The Struggle with the Saracens, 717-1057

THE

CAMBRIDGE
MEDIEVAL HISTORY

PLANNED BY

J. B. BURY, M.A., F.B.A.

REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY
EDITED BY

J. R. TANNER, Litt.D.

C. W. PREVITE-ORTON, M.A.

Z. N. BROOKE, M.A.

VOLUME IV

THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE

(7*7— M53)

CAMBRIDGE
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

1923

Contents xix

CHAPTER V.

(A)

THE STRUGGLE WITH THE SARACENS (717—867).

By E. W. Brooks, M.A., King's College, Cambridge.

.PAGE

The last Arab attempt upon Constantinople 119

Character of the wars . . . . . . . . . 1 20

Battle of AcroTnon ..... .... 121

Campaigns of Constantine V . . . . . . . .122

Expedition of the Caliph Mahdl 123

Expedition of Rash id 124

Campaigns of Constantine VI ...... 125

Nicephorus and Rashld 126

Recovery of Camacha ......... 127

Campaigns of the Caliph Ma'niun ....... 128

Sack of Sozopetra . ......... 129

Fall of Amorium 130

Disintegration of the Caliphate 131

Expeditions to Damietta ........ 132

Battle of Chonarium 133

Battle of Poson 134

Muslim invasion of Sicily . . . . . . ... 135

Fall of Palermo 136

FallofEnna 137

Expeditions of Khafaja ......... 138

(B)

THE STRUGGLE WITH THE SARACENS (867—1057).

By A. A. Vasil'ev, late Professor of History at the
University of Dorpat.

Favourable position of Basil I ...... . 139

Loss of Syracuse .......... 140

Disasters under Leo VI ........ 141

Constantine VII : the decline of the Caliphate .... 143

War on the Euphrates . . . . ... . . . 144

Advance under Nicephorus Phocas ...... 145

Capture of Antioch and Aleppo 146

John Tzimisces in Syria . . . . . . . . 147

Basil II 148

War with the Fatimites 149

The successors of Basil II ....... 150

(C)

SUMMARY 151

By Professor J. B. Bury, F.B.A.

119

CHAPTER V.

(A)
THE STRUGGLE WITH THE SARACENS (717-867).

At the accession of Leo III (25 March 717), when the great Arab
army was encamped in western Asia Minor and the Anatolic troops had
gone to Constantinople to place their strategus on the throne, the posi-
tion of the Empire seemed almost desperate; and the Arab commander,
Maslamah, having some understanding with Leo, was confident of reducing
it to subjection. During the spring he took Sardis and Pergamus; and,
when it became clear that no assistance was to be expected from Leo, he
advanced to Abydos, crossed to Thrace, destroyed the forts on the road,
and encamped before Constantinople (July). On 1 September a fleet under
a certain Sulaimiin joined him, and was followed by another under Omar
ibn Hubaira ; but, while the ships were sailing round the city, twenty
of them became separated from the rest and were destroyed by (ire-ships
(3 September). After this the fleet was content with inactivity and
safety; but an offer of ransom was refused, and in the severe winter the
army lost heavily in horses and camels. In the spring fresh ships came
from Egypt and Africa besides military reinforcements, and an attack by
Slavs was repulsed; but Omar was defeated by the Bulgarians whom Leo
had called to his assistance, and in Bithynia a foraging party was routed.
Moreover, the Egyptian sailors deserted, and through information obtained
from them Leo destroyed with Greek fire many newly-arrived ships.
After this the blockade on the sea side was practically raised, while the
besiegers were starving. Accordingly Omar II, who succeeded the Caliph
Sulaiman in September 717, recalled the Muslim armament (15 August
718); but many ships were destroyed by a storm or captured on the
retreat, and only a few reached Syria. The garrison of Taranta, which
was thought to be too much exposed, was then withdrawn, and no more ex-
peditions were made while Omar lived. To prevent a recrudescence of the
Arab sea-power, after the accession of the Caliph Yazld II (February 720)
a Roman fleet sailed to Egypt and attacked Tinnis. The expedition of
716-718 was in fact the last attempt upon Constantinople, and the
neglect of the fleet which followed the removal of the capital from
Damascus to Babylonia in 750 made a repetition impossible; hence the
war was reduced to a series of plundering raids, until the occupation of
Crete and Sicily by western Arabs caused the naval warfare to revive
under new conditions. The character of these incursions was so well

120 Character of the Wars

understood on the Arab side that in the ninth century it was an accepted
rule that two raids were made each year, one from 10 May to 10 June
when grass was abundant, and, after a month's rest for the horses, another
from 10 July to 8 September, with sometimes a third in February and
March ; and the size of the forces may be gauged from the fact that a
commander was once superseded for retreating when he had still 7000
men. Longer expeditions were often made; but even these rarely had any
object but plunder or blackmail. A frontier fortress was indeed occa-
sionally occupied, but it was often recovered after a short interval, and
more frequently forts were taken only that they might be destroyed and the
enemy thereby deprived of a base; and the whole result of 150 years of war
was only the annexation by the Arabs of the district between the Sarus
and the Lam us, which however included the important towns of Tarsus
and Adana and the strong fortress of Lulum. Raids through the Cilician
Gates were signalled to Constantinople by a chain of beacons, and a
cluster of fortresses was erected on the heights of the Taurus range; but the
Romans were generally content to hold the strong places, and, when
opportunity offered, overwhelm parties of marauders. Occasionally they
made counter-raids; but these had even less permanent result than those
of the Arabs, until under the rule of the energetic Caesar Bardas a
blow was dealt after which the decaying Caliphate never recovered its
offensive power, and the way was laid open for a Roman advance.

Under Yazld only sporadic raids were made, with little result. Omar
ibn Hubaira won a victory in Armenia Quarta (721), and a fortress in
Cilicia was taken (723) ; but 'Abbas ibn al-Walid after taking a fort in
Paphlagonia allowed his men to scatter, and most of the parties were anni-
hilated (722). After Caliph Hisham's accession, however, more systematic
plans were adopted. In 724 his son Sa'id and his cousin Marwan with
the combined forces of Syria and Mesopotamia, coming from Melitene,
stormed a fort and massacred the garrison, though a detachment under
Kathir 1 was cut to pieces ; and this was followed by the capture of the
great fortress of Camacha on the Euphrates (which the Romans must
have recovered since 711); and in 726 Maslamah took Neo-Caesarea. After
this a series of raids was carried out by Hisham's son Mu'awiyah, who in
727 took Gangra, which he demolished, and Tataeum 2 , and with naval as-
sistance besieged Nicaea. In 728 he took Semaluos in the Armeniac theme ;
in 729 he raided northern Asia Minor, while Sa'id, coming from the south,
reached Caesarea, and an Egyptian fleet harried the coast. In 730 Mu'a-
wiyah took the fortress of Charsianum; in 731 he found the frontier too
well guarded to cross in force, and his lieutenant, Battal, was routed;
but in 732 he plundered Paphlagonia and penetrated to Acroinon (Prym-
nessus), though on the retreat his rearguard was annihilated, while his
brother Sulaiman reached Caesarea. In 733 the two brothers joined forces

1 Theoph. Xdij (corrupt) ; corr. from Mahbub Xtdrjp.

2 Theoph. 'Atcovs, Arab. 'Taiba.' See Ramsay, Hist. Geogr., pp. 143, 439.

Battle of A cro'inon 121

and their vanguard under Battal captured a general ; in 734 Mu'awiyah
reached the west coast, plundering proconsular Asia as he went ; in 735
he returned by way of the north, while Sulaiman raided Cappadocia. In
736 on another joint expedition Mu'awiyah was killed by a fall from his
horse, but Sulaiman after wintering in Roman territory invaded Asia
and carried off" a Pergamene who claimed to be Justinian's son Tiberius
and was granted imperial honours by Hisham. In 738 he took a fort
in Pontus and captured a patrician's son, who with other prisoners
was put to death in 740 on a report that Leo had killed his Muslim
prisoners; and in 739 his brother Maslamah, coming from Melitene, seized
some of the subterranean granaries that were numerous in Cappadocia.
Assistance by sea was prevented by the activity of the Roman fleet,
which in 736 captured part of a fleet returning from a raid and in 739
attacked Damietta in great force and carried off many captives.

For 740 a great invasion was planned. Sulaiman crossed the frontier
in May and encamped before Tyana, sending his cousin Ghamr to Asia
and Malik and Battal to Phrygia, where they took Synada and besieged
Acroinon; but these last were routed by Leo himself and both killed,
after which the whole army returned to Syria. Not this victory, however,
so much as the internal troubles of the Caliphate caused in the following
years the slackness of the Arab offensive.

In 742 Sulaiman marched into the heart of Asia Minor, and
Constantine V, who had succeeded Leo in June 741, left his capital on
27 June and came to Crasus in Phrygia to meet him; but Artavasdus 1
rebellion forced him to flee to the Anatolics at Amorium, leaving the
road open to the enemy. However, Hisham's death (February 743) and
the accession of the incapable Caliph Walid II prevented the Arabs from
making the most of this opportunity, and in 743 the Romans destroyed the
fortress of Sozopetra south-west of Melitene.

After the murder of Walid (April 744) the Caliphate fell into anarchy ;
and, order having been restored in the Empire by Artavasdus 1 overthrow
(November), the advantage lav with the Romans. Constantine again de-
stroyed Sozopetra, which had been insufficiently restored, and threatened
Perrhe (Hisn Mansur), where the fortifications had been repaired and a
strong garrison posted. He forced Germanicea (Mar'ash) and Doliche
to capitulate; allowing the garrisons to march out, he removed the in-
habitants to Roman territory and demolished the fortifications (746).
After this a great outbreak of plague prevented him from pursuing his
advantage, and in 748 Walid ibn Hisham restored Germanicea. In
747 however an Egyptian squadron which had come to Cyprus was un-
expectedly attacked in harbour and almost annihilated; and from this
time the Egyptian fleet disappears for 100 years.

In June 751 Constantine set out to recover Camacha, but sent the
Armenian Khushan, who had fled to the Romans in 750, against the fort,
while he himself besieged Melitene. Mesopotamia being in revolt, its

122 Campaigns of Comtantine V

Emir could not bring help, and the place capitulated; the inhabitants
with their portable property were then escorted to a place of safety, after
which the town was demolished. Thence Constantine went on to Claudias,
which he also took, removing the population of the district to Roman
territory ; but at Arsamosata he failed. Meanwhile Khushan, having
taken Camacha and placed a garrison in it, advanced to Theodosiopolis
(Erzerum), which he took and destroyed, making the garrison prisoners
and deporting the inhabitants. The merciful treatment which Constan-
tine accorded to his enemies and to the civil populations is a bright spot
among the atrocities of these wars. The Romans were never as cruel as the
Arabs, but this striking leniency may fairly be set against the character
which anti-Iconoclast writers draw of this Emperor.

By the Caliph Marwan IPs death (July 751 ) the new Abbasid dynasty
was firmly established, but many revolts followed. When in 754 * Abdal-
lah, Emir of Syria, had started to invade the Empire, he heard of the
death of his nephew, the Caliph Saffah (19 June), and returned to make
an unsuccessful bid for the Caliphate. His successor in Syria, his brother
Sallh, in 756 entered Cappadocia through the pass of Adata, but on
hearing that Constantine was about to march against him returned home.
Thereupon followed an exchange of prisoners. In 757 Sallh began to
rebuild the walls of Mopsuestia, which had been overthrown by an
earthquake in 756; and 'Abd-al-Wahhab, who had been made Emir of
Mesopotamia by his uncle the Caliph Mansur, rebuilt Claudias and
began to rebuild Melitene. To prevent this Constantine marched to the
Pyramus (758) ; but the army at Melitene, reinforced by some Persians,
the best troops of the Caliphate, under Hasan was too strong to attack,
and the rebuilding of Melitene and Mopsuestia was completed. In 759,
while the Emperor was engaged with Slavonic enemies, Adana, abandoned
by the Romans, was occupied by Sallh, a garrison, partly of Persians,
being placed there, and a fort erected on the Sarus opposite it. In 760,
while Constantine was fighting the Bulgarians, the Caliph's brother
'Abbas defeated the Armeniac strategus Paul on the Melas between
Melitene and Caesarea with great loss, Paul himself being killed and
42 high officers captured.

For the next five years both sides were occupied, Mansur with insur-
rections and Chazar invasions, and Constantine with Bulgarian wars, and
in 766 there was an exchange of prisoners. This year a strong force of
Arabs and Persians under 'Abbas and Hasan besieged Camacha (August);
but, well defended by its commandant, it resisted all their efforts, and on
the approach of winter they retired. Some of the army, however, who had
separated from the rest for a pillaging expedition, penetrated beyond
Caesarea, avoiding roads and towns, but were attacked on their return and
fled in confusion to Melitene and Theodosiopolis. The Arabs then set
themselves to restore the fortifications of Arsamosata; but in 768 an
army which had been ravaging Armenia Quarta crossed the Arsanias and

Expedition of t fie Caliph Mahdl 123

destroyed the works, though after their retreat the task was completed.
The citizens were however suspected of collusion with the enemy and re-
moved to Palestine, a fate which also befel the inhabitants of Germanicea
(769), which was re-fortified and garrisoned.

In 770 Laodicea Combusta was taken, and in 771 some of the Arme-
nians who had fled to the Romans with Khushan set out to return to
their old homes, and a force under the commandant of Camacha which
pursued them was surprised and cut to pieces. In 775 Thumama
marched along the Isaurian coast, supported by a fleet, and besieged
Syce. Constantine thereupon sent the Anatolics, Armeniacs, and Bucell-
arii, who occupied the only pass by which Thumama could retreat, while
the Cibyrrhaeots anchored in the harbour and cut off his communications
with the ships; but by a desperate attack he cut his way through the
cavalry and returned with many prisoners from the neighbourhood, while
the fleet sailed to Cyprus and captured the governor. Constantine, wish-
ing to be free to deal with the Bulgarians, now made proposals for peace,
but these were rejected.

The deaths of Emperor and Caliph in 775 were followed by greater ac-
tivity on both sides. Constantine had recently given his chief attention to
the Bulgarians and had been content with merely checking Arab inroads;
but in 776 Leo IV, who, though from ill health unable to lead armies, was
an able and vigorous ruler, sent an expedition to Samosata which carried
off many captives. The Muslims were ransomed by the Caliph Mahdl,
who on his side prepared a larger force than had been seen since 740 with
many of the best Persian troops under 'Abbas, which took the underground
granary of Casis with the men in it and reached but did not take Ancvra.
In 777 Thumama made an expedition by land and Ghamr by sea; but Thu-
mama quarrelled with the Emir 'Isa,the Caliph's great-uncle, and so in 778
no raid took place. In these circumstances Leo sent the five Asiatic themes
to Cilicia and Syria, and they besieged 'Isa in Germanicea without oppo-
sition from Thumama, who was at Dabiq. Failing to take Germanicea,
they plundered the country, and the Thracesian strategus, Michael Lacha-
nodraco, was attacked by a force sent by Thumama, but defeated them
with heavy loss, after which the whole army returned with many captives,
largely Syrian Jacobites, and laden with spoil. In 779 Thumama again
remained inactive, though ordered to make an invasion, and the Romans
destroyed the fortifications of Adata. The veteran Hasan was then ap-
pointed to command, and with a large force from Syria, Mesopotamia,
and Khurasan entered the Empire by the pass of Adata. Leo ordered
his generals not to fight, but to bring the inhabitants into the fortresses
and send out parties of picked men, to prevent foraging and to destroy
the fodder and provisions. Hasan therefore occupied Dorylaeum without
opposition, but after fifteen days lack of fodder for the horses forced
him to retreat.

The Caliph now determined to take the field himself, and on 12 March

124 Expedition of Rashid

780 left Baghdad with an even larger army and marched through Aleppo
to Adata; here by Hasan's advice he ordered the fortifications to be re-
stored (they were completed in 785), and advanced to Arabissus, whence
he returned, leaving the command to his son Harun, afterwards known
as ar-Rashld, supported by Hasan and other capable advisers. This
expedition was however hardly more successful than the last. Thumama,
since 'Isa's death no longer disaffected, being sent westwards, reached
Asia, but was there defeated by Lachanodraco, his brother falling in the
battle; afterwards Rash id marched towards the north and besieged
Semaluos for thirty-eight days, during which the Arabs suffered heavy
loss, and the garrison then surrendered on condition that their lives were
spared and that they were not separated from one another. The army
thereupon returned to Syria. After this expedition Tarsus, which had
been abandoned by the Romans, was occupied and rebuilt by the Arabs.
In September 780 Leo died; and, under the female rule which followed,
Asia Minor was again laid open to the enemy. In June 781 the Asiatic
themes were sent to the frontier, commanded not by a soldier but a
eunuch, the treasurer John. The separate themes, however, retained their
strategi, and 'Abd-al-Kablr, who had invaded by the pass of Adata, was
defeated by Lachanodraco and the Armenian Tadjat, strategus of the
Bucellarii, who had gone over to the Romans in 780. After this 'Abd-
al-Kablr abandoned the expedition, for which he was imprisoned. The
Caliph now made a great effort, and on 9 February 782 Rashid left Baghdad
at the head of a larger force than any that had been sent in the previous
years, in which contingents from Syria, Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Khura-
san were included; and, the Empress Irene having just sent an army to
Sicily against the rebel Elpidius, the invaders had an easier task. Enter-
ing by the Cilician Gates, Rashid took the fortress of Magida and
advanced into Phrygia, where he left RabI' to besiege Nacolea and sent
Yahya the Barmecide to Asia, and after defeating Nicetas, Count of
Opsicium, he reached Chrysopolis. Yahya inflicted a crushing defeat on
Lachanodraco, but on his way to join Rashid found his road blocked on
the Sangarius by Anthony the Domestic of the Scholae, whom Irene had
sent by sea from Constantinople ; bat Tadjat from hostility to Irene's
chief minister, the eunuch Stauracius, opened communications with Rashid,
and on promise of pardon and reward returned to the Arabs. By his
advice Rashid proposed peace; but, when Stauracius, Anthony, and Peter
the magister came to discuss terms, he treacherously made them prisoners.
Irene, wishing to recover Stauracius and crippled by the loss of Tadjat
and Anthony, was forced to accept his conditions. A three years' truce
was then made on condition that she paid tribute, ransomed the prisoners,
supplied guides and markets for the army on its retreat, and surrendered
Tadjat's wife and property. After mutual presents the Arabs returned
laden with spoil (31 August). Mopsuestia and the fort opposite Adana
were then rebuilt by the Arabs.

Campaigns of Constantino VI 125

In 785 the rebuilding of Adata was finished; but the work was faulty,
and the walls were soon so much damaged by the wet winter that early in
786 the Romans easily took and destroyed the town, which was evacuated
by its garrison; they also overthrew the fortifications of Sozopetra. Both
these frontier places were immediately rebuilt.

In 786 Irene, to carry out her religious policy, changed the composi-
tion of the themes and probably deposed the iconoclast strategi 1 , thereby
impairing the military strength of the Empire, which, while she ruled, was
unable to cope with the Arabs; and in September 788 the Romans were
defeated in the Anatolic theme with heavy loss. In 790 some soldiers
who were being conveyed by sea from Egypt to Syria were captured by
the Romans, but an Arab fleet sailed to Cyprus and thence to Asia Minor,
and, meeting the Cibyrrhaeots in the bay of Attalia, captured Theophilus
the admiral, who was offered rich gifts by Rashld, now Caliph, to join the
Arabs, but on his refusal beheaded 2 .

In September 791 Constantine VI, having now assumed the govern-
ment, inarched through Amorium to attack Tarsus, but had only reached
the Lycaonian desert when, perhaps from scarcity of water, he returned
(October). In 792 he restored his mother to her rank and place, and,
having driven the Armeniacs, who had caused her downfall, to mutiny,
overcame them by the help of some Armenian auxiliaries (793), who,
not having received the expected reward, betrayed Camacha to the
lieutenant of 'Abd-al-Malik, Emir of Mesopotamia (29 July). The same
year Thebasa in Cappadocia from lack of water surrendered to 'Abd-al-
Malik's son 'Abd-ar-Rahman on condition that the officers were allowed
to go free (October). In the autumn of 79-i Sulaiman invaded northern Asia
Minor, accompanied by Elpidius, who had fled to the Arabs and received
recognition as Emperor; but many men perished from cold, and a safe
retreat was only obtained by making terms (January 795).

In the spring of 795 Fadl led a raid, but Constantine himself marched
against him (April) and defeated a party which had nearly reached the
west coast (8 May). In 796 he was occupied with the Bulgarians, and
Mahomet ibn Mu'awiyah reached Amorium and carried off captives. In
797 Rashld in person invaded the Empire by the Cilician Gates, and
Constantine, accompanied by Stauracius and other partisans of Irene,
again took the field (March); but Stauracius, fearing that success might
bring the Emperor popularity, spread a report that the enemy had
retreated, and Constantine returned to lose his throne and his sight
(19 August). Meanwhile Rashld took the fort known to the Arabs as
as-Safsaf (the willow) 3 near the Cilician Gates, while 'Abd-al-Malik plun-
dered the country as far as Ancyra, which he took, and then rejected

1 Bury, Later Roman Empire, 11. p. 485.

2 In such cases the prisoners were probably held as hostages or to ransom, and,
if their lives were forfeited, they were spared if they apostatised or turned traitors.

3 This seems to be Andrasus, but must be a different place from Adrasus in Isauria.

126 Nicephorus and Rashid

Irene's proposals for a truce. In 798 'Abd-al-Malik extended his ravages
to Malagina, where he carried off the horses and equipment from Stau-
raciiis 1 stables, while 'Abd-ar-Rahman made many captives in Lydia
and reached Ephesus, and in the autumn another party defeated Paul
of Opsicium and captured his camp.

In 799 the Chazars invaded Armenia, and so this time Rashid accepted
Irene's offers of tribute and made peace 1 ; but her successor Nicephorus
refused payment (803). Accordingly in August 803, while he was occupied
with VardaiTs rebellion, the Caliph's son Qasim, who had just been named
Emir of al-'Awasim (the defences), a province in North Syria instituted in
789, entered Cappadocia by the Cilician Gates and besieged Corum, while
one of his lieutenants besieged a fort which the Arabs call Sinan; but,
being distressed by lack of food and water, he agreed to retire upon 320
prisoners being released. In 804 Rashid himself advanced through the
same pass to Heraclea(Cybistra) in April, while another party under Ibra-
him took as-Safsaf and Thebasa, which they dismantled. Nicephorus
started in person to meet Ibrahim (August); but on hearing that the
Caliph's vanguard had taken and dismantled Ancyra turned back and,
having met the enemy at Crasus, suffered defeat; but the lateness of the
season made it difficult to maintain the army, and Rashid accepted tribute
and made peace, the Emperor agreeing not to rebuild the dismantled
fortresses. An exchange of prisoners was also arranged and took place
during the winter. In 805 the Caliph was occupied in Persia, and Nice-
phorus, contrary to the treaty, rebuilt Ancyra, Thebasa, and as-Safsaf.
He also sent an army into Cilicia, which took Tarsus, making the garrison
prisoners, and ravaged the lands of Mopsuestia and Anazarbus; but the
garrison of Mopsuestia attacked them and recovered most of the prisoners
and spoil. Accordingly in 806 Rashid, with a large army from Syria,
Palestine, Persia, and Egypt, crossed the frontier (11 June) and took
Heraclea after a month's siege (August) and Tyana, where he ordered a
mosque to be built, while his lieutenants took the Fort of the Slavs by
the Cilician Gates, Thebasa, Malacopea, Sideropalus (Cyzistra) 2 , as-Safsaf,
Sinan, and Semaluos, and a detachment even reached Ancyra. Nicephorus,
threatened by the Bulgarians, could not resist, and sent three clerics by
whom peace was renewed on the basis of an annual tribute and a per-
sonal payment for the Emperor and his son, who thereby acknowledged
themselves the Caliph's servants. Since Nicephorus again bound himself
not to rebuild the dismantled forts, Rashid undertook to restore Semaluos,
Sinan, and Sideropalus uninjured. As soon, however, as the Arabs had
withdrawn, Nicephorus, presuming on the lateness of the season, again
restored the forts, whereupon the Caliph unexpectedly returned and retook
Thebasa.

1 The peace is nowhere recorded, but seems to follow from the absence of
hostilities and the action ascribed to Nicephorus.

2 I identify this with Dhu'l Kila' {E.H.R., 1901, p. 86, n. 195).

Recovery of Camacha 127

The neutralisation of Cyprus, effected in 689, was considered as still
in force; but after the breach of the treaty of 804 a fleet under Humaid in
805 ravaged the island and carried 16,000 Cypriots, among whom was the
archbishop, as prisoners to Syria (806), but on the renewal of peace they
were sent back. In 807 Humaid landed in Rhodes and harried the island,
though unable to take the fortified town ; but after touching at Myra on
the way back many of his ships were wrecked in a storm.

Early in 807 the Romans, who must previously have recovered Tyana,
occupied the Cilician Gates, and, when the Arab commander tried to pass,
defeated and killed him. Rashid himself then came to the pass of Adata,and
sent Harthama with a Persian army into Roman territory; but he effected
nothing and his force suffered severely from hunger. The Romans failed
to take Germanicea and Melitene, and the Caliph after assigning to Har-
thama the task of rebuilding Tarsus returned to Syria (14 July), recalled
probably by the news of disturbances in the East. In 808 an exchange
of prisoners was effected at Podandus.

During the civil war which followed Rashid's death (March 809) the
Romans recovered Camacha, which was surrendered by its commandant
in exchange for his son, who had been captured; but wars with Bulgarians
and Slavs prevented them from taking full advantage of the situation.
It was fortunate for them that during the terrible years 811 — 814 the
Arabs were unable to organise a serious attack.

In 810 Faraj rebuilt Adanaand the fort opposite, and in 811 another
leader invaded the Armeniac theme and defeated Leo the strategus at Eu-
chaita, capturing the soldiers' 1 pay and making many prisoners (2 March) ;
but in 812 Thabit, Emir of Tarsus, having crossed the frontier in August,
was defeated by the Anatolic strategus, another I^eo, afterwards Emperor,
and lost many horses and waggons. After 813, though no peace was
made, other occupations on both sides prevented active hostilities; but
about 818 Leo V, now delivered from the Bulgarians, took advantage of
the disturbances in Egypt to send a fleet to Damietta.

In September 813 Ma'mun became sole Caliph; but, Syria and Meso-
potamia being almost wholly in the hands of rebels, he could not engage
in foreign war, and in 817 a new rival arose in his uncle Ibrahim. On
his submission (819) the Syrian rebel Nasr asked help of the Anatolic
general, Manuel, and Leo sent envoys to treat with him; but the indig-
nation of Nasr's followers at a Christian alliance forced him to put them to
death, while Ma'mun prevented interference by sending the exile Thomas
into Asia Minor with Arab auxiliaries, who after the murder of Leo (Decem-
ber 820) was joined by most of the Asiatic themes and remained in arms
till 823. During these troubles 'Abdallah ibn Tahir recovered Camacha
(822), and some adventurers who had been expelled from Spain and occu-
pied Alexandria ravaged Crete and the Aegean islands. After the overthrow
of Thomas, Michael II proposed a definite peace(825); but Ma'mun, having
just then been delivered from Nasr, refused to tie his hands and sent

128 Campaigns of the Caliph Ma'mun

raiding parties into the Empire, who were defeated at Ancyra and at
another place and lost one of their leaders.

In December 827 the Spanish adventurers were expelled from Alexandria
and established themselves in Crete. The Cibyrrhaeot strategus Craterns
gained a victory over them (828), but waited to give his men a night's
rest; and, as he kept no watch, his force was surprised and cut to pieces,
and his ships were captured. He himself escaped in a trading-vessel to
Cos, but was pursued, taken, and crucified. In 829 the corsairs annihilated
the Aegean fleet off Thasos, and the islands lay at their mercy ; but Oory-
phas collected a new naval force, and for some time checked their ravages.

Ma'mun had been hindered from pursuing the war by the rebellion of
the Khurrami sectaries under Babak in Azarba'Ijan and Kurdistan; and
about 829 some of these, under a leader who took the name of Theophobus,
joined the Romans. Thus strengthened, Theophilus, who succeeded
Michael in October 829, crossed the frontier and destroyed Sozopetra, kill-
ing the men and enslaving the women, whereupon Ma'mun started for Asia
Minor (26 March 830). Having received a welcome ally in Manuel, who,
having been calumniated at court, had fled to save his life, he sent his son
'Abbas to rebuild Sozopetra and passed the Cilician Gates (10 July),
where he found no army to oppose him. Magida soon capitulated, and
Coram was taken and destroyed (19 July), but the lives of the garrison
were spared, while Sinan surrendered to 'Ujaif and Soandus to Ashnas.
After taking Semaluos the Caliph returned to Damascus.

Early in 831 Theophilus entered Cilicia and defeated a local force,
after which he returned in triumph with many prisoners to Constantinople.
But the position in Sicily caused him to use his success in order to obtain
peace, and he sent the archimandrite John, afterwards Patriarch, with
500 prisoners and an offer of tribute in return for a five years' truce, but
with instructions to promise Manuel free pardon if he returned. Ma'mun,
who had started for another campaign, received the envoy at Adana and
refused a truce; but with Manuel John had more success, for, while ac-
companying 'Abbas in an invasion of Cappadocia the next year, he deserted
to the Romans. Meanwhile Ma'mun crossed the frontier (26 June) 1 , be-
sieged Lulum, and received the surrender of Antigus and Heraclea, while
his brother Mu'tasim took thirteen forts and some subterranean granaries,
and Yahya took and destroyed Tyana. Failing to take Lulum, Ma'mun,
having heard of the revolt of Egypt, left 'Ujaif to continue the siege and
returned to Syria (end of September). The garrison of Lulum succeeded
in taking 'Ujaif prisoner, but, after an attempt at relief by Theophilus
had failed, released him on condition of his obtaining them a favourable
capitulation, and the place was annexed, whereby the command of the
pass fell into the hands of the Arabs (832). Meanwhile Ma'mun re-
turned from Egypt (April), and Theophilus again sent to offer tribute;

1 I have made a slight emendation in Tabarl's text in order to bring the day of
the mouth into accord with the day of the week.

Sack of Sozopetra 129

but Ma'mun refused accommodation and entered Cilicia, where he received
an impostor claiming imperial descent, whom he had crowned by the
Patriarch of Antioch. After a halt at Adana he again crossed the frontier,
obtained the surrender of some forts, ordered Tyana to be rebuilt as a
Muslim colony, and returned to Syria (September). In 833 he came to Tar-
sus, and sent 'Abbas to superintend the rebuilding of Tyana (25 May), him-
self following on 9 July. Soon afterwards he was seized with illness and
died at Podandus (7 August), after rejecting the Emperor's offer to pay
the war-expenses and compensation for damage done in Arab territory and
to liberate all Muslim prisoners in return for peace. Peace was, however,
practically obtained, for, in consequence of the spread of the Khurrami
rebellion under Babak, Ma'mun's successor, the Caliph Mu'tasim, aban-
doned Tyana and ceased hostilities.

In 835 the rebels were defeated, and Omar, Emir of Melitene, was
able to invade the Empire. Theophilus himself met the marauders and
was at first victorious, but in a second battle he was put to flight and
his camp was pillaged. In 836, however, the imperial forces were increased
by the adhesion of another party of Khurramis under Nasi* the Kurd;
and, the Arabs having just then been defeated by Babak, Theophilus
invaded Armenia, where he massacred many of the inhabitants, and after
exacting tribute from Theodosiopolis returned, bringing many Armenian
families with him ; but a force which he left behind was routed in Vanand.
In 837, urged by Babak, he again crossed the frontier and for the second
time destroyed Sozopetra, where Nasr's Kurds perpetrated a general mas-
sacre among the Christian and Jewish male inhabitants. Theophilus then
pillaged the district of Melitene, passed on into Anzetene, besieged Arsa-
mosata, which, after defeating a relieving force, he took and burned, carried
oft' captives from Armenia Quarta, which he laid waste, and returned
to Melitene; but, expecting another attack, he accepted hostages from the
garrison with some Roman prisoners and presents and withdrew. 'Ujaif,
whom the Caliph sent against him, overtook him near Charsianum, but
the small Arab force was almost annihilated.

This summer Babak was finally defeated, and soon afterwards taken
and beheaded; and Mu'tasim, now free to pursue the war with vigour,
started with a larger force than had yet followed a Caliph to invade the
Empire. He left Samarra on 5 April 838, and at Batnae (Saruj) sent
Afshln through the pass of Adata, while the rest of the army went on to
Tarsus, where he again divided his forces, sending Ashnas through the
Cilician Gates (19 June), while he himself followed two days later, the
destination of all three divisions being Ancyra. Afshin took the longer
road by Sebastea in order to effect a junction with the troops of Melitene
and those of Armenia, which included many Turks and the forces of the
native princes. Mu'tasim, having heard that Theophilus was encamped
on the Halys, ordered Ashnas, who had reached the plain, to await his
own arrival. The Emperor, however, had gone to meet Afshln. and in the

C. MBP. n. VOL, IV. CH. V. 9

130 Fall of Amorium

battle which followed near Dazimon on the Iris (24 July) the Romans
were at first successful; but heavy rain and mist came on, most of the
army, unable to find the Emperor, left the field, and Theophilus, per-
suaded that the Persians meant to betray him, with a few followers cut
his way through the enemy and escaped, while those who remained lit fires
to deceive the Arabs and retired. Ancyra having been evacuated on the
news of the battle, Theophilus ordered his forces to concentrate at
Amorium under the Anatolic strategus Aetius, while he himself, having
received information of a conspiracy, returned to Constantinople- Mean-
while Ashnas occupied Corum, and, after destroying Nyssa and learning
from fugitives of the Emperor's defeat, entered Ancyra. Here Mu'tasim
and Afshln joined him, and, having destroyed Ancyra, the united forces
advanced to Amorium, the chief city of the Anatolic theme and the
birthplace of Theophilus' father (2 August). Here a stubborn resistance
was offered, but an Arab captive, who had turned Christian and was known
as Manicophagus, showed them a weak spot; the main attack was di-
rected against this point, until Boiditzes, who commanded in this quarter,
finding resistance hopeless, admitted the enemy (13 August). The town was
then destroyed, and a massacre followed. Meanwhile Theophilus, who was
at Dorylaeum, sent presents to Mu'tasim with a letter in which he apolo-
gised for the slaughter at Sozopetra, saying that it was committed without
his orders, and offered to rebuild it and release all prisoners in return for
peace; but the Caliph would not see the envoy till Amorium had fallen,
and then refused terms unless Manuel and Nasr were surrendered, return-
ing the presents. On 25 September he began his retreat by the direct
road through the desert, where many perished from thirst; and many
prisoners who were unable to march, and others who killed some soldiers
and fled, were put to death. The chief officers were preserved alive; but
Aetius was crucified on reaching Sam arra, and about forty others suffered
death seven years later (5 March 845) \

After this the Caliph was occupied with the conspiracy of 'Abbas, who
had been in correspondence with Theophilus; but Abu-Sa'Id, who was
appointed Emir of Syria and Mesopotamia, sent the commandant of
Mopsuestia on a raid, in which he carried off prisoners and cattle. He
was then attacked by Nasr, who recovered the prisoners but was shortly
afterwards defeated by Abu-Sa'Id and killed, whereupon the Kurds dis-
mounted and fought till all were killed. On the other hand a Roman fleet
pillaged Seleucia in Syria (839). Abu-Sa'id, having fortified Seleucia, in
841 made another invasion and carried off captives, but the Romans
pursued him into Cilicia and recovered them. In a second inroad he
fared no better, and the Romans took Adata and Germanicea and occupied
part of the territory of Melitene. Theophilus now again sent presents and
asked for an exchange of prisoners; Mu'tasim, while refusing a formal
exchange, sent richer presents in return, and promised, if the prisoners

1 See supra, p. 126, n. 2.

Disintegration of the Caliphate 131

were released, to release double the number. On these terms a truce was
made.

In January 842 both sovereigns died ; the Empire passed to a woman
and a child, and the Caliphate to a man of pleasure ; and for some
time few serious operations were undertaken, though in 842 a fleet under
Abu-Dinar sailed for the Aegean, but it was shattered by a storm off'
Chelidonia in Lyeia, and few ships returned. The Cretan pirates were,
however, a constant menace; in 841 they were ravaging the Asiatic coast
when a party which had landed near Ephesus was annihilated by the
Thracesian strategus Constantine Contomytes. In 843 Theodora's chief
minister Theoctistus, who knew nothing of war, sailed with a large fleet
to expel them from Crete (March), and by force of numbers was on
the point of succeeding, when on a report that Theodora had proclaimed
a new Emperor he returned, and his men, left without a leader, were cut
to pieces. In 844 Omar of Melitene made an inroad as far as Malagina;
Theoctistus, who again took command, was defeated on the Mauropota-
mus 1 , and many of his men deserted to the enemy. An exchange of prison-
ers was then effected on the river Lam us (16 September 845). After the
truce had expired (26 October) Ahmad, Emir of Tarsus, made an invasion
by the Cilician Gates; but heavy snow and rain came on; many men died
from exposure, some were drowned in the Podandus, others captured, and
Ahmad retreated before the enemy; whereupon his officers forced him
to leave the province, and the Caliph Wathiq appointed Nasr to succeed
him (17 January 846). After this we hear of no invasions till 851; and
the raids on the Cilician frontier were henceforth of small account. The
disuse of the suburban fire-signals (ascribed to Michael Ill's fear of
their spoiling the circus-games) was therefore of little importance. In
851 an Armenian revolt enabled the Romans to recover Camacha.
Theodosiopolis and Arsamosata they failed to take, but with Armenian
help defeated and killed Vusuf, Emir of Armenia, in Taron (March
852), retreating, however, on the arrival of reinforcements sent by the
Caliph Mutawakkil.

After Mu'tasim's death the disintegration of the Caliphate, which had
already begun, rapidly advanced. Owing to the hatred in Baghdad for
the large Turkish guard instituted by Mu'tasim, that Caliph removed
(836) to the petty town of Samaria, where his Turks were free from all
restraint. He was strong enough to control them; but his feeble suc-
cessors became the puppets of these mercenaries, who cared little for
imperial interests, while the Emirs paid small respect to a government
directed by Turks. Hence the central authority grew continually weaker,
and the local governors became semi -independent rulers, each looking
after the affairs of his own province with little interference from the
central power. Moreover a system had been introduced of breaking up
the great provinces and placing the frontier-districts under separate
1 Probably the Bithynian Melas (Vasil'ev, i. p. 55, n. 2).

ch. v. 9_ 2

132 Eccpeditions to Damietta

governors. Besides that of al-' Awasim, Cilicia, perhaps for a time attached
to it, was, probably in 808, made a province under the name of Thughur-
ash-Sham (frontiers of Syria) with its capital at Tarsus, and before 820
we find a province of Thughur al-Jazira (frontiers of Mesopotamia), ex-
tending from Kaisum and Germanicea to the northern Euphrates, with
its capital at Melitene. These two provinces contained fifteen fortresses
occupied by military colonies, of which that of Tarsus amounted to 5000
men, and those of Adata and Melitene to 4000 each; and behind these
in case of necessity lay the six fortresses of al-' Awasim. This system,
probably founded on the Roman themes and clisurae, was intended to
provide a special frontier force under commanders whose sole business
was to carry on the war against the Empire and to defend the frontier;
but in consequence of the weakening of the central power the result was
that they had to do this almost entirely out of their local resources.
Mu'tasim indeed on his return from the campaign of 838 gave the com-
mand to Abu-Sa'Id by special commission ; but under his successors the
frontier governors were left to themselves, and enjoyed so much inde-
pendence that Omar of Melitene held office at least twenty-eight years
and 'All of Tarsus at least eleven. Moreover, Omar spent much time
and weakened his forces by fighting with a neighbour or rival. Thus
the Romans had only petty disunited chiefs with whom to contend, and
henceforward the war went more and more in their favour.

In 853 they sailed to Damietta, probably in order to prevent the
sending of supplies to Crete, burned the town, killed the men, carried the
women, Muslim and Christian, into captivity, and seized a store of arms
intended for Crete (22 May). Simultaneously two other squadrons attacked
Syrian ports; and it was perhaps in connexion with these operations that
the Anatolic strategus Photinus was transferred to Crete, where he effected
a landing, but, though reinforced from Constantinople, was finally defeated
and with difficulty escaped. This event caused Mutawakkil to re-create an
Egyptian fleet and fortify Damietta ; it was probably in order to hinder
these operations that in 854 the Romans came again to Damietta, where
they remained plundering for a month. The new fleet was, however, of
small account, and Egyptian warships really play little part in history till
the Fafcimite period. In 855 a Roman army destroyed Anazarbus, which
had been lately re-fortified, and carried off the gipsies who had been settled
there in 835. Theodora then asked for an exchange of prisoners, and
the Caliph, after sending (December) Nasr the Shi'ite to discover how
many Muslim prisoners there were, agreed, and the exchange took place
on the Lamus (21 February 856).

In the summer of 856 the Romans marched from Camacha by
Arsamosata to the neighbourhood of Amida and returned by way of
Tephrice, the new stronghold of the Paulicians, who, when persecuted by
Leo V, had sought the protection of the Emir of Melitene and had been
settled in Argaus. They had increased in numbers during the persecu-

Battle of Chonarium 133

tion of Theodora, and were now useful auxiliaries to the Arabs. Omar of
Melitene and the Paulician Carbeas pursued the invaders on their retreat,
but without success. After this Omar was for some years detained by
dissensions at home; but in 858 Bugha marched from Damascus in July
and took Semaluos.

The Empire was now under the rule of the capable and energetic
Bardas, who had ousted Theodora from power in 856. He realised that
under the new conditions a vigorous effort might rid Asia Minor of the
standing scourge of the raids. In 859 therefore, while a fleet attacked
Pelusium (June), a large army under Michael in person, accompanied by
Bardas, besieged Arsamosata 1 ; but on the third day, a Sunday, when the
Emperor was at the Eucharist, a sortie was made by the garrison, and the
besiegers retreated in confusion; they abandoned the imperial tents, but
were able to return with captives from the country-side.

On 31 May Constantine Triphyllius had reached Sumatra with 77
prisoners and a request for a general exchange, and after the retreat Nasr
was sent to Constantinople to discuss the matter ; but the negotiations
were delayed by an event at Lulum, where the garrison, not having re-
ceived their pay, excluded their commandant from the town and, when
Michael sent to offer them 1000 denarii apiece to surrender the fortress,
sent two hostages to Constantinople with an expression of willingness to
accept Christianity (November). On receiving the arrears, however, they
handed over the envoy to 'All's lieutenant, who sent him to the Caliph
(March 860). He was ordered to accept Islam on pain of death, and the
result of Michael's offer of 1000 Muslims for him is unknown. On the
news reaching Constantinople negotiations were resumed, and the general
exchange took place at the end of April.

In 860 a still more formidable force, which included the Thracian
and Macedonian as well as the Asiatic themes, set out under the Emperor
himself to meet Omar and Carbeas, who had reached Sinope; but Michael
was recalled by the news that a Russian fleet had come to the mouth of
the Mauropotamus 2 on its way to Constantinople. After the retreat of
the Russians (June) he rejoined the army and overtook the enemy at
Chonarium near Dazimon, but was defeated and was glad even to secure
a safe retreat. The same year a fleet under Fadl took Attalia. In 863
Omar with a large force sacked the flourishing city of Amisus, and Bardas,
who was himself no general, placed his brother Petronas at the head of
a vast army which comprised the Asiatic and European themes and the
household troops. Omar marched south, intending to return by way of

1 Geiiesius says * Samosata ' ; but he states that the invasion was made to stop
Omar's raids, and Omar had nothing to do with Samosata, which was in neither of
the frontier provinces. Also to reach it they would have had to pass many strong
places. The MSS. of Tabari have 'Arsamosata,' 'Samosata' being an emendation
from Ibn al-Athir and Abu'l Mahasin.

2 This must be the meaning of the Greek (Th. Mel., p. 158). The name Mauro-
potamus (supra, p. 131, n. 1) perhaps covers the lower course of the Sangarius.

134 Battle of Poson

Arabissus; but at Poson near the right bank of the Halys, probably not
far from Nyssa, the Arabs found the surrounding hills occupied and were
almost annihilated (3 September). Here the old Emir fell fighting,
while his son with 100 men escaped over the Halys, but was captured
by the clisurarch of Charsianum. The Romans then advanced into
Mesopotamia, where 'All, who had been transferred to Armenia in 862,
came from Martyropolis (Mayyafarlqin) to meet them, but he also was
defeated and killed. After this, insignificant raids continued to be
made from Tarsus, and some more serious inroads by the Paulicians;
but the Emir of Melitene could only defend the frontier, and in the
next reign the Roman boundary began to advance, and with the ex-
ception of a short interval under the weak rule of Leo VI the process
continued without serious check till under Nicephorus II North Syria
and West Mesopotamia were restored to the obedience of the Emperor.
Having thus crushed the raiders from Melitene, Bardas set himself to crush
those from Crete, who had extended their ravages to Proconnesus, and in
866 he and Michael marched to the mouth of the Maeander to cross to
the island ; but he was foully assassinated (21 April) and the expedition
abandoned. Crete therefore remained a pirates" 1 nest for nearly 100 years
longer.

Meanwhile another struggle had been for many years going on in
Sicily. Since an attack upon Sicily did not involve immediate danger to
the heart of the Empire, its affairs were treated as of secondary importance;
and, as no fleet was stationed there, it was always open to attack from
the African Arabs, and in such cases the Emperor could only either send
a special force, if eastern affairs allowed him to do so, or beg the help of
the Italian republics which still retained a nominal allegiance to the
Empire. In 752 the Arabs had raided Sicily and forced Sardinia to pay
tribute, and the attack was repeated in 763. In 805 Ibrahim ibn al-
Aghlab (since 800 practically independent Emir of Africa) made a ten
years' 1 truce with the patrician Constantine ; but nevertheless in 812 the
Arabs attacked some islands off Sicily. To meet these enemies, Gregory was
sent with a fleet by Michael I and obtained help from Gaeta and Amalfi.
Seven of his ships were captured off Lampedusa and the crews massacred,
but with the rest he lay in wait for the enemy and destroyed their whole
fleet. The Arabs then apologised for the breach of peace, and another
ten years' truce was made (813); but this was as little regarded as the
previous one, for in 819 the Emir Ziyadatallah sent his cousin Mahomet
to raid Sicily; after which the peace was again renewed.

In consequence of the distance of Sicily from the seat of government,
and the little attention paid to its affairs by the Emperors, it was easy
for a usurper to start up there ; and such a usurper could always, like
Elpidius, in case of necessity find a refuge with the Arabs. About 825
the turmarch Euphemius rose against the patrician Gregoras, defeated
and killed him, and made himself master of Sicily; and in 826 Constantine

Invasion of Sicily 135

was sent as patrician with fresh forces, but he too after a defeat at Catania
was taken and put to death. A successful resistance was however offered by
an Armenian whom the Arabs call Balata 1 , and Euphemius fled to Africa
to ask not merely a refuge but the help of the Emir. Then, charges having
been made against the Romans of detaining Muslim prisoners, the treaty
was declared to have been broken and an expedition resolved upon, at
the head of which was placed the judge Asad, the chief advocate of war.
On 15 June 827 the Arabs landed at Mazzara and defeated Balata, who
fled to Enna (Castrogiovanni) and thence to Calabria, where he soon
afterwards died. After the invaders had seized some forts, the Sicilians sent
envoys and paid tribute ; but, hearing that they were preparing for an at-
tack, Asad continued his march, and, when reinforced by ships from Africa
and Spain, besieged Syracuse. A relieving force from Palermo was defeated
(828) ; but the Arabs suffered severely both from famine, which caused
discontent in the army, and from plague, which carried oft' Asad himself
(July), to succeed whom they chose Mahomet ibn AbT 1 1-JawarI. Theo-
dotus now came witha fleet as patrician, and the Venetians, at theEmperor's
request, sent ships. The Emir being occupied with a Erankish invasion,
the Arabs were forced to raise the siege, and, unable in face of the hostile
fleet to return to Africa, burned their ships and retreated.

Marching north-west, they forced Mineo to surrender after three
days; and then the army divided, one detachment occupying Girgenti
while the other besieged the strong fortress of Enna. During this siege
Euphemius, who had accompanied the invaders, was assassinated by some
citizens who obtained access to him on pretence of saluting him as
emperor. Theodotus came from Syracuse to relieve Enna and entered
the town, but he was defeated in a sortie, while a Venetian fleet sent to
attack Mazzara returned unsuccessful. Soon afterwards Mahomet died,
and under his successor Zuhair fortune turned against the Arabs. After
a foraging party had been defeated, Zuhair next day attacked in force,
but was routed and besieged in his camp, and soon afterwards, while
trying a night surprise, was caught in an ambush and again routed. He
then retired to Mineo, where the Arabs were besieged, and, being reduced
to great straits by hunger, at last surrendered 2 . The garrison of Girgenti
on heaiing the news destroyed the town and retired to Mazzara.

The invaders were, however, relieved by the arrival of some adventurers
from Spain, who in 830 began to ravage Sicily, but agreed to work with
the Africans on condition that their leader Asbagh had the command.
The combined force marched into the interior. Mineo was taken and
destroyed (August), and Theodotus soon afterwards defeated and killed;
but the plague again broke out and caused the death of Asbagh, after
which the Arabs retreated, suffering much from the attacks of the Romans

1 Perhaps KovpoTraKa.Ti)i.

2 This I infer from the facts that the Cambridge Chronicle places the Arab cap-
ture of Mineo in 830/1, and that we hear no more of Zuhair.

ch. v.

136 Fall of Palermo

on the way. Most of the Spanish Arabs then returned ; but on account
of the eastern war Theophilus could not send reinforcements, and, when
early in 831 the Emir's cousin Mahomet arrived with new forces to take
command, the Arabs were able to besiege Palermo, which, reduced to ex-
tremities, surrendered on condition that the commandant with his family
and property, the bishop-elect, and a few others were allowed to retire by
sea (September). Palermo was henceforth the Arab capital.

Dissensions between African and Spanish Arabs for a time prevented
an advance ; but early in 834 the Arabs attacked Enna, and in 835
Mahomet himself assaulted the town and captured the commandant's
wife and son; but on his return to Palermo he was murdered by some
conspirators, who fled to the Romans. His successor, Fadl ibn Ya'qub,
raided the district of Syracuse, and another force, finding its road blocked
by the patrician, won a victory, in which the Roman commander was
wounded and with difficulty rescued. On 12 September, however, Mahomet's
brother Abu' 1-Aghlab arrived with a fleet as governor, after some of his
ships had been wrecked and others captured ; he immediately sent out a
squadron which took some Roman vessels and another which captured a
fire-ship at Pantellaria. The crews of these were all beheaded. In 836
Fadl raided the Aeolian islands, took some forts on the north coast, and
captured eleven ships. On the other hand, an Arab land-force was defeated
and its commander made prisoner, but afterwards ransomed, and another
suffered a reverse before Enna. Early in 837, however, on a winter night
the Arabs entered Enna, but, unable to take the citadel, accepted a
ransom and returned with spoil. The same year they besieged Cefalu ;
but a stubborn resistance was made, and in 838 reinforcements from the
East under the Caesar Alexius, whom Theophilus had sent with a fleet to
command in Sicily, forced them to retreat, pursued by the Romans, who
inflicted several defeats on them. In 839, however, the birth of an heir
caused the Emperor to recall and degrade his son-in-law.

The death of the Emir Ziyadatallah (10 June 838) and consequent un-
certainty as to affairs in Sicily caused operations to be suspended for some
months; but in 839 his successor Aghlab sent ships which raided the
Roman districts, and in 840 Caltabellotta, Platani, Corleone, and Sutera
were forced to pay tribute. Theophilus, unable to withdraw forces from the
East, had in 839 asked help of the Venetians and even of the Franks
and of the Emir of Spain; and in 840 sixty Venetian ships attacked the
Arab fleet, then at Taranto, but these were nearly all taken and the crews
massacred. In 841 the Arabs sacked Caltagirone; in 843 a fleet under
Fadl ibn Ja'far, assisted by the Neapolitans, who for protection against
the Duke of Benevento had allied themselves with the Arabs, attacked
Messina, and after a long resistance took it by an unexpected attack
from the land side; and in 845 Modica and other fortresses in the south-
east were taken.

During the armistice in the East the troops of the Charsianite

FallofEnna 137

clisura were sent to Sicily ; but towards the end of 845 'Abbas ibn al-.
Fadl ibn Ya'qub defeated them with heavy loss, and in 847 Fadl ibn
Ja'far besieged Leontini, and after inducing the garrison by a trick to
make a sortie caught them in an ambush, whereupon the citizens sur-
rendered on condition that their lives and property were spared. In 848
the Roman ships landed a force eight miles from Palermo ; but the men
missed their way and returned, and seven of the ships were lost in a
storm. The same year Ragusa near Modica surrendered and was destroyed
(August).

On 17 January 851 Abu'l-Aghlab died after a government of fifteen
years, during which (probably on account of dissensions such as those
which had caused his predecessor's death) he had never left Palermo. His
successor, 'Abbas ibn al-Fadl, was a man of very different character. As
soon as his appointment was confirmed by the Emir Mahomet, he himself
took the field, sending his uncle Rabbah in advance to Caltavuturo,
which submitted to pay tribute 1 , while the prisoners were put to death
by 'Abbas, who himself ravaged the territory of Enna but failed to draw
the garrison out to battle. He repeated the raid in 852 and defeated a
hostile force, sending the heads of the slain to Palermo. Then in 853 he
made a great expedition by way of Enna to the east coast, where he raided
Catania, Syracuse, Noto, and Ragusa (this had been re-occupied by the
Romans), and after a siege of five months forced Butera to capitulate on
condition that 5000 persons were handed over as slaves. In 856 he took
five fortresses, and in 857 harried Taormina and Syracuse and compelled
another place to surrender after two months'' siege on the terms that
200 of the chief men were allowed to go free ; the rest he sold as slaves,
and he destroyed the fort. The same year Cefalu capitulated and was
destroyed; but, as being on the coast it was more easily defended, he
was obliged to allow all the inhabitants their freedom. In 858 he again
raided Enna and Syracuse and took Gagliano, returning in the winter to
Enna; here he took a prisoner of note, who to save his life showed him
a way into the fortress, which after a resistance of 30 years fell (26 Jan-
uary 859). All fighting men were put to death and a mosque built.

This event led Bardas to take vigorous measures; and in the autumn,
while negotiations were proceeding with the Caliph, he sent his connexion
by marriage, Constantine Contomytes, to Sicily with large reinforcements.
'Abbas met them with an army and fleet, defeated them near Syracuse,
drove them back to their ships, some of which were taken, and returned
to Palermo for the winter. They had, however, suffered little; and,
when in 860 Platani, Sutera, Caltabellotta, Caltavuturo, and other towns
revolted, an army came to support them. 'Abbas defeated the Romans
and besieged Platani and another fort, but was compelled to return
northward by the news that another army was marching towards Palermo.

1 This seems to follow from its revolt in 8G0.

138 Expeditions of Khqfqja

Having met these new enemies near Cefalu, he forced them to retreat in
disorder to Syracuse; the revolted towns, without hope of succour, sub-
mitted ; and the governor gave orders to re-fortify and garrison Enna, so
that the road to the west might no longer be open to the enemy. In 861
he raided Syracuse, but on his return fell ill and died (15 August). The
Romans with mean revenge afterwards dug up and burned his body. He
was the real conqueror of Sicily.

The Aghlabid Emirs, probably from fear of an independent power
arising in Sicily, had been in the habit of appointing princes of their house
to the governorship. To this 'Abbas had been a notable exception, having
been chosen by the officers in Sicily; and, if a similar appointment had
been made after his death, the conquest would have been soon completed.
But the Emir Ahmad reverted to the earlier practice; instead of confirming
two temporary governors who had been appointed locally, he sent his
kinsman Khafaja (July 862). The new governor was for a time detained
by troubles among the Saracens; but in February 864 Noto was betrayed
to him, and soon afterwards he took Scicli. In 865 he marched by Enna,
ravaging the country, to Syracuse, where a fleet joined him, but on four
ships being captured he despaired of taking the city and returned ; and his
son, whom he sent with a small force to harass the enemy, lost 1000 men in
an ambush and retreated. In 866 he again came to Syracuse, and thence
to the district of Mt Etna, where he accepted an offer of tribute from
Taormina. He then marched against Itagusa, which submitted on con-
dition that the inhabitants were allowed to go free with their goods and
animals; but these he nevertheless seized. After more successes he fell ill
and returned. Meanwhile Taormina revolted.

Thus the Muslim conquest was complete but for Taormina and Syra-
cuse and a few other places on the east coast, which still owned allegiance
to the Byzantine Empire. Syracuse only fell in 878, Taormina not till
902 ; nevertheless Sicily may now already be called a Muslim outpost.

(B)

THE STRUGGLE WITH THE SARACENS (867-1057).

The struggle with the Saracens constituted the chief problem with
which the foreign policy of Basil I had to deal. The circumstances were
as favourable as they could possibly be, because during his reign the Empire
lived in peaceful relations with its other neighbours : in the east with
Armenia, in the north with young Russia and Bulgaria, and in the west
with Venice and Germany.

Basil I 139

The favourable conditions in which Basil I was placed in his relation
with the Eastern and Western Saracens become clearer when we bear in
mind the following considerations.

1. Owing to the rapidly increasing influence of the Turks at the
Caliph's court, internal dissensions were continually breaking out in the
Eastern Caliphate.

2. Egypt became independent in 868, owing to the fact that a new
dynasty, that of the Tulunids, had been founded there.

3. Civil war had broken out among the North African Saracens.

4. The relations of the Spanish Umayyads with the local Christian
population were beset with difficulties.

Basil I was occupied during the first four years of his reign with
military operations against the Western Saracens, for during this time
peace was not violated on the eastern frontier. The help which the
Byzantine fleet in 868 gave to Ragusa, which at that time was being
besieged by the Saracens, forced the latter to withdraw and was thus the
means of strengthening the Byzantine influences on the shores of the
Adriatic.

The troubles in South Italy compelled the intervention of the Western
Emperor Louis II, who, having concluded an alliance with Basil I and
with the Pope, took Bari on % February 871. Of the important places in
South Italy only Taranto now remained in the hands of the Saracens.
The position of Byzantium was not improved during these four years in
Sicily, where only Taormina and Syracuse remained in her power ; the
occupation of the island of Malta by the Saracens in August 870 com-
pletely surrounded Sicily with Saracen possessions, for all the other islands
in that region already belonged to them.

In the east Basil I, wishing to re-establish peace and union with the
Paulicians, who had been severely persecuted by the Empress Theodora,
sent to them in 869-870 Peter the Sicilian as his ambassador, but his
mission was not successful, and the extravagant demands of Chrysochir,
the leader of the Paulicians, led to war.

The campaigns of 871 and 872 gave Tephrice, the chief town of the
Paulicians, into the power of Basil, and also a whole chain of other
fortified places. In one of the battles Chrysochir himself was slain. The
fugitive Paulicians found a ready welcome from the Saracens.

This war with the Paulicians extended the Byzantine frontier as far
as the Saracen Melitene (Malafeiyah), and set Basil free to advance against
the Eastern Saracens. In 873 war was declared, and Basil captured Zapetra
(Sozopetra) and Samosata, but in the end he was totally defeated near
Malady ah.

From 874 to 877 was a period of calm. In the east and in Sicily, we
do not hear of any military operations. In Italy, after the death of the
Emperor Louis II, the Byzantine troops occupied the town of Bari at
the request of the inhabitants, and apparently at this time, in the years

140 Loss of Syracuse

874-877, the Byzantine fleet captured Cyprus ; but it remained in the
possession of the Greeks only for seven years.

The year 878 was disastrous to the military policy of Byzantium :
on 21 May the Saracens took Syracuse by assault after a siege of nine
months. Thus the only town in Sicily remaining in the hands of the
Greeks was Taormina. The loss of Syracuse was the turning-point in the
history of Basil's foreign relations. His foreign policy proved a complete
failure, and the last eight years of his reign were occupied in casual and
comparatively small encounters. In the east there were frequent conflicts,
but of an undecided character ; success alternated sometimes in favour
of one side and sometimes of the other, but in no case to the glory of the
Byzantine arms.

From 886 Basil was in friendly relations with the Armenian King,
Ashot I, the Bagratid, whose State formed a useful buffer against the
Eastern Saracens. In Sicily the usual skirmishes went on, and it was only
in South Italy that the Byzantine troops began to gain victories, more
especially after the arrival of Nicephorus Phocas 1 in command. But in this
year Basil died (29 August 886).

During his reign the Empire had lost much in the west, but in Asia
Minor, notwithstanding some failures, the frontier was considerably ad-
vanced eastwards, and thus the Byzantine influence, which had been some-
what weakened, was to a great extent restored.

If Basil I lived in peace with his neighbours, with the exception of the
Saracens, it was very different with his successor Leo VI the Wise (886-
912). Immediately after his accession to the throne, military operations
began in Bulgaria, and this war, which terminated with the peace of 893,
brought much humiliation upon the Empire. The peace lasted about
twenty years. In connexion with the Bulgarian war, for the first time the
Hungarians enter into the history of Byzantium, and towards the end of
the reign of Leo the Russians appeared before Constantinople. Armenia,
which was in alliance with Byzantium, during the whole of Leo's reign was
subjected to Arabian invasions, and the Emperor of Byzantium had not
the strength to help the Armenian King Sempad (Smbat); it was only at
the end of his reign that Leo went to the aid of Armenia, but he died
during the campaign. The question about the fourth marriage of the
Emperor caused great division in the Empire. It was thus evident that
the conditions of the struggle between the Byzantine Empire and the
Saracens were becoming more difficult.

During the first fourteen years of the reign of Leo VI, from 886
to 900, the Greeks suffered frequent defeats in the east, at the Cilician
Gates and in the west of Cilicia, where the Saracens successfully advanced
along the coast as well as into the interior of the country. The failures

1 The grandfather of the future Emperor of the same name. See supra, Chapter
in, p. 69.

Disasters under Leo VI 141

on land and the naval defeat of Raghib in 898 off the coast of Asia Minor
compelled the Byzantine government to recall the energetic Nicephorus
Phocas from Italy, and about 900 he arrived in Asia Minor. Affairs in
Sicily grew worse and worse with every year. In 888 the imperial fleet
suffered a severe defeat at Mylae (now Milazzo) ; but the Byzantines were
somewhat helped by the fact that the Saracens were at that time occupied
with their own internal dissensions and in conflicts with the African
Aghlabids. Some successes gained by the Byzantine arms in Italy had no
influence on the general conditions of the struggle between Leo VI and
the Saracens. In the east, Nicephorus Phocas by his victory at Adana in
900 justified the hopes that had been placed in him ; but the success of
the Byzantines came with this nearly to a standstill.

The first years of the tenth century were signalised by a whole series
of misfortunes for the Byzantine Empire, in the west as well as in the east.
In the west, the Saracen chief Abu'l-' Abbas took possession of Reggio in
Calabria on 10 June 901, and the Aghlabid Emir Ibrahim captured
on 1 August 902 Taormina, the last fortified place of the Greeks in
Sicily.

With the fall of Taormina, Sicily was entirely in the power of the
Saracens. It is true that several unimportant points, as for instance
Demona, still remained in the hands of the Greeks, but this had no im-
portance whatever for the future history of Byzantium. From 902 onwards
Sicilian events do not exercise any influence on the course of Byzantine
political affaire. In the second half of Leo's reign, the eastern policy of the
Empire is quite independent of his relations with the Sicilian Saracens.

The first years of the tenth century were also signalised by important
events on sea. At the end of the ninth century the Saracens of Crete
had already begun their devastating attacks on the coast of the Pelopon-
nesus ; indeed, they held in their power the whole of the Aegean Sea.
We possess information about their attacks on the islands of Naxos,
Patmos, Paros, Aegina, and Samos. But it was during the first years
of the tenth century that these maritime invasions of the Saracens became
especially threatening. Their two strong fleets — the Syrian and the Cretan
— frequently acted together. In 902 the Saracen fleet laid waste the islands
of the Aegean Sea, and destroyed the rich and populous town of Deme-
trias on the coast of Thessaly. In the summer of 904, another Saracen
fleet, under the command of the Greek renegade, Leo of Tripolis, made
an attack on the south coast of Asia Minor, and, in the month of July
of the same year, took possession of the important town of Attalia.
Leo then had the intention of going towards Constantinople, the town
" preserved by God. 1 ' But having entered the Hellespont and captured
Abydos, the chief custom-house port for ships going to Byzantium, he
suddenly departed, and then, coasting round the peninsula of Chalcidice,
approached Thessalonica. Himerius, who was sent against him, did not
dare to engage the Saracen fleet in battle.

142 Naval disasters

The Saracen ships approached Thessalonica on 29 July 904, and made
an unexpected assault upon it. The story of the siege, which lasted from
29 to 31 July, is well known to us from a work of John Cameniates.
Thessalonica passed into the power of the Saracens on 31 July 904, but
they shortly afterwards departed for Syria with many prisoners and rich
booty. It was only after this misfortune that the Byzantine government
began to fortify Attalia and Thessalonica.

The naval failures of 902-904 induced the Emperor Leo to give
greater attention to the fleet, which was so quickly and greatly im-
proved that in 906 Himerius was enabled to gain a brilliant victory over
the Saracens, and in the summer of 910 he was therefore placed at the
head of a large naval expedition, directed against the allied Eastern and
Cretan Arabs. Detailed accounts of the composition of this expedition
are preserved in the Ceremonies of Constantine Porphyrogenitus.

However, the result of the expedition did not correspond to all
these great preparations, for after some success at Cyprus Himerius
suffered a severe defeat near the isle of Samos in October 911 and lost
the greater part of his fleet. On the death of Leo VI, Himerius returned
to Constantinople, and was shut up in a monastery by the Emperor
Alexander.

In the east, on land, from 900, the usual military operations were
carried on with varying success.

Byzantine policy, in its relation to the Saracens, proved a complete
failure under Leo VI : in the west, Sicily was definitely lost; in the south
of Italy, after Nicephorus Phocas had been recalled, the success of the
Byzantine arms was brought to a close ; on the eastern frontier, the
Saracens were still steadily, if slowly, advancing, especially in Cilicia ; on
sea, Byzantium met with a whole series of most ruinous disasters.

The reign of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus is divided into three
periods: 1. From 913 to 919 — the government of his mother Zoe, who
acted as regent during his minority. 2. From 919 to 944 — the government
of Romanus Lecapenus. 3. From 945 to 959 — the absolute government
of Constantine himself.

The period down to 927 was occupied with the obstinate and unhappy
war with the Bulgarian King Simeon, during which Byzantium was obliged
to concentrate all its efforts against this terrible enemy. At this time
it was impossible even to think of any regular organised action against the
Saracens. It was a happy circumstance for Byzantium that the Caliphate
itself was passing at the same time through the epoch of its dissolution,
which was caused by internal dissensions and the rise of separate inde-
pendent dynasties. Consequently, down to 927 the encounters with the
Saracens were of the usual harassing and monotonous character, and
generally resulted to the advantage of the Saracen arms. It was only in
921 or 922 that the Byzantine fleet gained a great naval victory near

Constantine VII : the decline of the Caliphate 143

the island of Lemnos over the renowned hero of 904, Leo of Tripolis. In
927 Byzantium concluded peace with the Bulgarian King Peter, who had
succeeded Simeon, and was thus free to turn her attention towards the
Saracens.

In the time of Romanus Lecapenus, eminent leaders arose in the armies
of both adversaries ; in that of the Greeks, the Domestic John Curcuas,
who, after some defeats in Saracen Armenia, fought with success in the
frontier province of Mesopotamia, and in 934 captured Melitene (Mala-
tiyah). The new Saracen leader was Saif-ad-Daulah, sovereign of Aleppo
and chief of the independent dynasty of the Ilamdanids. He strengthened
himself at the expense of the Caliph of Baghdad, and began successful mili-
tary operations in the regions of the Upper Euphrates. This induced the
Emperor to enter into friendly negotiations with the Caliph of Baghdad
and with the Egyptian sovereigns, the Ikhshldids. But disturbances in
the Eastern Caliphate and other difficulties drew the attention of Saif-
ad-Daulah away from the Byzantine frontier, and this explains why John
Curcuas, in the fourth decade, gained a series of easy victories in Armenia
and Upper Mesopotamia, and in 942-3 captured the towns of Mayya-
fariqin (Martyropolis), Dara, and Nisibis. In 944 Edessa, after a severe
siege, succumbed to the Greeks, and was obliged to deliver up her
precious relic, the miraculous image of the Saviour (to fiav8i\iov, or
fiavSrjXiov), which was with great solemnity transferred to Constantinople.

In 945 Constantine Porphyrogenitus became absolute ruler of the
Byzantine Empire. Down to the very year of his death (959) military
operations did not cease in the east, where his chief adversary was the already
famous Saif-ad-Daulah, who, having settled in 947 his difficulties with
the Egyptian Ikhshldids, turned against Byzantium. In the beginning the
advantage was with the Greeks. In 949 they seized Mar'ash (Germanicea) ;
in 950 they totally defeated Saif-ad-Daulah in the narrow passage near the
town of Hadath ; and in 952 they crossed the Euphrates and took the
Mesopotamian town of Saruj. But in 952 and 953 Saif-ad-Daulah defeated
the Greeks not far from Mar'ash and took the son of the Domestic prisoner.
In 954 Saif-ad-Daulah gained a fresh victory over the Domestic Bardas
Phocas near Hadath, and in 956 the future Emperor John Tzimisces was
defeated by him in the province of the Upper Euphrates near the fortress
of Tall-Batriq. Only in 957 did success turn to the side of the Greeks.
In this year Hadath surrendered to them. In 958 John Tzimisces defeated
the Arabs in Northern Mesopotamia and took Samosata. During the life
of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Saif-ad-Daulah was unable to avenge
himself upon the Greeks for these last failures.

If the fighting on the eastern frontier was difficult for Byzantium and
was far from being always successful, the maritime operations of the
Byzantine fleet ended in total disaster. In 949 a great naval expedition
was undertaken against the Cretan Arabs, who, as was always the case,
were greatly feared, and were desolating the coast of Greece and the

144 War on the Euphrates

islands of the Aegean Sea. To further the success of the enterprise, the
Emperor entered into friendly relations with their enemies the Spanish
Saracens. The Emperor has left in his Ceremonies a detailed account of
the composition and equipment of this expedition 1 . The incompetent
patrician Constantine Gongylas, who had been given the chief command
of the Byzantine fleet, landed troops at Crete, but suffered a terrible
defeat and lost the greater part of his vessels.

The monotonous conflicts of the Greeks with the Saracens in the
west, in Italy and in Sicily, did not have any influence on the general
course of events.

It is true that the military operations in the east, during the reign of
Constantine, were not always successful for the Byzantine Empire ; but
the advance of the last years in removing the frontier beyond the Euphrates
laid the foundation for the brilliant triumphs of his successors.

The reign of the weak Emperor Romanus II is distinguished by great
victories of the Byzantine arms over the Saracens, thanks to the talents
and energy of Nicephorus Phocas, the future Emperor.

This great general captured the island of Crete in March 961, and thus
destroyed the nest of pirates who had struck terror into the inhabitants
of the islands and of the always open shores of the Mediterranean Sea.
After having enjoyed a triumph in Constantinople, Nicephorus Phocas
was removed to the eastern frontier and he began there also a successful
war with Saif-ad-Daulah. At the end of 961 or in the beginning of 962
he seized Anazarbus; in 962 he captured Mar'ash, Ra'ban, and Duluk
(Doliche); in the vicinity of Manbij he took prisoner the famous poet Abu-
Firas, the governor of the town ; and, at last, in December of the same
year, he took possession of Aleppo, the capital of the Hamdanid Emirs,
after a difficult siege. All these places, however, did not remain in the
hands of the Greeks, for Nicephorus Phocas retired to the Byzantine
territory.

Less successful were the military operations of the Byzantine troops
in the west, and especially in Sicily. Taormina, as it is well known, was
taken by the Saracens in 902, but was again lost by them. And now, on
24 December 962, after a siege of seven months, the Saracens captured it
once more; and there remained in the hands of the Greeks only the inac-
cessible Rametta, situated in the eastern part of the island.

The reigns of Nicephorus Phocas, John Tzimisces, and Basil II
Bulgaroctonus, the three next successors of Romanus II, when viewed
from the side of the military successes of the Empire in its fight with the
Saracens, form the most glorious and successful period of Byzantine history.

After the death of Romanus, 15 March 963, his brilliant general

1 Be Geremoniis, n. 45, pp. 664-678.

Advance under Nicephorus Phocas 145

Nicephorus Phocas, who was adored by his troops, was proclaimed Emperor
by them on 2 July of that year, at Caesarea in Cappadocia. Upon arriving
at Constantinople he quickly overthrew Joseph Bringas, who had been
all-powerful at court, and was then crowned on 16 August. To consolidate
his power he married Theophano, the late Emperor's widow, who had
been regent of the Empire.

The new Emperor turned his chief attention to the east, although he
was drawn away at times by his hostile relations with the Bulgarians.
His policy towards Bulgaria brought about the intervention of the
Russian Prince Svyatoslav, and caused conflicts in Italy with the Western
Emperor Otto the Great.

In the summer of 964 Nicephorus Phocas arrived in Cilicia, and since
Adana had been abandoned by its inhabitants, he concentrated his energies
upon Mamistra (Mopsuestia) and Tarsus. While his armies were besieging
these towns, the lighter detachments devastated the north and south of
Cilicia, took Anazarbus, and even advanced to the boundaries of Syria,
where they took possession of the seaport town of Rhosus. In the mean-
time the sieges of Mamistra and Tarsus were so unsuccessful that the Em-
peror returned to Cappadocia for the winter, leaving a detachment of
sufficient strength to watch the besieged towns. At the renewal of military
operations in 965, Mamistra and Tarsus were so greatly exhausted by famine
and disease that they were incapable of holding out any longer; on
13 June 965 Mamistra was taken, and on 16 August Tarsus surrendered.

In this year, 965, in connexion with the campaign on land, we may
mention the conquest of Cyprus by the patrician Nicetas Chalcutzes,
about which only very meagre accounts have been preserved. The Egyp-
tian fleet, which was ordered to convey provisions to the besieged Tarsus
and to recover Cyprus from the Greeks, appeared in August 965 off'
the southern coast of Asia Minor and suffered defeat. The conquest of
Cyprus gave into the hands of Byzantium dominion over the north-eastern
shore of the Mediterranean Sea, and the general results of the campaign
of 965 were such that the possession of Cilicia and the island of Cyprus
opened for Nicephorus the road to Syria.

On 23 June 966, near Samosata on the Euphrates, an exchange of
prisoners took place, and the Arab poet Abu-Eiras, already known to
us, obtained his freedom. Fighting, however, was renewed in the autumn,
when Nicephorus Phocas appeared in the east and invaded the districts
surrounding Amida and Dara, and besieged Manbij (Hierapolis)in north-
east Syria, from whose inhabitants he demanded and received one of
the Christian relics belonging to the town, a brick on which the image of
the Saviour was impressed. Advancing far over the borders of Syria, he
drew near to the accomplishment of his chief design, the conquest of
Antioch. He began to besiege the city in October 966, but it was so well
fortified that Nicephorus Phocas could not at this time capture it, and so,
raising the siege, he returned to Constantinople by way of Tarsus.

C. MED. H. VOL. IV. CH. V. 10

146 Capture of Antioch and Aleppo

In January 967 the chief antagonist of Nicephorus Phocas in the
east, Saif-ad-Daulah, died after a prolonged illness, and was succeeded by
his son Sa'd-ad-Daulah. The war with Bulgaria and disturbances inside
the Empire did not allow Nicephorus to profit by the difficulties arising
from the succession to the throne of the Hamdanids, and consequently
the year 967 is only marked by insignificant conflicts with the Saracens,
which did not always end to the advantage of the Byzantine troops. Only
in the latter half of 968 was the Emperor free to depart again to the
east. The chief aim of this campaign was the conquest of the two most
important towns of Syria, Antioch and Aleppo. Before beginning a
regular siege of these towns, he made devastating incursions into Syria;
towns one after another succumbed to his attacks. Emesa, Tripolis, Area,
Taratus (Tortosa), Maraqiyah, Jiblah (Byblus), Laodicea also, suffered
much from the Byzantine troops.

Nicephorus began now to besiege Antioch in earnest, but was again
unsuccessful. Leaving Peter Phocas, the stratopedarch, with the army at
Antioch, the Emperor returned to the capital. During his stay there
important events were happening near Antioch. Dissensions and dis-
turbances broke out there, and profiting by these quarrels Peter Phocas
and Michael Burtzes, the commander of the garrison of the fortress of
Baghras, took possession of Antioch on 28 October 969. The chief object
was now obtained ; the city was in the hands of the Byzantine Emperor.
An enormous booty fell to the share of the conquerors. Soon after this
the Byzantine troops advanced against the Syrian town of Aleppo, which,
at the end of 969 or in the beginning of January 970, after a siege of
twenty-seven days, also passed into their hands.

The curious text of the treaty concluded by Peter Phocas with
Qarghuyah, who was at that time in possession of Aleppo, is still preserved.
By this treaty the boundaries in Syria were accurately fixed and a list of
localities was drawn up, some of which passed into the possession of the
Greek Emperor and others into feudal dependence. Antioch, the most
important of the conquered towns, was annexed to the Empire; but
Aleppo only became a vassal. The population was subjected to taxation
for the benefit of Byzantium; the Christians living under Muslim rule
were, however, freed from all imposts. The Emir of Aleppo was obliged
to assist the Emperor in case of war with the non-Musulman inhabitants
of these provinces. The restoration of the destroyed churches was guaran-
teed to the Christians. The Emir of Aleppo was also obliged to give pro-
tection to the Byzantine commercial caravans when entering his territory.
It was agreed that, after the deaths of the ruler of Aleppo, Qarghuyah, and
his successor Bakjur, the new governor of Aleppo could only be appointed
by the Emperor from the nobility of Aleppo. Rules were even prescribed
about the surrender of run-away slaves, and so on. This treaty was only
ratified after the death of Nicephorus Phocas, who fell by the hands of
assassins on the night of 10-11 December 969. We can say that never

John Tzimisces in Syria 147

before were the Saracens subjected to such humiliation as during the reign
of Nicephorus Phocas. Cilicia and a part of Syria were taken away from
them, and a great part of their territory acknowledged itself as being in
vassal dependence upon the Empire.

The military operations of the troops of Nicephorus in Sicily did not
correspond with his successes in the east. In Sicily, as we have said, only
one town, Rametta, remained in the hands of the Greeks, and this was
besieged by the Saracens in 964. To help the besieged town, a great fleet
was despatched under the command of Manuel. But the troops which
had been landed were defeated, and in 965 Rametta was taken by assault.
The whole of Sicily thus passed into the hands of the Saracens. In 967 a
durable peace was concluded between Nicephorus Phocas and the Fatimite
Caliph Mu'izz, to whom Sicily was in subjection.

During the first years of his reign, John Tzimisces was unable personally
to take part in the military operations on the eastern frontier. The wars
with the Russian Prince Svyatoslav and with Bulgaria, and the revolt of
Bardas Phocas, required his unremitting attention. But the wars finished
successfully and the revolt of Bardas Phocas was crushed. The dissensions
which had broken out in Italy found a happy solution in the marriage of
the Byzantine Princess Theophano with the heir to the German throne,
the future Emperor Otto II. It was only when these questions had been
settled that John Tzimisces was able to turn to the east.

In the meantime, a difficult problem arose there, namely, how to retain
all the new acquisitions which Nicephorus Phocas had won in Cilicia and
Syria. In 971 the Egyptian Fatimite Mu'izz despatched one of his com-
manders into Syria for the purpose of conquering Antioch. The city was
subjected to a severe siege, and was only saved by an unexpected attack
by the Carmathians on the Egyptian troops, who were compelled to raise
the siege and to retire hurriedly to the south. At the news Tzimisces,
who was at that time in Bulgaria, immediately sent Michael Burtzes to
the assistance of Antioch ; and he at once rebuilt the town-wall, which had
suffered much. In 973 Mleh (Melchi) an Armenian, who commanded
the Greek troops, invaded the north of Mesopotamia, devastated the
provinces of Nisibis, Mayyafariqln, and Edessa, and captured Malatiyah,
but he suffered a severe defeat near Amida and died in captivity.

These successes of the Greeks angered the Saracens to such an extent
that a revolution broke out in Baghdad, and the people demanded an
immediate declaration of a holy war (jihad) against the victorious Em-
pire. So far as we can judge from the fragmentary and confused accounts
of the sources, in 974 John Tzimisces himself set out to the east. He
there concluded an alliance with Armenia and victoriously passed along
the route of the campaign of 973, i.e. through Amida, Mayyafariqln, and
Nisibis. Special significance attached to his campaign in the east in 975,
concerning which a very valuable document in the form of a letter by the

ch. v. 10—2

148 Basil II

Emperor to his ally, the Armenian King Ashot III, has been preserved
by the Armenian historian, Matthew of Edessa. The plan of this campaign
is striking owing to its very audacity: the Emperor aimed at freeing
Jerusalem from the power of the Saracens, and thus he undertook an
actual crusade.

On leaving Antioch, the Emperor passed Emesa and turned to Baalbek,
which was taken after a vain resistance. Damascus also voluntarily sur-
rendered, and promised to pay tribute and to fight for the Byzantines.
Turning to the south, the Emperor entered north Palestine, and the
towns of Tiberias and Nazareth as well as Caesarea on the coast voluntarily
surrendered to him ; from Jerusalem itself came a petition to be spared
a sack. But apparently he was not in sufficient strength to advance
further, and he directed his march along the sea-coast to the north,
capturing a whole series of towns : Beyrout (Berytus), Sidon, Jiblah
(Byblus), Balanea, Gabala, Barzuyah (Borzo); but at Tripolis the troops
of the Emperor were defeated. "To-day all Phoenicia, Palestine, and
Syria,'" says the Emperor with some exaggeration in his letter to Ashot,
"are freed from the Saracen yoke and acknowledge the dominion of the
Romans, and in addition the great mountain of Lebanon has become
subject to our authority.' 1 In September 975 the imperial troops retired
to Antioch, and the Emperor himself returned to his capital, where he
died on 10 January 976.

After the death of John Tzimisces, the two young sons of Romanus II,
Basil and Constantine, succeeded. Basil became the head of the govern-
ment. The first three years of their reign were occupied with quelling
the rebellion of Bardas Sclerus on the eastern frontier, among whose troops
were not a few Saracens. This revolt was suppressed by the Greek com-
mander Bardas Phocas in 979, but only with much difficulty. Bardas
Sclerus escaped to the Caliph of Baghdad, who welcomed a useful prisoner.
Bardas Phocas remained in the east and fought the Saracens, especially
the weakened Hamdanids, with alternating success, and he endeavoured
to counteract the rapidly increasing influence of the Egyptian Fati mites
in Syria.

In 986 began the famous Bulgarian war, which lasted for more than
thirty years and ended in 1019 with the destruction of the Bulgarian
kingdom of Samuel. Such an arduous and prolonged war might naturally
have turned the attention of Basil II completely away from the eastern
frontier of the Empire, but in fact he was compelled to intervene, through
serious complications which were taking place there. Bardas Phocas, the
victor over Bardas Sclerus, having fallen into disgrace at court, was
proclaimed Emperor by his troops in 987, and Bardas Sclerus, having
escaped from captivity in Baghdad, also appeared in Asia Minor. Bardas
Phocas, however, captured him by a stratagem, and then crossed Asia
Minor to the Hellespont. The condition of Byzantium was at this time

I

War with the Fatimites 149

very difficult : from the east the troops of Bardas Phocas were advancing
to the capital, and from the north the Bulgarians were pressing on. To
this time we must refer the negotiations of Basil II with the Russian
Prince Vladimir and the consequent appearance at Byzantium of a Russian
contingent of 6000 men. Basil II did not lose his presence of mind. With
fresh forces he fought Bardas Phocas in 989, and in this battle the latter
was slain. The Empire was thus freed from one of its dangers. In the
same year a new insurrection of Bardas Sclerus was crushed.

During this time Syria was subjected to attacks by the troops of the
Egyptian Fatimites, who several times assaulted Aleppo. Aleppo begged
the Greeks for help and the Emperor sent Michael Burtzes, the governor
of Antioch, to its assistance; but he suffered a severe defeat on the river
Orontes in 994. This petition for help from Aleppo and the news of the
defeat of Michael Burtzes reached Basil II when campaigning in Bulgaria.
Notwithstanding the Bulgarian war, which was fraught with so much
danger to the Empire, the Emperor decided to go personally to the east
in the winter of 994-995, especially as danger was threatening Antioch.
He unexpectedly appeared under the walls of Aleppo, which was being
besieged by the Egyptian troops, and was successful in freeing the former
capital of the Ilamdanids from the enemy ; he also captured Raphanea
and Emesa; but having fought unsuccessfully under the walls of the
strongly-fortified Tripolis, he returned to Bulgaria. In 998 the Greek
troops under Damianus Dalassenus were severely defeated near Apamea.
In 999 we meet Basil II again in Syria, at the towns of Shaizar and
Emesa; but he was once more unsuccessful at Tripolis. Having spent
some time in arranging affairs in Armenia and Georgia (Iberia), the Em-
peror returned to Constantinople in 1001.

In the same year a peace for ten years was concluded between the
Emperor and the Egyptian Fiitimite Hakim. Down to the very year of
his death, there were no more encounters between him and the Eastern
Muslims.

In the west, the Sicilian Saracens made yearly attacks on South
Italy, and the imperial government, being occupied in other places, could
not undertake expeditions against them. Its forced inactivity gave a
welcome opportunity to the Western Emperor Otto II to attempt the
expulsion of the Saracens from Sicily. Desiring to obtain a firm point
of support in South Italy, he occupied some fortified Byzantine places,
as for instance Taranto. But his chief aim was not reached, for in 982
the Saracens severely defeated him at Stilo. After his death in 983, the
authority of the Greeks was somewhat restored, and the Byzantine
governor occupied Bari, which had revolted. But the attacks of the
Saracens on Southern Italy continued, and Bari was only saved by the
intervention of the Venetian fleet. At the end of his reign Basil planned
a vast expedition for the purpose of winning back Sicily, but during its
preparation he died in 1025.

150 The Successors of Basil II

The death of Basil II, that terrible scourge of the Eastern Saracens,
gave fresh heart to these enemies of the Empire. The Saracens, with
great success, availed themselves of the weakness of the successors of
Basil II and of the disturbances which broke out in the Empire, and they
quickly took the offensive. Under Romanus III Argyrus (1028-1034),
the Emir of Aleppo defeated the governor of Antioch, and the campaign,
undertaken in 1030 after long preparation under the personal command
of the Emperor, ended in a signal defeat near Aleppo, after which the
Emperor quickly returned to Constantinople. In this campaign the young
George Maniaces, who later on played a very important part in Byzantine
history, distinguished himself for the first time.

The defeat of 1030 was to some degree mitigated by the capture of
the important town of Edessa by George Maniaces in 1031, and by his
seizing there the second relic of the town 1 , the famous letter of Jesus
Christ to Abgar, King of Edessa. This letter was sent to Constantinople
and solemnly received by the Emperor and the people.

During the reign of the next Emperor, Michael IV the Paphlagonian
(1034-1041), the usual collisions went on in the east, sometimes at
Antioch, sometimes at Aleppo, whilst at the same time the Saracen
corsairs devastated the southern coast of Asia Minor and destroyed
Myra in Lycia.

In the west, the object of the imperial government was to recapture
Sicily from the Saracens. The internal quarrels among the Sicilian Muslims
made the intervention of the Greeks easy, and during the reign of
Michael IV they undertook two expeditions. The first, under the command
of Constantine Opus in 1037, was unsuccessful, but the second, in which
the army was composed of different races, such as the "Varangian -Russian
Druzhina " (detachment), and in which the Norse prince Harold Fairhair
distinguished himself, was despatched in 1038 under the chief command
of the brilliant young Maniaces. The beginning of the expedition was
fortunate. Messina, Syracuse, and the whole eastern coast of the island
passed into the hands of the imperial troops. But George Maniaces fell
into disgrace, and being recalled to Constantinople was put into prison.
With his removal, all the Byzantine conquests, with the exception of
Messina, passed again into the power of the Saracens.

During the reign of Constantine IX Monomachus (1042-1054),
almost complete peace reigned on the frontier of Syria and Mesopotamia;
but on the other hand, from 1048 the Byzantine troops were obliged to
fight, especially in Armenia, with the Seljuq Turks, who from this time
forward appear as a new and formidable enemy on the eastern frontier.

1 For the first relic of the town, the miraculous image of the Saviour, see supra,
p. 143.

Summary 151

(C)
SUMMARY

It will be seen from the foregoing pages that, ever since Leo the
Isaurian saved Constantinople from the formidable attack of the Saracens
in a.d. 717, there was continuous warfare between the Empire and the
Caliphate, for three hundred years. Its history is for the most part a
monotonous and barren chronicle of raids to and fro across the Taurus
mountains, truces, interchanges of prisoners, briefly registered in Greek
and Arabic annals. Only occasionally have we a description of events
full enough to excite some interest, like the campaign of the Caliph
Muta'sim (a.d. 838) or the siege of Thcssalonica. Successes varied, but
few were decisive until Nicephorus Phocas definitely turned the tide in
favour of the Empire and reconquered long-lost provinces. After his
victories the Abbasid power, which had seen its best days before the end
of the ninth century 1 , declined rapidly till the Caliphate passed under the
control of the Seljuqs. So long as the struggle lasted, the Eastern war
had the first claim on the armies and treasury of the Empire, and these
were not sufficient to enable the Emperors to deal at the same time
effectively with their European enemies, the Slavs and Bulgarians, and to
maintain intact their possessions in Sicily and Southern Italy. It was
only when the Saracen danger in the east had been finally averted by the
army of Nicephorus that his successors were able to recover some of the
European provinces which had been lost.

If the Caliphs had a more extensive territory under their rule than
the Emperors, it is not certain that they had larger revenues even when
they were strongest. Their State was very loosely organised, and it was
always a strain on them to keep its heterogeneous parts together. The
Empire, on the other hand, was kept strictly under central control ; it
might be conquered, but it could not dissolve of itself; and the event
proved that it had a much greater staying power.

It is to be observed that throughout the period the hostilities which
were the order of the day do not seem to have interfered very seriously
with the commercial intercourse between the peoples of the two states,

1 The decline is evident, and may be illustrated from the revenue figures which
are recorded. Under Rashld, apart from contributions in kind, the taxes yielded a
sum equivalent to about £21,000,000. In Ala'mun's reign there was a considerable
decline, and early in the tenth century the revenue was less than a twentieth of
what it had been in Rashid's reign. (See Kremer, Kulturgeschichte 370, and Budget
Harum in the Verh. des vii intern. Orientalisten-Congresses , semitische Section, Vienna
1888 ; Bury, Eastern Roman Empire, 236-7.) The Romau treasury was sometimes in
great straits, but there was never any falling-off like this.

152 Summary

and reciprocal influences of culture flowed constantly between them.
Through educated captives, who were often detained for four or five years
and were generally well treated, knowledge of the conditions and features
of the Byzantine world passed to Baghdad, and reversely. The capitals
of the two Empires vied with each other in magnificence, art, and the
cultivation of science. For instance, there cannot be much doubt that
Theophilus was stimulated in his building enterprises by what he had
heard of the splendour of the palaces of Baghdad. Oriental influences
had been affecting the Roman Empire ever since the third century,
through its intercourse with the Sasanid kingdom of Persia; they continued
to operate throughout the Abbasid period, and were one of the ingredients
of Byzantine civilisation.

.

779

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS OF TITLES
OF PERIODICALS, SOCIETIES, ETC.

(1) The following abbreviations are used for titles of periodicals :

AB. Analecta Bollandiana. Brussels.

AH 11. American Historical Review. New York and London.

AKKR. Archiv fur katholisches Kirchenrecht. Mayence.

AMur. Archivio Muratoriano. Rome.

Arch. Ven. (and N. Arch. Ven. ; Arch. Ven.-Tri.). Archivio veneto. Venice. 40

vols. 1871-90. Continued as Nuovo archivio veneto. 1st series. 20

vols. 1801-1000. New series. 42 vols. 1901-1921. And Archivio

veneto-tridentino. 1922 ff., in progress.
Anzeiger fur schweizerische Alterthumskunde. Zurich.
Annuaire-Bulletin de la Societe de l'histoire de France. Paris.
Archivio storico italiano. Florence. Ser. i. 20 v. and App. 9 v.

1842-53. Index. 1857. Ser. nuova. 18 v. 1855-08. Ser. in.

26 v. 1865-77. Indexes to n and m. 1874. Suppt. 1877. Ser. iv.

20 v. 1878-87. Index. 1891. Ser. v. 49 v. 1888-1912. Index.

1900. Anni 71 etc. 1913 IF., in progress. (Index in Catalogue of

The London Library vol. i. 1913.)
Archivio storico lombardo. Milan.

Archivio storico per le province napoletane. Naples. 1876 ff.
Archivio della Societa romana di storia patria. Rome.
Bullettino dell' Istituto storico italiano. Rome. 1886 if.
Boletin de la R. Academia de la historia. Madrid.
Byzantinische Zeitschrift. Leipsic. 1892 ff.
Church Quarterly Review. London.
Classical Review. London.

Deutsche Zeitschrift fur Geschichtswissenschaft. Freiburg-im-Breisgau.
Deutsche Zeitschrift fur Kirchenrecht. Leipsic.
English Historical Review. London.
Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte. Gottingen.
Historisches Jahrbuch. Munich.
Historische Vierteljahrsschrift. Leipsic.
Historische Zeitschrift (von Sybel). Munich and Berlin.
Journal Asiatique. Paris.
Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissenschaft im Auftrage der historischen

Gesellschaft zu Berlin. Berlin. 1878 ff.
Journal of Hellenic Studies. London.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain. London.
Jahrbuch fur schweizerische Geschichte. Zurich.
Journal of Theological Studies. London.
Le moyen age. Paris.
Mittheilungen des Instituts fur osterreichische Geschichtsforschung.

Innsbruck.
Neu. Arch. Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fur iiltere deutsche Geschichtskunde

Hanover and Leipsic.
NRDF. Nouvelle Revue historique du droit francais. Paris.
QFIA. Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken.

Rome.
RA. Revue archeologique. Paris.

ASAK.
ASHF.
ASI.

ASL.

ASPN.

ASRSP.

BISI.

BRAH.

BZ.

CQR.

CR.

DZG.

DZKR.

EHR.

FDG.

HJ.

HVJS.

HZ.

JA.

JB.

JHS.

JRAS.

JSG.

JTS.

MA.

MIOGF.

780

Abbreviations

RBc'n. Revue benedictine. Marcdsous.

RCHL. Revue critique d'histoire et de litte'rature. Paris.

RH. Revue historique. Paris.

RIID. Revue d'histoire diplomatique. Paris.

RHE. Revue d'histoire ecclesiastique. Louvain.

R he in. Mas. Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie. Frankfort-on-Main.

RN. Revue de numisinatique. Paris.

RQCA. Romische Quartalschrift fur christliche Altertumskunde und Kirchen-
geschichte. Rome.

RQII. Revue des questions historiques. Paris.

RSI I. Revue de synthese historique. Paris.

RSI. Rivista storica italiana. Turin. -See Gen. Bill. i.

SK AW. Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Vienna.

[Philos.-hist. Classe.]
SPAW. Sitzungsberichte der kon. preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

Berlin.
TRHS. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. London.

W. Vizantiyski Vremennik (Bv(avTiva XpoviKii). St Petersburg (Petrograd).

1894 if.
ZCK. Zeitschrift fiir christliche Kunst. Diisseldorf.

ZDMG. Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft. Leipsic.
ZKG. Zeitschrift fiir Kirchengeschichte. Gotha.

ZKT. Zeitschrift fiir katholische Theologie. Gotha.

ZMNP. Zhurual ministerstva narodnago prosveshcheniya (Journal of the Ministry

of Public Instruction). St Petersburg.
ZR. Zeitschrift fiir Rechtsgeschichte. Weimar. 1861-78. Continued as

ZSR. Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung fiir Rechtswissenschaft. Weimar. 1880 ff.

ZVVT. Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie. Frankfort-on-Main.

(2) Other abbreviations used are :

AcadlBL. Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.
AcadlP. Academie Imperiale de Petersbourg.

Allgemeine deutsche Biographic See Gen. Bibl. i.

See Mabillon and Acheiy in Gen. Bibl. iv.

Acta Sanctorum Bollandiana. See Gen. Bibl. iv.

Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes. See Gen. Bibl. i.

Nouvelle Biographie generale. See Gen. Bibl. i.

Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Hautes Eludes. See Gen. Bibl. i.

See Rerum Gallicarum...scriptores in Gen. Bibl. iv.

Biographie universelle. -See Gen. Bibl. r.
Coll. textes. Collection des textes pour servir a l'e'tude et a l'enseignement del'histoire.
See Gen. Bibl. iv.

Corpus scriptorum christianorum orientalium. See Gen. Bibl. iv.

Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum. See Gen. Bibl. iv.

Corpus scriptorum historiae Byzantinae. See Gen. Bibl. iv.

Dictionary of National Biography. See Gen. Bibl. i.

Ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome. Paris.

Encyclopaedia Britannica. See Gen. Bibl. i.

AllgDB.

ASBen.

ASBoll.

BEC.

BGen.

BHE.

Bouquet.

BUniv.

CSCO.

CSEL.

CSHB.

DNB.

EcfrAR.

EncBr.

Ei*sch-G ruber. Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopadie. See Gen. Bibl. i.

Fonti. Fonti per la storia d' Italia. See Gen. Bibl. iv.

Jaffe. See Gen. Bibl. iv.

KAW. Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. Vienna.

Mansi. See Gen. Bibl. iv.

MEC. Memoires et documents publ. par l'Ecole des Chartes. See Gen. Bibl. iv.

MGH. Monumenta Germaniae Historica. .See Gen. Bibl. iv.

MHP. Monumenta historiae patriae. Turin. -See Gen. Bibl. iv.

MHSM. Monumenta spectantia historiam Slavorum meridionalium. -See Gen.

Bibl. iv.
MPG. Migne's Patrologiae cursus completus. Ser. graeco-latina. [Greek texts

with Latin translations in parallel columns.] -See Gen. Bibl. iv.

A bbreviatio ns 781

MFL. Migne's Patrologiae cursus completus. Ser. latina. See Gen. Bibl. iv.

PAW. Konigliche preussische Akademie d. Wissenschaften. Berlin.

RAH. Real Academia de la Historia. Madrid.

RC. Record Commissioners.

RE 3 . Real-Encyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie, etc. See Herzog and

Hauck in Gen. Bibl. i,
Rec. hist. Cr. Recueil des historians des Croisades. See Gen. Bibl. iv.
RGS. Royal Geographical Society.

RHS. Royal Historical Society.

Rolls. Rerum Britannicarum medii aevi scriptores. See Gen. Bibl. iv.

RR.II.SS. See Muratori in Gen. Bibl. iv.
SGUS. Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum. See Monumenta

Germaniae Historica in Gen. Bibl. iv.
SHF. Societe d'histoire francaise.

SRD. Scriptores rerum Danicarum medii aevi. See Gen. Bibl. iv.

Abh. Abhandlungen. mem. memoir.

antiq. antiquarian, antiquaire. mem. memoire.

app. appendix. n.s. new series.

coll. collection. publ. published, publie.

diss. dissertation. R.\ rP nlp

hist. history, historical, historique, r. J

historisch. roy. royal, royale.

Jahrb. Jahrbuch. ser. series.

, f kaiserlich. soc. society, societe, societa.

\koniglich. Viert. Vierteljahrschrift.

805

CHAPTER V.

(A)
THE STRUGGLE WITH THE SARACENS (717-867).

I. SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES.

In Krumbaoher's Geschichte d. byzantinischen Litteratur (see Gen. liibl. v) under
each author and at the end of the volume. [For Greek sources.]

In Bury's edn. of Gibbon, vol. v, Appendix (see Gen. Bibl. v), and in his Eastern
Roman Empire. See Gen. Bibl. v. [Very full.]

In Laurent's L'Arme'nie entre Byzance et l'lslam. See below, in (c) Monographs.

II. AUTHORITIES.

(a) Contemporary.

Acta 42 Martyrum Amoriensium. Ed. Vasil'evski, V., and Nikitiu, P. (Mem.
AcadlP., CI. Hist.-phil. VII, No. 2.) 1905.

Dionysius (so-called). Chronicon (Syriac). Ed. with French transl. Chabot, J. B.
BHE. 102. 1895. [A work of the year 775, probably by Joshua the Stylite of
Zuqnin.]

Georgius Monachus. Historia Chronica. Ed. Boor, C. de. Leipsic. 1904. MPG. ex.
(With the interpolations from Symeon Logothetes. )

Ibn Khurdadhbih. Liber viarum et provinciarum (Arab.). Ed. with French transl.
De Goeje, M. J. (Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum. vi.) Leiden. 1889.
(With extracts from Qudama; see below, (b)ii.)

Leontius. Historia Chalifarum (Arm.). Ed. Ezean, K. St Petersburg. 1887. French
transl. Chahnazarian, V. Paris. 1856. Russian transl. Patkanian, K. St Peters-
burg. 1862. Latin transl. (of extracts with commentary) Filler, E. See below,

,n W-

Nicephorus. Historia concisa. Ed. Boor, C. de. Leipsic. 1880.

Theophanes. Chronograph ia. Ed. Classen, J. and Bekker, I. 2 vols. CSHB.

1839, 41. Also ed. Boor, C. de. 2 vols. Leipsic. 1883, 85.
Ya'qubl (Ibn Wadlh). Historiae (Arab.). Ed. Houtsma, M. Th. 2 vols. Leiden.

1883. Relevant parts transl. Brooks, E. W. in JHS. 1898 and EHR. 1900 for

period 717-813 (see below, in (c) Monographs), and Vasil'ev, A. A. in Vizantiya

i Araby, vol. i, for 813-867 (see below, in (c) Monographs).

(b) Later.

i. Greek.

Cedrenus. Synopsis Historiarum. Ed. Bekker, I. 2 vols. CSHB. 1838, 39.

Chronicon Cantabrigiense. Ed. Cozza-Luzi, G. (Documenti per servire alia storia di
Sicilia, ser. 4, vol. n). Palermo. (Soc. Siciliana per la storia patria.) 1890. Ed.
Batiffol, P. (Comptes Rendus. AcadlBL. Ser. 4, vol. xvili.) 1890. (From
the Paris MS only.) [This chronicle was first discovered in an Arabic version
at Cambridge, which is published with the Greek text with Italian transl.
in Cozza-Luzi's edn. The Greek text is reprinted with a Russian transl. of the
Arabic in Vasil'ev's Vizantiya i Araby; see below, ni(c) Monograph.]

806 The Struggle with the Saracens (717-867)

Constantino Porphyrogenitus. De cerimoniis aulae Byzantinae (with the so-called

Appendix). See Gen. Bill. iv.
Genesius. Regna. Ed. Lachmann, C. CSHB. 1834.

Leo Grammaticus (so-called). Chronographia. Ed. Bekker, I. CSHB. 1842.
Symeon Logothetes. Chronicle. -See u (a), Georgius Monachus.
Symeon Magister (so-called). Annales. Ed. Bekker, I. CSHB. 1838.
Theodosius Melitenus. Chronographia. Ed. Tafel, T. L. F. In Monumenta Saecu-

laria. (K. Akad. d. Wissenschaften.) Munich. 1859.
Theophanes continuatus. Chronographia. Ed. Bekker, I. CSHB. 1838.
Zonaras. Annales. Ed. Pinder, M. and Biittner-Wobst, T. 3 vols. CSHB. 1841-

97.

ii. Oriental.

Baladhuri. Liber expugnationis regionum (Arab.). Ed. De Goeje, M. J. Leiden.
1863. English transl. Khuri Hitti, P. (Columbia University Studies in History,
Economics, and Public Law, vol. lxviii, No. 163.) New York. 1916. (In
progress.) German transl. Rescher, O. Leipsic. 1917. (In progress.) [Bala-
dhuri died in 892; but, as his work contains nothing relevant after 838 exc. one
Sicilian notice, it is not placed among contemporary sources.]

Chronicon anni 846 (Syr.). Ed. Brooks, E. W., with Latin transl. by Chabot, J. B.
(CSCO. Chronica Minora, vol. n.) 1904. [Contains nothing relevant after
726.]

Elias Nisibenus. Opus chronologicum (Syr. and Arab.). Ed. with Latin transl.
Brooks, E. W., and Chabot, J. B. (CSCO.) 1909-10. French transl. Delaporte,
L. J. (BHE. 181.) 1910.

Ibn 'Adhari. Notitiae Occidentis (Arab.). Ed. Dozy, R. P. A. 2 vols. Leiden.
1848-51. French transl. Fagnan, E. 2 vols. Algiers. 1901-4.

Ibnal-Athlr. Chronicon perfectissimum(Arab.). Ed.Tornberg,C. J. 14vols. Leiden.
1851-76. Passages relating to Asia Minor for period 717-813 transl. Brooks,
E. W. JHS. 1898. (See below, in (c) Monographs.) Relevant passages from 813
transl. Vasil'ev, A. A. Vizantiya i Araby. (See below, in(c) Monographs.) Pas-
sages relating to Sicily transl. Amari, M. Biblioteca Arabo-Sicula, vers, ital.,
l, p. 353. See below, in (b).

Ibn Kutaiba. Manuale Historiae (Arab.). Ed. Wustenfeld, F. Gottingen. 1850.
Relevant passages from 813 transl. Vasil'ev (see above). [The author lived
828-88, but records nothing relevant after 838.]

Johannes Catholicus. Historia Armeniae (Arm.). Ed. Anon. Jerusalem. 1867.
French transl. Saint-Martin, J. Paris. 1841.

Kindl. Liber rectorum (Arab.). Ed. Guest, R. (E. J. W. Gibb Memorial, 19.) Leiden
and London. 1912. Relevant passages transl. Brooks, E. W. BZ. 1913. See
below, in (c) Monographs.

Liber fontium (Kitab al-'uyun) (Arab.). Ed. De Goeje, M. J. (Fragm. Histori-
corum Arabicorum, vol. i.) Leiden. 1871. Relevant passages transl. Brooks.
JHS. 1898-9, and Vasil'ev. See above.

Mahbub (Agapius) of Manbij (Hierapolis). Liber tituli (Arab.). Ed. with French
transl. Vasil'ev, A. A. (Patrologia Orientalis, v, p. 561 ; vn, p. 458 ; vni, p. 396).
3 pts. Paris and Freiburg. 1910-12.

Malikl. Horti animarum (Arab.). Parts relating to Sicily ed. Amari, M. Biblioteca
Arabo-Sicula, p. 176, i vol. and Appendices. Leipsic. (Deutsche Morgenlandische
Gesellschaft. ) 1857-87. Italian transl. Bibl. Arabo-Sicula, vers. ital. (see below,
in (b)), i, p. 294. Russian transl. Vasil'ev. See above.

Maqrizi. Liber admonitionis et considerations (Arab.). Ed. c Adawi, M. K. 2 vols.
Bulak. 1853. Ed. Wiet, G. (Mem. de l'lnstitut francais d'Arche'ologie Orientale
30, etc.) Cairo. 1911 ff. (In progress.) French transl. Bouriant, U. (Mem. de
la Mission Archeologique du Caire, 17.) 2 pts. Paris. 1895-1900. Continued
by Casanova, P. (Mem. de l'lnst. fr. d'Arch. Or. 3.) Cairo. 1906. (In progress.)
Passage about Mutawakkil's restoration of the Egyptian fleet transl. Rosen, V. R.
Imp. Vasili Bolgaroboytsa, p. 274. (Mem. Acad IP. xli v.) 1883. See also Vasil'ev,
A. A. Vizantiya i Araby. Vol. i, App. p. 124. See below, 111(c).

f

Bibliography, Chapter V(a) 807

Mas'udi. Liber commonitionis et recognitionis (Arab.). Ed. De Goeje, M. J. (Bibl.

Geogr. Arab. 8.) Leideu. 1894. French transl. Carra de Vaux,B. Paris. (Societe

Asiatique.) 1896.
Prata aurea. Ed. with French transl. Barbier de Meynard, C. A. C. 9 vols.

Paris. 1861-77.
Michael Syrus. Chronicon (Syr.). Ed. with French transl. Chabot, J. B. 3 vols.

Paris. (AcadlBL.) 1899-1910. [Copies the lost contemporary Chronicle of

Dionysius.]
Nuwairl. Encyclopaedia (Arab.). Parts relating to Sicily ed. Amari, M. Bibl. Arabo-

Sicula. p. 423. (See above.) Italian transl. Bibl. Arabo-Sicula, vers. ital. See

below, jii (b), ii, p. 110. Russian transl. Vasil'ev. See above.
Qudama. Liber tributi (Arab.). See Ibn Khurdadhbih, sect, (a) above. [Important

for Arab military organisation.]
Stephanus Taronensis. Historia Armeniae (Arm.). Ed. Malkhasian, S. St Peters-
burg. 1885. German transl. Gelzer, H., and Burckhardt, A. Leipsic. 1907.
Tabarl. Historia populorum et regum (Arab.). Ed. De Goeje, M. J., and others.

15 vols. Leiden. 1879-1901. Relevant parts transl. Brooks. JHS. 1898-9, and

EHR. 1900, and Vasil'ev. See above.

III. MODERN WORKS.

(a) General,

Bury, J. B. A History of the Later Roman Empire. See Gen. Bibl. v.

EncBr. (See Gen. Bibl. i.) De Goeje, M. J. s.v. Caliphate.

Finlay, G. A history of Greece. See Gen. Bibl. v.

Gelzer, H. Abriss d. byzantinischen Geschichte. See Gen. Bibl. v.

Gibbon, E. The history of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. See Gen.

Bibl. v.
Holm, A. Geschichte Siciliens im Alterthum. Vol. in. Leipsic. 1898.
Miiller, A. Der Islam im Morgen- u. Abendland. 2 vols. (Oncken's Allgemeiue

Geschichte. Abth. 2. Th. 4.) Berlin. 1885-7.
Weil, G. Geschichte der Chalifen. See Gen. Bibl. v.

(b) On Authorities.

Arabic authors:

Brockelmann, C. Geschichte d. arabischen Litteratur. 2 vols. Weimar and

Berlin. 1897-1902; and in another form in Die Litteraturen des Ostens.

Vol. vi. Leipsic. 1901.
EncBr. (See Gen. Bibl. i.) De Goeje, M. J., and Thatcher, G. W. s.v. Arabia.
Wustenfeld, F. Die Geschichtsschreiber d. Araber u. ihre Werke (Abh. d.

Kon. Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, Hist.-phil. CI. xxvm,

No. 2, 3; xxix, No. 1). 1881-2.
Amari, M. Biblioteca Arabo-Sicula, vers. ital. 2 vols, and App. 8vo edn.

Turin, Florence, and Rome. 1881, 89. [Introduction on authors dealing

with Sicily.]
Notices of the Arabic authorities are also given in the Appendix to Vasil'ev's

Vizantiya i Araby. See below, in (c) Monographs.
Chronicon Cantabrigiense :

Cipolla, C. Testi greci della cronaca arabo-sicula di Cambridge. (Atti della R.

Accad. delle scienze di Torino, xxvu.) 1892. p. 830.
Cozza-Luzi, G. Sulla scoperta di due cronache greche siculo-saraceniche e loro

correlazione coll' arabico di Cambridge. Rome. 1893.
Constantine Porphyrogenitus :

Bury, J. B. The Ceremonial Book of Const. Porphvrogennetos. EHR. 1907.

pp. 209, 417.

808 The Struggle with the Saracens (717-867)

"Dionysius":

Nau, F. La 4 me partie de la chronique de Denys de Tellmahre. (Review of
Chabot's edn.) Bulletin Critique. 1896. p. 121.

Nouvelle etude sur la chron. attribute a D. de T. Ibid. p. 464.

Les auteurs des chroniques attributes a D. de T. et a Josue le Stylite.

Ibid. 1897. p. 54.

Noldeke, Th. La chron. de D. de T. (Review of Chabot's edn.) Vienna
Oriental Journal. 1896. p. 160.
Elias Nisibenus :

Baethgen, F. Fragmente syrischer u. arabischer Historiker. (Abh. f. die
Kunde d. Morgenlandes. vm.) Leipsic. (Deutsche Morgenlandische Gesell-
schaft.) 1884.
Georgius Monachus and later Byzantine historians:

Hirsch, F. Byzautinische Studien. See Gen. Bibl. v.

Also in Bury's Eastern Roman Empire. App. 2. See Gen. Bibl. v.
Leontius :

Filler, E. Quaestiones de Leontii Armenii historia. (Commentationes philo-
logicae Jenenses 7, fasc. 1.) 1903.
Mahbub :

Vasil'ev, A. A. Agapi manbidzhski, khristianski arabski istorik x veka. In
VV. 1904. p. 574.
Michael and Theophanes:

Brooks, E. W. Tlie Chronology of Theophanes. BZ. 1899. p. 82.

The Sources of Theophanes and the Syriac chroniclers. BZ. 1906. p. 578.

Nicephorus :

Burckhardt, A. Der Londoner Codex d. Breviarium d. Nikephoros Patriarcha.
BZ. 1896. p. 465.
Symeon Logothetes (source of Leo, Cedrenus, Theodosius, and the interpolator of
George) :
Boor, C. de. Die Chronik d. Logotheten. BZ. 1897- p. 233-
Patzig, E. Leo Grammaticus u., seine Sippe. BZ. 1894. p. 470.
Serruys, D. Recherches sur l'Epitome'. BZ. 1907. p. 1.

Also in Bury's Eastern Roman Empire. App. 3. See Gen. Bibl. v. [The litera-
ture of this subject is enormous ; see Bury, op. cit. p. 502, for other publi-
cations.]
Syriac authors :

Duval, R. La Litterature Syriaque. (Bibliotheque de 1'enseignement de l'his-
toire ecclesiastique.) Paris. 1899. 3rd edn. 1907.
Theophanes :

Preobrazhenski, P. G. Letopisnoe povestvovanie Sv. Feofana ispovednika.
Vienna. 1912.

(e) Monographs and Special Treatises.

Amari, M. Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia. 4 vols. Florence. 1854-68.
Anderson, J. G. C. The road-system of eastern Asia Minor. JHS. 1897. p. 22.

(With map.)
Boor, C. de. Der Angriff der Rhos auf Byzanz. BZ. 1895. p. 445. [For the

chronology of the campaigns of 859-63.]
Brooks, E. W. The Arabs in Asia Minor from Arabic sources. JHS. 1898. p. 200.

(Translation of relevant passages with notes.)

The campaign of 716-8 from Arabic sources. JHS. 1899. p. 19. (Trans-
lation of passages from the Kitab al-'uyun and Tabari with notes.)

Byzantines and Arabs in the time of the early Abbasids. EHR. 1900. p. 728.

1901. p. 84. (Translation of relevant passages with notes and map.)

The Arab occupation of Crete. EHR. 1913. p. 431.

The relations between the empire and Egypt from a new Arabic source. BZ.

1913. p. 381. (With translation of extracts from Kindl.)

Bury, J. B. Mutasim's march through Cappadocia. JHS. 1909. p. 120.

The embassy of John the Grammarian. EHR. 1909. p. 296.

Bibliography, Chapter V(a) 809

Bury, J. B. The naval policy of the Roman Empire in relation to the Western

provinces from the 7th to the 9th century. (Centenario della nascita di M. Amari.

Vol. ii.) Palermo. 1910.

A History of the Eastern Roman Empire. See Gen. Bibl. v.

Encyclopaedia of Islam. See Gen. Bibl. i. Especially ' Streck, M. 'Awasim.

Baghdad. Zettersteen, K. V. Harun al-Rashld.
Ghazarian, M. Armenien unter d. arabischen Herrschaft bis zur Entstehung d.

Bagratidenreiches. Zeitschrift f. armenische Philologie. 1904. p. 149.
Laurent, J. L'Armenie entre Byzance et l'lslam. (EcfrAR. 117.) Paris. 1919.

[The best work on this subject with full bibliography and useful map.]
Le Strange, G. The lands of the Eastern Caliphate. See Gen. Bibl. ij.
Lombard, A. Constantin V, empereur des Romains. (Universite de Paris. Bibl.

de la Faculte des Lettres 1G. ) Paris. 1902.
Ramsay, W. M. The war of Moslem and Christian for the possession of Asia Minor.

Contemporary Review. 190(5. p. 1.
Schenk, K. Kaiser Leon III. Halle. 1880.

Vasil'ev, A. A. Vizantiya i Araby. 2 vols. St Petersburg. 1900-2. [Critical his-
tory from 813 with translation of relevant passages from Arabic writers.]
AVellhausen, J. Die Kiimpfe d. Araber mit den Romaern in d. Zeit d. Umaijiden.

Nachrichten d. K. Gesellschaftd. Wissenschaften zu Gottingen. Phil. -hist CI.

1901. p. 414. [Detailed criticism of the records and reconstruction.]

(B)
THE STRUGGLE WITH THE SARACENS (867-1057).

I. SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES.

In Krumbacher's Geschichte d. byzantinischen Litteratur (see Gen. Bibl. v)
under each author and at the end of the volume. [For Greek sources.]

II. AUTHORITIES.

(a) Greek and Latin.

Annales Beneventani. Ed. Pertz, G. H. MGH. Script, in. p. 173.
Cameniates. De excidio Thessalonicae. Ed. Bekker, I. CSHB. 1838.
Cecaumenus. Strategicon. Ed. Vasil'evski, V., and others mZapiski Ist.-Filol. Fakult.

AcadlP. xxxviii. 1896.
Cedrenus. Synopsis Historiarum. Ed. Bekker, I. 2 vols. CSHB. 1838, 39.
Chronicon Cantab rigiense. See Bibl. to ch. v(a), ii (b) i.

Salernitanum. Ed. Pertz, G. H. MGH. Script, in, p. 4G7.

Constantine Porphyrogenitus. De cerimoniis aulae Byzantinae. De administrando

imperio. De thematibus. See Gen. Bibl. iv.
Genesius. Regna. Ed. Lachmann, C. CSHB. 1834.
Georgius Monachus (so-called). Historia Chronica. MPG. ex. [This compilation

from 843 to 948 is taken from the lost work of Symeon Logothetes, and after

that from Zonaras.]
Johannes Diaconus Neapolitanus. Acta translationis S. Severini. Ed. Waitz, G.

MGH. Script. Lang, et Ital. pp. 463 fF.
Leo Diaconus. Ed. Hase, C. B. CSHB. 1828.

Leo Grammaticus (so-called). Chronographia. Ed. Bekker, I. CSHB. 1842.
Leo Sapiens. Tactica. MPG. cvn. Also ed. Vari, R. in Sylloge Tacticorum Grae-

corum. Vol. in. (Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia.) Buda-Pest. 1917, in pro-
gress.
Liudprandus. Relatio de legatione Constantinopolitana. Ed. Becker, J. in SGUS.

3rd edn. Hanover. 1915.

810 The Struggle with the Saracens (867-1057)

Lupus Protospatarius Barensis. Chronicon. Also Annales Barenses. Ed. Pertz,G. H.

MGH. Script, v, p. 62.
Narratio de imagine Edessena. Ed. Dobschiitz, E. von in Texte u. Untersuchungen.

Neue Folge. in, p. 39**. Leipsic. 1899.
Nicephorus Phocas (so-called). De velitatione bellica. Ed. Hase, C. B. with Leo

Diaconus. CSHB. 1828.
Nicolaus Mysticus. Epistolae. MPG. cxi. [Epp. 1, 2, addressed to the Emir of Crete,

contain valuable information, esp. about Cyprus.]
Petrus Siculus. Historia Manichaeorum. MPG. civ. [On the Paulicians.]
Psellus. Chronographia. Ed. Sathas, C. (Byzantine Texts.) London. 1899.
Scylitzes. Chronicon. Greek text unpublished. Latin transl. Gabius, J. B. Venice.

1670.
Symeon Logothetes. See above, Georgius Monachus.
Symeon Magister (so-called). Annales. Ed. Bekker, I. CSHB. 1838.
Theodosius Melitenus. Chronographia. See Bibl. to ch. v(a), ii(&) i.
Theodosius Monachus. Ep. ad Leonem diaconum de expugnatione Syracusarum.

Greek text (imperfect), ed. Zuretti, C. O. 'iraXocXX^i/iKa. In Centenario della

nascita di M. Amari. Vol. i, p. 166. Palermo. 1910. Latin version (complete)

by Josaphat of Messina in RR.II.SS. (1st edn.). Vol. i, pt. n, p. 256. 1726.
Theophanes continuatus. Chronographia. Ed. Bekker, I. CSHB. 1838.
Vita S. Eliae iunioris. ASBoll. 17 Aug. in.

S. Pauli iunioris. Ed. Delahaye, H. in AB. xi, p. 6. 1892.

Zonaras. Annales. Ed. Pinder, M. and Buttner-Wobst, T. 3 vols. CSHB.

1841-97.

(b) Oriental.

Abu'l Fida. Annales Muslemici (Arab.). Ed. with Latin transl. Reiske, J. J., and
Adler, I. G. C. 6 vols. Copenhagen. 1789-94. Ed. Anon. 4 vols. Constanti-
nople. 1870.

Abu'l Mahasin. Annales (Arab.). Ed. with Latin transl. Carlyle, J. D. 2 parts.
Cambridge. 1792. (From 971.) Ed. Juynboll, T. G. J., and Matthes, B. F.
2 vols. Leiden. 1852-61. Continued by Popper, W. (Univ. of California
publications in Semitic philology, n.) Berkeley. 1909, etc. (In progress.)
Relevant parts to 969 transl. Vasil'ev, A. A. in Vizantiya i Araby. Vol. n. See
below, in (c) Monographs.

'Aim. Mouile Margaritarum(Arab.). Unpublished. Extract ed. with French transl.
Fagnani, E. Nouveaux textes historiques. In Centenario della nascita di
M. Amari. Vol. n, p. 86. Palermo. 1910. Relevant parts to 959 transl. Vasil'ev.
See above.

'Arib. Chronicon (Arab.). Ed. De Goeje, M. J. Leiden. 1897. Relevant parts transl.
Vasil'ev. See above. [Continuation of Tabari.]

Aristaces Lastivertensis. Historia Armeniae (Arm.). Ed. Anon. (Mkhitharists).
Venice. 1844. French transl. Prud'homme, E. in Revue de l'Orient. Vol. xv,
p. 343; xvi, pp. 41, 159, 268,289; xvn, p. 5. (Soc. Orientale de France. ) Paris.
1863, 64.

Chronicon ad ann. 1234 pertinens (Syr.). Ed. Chabot, J. B. 2 vols. (CSCO. 81, 82.)
Paris. 1917-20.

Dahabi. Historia Islamica (Arab.). Unpublished. Relevant parts to 959 transl.
Vasil'ev. See above.

Elias Nisibenus. Opus chronologicum (Syr. and Arab.). See Bibl. to ch. v(a), n (6) ii.

Eutychius. Annales (Arab.). Ed. Cheikho, P. L., and others (CSCO.). 2 vols.
Beyrout and Paris. 1909-12. Latin transl. Pocock, E. MPG. cxi.

Ibn 'Adhari. Notitiae Occidentis (Arab.). See Bibl. to ch. v(a), n(b) ii.

Ibn al-Athir. Chronicon perfectissimum (Arab.). Ed.Tornberg, C. J. 14 vols. Leiden.
1851-76. Relevant parts to 959 transl. Vasil'ev. See above. Passages relating
to Sicily transl. Amari, M. Biblioteca Arabo-Sicula, vers. ital. Vol. i, p. 363.
See Bibl. to ch. v(a), hi (b).

Ibn al-Jauzi. Liber speculi temporum (Arab.). Unpublished. Relevant parts to 959
transl. Vasil'ev. See above.

Bibliography, Chapter V(b) 811

Ibn Kathir. Historia universalis (Arab.). Unpublished. Relevant parts to 1)59 transl.

Vasil'ev. See above.
IbnKhaldiin. Historia Islamica (Arab.). Ed. Anon. 7 vols. Bulak. 1867. Relevant

parts relating to Sicily transl. Amari. (See above.) Vol. it, p. 161. [The Eastern

portions are all taken from existing sources.]
Ibn al-Kha$ib (Lisan-ad-Din). Gesta regum clarorum (Arab.). Ed. Abdul- Wahab,

H. H. Contributions a l'histoire de l'Afrique du nord et de la Sicile. In Cente-

nario della nascita di M. Amari. Vol. n, p. 427. Palermo. 1910.
Ibn ?afir. Liber de dynastiis praeteritis (Arab.). Unpublished. Relevant parts to

959 transl. Vasil'ev. See above.
Johannes Catholicus. Historia Armeniae (Arm.). See Bibl. to ch. v(a), n(6) ii.
Kamal-ad-Dln. Selecta ex historia Halebi (Arab. ). Full text unpublished. Portions

ed. with Latin transl. Freytag,G. (i) Sel. ex hist. Hal. Paris. 1819. (637-947.)

(ii) Regnum Saahd-Aldaulae. Bonn. 1820. (908-991.) (iii) Locmani fabulae et

Jluralocaexcodd....historicis. Bonn. 1823. (991-1002.) Latin transl. (extracts)
littler, J. J. Historia Merdasidarum. Bonn. 1829. (1002-79.) Relevant parts

to 959 transl. Vasil'ev. See above.
Liber fontium (Kitab al-'uyun) (Arab.). Ed. De Goeje, M. J. in Fragm. Histori-

corum Arabicorum. Vol. i. Leiden. 1871. Relevant parts to 959 transl.

Vasil'ev. See above.
Mahbub (Agapius) of Hierapolis. Liber tituli (Arab.). This part unpublished.

Extracts in Russian transl. Rosen, V. R. ZMNP. ccxxxvn. p. 47. 1884.
Makln. Historia Saracenica (Arab.). Ed. with Latin transl. Erpenius, T. Leiden.

1625. French transl. Vattier, P. Paris. 1657.
Mas'udi. Liber commonitionis et recognitionis, and Prata aurea (Arab.). See Bibl.

to ch. v(a), n(6)ii.
Matthaeus Edessenus. Chronicon (Arm.). Full text unpublished. Parts relating to

period 963-76 ed. with French transl. Dulaurier, J. P. L. F. E. in Rec. hist. Cr.,

Doc. Armen. Vol. i. 1869. Complete French transl. Dulaurier. Bibl. Hist.

Arm. Pt. ii. Paris. 1858.
Michael Syrus. Chronicon (Syr.). Ed. with French, transl. Chabot, J. B. 3 vols.

(AcadlBL) Paris. 1899-1910. Arm. version (epitome with additions relating

to Armenia) ed. Anon. Jerusalem. 1870-1. French transl. Lauglois, V. Venice.

1868.
MiskawaihI. Probationes gentium (Arab.). Ed. with English transl. Amedroz, H. F.,

and Margoliouth, D. S. in The Eclipse of the ' Abbasid Caliphate. Vols, i, n,

iv, v. Oxford. 1920, 21.
Nuwairl. Encyclopaedia (Arab.). See Bibl. to ch. v(a), u(b) ii.
Rudhrawari (Abu Shuja'). Historia Islamica (Arab.). Ed. with English transl.

Amedroz, H. F. and Margoliouth, D. S. in The Eclipse of the 'Abbasid Caliphate.

Vols, in, vi. Oxford. 1920,21. [Continuation of MiskawaihI.]
Stephanus Taroneusis. Historia Armeniae (Arm.). See Bibl. to ch. v(a), u(b) ii.
Tabarl. Historia populorum et regnorum (Arab.). Ed. De Goeje, M. J., and others.

15 vols. Leiden. 1879-1901. Relevant parts transl. Vasil'ev. See above.
Yahya of Antioch. Annales (Arab.). Ed. Cheikho, P. L., and others (CSCO.).

Beyrout and Paris. 1909. (With Eutychius.) Extracts relating to reign of

Basil II ed. with Russian transl. and commentary, Rosen, V. R. Imp. Vasili

Bolgaroboytsa (Me'm. AcadlP. xliv). 1883. Relevant parts to 959 transl.

Vasil'ev. See above.
Ya'qubi (Ibn Wadih). Historia (Arab.). Ed. Houtsma, M. T. 2 vols. Leiden.

1883. Relevant parts transl. Vasil'ev. See above.

III. MODERN WORKS.
(a) General.

Amari, M. Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia. 4 vols. Florence. 1854-68.
Bussell, F. W. The Roman Empire. See Gen. Bibl. v. [Specialises on Armenian
relations.]

812 The Struggle with the Saracens (867-1057)

Dulaurier, J. P. L. F. E. Recherches sur la chronologie armenienne. Bibl. Hist.

Arm. Pt. i. Paris. 1859.
EncBr. (See Gen. Bibl. i.) De Goeje, M.J. s.v. Caliphate.
Encyclopaedia of Islam. (See Gen. Bibl. i.) Especially Streck, M. Armenia. Sobern-

heim, M. Hamdanids.
Finlay, G. History of Greece. See Gen. Bibl. v.

Gay, J. L'ltalie meridionale et l'Empire byzantin. (867-1074.) See Gen. Bibl. v.
Gelzer, H. Abriss d. byz. Gescbichte. See Gen. Bibl. v.
Gibbon, E. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. See Gen.

Bibl. v.
Hartmann, L. M. Geschicbte Italiens im Mittelalter. Vols, hi, iv. See Gen. Bibl. v.
Holm, A. Geschichte Siciliens im Alterthum. Vol. in. Leipsic. 1898.
Miiller, A. Der Islam im Morgen- u. Abendland. 2 vols. See Bibl. to ch. v(a), hi (a).
Oman, C. W. C. A history of the Art of War. See Gen. Bibl. v.
Ramsay, W. The historical geography of Asia Minor. See Gen. Bibl. ii.
Weil, G. Geschichte d. Chalifen. See Gen. Bibl. v.

(b) On Authorities.

Arabic authors.

See Bibl. to ch. v(a), in (b).
Chronicon Cantabrigiense.

See Bibl. to ch. v(a), hi (b).
Constantinus Porphyrogenitus.

Bury, J. B. The Ceremonial Book of Constantine Porphyrogennetos.
EHR. 1907. pp. 209, 417-

The treatise De administrando imperio. BZ. 1906. p. 517.

Elias Nisibenus.

See Bibl. to ch. v(a), hi (b).
Mahbub.

See Bibl. to ch. v(a), hi (b).
Petrus Siculus.

Friedrich, J. Der ursprungliche bei Geo. Monachus nur theilweise er-
haltene Bericht tiber die Paulikianer. In Sitzungsberichte d. bayer.
Akad. d. Wissenschaften. Philos.-philol. u. hist. CI. Munich. 1896.
p. 67.
Psellus.

Bury, J. B. Roman Emperors from Basil II to Isaac Komneuos. EHR.

1889. pp. 41, 251.
Rambaud, A. N. Michael Psellos in Etudes sur l'histoire byzantine, p. 111.
Paris. 1912. (Reprinted from RH. 1877.)
Symeou Logothetes.

See Bibl. to ch. v(a), hi (b).
Syriac authors.

Baumstark, A. Geschichte d. Syrischen Literatur. Bonn. 1922.
Duval, It. La Litterature Syriaque. See Bibl. to ch. v (a), hi (6).
Theophanes continuatus and other Byzantine historians.

Brooks, E. W. The date of the last two books of the Continuator of Theo-
phanes. BZ. 1901. p. 416.
Hirsch, F. Byzantinische Studien. See Gen. Bibl. v.

(c) Monographs and Special Treatises.

Anderson, J. G. C. The campaign of Basil I against the Paulicians in 872. CR. 1896.

p. 136.

The road-system of eastern Asia Minor. JUS. 1897. p. 22. (With map.)

Ghazarian, M. Armenien unter d. arabischen Herrschaft bis zur Entstehung d.

Bagratidenreiches. In Zeitschrift fur armenische Philologie. Marburg. 1904.

p. 149.

Bibliography, Chapter f^(n) 813

Laurent, J. L'Armenie entre l'Byzance et l'lslam. (EcfrAlt. cxvu.) 1919.
Leonhardt, K. Kaiser Nicephorus 11 Phokas u. die Hamdaniden. Halle. 1887.
Le Strange, G. The lands of the Eastern Caliphate. See Gen. Bibl. n.
Itambaud, A. N. L'Enipire grec au x e siecle. Paris. 1870. .
Rosen, V. It. Imp. Vasili Bolgaroboytsa. Mem. AcadlP. xuv. 1883.
Schlumberger, G. L. Un Empereur byzantin au x e siecle. See Gen. Bibl. v.
Tomaschek, W. Hist.-topographisches vom oberen Euphrat u. aus Ost-Kappadokien

in Kiepert-Festschrift. Berlin. 1898. p. 137.
Zur hist. Topographie v. Kleinasien im Mittelalter. SKAW. cxxiv (1891).

Abhandlung 8.
Vasil'ev, A. A. Vizantiya i Araby. 2 vols. St Petersburg. 1900-2. [Critical

history from 813 with translation of relevant passages from Arabic writers.]
Vogt, A. Basile I er , empereur de Byzance. Paris. 1908.

899

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

OF
LEADING EVENTS MENTIONED IN THIS VOLUME

330 (11 May) Inauguration of Constantinople, 'New Rome/ by Constantine

the Great.
428-633 Persian rule in Armenia.
476 Deposition of Romulus Augustus.
529 Justinian's Code.
533 Justinian's Digest and Institutes.
535 Justinian's Novels.
537 Inauguration of St Sophia.
558 The Avars appear in Europe.
565 Death of Justinian.
568 The Lombards invade Italy.
The Avars enter Pannonia.
c. 582 Creation of the exarchates of Africa and Ravenna.

626 The Avars besiege Constantinople.

627 Defeat of the Persians by Heraclius at Nineveh.
631 'Die Avars defeat the Bulgarians.

633-693 Byzantine rule in Armenia.

635 The Bulgarians free themselves from the power of the Chazars.

c. 650 Creation of the Asiatic themes.

679 Establishment of the Bulgarians south of the Danube.

693-862 Arab rule in Armenia.

713 First Venetian Doge elected.

717 (25 March) Accession of Leo III the Isaurian.

717-718 The Arabs besiege Constantinople.

726 Edict against images.

727 Insurrections in Greece and Italy.

732 Victory of Charles Martel at Poitiers (Tours).

739 Battle of Acro'inon.

740 Publication of the Ecloga.

Death of Leo III the Isaurian, and accession of Constantine V Copro-
nymus.

741 Insurrection of Artavasdus.

742 (2 Nov.) Recovery of Constantinople by Constantine V.
744 Murder of Walld II. The Caliphate falls into anarchy.
747 Annihilation of the Egyptian fleet.

750 Foundation of the Abbasid Caliphate.

751 Taking of Ravenna by the Lombards.

753 Iconoclastic Council of Hieria.

754 Donation of Pepin to the Papacy.

755 The war with the Bulgarians begins.

756 'Abd-ar : Rahman establishes an independent dynasty in Spain.

757 Election of Pope Paul IV. Ratification of Papal elections ceases to be

asked of the Emperor of the East.

758 Risings of the Slavs of Thrace and Macedonia.

759 Defeat of the Bulgarians at Marcellae.
762 Baghdad founded by the Caliph Mansur.

Defeat of the Bulgarians at Anchialus.
764-771 Persecution of the image-worshippers.
772 Defeat of the Bulgarians at Lithosoria.

57—2

900 Chronological Table

774 Annexation of the Lombard kingdom by Charlemagne.

775 (14 Sept.) Death of the Emperor Constantine V and accession of Leo IV

the Chazar.

780 (8 Sept.) Death of Leo IV and Regency of Irene.

781 Pope Hadrian I ceases to date official acts by the regnal years of the

Emperor.

787 Ecumenical Council of Nicaea. Condemnation of Iconoclasm.

788 Establishment of the Idrlsid dynasty in Morocco.

790 (Dec.) Abdication of Irene. Constantine VI assumes power.

797 (17 July) Deposition of Constantine VI. Irene becomes Emperor.

800 Establishment of the Aghlabid dynasty in Tunis.

(25 Dec.) Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the West.

802 (31 Oct.) Deposition of Irene and accession of Nicephorus I.

803 Destruction of the Barmecides.

809 Death of Harun ar-Itashid and civil war in the Caliphate.
The Bulgarian Khan Krum invades the Empire.

Pepin of Italy's attack upon Venice.

810 Nicephorus I's scheme of financial reorganisation.
Concentration of the lagoon-townships at Rialto.

811 The Emperor Nicephorus I is defeated and slain by the Bulgarians :

accession of Michael I Rangabe.

812 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle recognises Charlemagne's imperial title.

813 Michael I defeated at Versinicia : Krum appears before Constantinople.
Deposition of Michael I and accession of Leo V the Armenian.

Battle of Mesembria.
Ma'mun becomes sole Caliph.

814 (14 April) Death of Krum : peace between the Empire and the Bulgarians.

815 Iconoclastic synod of Constantinople.
Banishment of Theodore of Studion.

820 (25 Dec.) Murder of Leo V, and accession of Michael II the Amorian.
822 Insurrection of Thomas the Slavonian.

826 Death of Theodore of Studion.
Conquest of Crete by the Arabs.

827 Arab invasion of Sicily.
829-842 Reign of Theophilus.

832 Edict of Theophilus against images.

833 Death of the Caliph Ma'mun.

836 The Abbasid capital removed from Baghdad to Samarra.

839 Treaty between the Russians and the Greeks.

840 Treaty of Pavia between the Emperor Lothar I and Venice.

842 The Arabs take Messina.
Disintegration of the Caliphate begins.

842-867 Reign of Michael III.

843 Council of Constantinople, and final restoration of image-worship by the

Empress Theodora.
846 Ignatius becomes Patriarch.
852-893 Reign of Boris in Bulgaria.
856-S66 Rule of Bardas.

858 Deposition of Ignatius and election of Photius as Patriarch.
860 The Russians appear before Constantinople.
860-861 (?) Cyril's mission to the Chazars.

863 (?) Mission of Cyril and Methodius to the Moravians,

864 Conversion of Bulgaria to orthodoxy.
867 The Schism of Photius.

The Synod of Constantinople completes the rupture with Rome.

(23 Sept. ) Murder of Michael III and accession of Basil I the Macedonian.

Deposition of Photius. Restoration of Ignatius.

867 (13 Nov.) Death of Pope Nicholas I.
(14 Dec.) Election of Pope Hadrian II.

868 Independence of Egypt under the Tulunid dynasty.

Chronological Table 901

869 (14 Feb.) Death of Cyril.

Ecumenical Council of Constantinople. End of the Schism.

870 Methodius becomes the first Moravo-Paunonian archbishop.

871 War with the Paulicians.

876 Capture of Bari from the Saracens by the Greeks.

877 Death of Ignatius and reinstatement of Photius as Patriarch.
(22 July) Council of Ravenna.

878 (21 May) Capture of Syracuse by the Arabs.
878 (?) Promulgation of the Prochiron.

882 Fresh rupture between the Eastern and Western Churches; excommuni-
cation of Photius.

885 (G April) Death of Methodius.
886-912 Reign of Leo VI the Wise.

886 Deposition and exile of Photius.
887-892 Reign of Ashot 1 in Armenia.
c. 888 Publication of the Basilics.

891 Death of Photius.

892 The Abbasid capital restored to Baghdad.
892-914 Reign of Smbat I in Armenia.
893-927 Reign of Simeon in Bulgaria.
895-896 The Magyars migrate into Hungary.

898 Reconciliation between the Eastern and Western Churches.

899 The Magyars invade Lombardy.

900 Victory of Nicephorus Phocas at Adana.
The Magyars occupy Pannonia.

902 (1 Aug.) Fall of Taormina, the last Greek stronghold in Sicily.
904 Thessalonica sacked by the Saracens.

906 Leo Vl's fourth marriage: contest with the Patriarch.
The Magyars overthrow the Great Moravian State.

907 Russian expedition against Constantinople.
909-1171 The Fatimid Caliphate in Africa.

912 (11 May) Death of Leo VI and accession of Constantino VII Porphyro-

genitus under the regency of Alexander.

913 Simeon of Bulgaria appears before Constantinople.
915-928 Reign of Ashot II in Armenia.

917 (20 Aug.) Bulgarian victory at Anchialus.

919 (25 Mar. ) Usurpation of Romanus Lecapenus.

920 (June) A Council at Constantinople pronounces upon fourth marriages.
923 Simeon besieges Constantinople.

927 (« Sept) Peace with Bulgaria.

932 Foundation of the Buwaihid dynasty.

933 Venice establishes her supremacy in Istria.
941 Russian expedition against Constantinople.

944 (10 Dec.) Deposition of Romanus Lecapenus. Personal rule of Cou-

stantine VII begins.

945 The Buwaihids enter Baghdad and control the Caliphate.

954 Princess Olga of Russia embraces Christianity.

955 Battle of the Lechfeld.

959 (9 Nov.) Death of Constantine VII and accession of Romanus II.
959-976 Reign of the Doge Peter IV Candianus.
961 Recovery of Crete by Nicephorus Phocas.

(Mar.) Advance in Asia by the Greeks.

Athanasius founds the convent of St Laura on Mt Athos.

963 (15 Mar.) Death of Romanus II: accession of Basil II: regency of

Theophano.
(16 Aug.) Usurpation of Nicephorus II Phocas.

964 Novel against the monks.

965 Conquest of Cilicia.

967 Renewal of the Bulgarian war.

968 The Russians in Bulgaria.

902 Chronological 1'able

969 (28 Oct.) Capture of Antioch.
The Fatimid Caliphs annex Egypt.

(10 Dec.) Murder of Nicephoius Phocas and accession of John Tzimisces.

970 Capture of Aleppo.

Accession of Geza as Prince of the Magyars.

971 Revolt of Bardas Phocas.

The Emperor John Tzimisces annexes Eastern Bulgaria.

972 Death of Svyatoslav of Kiev.

976 (10 Jan.) Death of John Tzimisces: personal rule of Basil II Bulgar-
octonus begins.
Peter Orseolo I elected Doge.
976-979 Revolt of Bardas Scleras.
980 Accession of Vladimir in Russia.
985 Fall of the eunuch Basil.
986-1018 Great Bulgarian War.
987-989 Conspiracy of Phocas and Sclerus.

988 The Fatimid Caliphs occupy Syria.

989 Baptism of Vladimir of Russia.
Vladimir captures Cherson.

991 The Fatimids re-occupv Syria.
991-1009 Reign of Peter Orseolo II as Doge.

992 (19 July) First Venetian treaty with the Eastern Empire.

994 Saif-ad-Daulah takes Aleppo and establishes himself in Northern Syria.
994-1001 War with the Fatimids.

995 Basil IPs campaign in Syria.

996 (Jan.) Novel against the Powerful,
Defeat of the Bulgarians on the Spercheus.

997 Accession of St Stephen in Hungary, and conversion of the Magyars.
998-1030 Reign of Mahmud ofGhaznah.

1006 Vladfmir of Russia makes a treaty with the Bulgarians.

1009 The Patriarch Sergius erases the Pope's name from the diptychs.

1014 Battle of Cimbalongu ; death of the Tsar Samuel.

1015 Death of Vladimir of Russia.
1018-1186 Bulgaria a Byzantine province.
1021-1022 Annexation of Vaspurakan to the Empire.

1024 The Patriarch Eustathius attempts to obtain from the Pope the autonomy

of the Greek Church.

1025 (15 Dec.) Death of Basil II and accession of Constantine VIII.

1026 Fall of the Orseoli at Venice.

1028 (11 Nov.) Death of Constantine VIII and succession of Zoe and
Romanus III Argyrus.

1030 Defeat of the Greeks near Aleppo.

1031 Capture of Edessa by George Maniaces.

1034 (12 April) Murder of Romanus III and accession of Michael IV the
Paphlagonian.

Government of John the Orphanotrophos.
1038 Death of St Stephen of Hungary.

Success of George Maniaces in Sicily.

The Seljuq Tughril Beg proclaimed.

1041 (10 Dec.) Death of Michael IV and succession of Michael V Calaphates.
Banishment of John the Orphanotrophos.

1042 (21 April) Revolution in Constantinople; fall of Michael V.
Zoe and Theodora joint Empresses.

(11-12 June) Zoe's marriage; accession of her husband, Constantine IX
Monomachus.

1043 Michael Cerularius becomes Patriarch.
Rising of George Maniaces ; his defeat and death at Ostrovo.

1045 Foundation of the Law School of Constantinople.

1046 Annexation of Armenia (Ani) to the Empire.

1047 Revolt of Tornicius.

Chronological Table 903

1048 Appearance of the Seljuqs on the eastern frontier of the Empire.
1050 Death of the Empress Zoe.

1054 (20 July) The Patriarch Michael Cerularius breaks with Rome; schism

between the Eastern and Western Churches.

1055 (11 Jan.) Death of Coustantine IX ; Theodora sole Empress.
The Seljuq Tughril Beg enters Baghdad.

1056 (31 Aug.) Death of Theodora and proclamation of Michael VI Stratio-

ticus.

1057 Revolt of Isaac Comnenus. Deposition of Michael VI.

(1 Sept. ?) Isaac I Comnenus crowned Emperor at Constantinople.

1058 Deposition and death of Michael Cerularius.

1059 Treaty of Melfi.
Abdication of Isaac Comnenus.

1059-1067 Reign of Constantino X Ducas.

1063 Death of Tughril Beg.

1063-1072 Reign of the Seljuq Alp Arslan.

1064 Capture of Ani by the Seljuqs, and conquest of Greater Armenia.
1066 Foundation of the Nlzamlyah University at Baghdad.
1067-1071 Reign of Romanus III Diogenes.

1071 Capture of Bari by the Normans and loss of Italy.

Battle of Manzikert.

The Seljuqs occupy Jerusalem.
1071-1078 Reign of Michael VII Parapinaces Ducas.
1072-1092 Reign of the Seljuq Malik Shah.

1077 Accession of Sulaiman \, Sultan of Rum.

1078 The Turks at Nicaea.

1078-1081 Reign of Nicephorus III Botaniates.

1080 Alliance between Robert Guiscard and Pope Gregory VII.

Foundation of the Armeno-Cilician kingdom.
1081-1118 Reign of Alexius I Comnenus.
1081-1084 Robert Guiscard's invasion of Epirus.
1082 Treaty with Venice.
1086 Incursions of the Patzinaks begin.

1091 (29 April) Defeat of the Patzinaks at the river Leburnium.
1094-1095 Invasion of the Cumans.

1094 Council of Piacenza.

1095 (18-28 Nov.) Council of Clermont proclaims the First Crusade.

1096 The Crusaders at Constantinople.

1097 The Crusaders capture Nicaea.

1098 Council of Bari. St Anselm refutes the Greeks,

1099 Establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

1100 (18 July) Deatli of Godfrey of Bouillon.
1104 Defeat of the Crusaders at Harran.

1107 Bohemond's expedition against Constantinople.

1108 Battle of Durazzo.
Treaty with Bohemond.

1116 Battle of Philomelium.

1118-1143 Reign of John II Comnenus.

1119 First expedition of John Comnenus to Asia Minor.

1122 Defeat of the Patzinaks near Eski-Sagra.

1122-1126 War with Venice.

1128 The Emperor John Comnenus defeats the Hungarians near Haram.

1137 (May) Roger II of Sicily's fleet defeated off Trani.

1137-1138 Campaign of John Comnenus in Cilicia and Syria.

1143-1180 Reign of Manuel I Comnenus.

1147-1149 The Second Crusade.

1147-1149 War with Roger II of Sicily.

1151 The Byzantines at Ancona.

1152-1154 Hungarian War.

1154 Death of Roger II of Sicily.

904 Chronological Table

1158 Campaign of Manuel Comnenus in Syria.

1159 His solemn entry into Antioch ; zenith of his power.

1163 Expulsion of the Greeks from Cilicia.

1164 Battle of Harim.

1168 Annexation of Dalmatia.

1170 The Emperor Manuel attempts to re-unite the Greek and Armenian

Churches.

1171 Rupture of Manuel with Venice.
1173 Frederick Barbarossa besieges Ancona.

1176 Battle of Myriocephalum.
Battle of Legnano.

1177 Peace of Venice.

1180-1183 Reign of Alexius II Comnenus.

1180 Foundation of the Serbian monarchy by Stephen Nemanja.

1182 Massacre of Latins in Constantinople.

1183 (Sept.) Andronicus I Comnenus becomes joint Emperor.
(Nov.) Murder of Alexius II.

1185 The Normans take Thessalonica.

Deposition and death of Andronicus; accession of Isaac II Angelus.
1185-1219 Reign of Leo II the Great of Cilicia.

1186 Second Bulgarian Empire founded.

1187 Saladin captures Jerusalem.

1189 Sack of Thessalonica.
1189-1192 Third Crusade.

1190 Death of Frederick Barbarossa in the East.
Isaac Angelus defeated by the Bulgarians.

1191 Occupation of Cyprus by Richard Coeur-de-Lion.

1192 Guv de Lusignan purchases Cyprus from Richard I.
1193-1205 Reign of the Doge Enrico Dandolo.

1195 Deposition of Isaac II ; accession of Alexius III Angelus.
1197-1207 The Bulgarian Tsar Johannitsa (Kalojan).
1201 (April) Fourth Crusade. The Crusaders' treaty with Venice.
(May) Boniface of Montferrat elected leader of the Crusade.

1203 (17 July) The Crusaders enter Constantinople.

Deposition of Alexius III ; restoration of Isaac II with Alexius IV
Angelus.
1203-1227 Empire of Jenghiz Khan.

1204 (8 Feb.) Deposition of Isaac II and Alexius IV; accession of Alexius V

Ducas (Mourtzouphlos).
(13 April) Sack of Constantinople.
(16 May) Coronation of Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and foundation or

the Latin Empire of Constantinople.
The compulsory union of the Eastern and Western Churches.
The Venetians purchase the island of Crete.
Alexius Comnenus founds the state of Trebizond.

1205 (14 April) The Bulgarians defeat the Emperor Baldwin I at Hadrianople.

1206 (21 Aug.) Henry of Flanders crowned Latin Emperor of Constantinople.
Theodore I Lascaris crowned Emperor of Nicaea.

1208 Peace with the Bulgarians.

121C The Turks of Rum defeated on the Maeander by Theodore Lascaris.

1212 Peace with Nicaea.

1215 The Fourth Lateran Council.

1216 Death of the Emperor Henry, and succession of Peter of Courtenay.

1217 Stephen crowned King of Serbia.

1218 Death of Geoffrey of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaia.

1219 Creation of a separate Serbian Church.

1221-1228 Reign of Robert of Courtenay, Latin Emperor of Constantinople.
1222 Recovery of Thessalonica by the Greeks of Epirus.

Death of Theodore Lascaris, Emperor of Nicaea. Accession of John HI
Vatatzes.

Chronological Table 905

1222 First appearance of the Mongols in Europe.

1224 The Emperor of Nicaea occupies Hadrianople.

1228 Death of Stephen, the first King of Serbia.

1228-1237 Reign of John of Brienne, Latin Emperor of Constantinople.

1230 Destruction of the Greek Empire of Thessalonica by the Bulgarians.

1234 Fall of the Kin Dynasty in China.

1235 Revival of the Bulgarian Patriarchate.

1236 Constantinople attacked by the Greeks and Bulgarians.

1236 (?) Alliance between the Armenians and the Mongols.

1237 Invasion of Europe by the Mongols.

1237-1261 Reign of Baldwin II, last Latin Emperor of Constantinople.
1241 Battles of Liegnitz and Mohi.

Death of John Asen II; the decline of Bulgaria begins.

1244 The Despotat of Thessalonica becomes a vassal of Nicaea.

1245 Council of Lyons.

1246 Reconquest of Macedonia from the Bulgarians.

1254 (30 Oct.) Death of John Vatatzes; Theodore II Lascaris succeeds as
Emperor of Nicaea.

Submission of the Despot of Epirus to Nicaea.

Mamluk Sultans in Egypt.
1255-1256 Theodore II's Bulgarian campaigns.
1256 Overthrow of the Assassins by the Mongols.

1258 Death of Theodore II Lascaris. Accession of John IV Lascaris.
Destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols and overthrow of the Caliphate.

1259 (1 Jan.) Michael VIII Palaeologus proclaimed Emperor of Nicaea.
1259-1294 Reign of Kublai Khan.

1260 The Egyptians defeat the Mongols at 'A in Jalut.

1261 (25 July) Capture of Constantinople by the Greeks ; end of the Latin

Empire.
1261-1530 Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo.

1266 (Feb.) Charles of Anjou's victory over Manfred at Benevento.

1267 (27 May) Treatv of Viterbo.

1267-1272 Progress of Charles of Anjou in Epirus.

1270 (25 Aug.) Death of St Louis.

1274 Ecumenical Council at Lyons ; union of the Churches again achieved.

1276 Leo III of Cilicia defeats the Mamluks.

1278 Leo III of Cilicia defeats the Seljuqs of Iconium.

1281 Joint Mongol and Armenian forces defeated by the Mamluks on the

Orontes.
(18 Nov.) Excommunication of Michael Palaeologus; breach of the

Union.
Victory of the Berat over the Angevins.

1282 (30 May) The Sicilian Vespers.

(11 Dec.) Death of Michael Palaeologus. Accession of Andronicus II.
c. 1290 Foundation of Wallachia.
1291 Fall of Acre.

1299 Osman, Emir of the Ottoman Turks.
1302 Osman's victory at Baphaeum.

End of the alliance between the Armenians and the Mongols.
1302-1311 The Catalan Grand Company in the East.

1308 Turks enter Europe.

Capture of Ephesus by the Turks.

1309 Capture of Rhodes from the Turks by the Knights of St John.
1311 Battle of the Cephisus.

1326 Brusa surrenders to the Ottoman Turks.

(Nov.) Death of Osman.
1326-1359 Reign of Orkhan.
1328-1341 Reign of Andronicus III Palaeologus.

1329 The Ottomans capture Nicaea.

1330 (28 June) Defeat of the Bulgarians by the Serbians at the battle of

Velbuzd.

906 Chronological Table

1331 (8 Sept. ) Coronation of Stephen Dusan as King of Serbia.

1336 Birth of Timur.

1337 The Ottomans capture Nicomedia.
Conquest of Cilicia by the Mamluks."

1341 Succession of John V Palaeologus. Rebellion of John Cantacuzene.
1342-1344 Guy of Lusignan King of Cilicia.
1342-1349 Revolution of the Zealots at Thessalonica.
1344-1363 Reign of Constantino IV in Cilicia.

1345 Stephen Dusan conquers Macedonia.

1346 Stephen Dusan crowned Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks.

1347 John VI Cantacuzene takes Constantinople.

1348 Foundation of the Despotat of Mistra.

1349 Independence of Moldavia.

1350 Serbo-Greek treaty.

1354 The Turks take Gallipoli.

1355 Abdication of John VI Cantacuzene. Restoration of John V.
(20 Dec.) Death of Stephen Dusan.

1356 The Turks begin to settle in Europe.

1357 The Turks capture Hadrianople.
1359-1389 Reign of Murad I.

1360 Formation of the Janissaries from tribute-children.

1363-1373 Reign of Constantino V in Cilicia.

1365 The Turks establish their capital at Hadrianople.

1368 Foundation of the Ming dynasty in China.

1369 (21 Oct.) John V abjures "the schism.
1371 (26 Sept.) Battle of the Maritza.

Death of Stephen Uros" V.
1373 The Emperor John V becomes the vassal of the Sultan Murad.
1373-1393 Leo VI of Lusignan, the last King of Armenia.
1375 Capture and exile of Leo VI of Armenia.
1376-1379 Rebellion of Andronicus IV.

Coronation of Tvrtko as King of the Serbs and Bosnia.
1379 Restoration of John V.
1382 Death of Louis the Great of Hungary.
1387 Turkish defeat on the Toplica.

Surrender of Thessalonica to the Turks.

1389 (15 June) Battle of Kossovo ; fall of the Serbian Empire.
1389-1403 Reign of Bayazid.

1390 Usurpation of John VII Palaeologus.

1391 Death of John V. Accession of Manuel II Palaeologus.
(23 Mar.) Death of Tvrtko I.

Capture of Philadelphia by the Turks.

1393 Turkish conquest of Thessaly.

(17 July) Capture of Trnovo ; end of the Bulgarian Empire.

1394 (10 Oct.) Turkish victory at Roviue in Wallachia.

1396 (25 Sept.) Battle of Nicopolis.

1397 Bayazld attacks Constantinople.

1398 The Turks invade Bosnia.

Timur invades India and sacks Delhi.

1401 Timur sacks Baghdad.

1402 (28 July) Timur defeats the Ottoman Sultan Bayazld at Angora.
1402-1413 Civil war among the Ottoman Turks.

1403 (21 Nov.) Second battle of Kossovo.
1405 Death of Timur.

1409 Council of Pisa.

1413-1421 Reign of Mahomet I.

1413 (10 July) Turkish victory at Chamorlu.

1416 The Turks declare war on Venice.

(29 May) Turkish fleet defeated off Gallipoli.
1418 Death of Mir6ea the Great of Wallachia.

Chronological Table 907

1421-1451 Reign of Murad II.

1422 Siege of Constantinople by the Turks.

1423 Turkish expedition into the Morea.
Thessalonica purchased by Venice.

1423-1448 Reign of John VIII Palaeologus.
1426 Battle of Choirokoitia.

1430 Capture of Thessalonica by the Turks.

1431 Council of Basle opens.

1432 Death of the last Frankish Prince of Achaia.

1438 (9 April) Opening of the Council of Ferrara.

1439 (10 Jan.) The Council of Ferrara removed to Florence.
(6 July) The Union of Florence.

Completion of the Turkish conquest of Serbia.

1440 The Turks besiege Belgrade.

1441 John Huuyadi appointed vo'ivode of Transylvania.
1443-1468 Skanderbeg s war of independence against the Turks.
1444 (July) Peace of Szegedin.

(10 Nov.) Battle of Varna.
1446 Turkish invasion of the Morea.

1448 (17 Oct.) Third battle of Kossovo. Accession of Constantine XI Palaeo-
logus.
1451 Accession of Mahomet II.
1453 (29 May) Capture of Constantinople by the Turks.

1456 The Turks again besiege Belgrade.

1457 Stephen the Great succeeds in Moldavia.

1458 The Turks capture Athens.

1459 Final end of medieval Serbia.
1461 Turkish conquest of Trebizond.
1462-1479 War between Venice and the Turks.
1463 Turkish conquest of Bosnia.

1468 Turkish conquest of Albania.

1475 Stephen the Great of Moldavia defeats the Turks at Racova.

1479 Venice cedes Scutari to the Turks.

1484 The Montenegrin capital transferred to Cetinje.

1489 Venice acquires Cyprus.

1499 Renewal of Turco- Venetian War.

1517 Conquest of Egypt by the Turks.

1523 Conquest of Rhodes by the Turks.

1537-1540 Third Turco-Venetian War.

1571 Conquest of Cyprus from Venice by the Turks.