalayas 17. 44, 68. 103
Hindi 270
Itmdia Baroe XVHI, 231,

352
Hinduism XXUI. 19-22. 26.

27, 38, 40, 50, 51.

60, 79, 106. 108-109.

129, 177, 240. 258,

270, 277, 279. 293,

311. 329, J42, 376,

378, 386
homosexuality 126, 375
horrral XXII, 289, 295
House of Lords 73, 81, 97,

273
Iceland 85, 97, 253, 395
imperialism 72, 87, 245-248,

268
independence 2, 9, 12, 53,

62, 80, 93, 94,

199,248-249.

254-257. 266-267,

274-275, 358
India VI, XV 111, XX, 1-4,

8-10, 17, 18, 21, 23.

26, 27, 29, 33, 40,

43, 44, 47, 50-52,

54-5S. 62-65. 6S, 70,
71, 73-76, 78-S7. 89,
90. 92, 93, 101-106,
108, 109, 111, 119.
121, 122. 126, 127,
138, 140, 151. 154,
155, 158-160, 162,
195. 204, 210. 228,
229. 234-239. 243,
248-277, 279.

286-288, 293. 300,
302, 317. 321. 333.
335, 342, 343-344,
347. 351, 355, 357,
359, 366, 372.
376-383, 386,

393-41 1
Dominion status 3, 255.
256, 269, 271. 273,
274
Home Rule League 77,
82. 83. 85. 90. 92,
98, 159, 209, 239,
255. 259-267, 270,
272. 275, 377, 402,
408
National Congress 3. 64,
8!, 85. 86. 89.
237-239, 250, 252,
253, 255-261. 263-
265, 267-275, 288,
340, 375-377, 394

Indtc Weerbaar XIX. 1)6.
168-2)5, 220-223.
231-234, 243. 286.
287. 296, 298. 299,
301, 303, 331. 335.
363, 365, 385. 388,
394, 395, 400, 401,
406, 407

Ijidisclie Bond 305

mdische Panij XIX, XX, 122.
161. 163, 181, 197,
207, 293, 296. 299-
304, 307. 315, 319,
331, 339, 343, 397,
403, 410

Indische Slemmen XIX, 164,

222, 288, 291. 296,
298. 337, 412

Indo-Europeesch Verbond 305

Indonesia IK. V, VI, XVI.
XVIII-XXUI, 2, 9,
12, 19, 26, 31, 32.
35, 37, 48, 55, 59,
60. 74, 77, 79, 84,
85, 89, 97, 101, 104,
107-124, 127, 128,
135. 138. 147. 149,
152-234. 240, 242,
244, 248. 253, 255,
263, 276, 281-366,
369, 371, 375, 379.
380, 382, 384-389.
393. 394, 396-398,
403-413

Insulinde (league) XXII, 163,
181. 183, 185, J87,
188, 197, 201, 214.
216, 220, 288, 289,
291, 296, 303-306,
331, 333. 397, 403

Ireland 51, 66-69,71, 79, 81,
82, 160, 248. 253.
266-267. 335, 360,
378. 395

Irish 70, 74, 83, 86,99, 143,
240, 352

ISDP XIX, 214, 232-234.
290, 339

ISDV XIX. 162, 163, I6S.
179-181. 183. 185.
187, 189-191. 197,
208, 210. 214-215,
221-223, 226. 228.

229, 232, 288, 295.
296, 301, 304

las Unveiled 1. 20, 21, 40,
49, 60

Islam XX, 6, 10. 21. 22, 27,
56, 107-108, 111,
115. 119. 123, 125,
166, 176. 208. 213,

230, 269, 281. 285.
299-300, 303, 309,
333-334. 346, 388,

400. 402. 403, 407,
409

llaly 49, 71, 97, 99, 130,
218,362

Jakarta XXII, 85, 108, 109,
112, 121. 162, 165,
168, 172-174, 177,
179, 187, 195, 196,

203, 209. 214, 216.
217, 220, 221. 223,
224, 231, 281. 284,
296, 297, 300, 304.
306, 327, 336. 339,
341, 347, 350.
354-356, 366, 397,
400. 402. 403,
407-409

Jambi 174, 190, 191. 216,

229, 282. 395, 401,
407

Japan 65, 124. 155, 184, 189,

204, 209. 245, 276,
317, 341, 342

Java XV, XX, XXI. XXIII,
12, 18, 31, 83. 85,
108, 114-125, 163,
169, 178, 182, 186,
191, 202. 213, 222,

230. 230-233,
281-285, 287,
294-296, 298,
301-330, 332, 333.
338-340, 342-345,
348-349, 360,
362-366, 387, 394,
396, 400

Java Institute 314, 350
Jong-Java 117, 170, 171, 285,

288, 293, 347, 349,

352-355, 364
Jong Sumatra XIX, 332, 412
Jong Sumatranen Bond 347,

354
Kali Yuga 32, 37, 38
Kaliwungu 191, 192
Kaoem Moeda XIX, 196,

210, 223. 290, 297,

308, 333

Karachi 1 , 270

karma Vi, 12, 20-22, 28. 32.
37, 49, 50. 75. 112,
123, 125. 131, 132.
141, 142. 144, 146.
150, 152, 153, 189.
193, 216, 226, 236,

241, 260. 261, 325,
328, 335, 343, 375,

386, 393, 399, 405
Karma and Reincarnation

Legion 123
Kashmir 44, 106. 269, 380
Kcmayoran 190
Kerala 276

Khong Kauw Hwee 10S
Koloniale Sludieen XIX , 113,

194.255,288,412
Krebcl 114, 212
Krotona 208
Kudus 222
Kurukshclra 153
Lahore 253. 274. iS9, 360,

389
Lanka Samn Samaja Parly

XIX, 239 240, 366
Latvia 144-147
League for World Liberation

160
League of Nations 101, 268.

396
Lectures on pohticat science

106,314,336. 354
Leiden Ill-VI. XIX, 36, 83,

113, 121, 161, 275.

284, 341-342. 357
Lcles 119, 124
Lembang 337, 366
Lemurian 121, 122, 205, 287
Liberal Catholic Church XIX,

24. 91, 112, 113,

337, 361, 363, 378,

392
liberalism 10, 135, 289
Locomoiief XIX, 160.

166-169, 171-172.

176-181, 185-190,

195-196, 203-204,

451

206-209. 260, 263.

288, 291, 295, 305,

412
Lombok 124, 329, 394, 400.

406
London XVIII, XIX, 11, 23.

24, 30, 35, 37. 45,

58, 60. 61, 65-67.

70, 71, 78, 84. 94.

95,97,99, 101, 139.

140, 142, 143, 151.
235, 238, 254,
256-258. 276, 290.
320, 366, 372-374

LuciferXlX, 24, 79, 81, 130.

141, 376
Lucknow 29, 134, 195, 252,

258. 275. 377
Madras 10. 26. 28, 38. 47,

50, 54, 63, 69, 73.

78, 83, 87, 90. 103,

104. 132, 133. 158.

234. 237. 239, 252.

253. 259. 261. 265,

266, 271. 274-275.

317. 364. 366.

376-377, 379, 395.

40 1 . 407
Madura 108, 116, 302. 31 I,

352
Magelang 168
Malia Bodhi Society XIX. 38,

237. 277
Mahabharata 115, 153. 154.

158. 324, 346
Mahaimas44, 65, 326, 392
Malang 108, 114, 212, 232.

281, 363,387
Manado287, 329
Mars 40, 65, 66, 158
Manapura2l8, 219
Masjumi 347
Mataram 115, 222, 291, 298,

319, 348
Mecca XXII, 217, 293, 312,

334
Mecklenburg 41, 203
Melajoe 165-167, 171, 172

452

Mexico 365
Moluccas 173 , 282
monkeys 30. 121
Muhammad ijah 22, 294. 300.

361
Mytapore 103,259
Mysore 95, 106, 254
Nagpur 265. 266
nationalism 17, 92. 159. 168,
183, 240, 260, 268,
273, 304-328, 332,
348. 356, 357, 364,
393. 396, 397
Nederlandsch-lndiserie
Vrijzinnige Bond 216,
221.232, 289. 363
Nepal 239

Neratja 154, 176. 17S, 208.
210-211. 214, 219.
224, 227, 228. 230-
232. 291, 297. 299,
318. 332, 336, 337,
341, 348, 352. 396,
402.408. 412
Netherlands V. Vlll, XV,
XVIII. XX, XXI. 1.
9. 18.68, 75, 77. 91,
107. 109, 111.
113-114, 128. 147-
149. 161, 163.
169-175. 177. 180,
1S4, 186. 188. 192,
195. 197-211. 214,
215, 219. 224, 225,
229. 241-243. 282.
286-288, 290.

301-303, 307, 308,
314, 317, 324, 333,
334. 340-342.

345-347. 350, 355,
357, 362, 379, 385,
394-398
new age 38. 69,70, 260
New Guinea 122. 232, 283.

287. 302. 332
New India XX. 10, 80, 83,
87, 92. 255, 264,
267, 269, 274, 275

New York VIII, XX, XXI, I,
27, 29, 47-52, 62-64,
66, 68, 69, 100. 140,
141, 149, 158, 160.
208. 244. 326, 368,
413
New Zealand I, 56, 127. 248,

356, 360. 380
Meuwlitdie XX, 340.412
non -co -opera i ion 229, 248,
261-267, 293, 300,
335, 342-345,

350-353, 360, 366,
395-397
OE Library Critic XX, 17.
35. 40. 60. 67, 85,
92-95, 99-101, 127,
158. 242. 264, 376,
384
Oesoesan Hindia XX, 174,
176. 177. 212, 222.
224, 227. 228. 295
Oeloesan Metajoe. XX, 233.
303, 330334, 346,
387. 396. 397, 402,
409
Qinmef. 76. 77, 91, 173, 204,

379
Ons Lcger 199
Onze VIool 188. 198. 204
opium 227, 364
Ordc der Dicnaren van Indie
XX. 229. 231, 347,
349-350. 353, 355.
357
Order or Service 147
Order of (lie Siar in ihe East
77-79. 88. 91, 126,
173, 236, 270, 282,
285-286,297,373
Padang 177, 196, 298, 332.

346. 387
Pakistan 1, 2, 82, 109, 269.

383, 402. 408
Paku Mam 115-116, US.
161, 298, 306, 314
318
Panadura 52

pancliayat 239, 272
Pantjaran- Warta XX ,

174-177, 185. 195,
222, 296, 397, 402.
409,412
Pare 18,366

Paris 48. 67, 96, 130. 135.
140-142, 243. 282,
320
Pasadena VIII, 28
peasants 42, 118, 119.
121-124, 135. 144-
146. 186, 214, 216.
283, 293, 326, 327,
331. 355.371,394
Pckatongari2ll, 281
Pentiiran (paper) 122, 123,
166, 172. 176. 295.
296, 305. 352
Pemilren Tjatija 123. 124.

361,394,406
Perliirnpoenan Indonesia XX.
306, 345-352, 355,
359. 397. 398. 403,
404,410.411
Pertimbangan 179, 184,210
pcsanlrcn 35I
Petodjo 216.220,296.297
Pewann Tlieosoftc XX, 116,
187, 281. 295, 296,
317, 396. 402. 408.
412
Philippines 101. 156
PNI XX. 294. 354, 355,357.

359. 360, 397
Point Loma Vlll. 3, 8. 19,
35. 60, 67, 68, 89,
99, 159. 242. 368,
390
Poland 42
Pol i tie k- Economise he Bond

XX , 1 1 1 , 229
Poona 254, 360
Portugal 99, 245
PPPB XX. 173
Pranhaoa Samaj 53
Preaagerbode 174, 176, 178,
290

453

prison 112.232.341.375

priyayi XXIII, 115. 119-123.
294. 364

puranas 26, 51 . 378

Purwokeno 192, 336

Purworejo 120. 333

Quetia 269

race VI, 9, II, 14, 17, 33.
36, 38, 77, 80. 93,
95. 121-122, 153,
155, 156. 160, 205,
213, 218. 247-249,
256, 263. 264. 266.
267. 283-284. 308-
310. 332, 339. 365.
366, 370

radio 1, 91. 132. 341

Kamayana 154, 230

ratu adil285

Religicus Socialisnsch

Wrbond 148, 205

Kembang 123

re-iolulion 42. 46, 61, 63, 86,
141. I43-N7, 150-
152. 194, 214-216.
223-226. 230. 235,
244. 248. 268, 323,
341. 394

Roman Catholicism 10. 46

rosicruciaii 7, 35. 99, 129
150. 204

Roiary ! 30. 365

rubber 114, 1 7y

Russia 23, 42, 43.46, 86, 98.
144. 150-152, 154,
155. 206. 214. 216,
224, 231. 237. 238,
265. 290. 293, 299,
323. 390, 395

Salvation Army 101. 132. 374

Samarinda 330

Sanskrit VIII. XXII, 17. 20.
22. 26, 35. 36, 38.
47, 50. 59. 60, 77,
79.82.94. 103. 113,
115. 118. 208, 271,
276, 315. 380,398

Sarekat Islam XX, 162, 163,

165, 168, 169, 171,
172. 174-184, 186.
187, 191. 197. 198,
203. 207. 212-214,
220-223, 227. 228,
230. 233, 293-300,
312, 330-332. 335,
340. 388, 394,
396-398. 400. 402,
403,407. 409, 410

Scotland 379

SDAP XX. 170. 178, 197,

198, 212. 225, 307,
315

Baiavia 214-216, 220-

222
Secret Doctrine XX, 12. 17,

18. 30. 35, 54. 58.

60, 61. 128, 130,

226, 241, 248, 320.

325, 370
Senmranc, 108. 112, 162-

164, 166-169, 172,

179-191. 193. :02.

2)1. 222, 223. 230.

281. 291, 294. 304.

307. 344, 352. 366.

375. 388
Siam 125
Sicily 77, 78
Sikh 17, 108, 331)
Simla 277

SinPo)^. 187. 195, 197
Sinar Hindia XX. 154. 190.

217, 220. 222.

229-231
Sind 108
Sinhalese 9, 56, 62, 70, 125,

133. 253. 276. 383.

384
Sinn Fein 130, 209
snake 24,45. 56. 85
Soeara Merdika XX, 178,

199. 208, 210, 211,
296. 338

Soerabaiosch Handelsblad

III, 189,219,234
Soester berg 200, 212

solar syslem 28, 40, 266
South Africa 13, 101, 113.
l!4, 132. 245. 246.
249. 256, 258, 269
Spain 97, 196

spiritualism V. 2. 18. 23, 25,
45, 46, 48, 52. 55,
56, 62. 63. 112, 138-
141, 147-149, 151.
243, 393. 394
Sri Lanka VI. XXI, 9. 34. 86,

397, 401, 403, 408
Sn-Diponegoro 222. 223
Si Petersburg 46, 145, 150
sugar 62. 106, 113-114, 12.1 .
162. 178. 179, 186,
187. 191. 192, 195.

212, 214-215, 223.
229, 283. 313

Sukabumi 186. 340-341
Sulawesi 122, 186. 209, 219.

222, 282. 287. 329.

330, 361
Sumatra XIX, XX, 108, 176.

177, 179, 190. 20S,

213, 216. 230-237,
282, 283, 291, 298.
306. 309. 310. 317.
330-335, 342, 346.
347, 353. 358, 361.
366. 386-387, 389,
394-396, 400-402,
412, 413

sun 27, 28. 38, 40. 43. 45,

157
Sunda Sirau 201
Surabaya 108, 112, 115, 163,

178, 179, 187, 190.
191. 211, 212, 222.
228, 281, 284. 285.
299, 336, 339, 348.
352. 354, 361. 396.
403. 410

Surakana XXIH. 107, 108,
116-118, 180-182,
186, 188, 203, 222,
231, 281, 294, 301,
302, 304-306, 313,

454

314, 318, 319, 324,
344, 349. 354, 357

Surinam 96, 340

swastika 216

Sweden 135, 206, 324

Sydney 341

Taman Siswa 172, 315, 343,

354, 355, 361, 362,
387, 395,401,407

Tamil 82, 103. 109. 125, 133,
270, 375, 396, 402.
408

tarot 25. 65. 66

Tasikmalaya 124, 363

Telggu77, 103, 133,270

Thailand 125

The Hague V. XIX, 3, 42,
100. 118, 158, 161,
173, 186, 198, 200-
203. 206, 208, 223,
275. 290, 311, 340.

355. 358.389
Thule 5, 15

Tilxi3. 40. 44, 217, 261
[rack unions 87. 135, 142,

150. 173, 191, 213,

231, 238. 242. 244.

34 1 , 394
transport workers 163. 168,

191,213
Tra^ancore 44. 82. 106
Ujung Pandang XXII, 12 J,

222. 329, 361
U.iiied Lodge of Theosophists

XXI. 35. 261, 262
United States XI11, 1. 8, 45,

62, 64. 67, 75, 92.
130, 132, 148, 149,
158, 208. 342, 370

Upanisliads 26, 258. 334

Uirecht 204-206

Venus 40, 79, 266. 321

Vereeniging voor Vrouwen-
kiesrecbt 360, 386

Vienna 98, 100

Vietnam 4, .124

vivisection 31

Volksraad XX1I1, 111, 113.
165, 179, 217. 224,
227, 230-232, 284,
285, 289, 290, 298,
306, 319. 326, 330,
335, 336, 340-341,
343, 344. 356, 359,
363, 364, 397. 402.
408

Wagcningen 345

war 1, 5, 18, 40, 43, 62-64.
74. 75. 80. 81, 86.
87. 91. 93. 94, 96,
97. 100. 138,
151-161, 165, 167,
168, 169, 174, 177.
183. 188. 189. 192.
193. 196. 200, 203,
206. 207, 211, 212,
219, 221-223. 230.
232-234, 244, 246,
249, 255, 267, 269,
313, 324, 326. 328,
339. 362, 366, 385,
394, 397

Wama-Warta XXI, 184, 187,
203.206,213-214

Washington )8, 28, 58, 63.
101, 236. 342

wayang XXlt, XX1H, 37,
116, 154, 185, 222,
302-303, 302, 314,
324, 359, 365

Wederopbouw XXI, 118, 182,
226, 306-328, 332,
342-345, 347. 358,
364. 385, 387,
395-397. 400, 402,
407, 409, 412

WehevredenXIX, 164

women XXII. XXIII, 1. 4.
14. 26, 34, 42, 48,
56. 61, 66, 67, 70,
72. 86,95, 107, 112,
113, 121, 130. 140.
143, 158. 162. 172.
225, 261. 270, 291.
292. 294. 296, 313,
368-392. 397

Wonogiri 107. 297

yoga 3, 50

Yogyakarta 112. 113. 116.
123. 181. 192, 193.
281. 291, 298, 306,
313, 318, 324, 344,
349, 388

Young Theosophists 90, 352,
354. 363

455

APPENDICES

The Theosophical Society arose in a historic period, when capitalism entered a new
phase' (second lowest row of table, p. 456). Then, labour had mostly replaced feudalism
as its main opponent. Increasingly, within the tension between 'order and progress'
(A. Comte). capitalists tended to favour order. Had theosophy and related occultism any
chance of becoming sizable, maybe even dominant, in these new social and political
circumstances? Had the international character of the TS anything to do with
internationalization, in spite of old and new contradictions, of ruling, or just-below
ruling, classes?

In the (able, columns 2 and 4 deal with perceptions of relationships between the
highest level or authority with people on lower levels, it should be taken with even more
gunny sacks of salt than this book as a whole: 1 . as perceptions: 2, because especially the
upper rows generalize from {West Central) European 'types'; 3, because each pair of
rows links one social formation to just one ideology, one set of ideas: 4. in history's
practice theoretical stages (rows) always overlap. The (able is not intended as a dogma
(Roman, occult, historic, sociological, or otherwise), or a prison Even if true, it does
not imply any established occull church took over the organizational position of
nineteenth century established churches.

'Sec p. 244 of this book: SEN FT, 9. Ibid.. II: 'for (he end of the 19th century the traditional
I inv. ising bourgeois type-puritanical, "inner dircclcd"(David Riesman)and "anally fixed "(Sigmund
f'iriid)liad become obsolete as leader of a changing society, centred around the idea of
.H.'iicvenient'. Ibid.. 11-14, links this to the cutting of the earlier (ie between bourgeoisie and
rnhjthienmem. HERKLESS. 509, writing about economists' and historians' thinking in the late

drouth century, saw *neo- idealism' as taking the place of empiricist positivism of 'economic

in ilwnloxy before finance capitalism'. According to WILSON(1975), 41. movements like the TS
tppCU to arise in achievement -oriented societies, where physical, economic, and social well being
in upon to at least some measure of competitive action ,. In such an impersonal social context
Mini means to gain wealth, power, and status may also exist-gangsterism, fraud, charlatanism,
nt-poiism, and intrigue, as well as the use of esoteric knowledge*.

456

SOME SOCIAL AND IDEOLOGICAL HISTORY CATEGORIES

RELATIONSHIP

SOCIAL

PUNISHMENT OF

OF INDIVIDUAL

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The Politics of Divine Wisdom, Theosophy and Labour, National, and Women's Movements in Indonesia and South Asia 1875-1947"

See other formats