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VOL. 64 PART 1 26 JULY, 1940

———

TRANSACTIONS OF
THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

INCORPORATED

ADELAIDE
PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS
KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE

Price - - One Guinea

Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide,
for transmission by post as a periodical

VOL. 64 20 DECEMBER, 1940

TRANSACTIONS OF
THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

INCORPORATED

ADELAIDE

PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS
KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE

Price - - One Guinea

Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide,
for transmission by post as a periodical

CONTENTS

Srcnit, RatpH W.: Geology of Hallett Cove and District, with special reference to
the distribution and age of the Younger Glacial Till

CompPERE, Harotp: A New Species of Metaphycus i ea Eneyrtidae) sada
Australia : Parasitic in Eriococcus coriaceus Maskell i

WeeEpING, B. J.: A New Flindersian Chiton
Turner, A. Jerrerrs: A Revision of the Australian Gece Capit)
Evans, J. W.: Tube-building Cercopids (Homoptera, Machaerotidae)

AnprewarTHa, H. G.: The Environment of the Australian nage: Locust Ghia:
toicetes terminifera Walk.) in South Australia

Jounston, T. Harvey, and Mawson, Patricia M.: eer ne South “ipa
tralian Mansi

CHAPMAN, FREDERICK: On a hc rate - Spong ges hae ihe Breiicatr of the
Flinders Range, South Australia ; sth ag

ALnerMAN, A. R.: A Siderolite from nae Sod adele.
Prescott, J. A.: Evaporation from a Water Surface in Relation to Solar ete

Jounston, T. Harvey, and Simpson, E. R.: The Adult Stage of the fae waa
Leucochloridium australiense

Frntayson, H. H.: On Central aceebas Mucniats one Ihe The ri tae
Womerstey, H.: A New Species of Ceratrimeria (Collembola) from Tasmania
Rogers, R. $.: Contributions to the Orchidaceous Flora of Australia ..

TinpALE, NorMAn B.: Results of the Harvard-Adelaide Universities Berane
logical Expedition, 1938-1939. Distribution of Australian sherel Tribes :
A Field Survey .

Womers.ey, H.: Studies in persce ere T Peat, Bence sl Ac ceeding
Asusy, E.: A New Fossil Cryptoplax from the Pliocene of South Australia

Bernpt., R. M.: Notes on the Sign- mowiene of the se Tribe, of the Lower River
Murray, South Australia :

Jounston, T. H., and Simpson, E. R.: The Anatomy ee ites e-history of tue Peace
Cyelocoelum jaenschi n.sp. :

Mountrorp, C. P.: Aboriginal Stone Sioned

Hate, H. M.: Report on the Cymothoid Isopoda obtained tig thie 1, a Ss aes ele on
the Coasts of Queensland, New. South Wales, Victoria, lasmania and South Australia

FENNER, C.: Australites Pt. 1V The John Kennett Collection with Notes on Darwin
Glass, Bediasites, etc. F

STEELE, H. V.: Three new pica, of Reaenmerntutiys from ccm. i
WomersLey, H.: A new Termitophilous Collembolan from South Australia

Jounston, T. H., and Ancet, L. M.: Larval Poets from Australian ee
Molluscs Pt. VII e

Jounston, T. H., and ae. Es, ve aie Rates cae " Aint F mre
water Fish :

STEELE, H. V.: A Revision of ha Canes oaainaiti ie fond (Thy See in aupiatin
Jounston, T. H. and Mawson, P. M.: Some Filarial Parasites of Australian Birds ..
Mawson, D.: Notes and Exhibits. Tillite and other Rocks from Hallett Cove, S. Aust.

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M.: A Key to the Nematode Parasites of Australian
Marsupials and Monotremes

Brack, J. M.: Additions to. the Flora of South asheaes me 0. ne

JOHNSTON, T. H,, and AnceL, L. M.: The Momabelsey and Lite- ASAE ot ae ‘rae
tode Dolichopera macalpini Nicol!

BALANCE-SHEETS
Verco MEDALISTS
List or FELLows
INDEX

101
109
114

119
125
137
139

140
233
266

267

273
279

288

305
325
330

331

341
353
355
362

363
371

376
388
389
289
392

GEOLOGY OF HALLETT COVE AND DISTRICT
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE DISTRIBUTION AND AGE
OF THE YOUNGER GLACIAL TILL

By RALPH W. SEGNIT, Assistant Government Geologist

Summary

The region to be described is situated about 15 miles in a south-south-westerly direction from
Adelaide. Geologically Hallett “’ Cove can probably be regarded as being one of the most
frequently visited localities in this State, its chief point of interest being in the glacial deposit (and
striated bedrock °’), which is generally referred to as being of Permo-Carboniferous age.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED

GEOLOGY OF HALLETT COVE AND DISTRICT
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE DISTRIBUTION AND AGE
OF THE YOUNGER GLACIAL TILL

By Ratew W. Seenit, Assistant Government Geologist
Prates [ to III

[Read 11 April 1940]

A IntropucTION AND Previous INVESTIGATIONS 3
B Ha.rerr Cove anp District 5
1 Physiography a oe aS seg a a sed Se 5

2 Geology rah ats 6
(a) Middle Pre-Cambrian (©)—Upper Series (C1 4) 7

(b) Upper Pre-Cambrian (D) .. 9

i Sturtian Tillite (D1) . 9

a Purple Series (D 5) a 10
wi Quartzites (D7) (Flinders Range Sandstone- Quartzite
Series) .. a 7 Pet aan a Be 12
(ce) Lower Cambrian (E) an . P a 13
(d) Younger Till (Lower C ‘retaccous ?), (K) ie beg a 14
t Introduction fen oe on 73 ra ot 14
ii Hallett Cove and District .. ‘tt Ag tas ik 15
(e) Areas Outside the Hallett Cove District .. ». ih it 24
@ Mount Barker ., ia x its se 24
it Sellick Hill Se st oH f oF 25
tii Port Vincent (Yorke Peninsula) a0 a fis 3 27
(f) Probable Age of the Younger Till a *“s an is 29
(g) Cditozoie—Lower Pliacene 3 is zt he Ld 36
(h) Early ? Pleistocene .. bet re ov i - 39
(7) Wate ? Pleistocene to Re cent. a 4 rm inte ne 41
3. Summary and Conclusions .. Zt ra wd aly na ot 42
List or REFERENCES .. a <3 oe 7 ete x ie ar 44

A INTRODUCTION AND PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS

The region to be described is situated about 15 miles in a south-south-westerly
direction from Adelaide. Geologically Hallett“) Cove can probably be regarded
as heing one of the most frequently visited localities in this State, its chief point
of interest heing in the glacial deposit (and striated bedrock ©) ), which is generally
referred to as being of Permo-Carboniferous age.

Several papers, but no general detailed geological maps of the region with the
written descriptions of the formations, with one exception, have been published
describing the features of this till at Hallett Cove. This exteption was a small
geological sketch map of the coast in the immediate vicinity of Black Cliff (at

@) In the discussion which followed the communication and reading iof a paper by
Jacob H. Lindal, at the meeting of the Geological Society, London, on 7 June 1939.
Professor W. W. Watts pointed out that the use of the term “Striated Pavement” in
certain recent papers was not in accord with the original definition and with the usage in
Scotland, the home of the term. Tt should be used for striated surfaces in the drift itself
and applied to the re-advance of ice over the surface of drift previously deposited (1).

Trans. Roy. Soe §.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

the northern end of the Cove) and the “Amphitheatre,” published with the results
of the investigations made in the region under review by Tate, Howchin, and
David (2). It was prepared for a specific purpose, namely, to prove whether the
glacial beds were Pre- or Post-Miocene“ in age.

A detailed geological map of Hallett Cove and District is therefore essential
in order that the relationship of the glacial beds to the underlying and overlying
formations may be studied and appreciated in the light of modern knowledge
ascertained by the recent researches into the age of the geological formations in
South Australia.

One of the most important problems connected with the geolegy of this region
(and elsewhere in this State) is the age of the younger glacial beds present.
Definite evidence is desired that may define more accurately the time when the
glaciers moved over at least the southern portions of South Australia, and
deposited the boulder material. ‘This till has, from its earliest discovery, been
regarded as being comparable with the glacial beds of Permo-Carboniferous age
in Victoria and Tasmania. The writer proposes to specially discuss its age in
relation to the evidence collected as a result of his observations in the region of
Hallett Cove and other localities in this State where the younger ™ glacial deposits
have been mapped and examined.

‘The first scientific investigator to recognise the formation as being of glacial
origin at Hallett Cove was Tate, in 1887, who considered .... That the glaciation
was of Post-Miocene age (3, p. 1). Amongst the subsequent investigators the name
of HfTowchin is outstanding, and his published accounts of the till, particularly in
the vicinity of Hallett Cove. have appeared in the Transactions of the Royal
Society of South Australia (4 te 8). A complete bibliography of Howchin’s
papers has been published in the Transactions in 1933 (9).

The writer has in this paper, as in all works published by him, sought official
sanction for all place names within the area under review. The Director of Lands
has intimated that the follawing names have been approved by the Nomenclature
Committee:

“Fallett’s” Cove, to be known as Hallett Cove.

Black Clitf—was formerly referred to as “Black Point.”

Hallett Creek—constantly referred to as the “Field River,” particularly by

Howchin: 4, p. 64; 5, p. 284; 7, p. 364; 8, p. 49; 10, p. 265; ete.

Sellick Hill—formerly known as ‘‘Sellick’s 1111.”

©) This fossiliferous sandstone has subsequently been identified as Lower Pliocene.

() The term “younger” is here applied to the glacial deposit (formerly referred to
as Permo-Carboniferous) to distinguish it from the much older Sturtian Tillite of Upper
Pre-Cambrian age, which is present also at Hallett Cove.

©) It is of interest to note that an old plan of the “Settled Districts of South Aus-
tralia,” prepared by a former Deputy Surveyor-Gencral (Mr. P. T. Finnis) in 1841, shows
the “Field or Onkaparinga River.” It has been noted also that the creek in question
has been named “Hallett Creek” on an old Admiralty Chart dated 17 August 1874.

All bearings given in the text and shown on the geological maps in this paper
are magnetic, and they have reference to the period when the declination was
approximately 5° E. of True North.

The record of all heights shown thus—(66), on the geological map, have
been obtained by aneroid, They have reference to approximately low water at the
time of the investigation. Check height readings have been taken from survey
datum points along the railway.

The system of indexing the formations present in the District of Hallett Cove
is similar to that introduced by the writer in the classification of the Pre-Cambrian-
Cambrian Succession: Geological Survey of South Australia, Bulletin No. 18
(11)

In the preparation of the Geological Map particular care has been taken to
record the geological data as accurately as possible, but owing to the small scale
used, narrow beds have had to be considerably exaggerated in order that they may
be distinguishable on the map. The true thickness of the formations (where
known), however, are included in the text.

B HALLET COVE AND DISTRICT

1 PurystoGRAPHY

Almost the entire four-mile length of coastline shown on the geological map
presents steep sea-cliffs which rise in places to over 90 feet above high water.
In certain localities the cliffs are perpendicular, due to the almost vertical dip (to
the westwards) of old shales, slates, and quartzites which form the cliffs.

The old formations (Upper T’re-Cambrian) just mentioned are entirely
absent from the central three-quarter-mile strip of coast (Hallett Cove proper),
where the younger glacial deposit sweeps down at least to low water level, there
passing below the sea to an unknown depth. This short strip of coastline consists
mainly of a boulder and sandy beach. The northern end of the Cove with its
deeply dissected and eroded retreating cliffs is generally referred to as the
“Amphitheatre.”

The principal drainage channel in the region is Hallett Creek,“ which takes
its rise on the western flank of the Mount Lofty Range north-east from Reynella
(and across which the bank of Happy Valley Reservoir has been constructed )
and joins the coast at the southern end of IIallett Cove. The course of the ereek
westwards from Reynella is a very sinuous one, due to the alternating beds ot
hard, dense limestones and quartzites, and the softer bands of slates and shales
across which the creek has deeply entrenched itself.

A short creek joins the coast at the southern end of the Amphithcatre, and
two larger 4 ones foln the coast in the northerly (part of the neon examined.

©) This hee tee is usually referred to as the ‘ ‘Field River” by Profeadar Bisseetin

Evidence of coastal erosion is afforded by the marine platform, which
is visible at low tide along the full length of coastline shown on the geologi-
cal map. An interesting feature noted in connection with the platform is the
remarkable constancy of its width, although the rocks exposed consist of varying
types, including hard, dense quartzites, thinly laminated soft shales, and glacial
tillite of Upper Pre-Cambrian age, etc.

2 GEOLOGY
The examination and mapping of the Hallett Cove District has resulted in an
added geological interest in the region, due to the fact that deposits of the Upper
Pre-Cambrian glaciation [the Sturtian Tillite (D1)], in addition to the well-
known younger glacial till, oceur in the locality.

Unfortunately, the greatest portion of the surface of the country examined
and included in the geological map is covered with travertine limestone and
Pleistocene to Recent deposits which effectively conceal the underlying geological
structures and formations. The only outcrops available for examination occur
on the lower slopes and channels of the several creeks and tributaries, the cliff
faces of the coast, and the platform of marine erosion between high and low
water. The examination of the latter area requires favourable weather conditions
and a low tide. As the geological formations exposed between high and low water
(i.c., the platform of marine erosion) are considered to be important, they are
shown on the geological map.

The old formations (Pre-Cambrian and Lower Cambrian) have been con-
siderably disturbed by tectonic forces, which have caused structural folding
(particularly adjacent to faults) and faulting. In some places it has been possible
to identify the general direction of the fault lines, but in many instances while a
fault-zone or fault-line has been recognised, its true direction has not been
ascertained. Many of the faults shown on the geological map are regarded by
the writer as having accompanied the general uplift (and downthrow) of the
Mount Lofty Range, although evidence of faulting of much greater age has been
noted. One massive block of formations (Purple Series, D6), situated in the
vicinity of Curlew Point, in the extreme south-westerly corner of the geological
map, has been very highly disturbed. The shales have been severely contorted,
crushed and faulted during compressional earth movements which appear to have
taken place long before the Mount Lofty Uplift period.

Similarly the block of the Sturtian Tillite (Upper Pre-Cambrian) uncovered
at low water, and shown in the north-western corner of the geological map, has
suffered considerably from the effects of severe compressional earth movements,
resulting in highly contorted beds and faulting. It is considered by the writer
that the earth movements affecting the Sturtian Tillite are camparable with those
described above at Curlew Point. It was noted that ferruginous quartz veins

cecut in the crushed zones in both localities described. During the examination
of many square miles of country in the Flinders and Mount Lofty Ranges, the
writer has noted that the ancient (Pre-Tertiary ?) fault zones are usually traversed
by numerous ferruginous quartz veins. On the other hand, faulting which has
accompanied the Mount Lofty Uplift is generally devoid of quartz veins, This
distinction is an important factor in assisting to differentiate between the older
and younger faults, particularly in the region under review. Further references
will be made to the age of the faults when consideration is given ta the probable
age of the younger glacial deposit at Hallett Cove and elsewhere in this State,
and the older and younger formations present in the area under review.

Normal synclinal and anticlinal folding occurs in the locality, but it was
noted that the folded structures were, in all places, closely associated with strike
and dip faulting. The Lower Cambrian limestones and calcareous shales and slates
which outcrop on the slopes of the hills through which the Hallett Creek has cut
its channel, have been gently folded into anticlines and synclines. Similar folding
can be seen in the Purple Series which outcrop along the lower slopes of the
tributary in Section 579 (Noarlunga).

(a) Mrippre Pre-Camprian (C) — Upper Series (C 1-4)

The oldest formations present in the region under review consist of beds
which are quite typical of the Upper Series Middle Pre-Cambrian (11, p. 35),
which are well exposed in the banks of Hallett Creek where it crosses Sections
570 and 573 (Noarlunga), as well as in the two gullics which cross Sections 567
and 563 (Noarlunga), the latter gully being about quarter of a mile south of
Hallett Cove Railway Station. The uppermost bed of the series consists of a mas-
sive greyish-green to brown, fine to coarse-grained, felspathic quartzite (C2), rang-
ing up to about 180 feet in thickness. The most southerly exposure of this quartzite
occurs on the western lower slope of Hallett Creek about a quarter of a mile (up-
stream) from the beach at the southern end of Hallett Cove. The strike of the
formation is 15° E. of N. (magnetic), the bed dipping to the W.N.W. at a very
high angle. The next outcrop occurs on the line of strike in the gully which
crosses the southern part of Section 567 and joins the coast at the southern end
of the Amphitheatre, where the bed strikes 20° E. of N. (magnetic) with a dip
ranging from 75° to 80° W.N.W. The quartzite is exposed again in the main
gully which passes adjacent to the unmade E-W road in the northern part of
Sections 563 and 566 (Noarlunga), the formation cutting the extreme north-
western corner of Section 563. The strike here is 15° E. of N. (magnetic), the
bed dipping W.N.W. at an angle of 85°. The quartzite also makes a very
prominent outcrop on the top of the sea cliffs (Sections 251, 252, Noarlunga) and
extends inland to beyond the Adclaide-Willunga Railway where the dip of the
formation is very flat and in strong contrast to the normal high angle of dip

of the quartzite of similar age in the exposures described above. A creek which
crosses Section 250 (Noarlunga), between the railway and the coast, has cut its
irregular channel deeply into this quartzite and has exposed a good section of
the beds. Here the quartzite is very dense, dark greyish to light brown in colour,
with numerous strong ripple-marked surfaces. The formation dips to the westward
at an angle of 30°.

The railway cutting extending northwards from Hallett Cove Railway Station
has also exposed this quartzite. At the northern end there is a strike fault, the dip
adjacent to the disturbed zone is vertical. Several large surfaces exposed show
strong shickensiding in addition to large areas showing ripple marks.

Considerable importance is attached to the outcrops and distribution of the
quartzite (C2) described, for the Sturtian Tillite [ (D1), Upper Pre-Cambrian |
overlies this quartzite in the region under review.

The formations underlying the quartzite (C2), consist of greyish siliceous
slates, thinly laminated calcareous shales which are often strongly ripple marked,
thinly bedded sandstones and coarse grits to fine-grained conglomerates, thin
bands of light greyish dolomitic limestones, and occasional thin beds of dens:
quartzite (C1-4), The beds generally alternate very rapidly and abruptly in
changing from one lithological facies to another, and are very wavy-bedded or
wrinkled and are usually of no great thickness. These distinctive features serve
as a ready imeans of identification, but make it impossible to shaw each individual
formation in correct sequence on the geological map. The several lithological
types shown, therefore, are only diagrammatic. The series is very much disturbed
by faulting, the earth movements having produced short, sharp drag folds adjacent
to the fault-lines and fault-zones, particularly where these formations are exposed
in the high banks of Hallett Creek (Sections 570, 573, Noarlunga). The southerly
extension of the series from Hallett Creek is cut by an approximately ‘E-W fault
which crosses the southern portion of Section 573 (Noarlunga). A small exposure
of the Upper Series occurs in the creek in the extreme south-eastern corner of
Section 567 (Noarlunga), and also in the creek and tributary in the northern part
of Section 563 (Noarlunga). The last outcrop of the Upper Series recorded in the
region under review occurs in the banks of the deep creek which crosses
Section 559 (Noarlunga).

The maximum noted thickness of the succession is about 1,250 fect, but there
is a possibility that strike faulting may have occurred in the section selected for
measurement, although a critical examination of the exposed beds failed to reveal
any evidence of the presence of faults.

The formations described above as Middle Pre-Cambrian—Upper Series-~
are judged to be such, as they exhibit all of the lithological features which charac-
terise these beds in other localities in this State, particularly in the Flinders Range
(Mundallo Creek Area, 11, pp. 35-37) ; Mount Grainger, 11, p. 94; Burra Mines.
11, p. 108, ete.

(b) Upper Pre-Camprian (D)
i STURTIAN TILLITE (D1)

The formation that is regarded as the Sturtian Tillite by the writer overlies
the felspathic quartzite (C2) described above. The most prominent outcrops
occur in the northern region under review between high and low water, where
the formation forms a platform of marine erosion; and in the adjacent cliffs of
the coast, which rise to over 50 feet in height.

The tillite consists principally of purplish-grey argillaceous and siliceous
shales and slates, in part thinly laminated, which carry many boulders, and bands
of purplish-brown argillaccous grits crowded with large and small angular, sub-
angular and rounded boulders consisting principally of dolomitic limestone.
Irregular elongated lenses and masses of dolomitic limestone occur in parts.
Near the high water mark on the coast (western central part of Section 560,
Noarlunga) is an elongated lens of dense felspathic quartzite interbedded in the
tillite.

The southern extension of the tillite is cut by a cross (dip) fault, the forma-
tion being much disturbed, crushed and fractured adjacent to the fault. On the
southern side of the fault are highly crushed purple shales and dense purplish-
brown quartzites, The actual fault-line is extremely difficult to detect owing to
the highly disturbed nature of the adjacent formations. The tillite dips west-
wards at an angle of 26° with the strike pitching to the south, adjacent to the fault.
but the purplish-brown quartzite and purple shale dip to the east at an angle of
73°. A creek crossing the south-western part of Section 560 (Noarlunga) has
cut its channel deeply into the fillite. At its junction with the coast there is a low
cliff just above high water mark with a narrow breccia-zone having an average
thickness of 5 feet (== strike fault-zone).

The tillite forming the sea-cliffs dips westward at an angle of about 30° and
is undisturbed, but that exposed on the beach between high and low water is much
crushed and disturbed with occasional zones and thin veins of very ferruginous
quartz occurring in the folds. An interesting feature noted here is the presence of
many thin calcite veins and small irregular clusters of calcite crystals. Dolomitic
limestone boulders and pebbles are very numerous in the till, Several bold out-
crops of the formation between high and low water in the immediate vicinity of
the junction of the creek with the coast are regarded as being typical of the norma!
type of the Sturtian ‘Tillite.

In the sides of a small tributary joining the creek a few yards upstream from
the cliff face, the formation consists of a purplish-brown arenaceous mudstone,
showing stratification and carrying numerous medium to small angular to rounded
boulders of dolomitic limestone, and many thin veins and irregular clusters of
calcite. Irregular masses and lenses of dolomitic limestone in the tillite are another
feature, On tracing the tillite upstream, it tends to become more agillaceous with
very few boulders, which consist mainly of dolomitic limestone and quartzite.

Its junction with the underlying formation (the quartzite C2) is exposed in the
banks of the creek on the western side of the railway line embankment, but is
very imperfectly defined.

On tracing the tillite in a northerly direction, the beds forming the cliffs are
very argillaccous. In the centre of the western boundary of Section 250 (Noar-
lunga) 1s an approximately N.W.-S-E. fault. On the northern side of this fault the
tillite continues to outcrop with a westerly dip of 30° between high and low water,
with the underlying quartzite (C 2) forming the sea cliffs. It extends in a northerly
direction beyond the limits of the geological map.

A small outcrop of the Sturtian Tillite occurs in the floor and sides of the
creek which crosses the southern portion of Section 567 (Noarlunga) and joins
the coast in about the centre of the Cove, forming a low stepped water-
fall about 200 feet from the beach. The formation consists of a purplish-grey
argillaceous and arenaccous slate carrying many small masses and irregular lenses
of dolomitic limestone, in addition to small boulders and pebbles of limestone.
The purplish colour of the tillite is probably due to bleaching and weathering
agents. On the formation being traced upstream, the boulders and pebbles are
mere sparsely distributed throughout the tillite. Its junction with the underlying
quartzite (C2) is again ill-defined.

A very small and imperfect section of the basal bed of the tillite occurs on
the western side of Hallett Creek at the approach to the gorge about 300 yards
from the beach, where it overlies the quartzite (C2).

The maximum thickness of the Sturtian Tillite recorded in the region under
review is about 350 feet.
it PURPLE SERTES (1) 6)

No outcrops of the Tapley’s Hill Series (D3) were located in the region under
revicw. In the normal order of deposition of the Upper Pre-Cambrian System,
the Tapley’s Hill Series (D3) occurs between the Sturtian Tillite (D1) and the
Purple Series (D6).

The Purple Series consists of purple shales, purple slates, and occasional
bands of purplish quartzite, sandstone and grits, and thin beds of purplish-grey
argillaceous limestone, interbedded in the series. It includes the outstanding
rock types which form the steeply inclined to perpendicular sea-cliffs along the
coast south of Hallett Cove, and is present also at Black Cliff, at the northern
end of the Cove.

Along the coast the shales are usually very thinly laminated, in part strongly
ripple-marked, and have the characteristic very deep, dark purple and green
banding described by the writer in a previous publication (11, pp. 44-46). Typical
samples of the purple and green bands collected by the writer at Black Cliff have

©) The several lithological types mentioned are not shown as individual beds to
true scale on the geological map, but are all included under the general heading of
Purple Series (D6).

been analysed by Mr. T. W. Dalwood, who has made the following comments in
connection with the analyses of the samples:
“ The colouring of the slates would be due to either ferrous oxide, ferric

oxide, manganous or manganic oxide, carbonaceous matter, or a combination of these
materials, Assays of the samples yielded:

Green Purple
Ferrous oxide (FeQ) _.... as ar’ 2:47% 2-23%
Ferric oxide (FesOs) exe: . a 282% 8-01%
Manganous oxide (MnO) ed att 0-07 % 0-06%
Carbon (C) ne si +: alt 0-06% 006%

“Tt will be seen that the only appreciable difference lies in the higher ferric oxide
content of the purple slate, which is consistent with its colour. The colour of the

green slate suggests the presence of minerals of the chlorite group. The purple
layers deposited at a different period appear to have had their source in a more
hematitic region. The sharpness of the line of demarcation between the green and

purple layers precludes the possibility of infiltration of iron.”

Attention has been drawn already by the writer to the highly disturbed,
crushed, and folded nature of the Purple Series along the coast, particularly in
those formations which are exposed in the platform of marine erosion at low
water, In addition to the folding, minor faults were noted, with overlapping of
the narrow beds of purplish quartzite which are interbedded in the purple slates.
So complicated are many of these structures that no attempt has been made to
reproduce them upon the geological map, except in a very general way. It will
be noted that the severe folding and flexures are usually present in the Purple
Series which form the platform of marine erosion, and that the series forming the
steeply inclined sca-cliffs usually have a dip to the W.N.W. at angles ranging
from 50° to vertical. Highly contorted zones in the shales do, however, occur in
the cliffs, notably at and north of Curlew Point (see pl. i, fg. 1), and also at Black
Cliff. The major feature at Black Cliff consists of an anticline in which the
central core has been under-cut and removed by marine erosion, exposing a highly
fractured zone, suggestive of a fault-plane coincident with the axis of the anticline.
The adjacent purple shales are much shattered by drag-folding, with strongly
marked slickensiding on thin partings of chloritic-quartz in the bedding planes of
the shales. Ilere the purple shales extend northerly for about 200 yards, where
they are cut by an approximately E.-W (dip) fault, which occurs on the southern
slope of the creek near the northern boundary of Section 566 (Noarlunga). The
shales along the share between high and low water have been much disturbed by
compressional earth movements along the strike of the formations, causing con-
siderable buckling of the shales, etc.

The only other exposure of the Purple Series north of Black Cliff consists
of a wedge-shaped block of the Lower Purple shales exposed at low tide opposite
the south-western corner of Section 560 (Noarlunga). The shales are highly
crushed and disturbed, having been faulted down into quartzites of the (Flinders
Range) Sandstone-Quartzite Series (D7) to be described.

The purple shales exposed at, and north of Black Cliff and along the coast
south from Hallett Creek, are quite characteristic of the Upper Purple Group
(D 6h), whilst the purple shales, slates and thin interbedded purplish sandstones
and quartzites outcropping along the coast south and north of Curlew Point
appear to be the highest horizon of the Upper Purple Group—representing the
transitional series from the Upper Purple shales to the overlying (Flinders
Range) Sandstone-Quartzite Series (D7).

A band of irregular wavy-bedded purple and green shales and_ slates is
exposed in the banks of Hallett Creck in the vicinity of the north-western corner
of Section 574 (Noarlunga). This formation has been faulted down
between rocks of Middle Pre-Cambrian and Lower Cambrian age, and_ is
very characteristic of the Lower Purple Group (D6a). An extension of the
same faulted block of the shales can be seen in the banks of the creek in the
vicinity of the road crossing south-east from Ilallett Cove Railway Station.
The strike in the latter area is 15° E. of N. (magnetic) and the formation has been
folded into a syncline—the dip of the eastern limb being to the W.N.W. at an
angle of 44°, The strike of the shales in the Hallett Creek is 15° FE. of N. (mag-
netic) also, but the dip is fairly constant, being 57° W.N.W. A cross (dip) fault
must exist, therefore, between the two exposures of these purple shales.

Purple shales and slates which are both calcareous and siliceous and which
are regarded as being very characteristic of the Lower Purple Group (D 6a)
occur on the southern side of a major (approximately) E.-W. (dip) fault, which
extends from Sections 573 to 533 (Noarlunga). <A tributary of Hallett Creck
crosses Section 5/9 (Noarlunga) from south-east to north-west, then turns north
along the unmade road which passes along the western boundary of the Section.
Here the Lower Purple shales, which are exposed in its banks, have been folded
into gently inclined anticlines and synclines.

Owing to the highly disturbed nature of the formations included in the
Purple Series in the region under review, it has not been possible to determine
the maximum thickness of the series. Outcrops at several localities were
measured, however, and the estimate prepared indicates that the thickness of the
series is not less than 1,200 feet.

ii SANDSTONES AND QUARTZITES (D7)
(Flinders Range Sandstone-Quartzite Series)

Sandstones and quartzites representative of the highest formation in the
Upper Pre-Cambrian System (D7) (sce 11, pp. 21-23) outcrop along the shore
between high and low water and form the adjacent cliffs of the coast on the
western margin of Sections 562 and 561 (Noarlunga). The southern extension
of the series has been faulted down against the purple shales a few yards south
of the creck, which has cut its channel along the northern boundary (of the
unmade road) of Section 566, etc. (Noarlunga), The fault which lies in’ an

approximately [¢.-W. direction, swings down the hillside towards the creek a
short distance upstream from the cliff face. The quartzite outcropping in the bed
(and southern bank) of the creek adjacent to the fault is folded into an anticline
with the western limb of the fold dipping W.N.W. at an angle of 40°, and the
eastern limb dipping to the E.S.E, at an angle of 38°. The quartzite in the bed
of the creek forms a small waterfall. he fold of the formation has been highly
shattered and crushed during the period of faulting, with numerous small irregular
veins of quartz traversing the quartzite. It is suggested that a strike fault occurs
immediately cast of the anticline, but owing to the cover of younger sediments
the existence of this strike fault could not be confirmed. The E.-\V. (dip) fault
mentioned ahove is regarded as being Pre-Mount Lofty Uplift age, and is cut by
the suspected strike fault east of the waterfa!l.

The northern extension of the formation has been faulted down against the
Sturtian Tillite opposite the south-western corner of Section 560 (Noarlunga).
The formation bas been highly crushed and disturbed in the vicinity of the fault,
a wedge-shaped block of purple shales has been faulted down or forced into the
severed end of the quartzite by powerful compressional earth movements.

The Sandstone-Quartzite Series is of a purplish to brown colour, and very
massive. It is characterised by strongly marked current-bedding, ripple marks,
bands of coarse grit, and occasional shaped clay-casts or impressions (see 11,
pp. 21-23), etc., which distinguish these quartzites from the quartzites of greater
age in the district. The series is regarded as being portion of the lower-most
horizon of the succession, as oecasional thin beds of purple shales occur inter-
bedded in the purplish quartzites and sandstones. Where exposed to wave action,
these interbedded shales give rise to the unstable condition of the cliff face, result-
ing in the broken nature of the coastline in the region under review. The hard
and resistant beds of quartzites form abrupt and sharp angles by the retreat of
the cliff on the northern side, the underlying softer rock (the purple shale) yield-
ing, and the next underlying hard bed of quartzite forms the cliff, until it also 1s
truncated in its turn, with another se: back of the cliff to the northward. ‘The
sea-cliffs, therefore, exhibit a succession of rock faces at right angles to the coast
brought about by the retreat of the adjacent cliff.

The maximum thickness of the Sandstone-Quartzite Series noted is about
260 feet, but the writer suspects that strike faulting has occurred in the series,
and may have resulted in a duplication of portion of the succession measured
(a very common feature observed in the Flinders Range Sandstone-(Quartzite
Series in all localities where these formations have been examined). 1f such is
the case, a reduction in the thickness stated must be made.

(c) Lower CAMBRIAN (IE)
The formations which have been classified as Lower Cambrian consist of
calcareous and siliceous shales and slates, and massive beds of limestones. The
Hallett Creek has cut its irregular channel deeply into these formations in Sections

505, 519 and 574 (Noarlunga). The beds have been considerably disturbed by
folding and faulting. A strike fault occurs in the calcareous shales and slates in
the north-eastern part of Section 574 (Noarlunga), the formations on both sides
of the fault being folded into shallow anticlines.

The limestones are very dense, massive, and of a blue-grey colour. Occasional
thin partings of light grey calcareous shale are interbedded in the limestones in
which calcite veins are a common feature.

A typical sample of the limestones collected by the writer from the outcrops

on the slopes of the tributary which crosses the northern boundary of Section 533
(Noarlunga) has been examined by Mr. T. W. Dalwood, and yielded on analysis:

Silica (SiO2) - - - Fe - 6-10%
Alumina (Al:Os) - - - - 1-74%
Ferric Oxide (Fe:O:) - - z 1-64%
Lime (CaQ) - - - - - 40:55%
Magnesia (MgO) - = “ - 835%
Water at 100° C. (11:0) = - - 0+20%
Water above 100° C. (HzO) - ‘ - 0°47 %
Carbon dioxide (CQz) - - - 40-63%

99-68%

The slates and shales are in part calcareous, with beds of siliceous slates
interbedded in the series. The shales are usually light grey in colour, but the
slates generally assume a dark greyish colour.

No fossiliferous horizons were located in the limestones, but the general
lithological features of the series are so similar to formations of Lower Cambrian
age in other localities in the southern Mount Lofty Range (and elsewhere, 11,
pp. 68 and 135), that the writer has no hesitation in assigning the formation
described to the Lower Cambrian System.

(d) Youncer Titi (Lower Creraceous?) (K)

t INTRODUCTION
One of the most interesting formations present at Hallett Cove is the well-
known glacial till (and the glacially striated bedrock), which is usually referred
to as being of Permo-Carboniferous age, In a recent paper Sir Douglas Mawson
has described a deposit of this younger till present in the vicinity of Mount
Magnificent as the Permian glacigene beds (12).

So far as is known the deposit at Hallett Cove is one of the most northerly
remains (in the region of the Mount Lofty Range) of the glacial material which
at one time covered a great extent of country in the southern portions of the
State. The writer has located a deposit, which is strongly suggestive of being
of glacial origin, in the vicinity of Mount Barker (see p. 24). If this deposit is
accepted as being of glacial origin, then it will constitute the most northerly
extension of the younger glaciation in the Mount Lofty Range recorded to date.

An outcrop of the younger till, which is exposed at low water in the base ot
the sea-cliffs north of Port Vincent (Yorke Peninsula), extends much farther
north than either of the deposits mentioned above (see p. 27), The two deposits—
Mount Barker and Port Vincent—will be briefly described in a later section
of this paper.

The geographical positions of the three glacial deposits mentioned above are

as follows:
Port Vincent (Junction of the Hundreds

Curramulka-Ramsay, and the coast) - Lat. 34° 44’ S. Long. 137° 53’ E.
Mount Barker (south of township) - & Lat. 35° 04’ S, Long. 138° 52’ E.
Hallett Cove (Black Cliff) - - - Lat. 35° 10’ S. Long. 138° 30° E.

ii WALLETT COVE AND DISTRICT

The lithological characteristics of the younger till present at Hallett Cove
have been described in a very detailed and admirable manner by Howchin (4, 6).

It is of interest to note that the prolific assemblage of boulders and erratics
which are set in a structureless arenaceous matrix exists in the lower-most beds
of the younger till, particularly near the base of the deposit (which rests uncon-
formably upon the Upper Pre-Cambrian rocks of the district), and that on pass-
ing upwards the till gradually assumes a more stratified appearance, with regular
bedding planes and fewer (and much smaller) boulders and pebbles. The upper-
most 10 feet or so consist of alternating bands of pale purplish and white, very
thinly laminated argillaceous (soft) shale, and narrow bands of fine-grained
arenaceous (soft) shales. Mawson has described the characteristic features
of the fluvio-glacial beds associated with the younger till at Hallett Cove and
other localities in the southern Mount Lofty Range and referred to them as
“varve shales” (13, p. 160). The same author has described “barytes sand
crystals” which occur in the uppermost stratified yellowish sandy horizon of the
younger till, north of Black Cliff. He states: “The particular bed is only a few
inches in thickness, and weathers into soft friable sand-rock, with the hard nodular
barytes aggregates distributed throughout the bed” (14, p. 119), The writer did
not locate the horizon described by Mawson at Hallett Cove.

The surface of the till is characterised by the presence of huge erratics and
boulders of quartzite, granite, shale, etc., which are in many instances well rounded
by water action. It is evident that since the close of the glacial epoch and before
the deposition of the Lower Pliocene sediments a certain amount of the finer con-
stituents of the till has been removed by erosion, with a subsequent concentration
of rolled boulders and erratics on the upper surface.

Very fine samples of glacially striated bed-rock occur along the top edge of
the sea-cliffs. The locations of the striated areas are shown on the geo-
logical map. Quartzites and purple shales are highly polished, grooved and
striated by land ice. A very good example, measuring approximately 42 feet
by 15 feet occurs on the top of the sea-cliff at Black Cliff, where the striae
have been cut deeply into purple shales. The directions of the striae are 28°, 33°,
40° and 55° W. of N. (magnetic). On traversing northwards along the top

edge of the sea-cliffs, the next glaciated bed-rock met with is “Tate’s Rock,” so
nanied after Professor Ralph Tate, the discoverer (3). In this instance the
striae are deeply cut into purplish quartzite, the prevailing direction of the striae
being magnetic north. The next locality where the striated bed-rock is encountered
is in the extreme south-westerly corner of Section 561 (Noarlunga), where two
parallel narrow beds of purplish quartzite, about 30 feet apart, and separated by
a band of purplish shales, are smoothed and deeply striated, particularly on the
iuner surfaces of the quartzite. The intervening soft shale has been partly
removed by glacial agencies and subsequently filled with glacial material.

A very small glacially striated rock occurs on the top of the sea-cliff on the
southern side of a small gutter in the extreme north-western corner of Section 561
(Noarlunga). The smoothed and striated quartzite, which has suffered consider-
‘ably from recent crosive agents, represents the most northerly evidence of the
younger glaciation in the Hallett Cove District noted by the writer.

A series of cross sections have been drawn through the sea-cliffs by the
writer, in order to show the relative thickness of the till, and to indicate the
relationship which the glacial deposit bears to the underlying and overlying forma-
tions. Text fig. 1 (Section A-A) has been drawn through the coastline in the
north-westerly corner of Section 562 (Noarlunga). The formations present in the

section consist of the following:
, . . Thickness, Feet
Recent to Late ? Vleistocene-~Travertine limestone A

Lon

4 Early ? Pleistocene—Sandy clay with angular fragments, and
rounded boulders and pebbles of quartzite, limestone, purple
slates, and shales, etc. - - - - - - - - 51

Disconformity (or Uneonformity?)
3. Lower Pliocene—Highly fossiliferous calcareous sandstone — - 3
Unconformity

2 Younger Till (Lower Cretaceous ?):

¢ Pale, purplish and white, very thinly laminated argillaceous
and arenaceous shales, showing definite stratification with
large, well-rounded (water-worn) boulders and erratics of
quartzite, granite, shale, dolomotic limestone, etc., at the top.

b White, very fine evenly-graded sandstone and occasional
grits and small boulders showing stratification at the top, but
gradually losing this structure on passing down to

a Yellowish and white arenaceous bed carrying large and
small boulders and erratics of quartzite, dolomitic limestone,
shales and slates, granite (Victor Harbour), etc., particularly
near the base, but which become smaller and more sparse
on passing up the formation - - - < a - 63

Uncontformity
1 Upper Pre-Cambrian—(Flinders Range) Sandstone-Quartzite
Series (D7) with narrow bands of purple shales - J = 80 (+)

The Upper Pre-Cambrian quartzites and sandstones dip to the W.N.W. at
very high angles, ranging from 70° to vertical.

——

Ww 6 E
FEET
- 150
DISCONFORMIT ¥ --—>
UNCONFORMIT Y Liao
L 50
PLATFORM OF MARINE
ears

(

[LOH ATER meet cy peo
el ee

ite}
CHAINS (ESS Se Ee

|. UPPER PRE-CAMBRIAN —QUARTZITES, ETC. 2. LOWER CRETACEOUS? — GLACIAL TILL.

3. LOWER PLIOCENE ~FOSSILIFEROUS SANDSTONE. 4. EARLY? PLEISTOCENE ~ MOTTLED
CLAY WITH BOULDERS. 5, TRAVERTINE-LIMESTONE, 6. RECENT — SAND DUNES.

(SECTION "A—~A) 1939 Rid.

Pe ute ey a

Pig. 1
Line of Section A-A of Map

The younger till has been deposited unconformably upon the Upper Pre-
Cambrian quartzites, etc., and is 63 feet in thickness. The junction with the
overlying Lower Pliocene sandstone is very sharply defined and represents an
unconformity. The Cainozoic formations will be described in a later part of

this paper.

=
FEET
W E .15O
(723) =e
cae
(66)
DISCONFORMITY-——__3
UNCONFORMIT ¥ -——~—>1 -
UBSRNTORMITY SA ect BOSE i
(srrraFed Bedrock) acral
PLATFORM OF MARINE /
Low WATER ony S|) ee ; ne Low |WATER
tli] i
ye
gy FF é 10
CHAINS £ yaa oh pee a i meee rats J
L UPPER PRE-CAMBRIAN — PURPLE SERIES. 2. LOWER CRETACEOUS ? — GLACIAL TILL.
3. LOWER PLIOCENE—FOSSILIFEROUS SANDSTONE. 4. EARLY? PLEISTOCENE—MOTTLED
CLAY WITH BOULDERS. 5, TRAVERTINE - LIMESTONE
(SECTION 8 —B) 1339 CUE,

Fig. 2
Line of Section B-B of Map

The cross-section B-B (text fig. 2) has been drawn through the coastline in the
north-western corner of Section 566 (Noarlunga), and in the vicinity of “Tate’s
Glaciated Rock.” The formations present are similar in many respects to those
shown in text fig. 1, with the exception that the younger ‘till has been deposited
unconformably upon purple shales, and the glacial deposit has been reduced con-
siderably in thickness. It is interesting to note that the thickness of the Early ?
Pleistocene sandy-clay is about the same as in the first section described, The
thickness of the formations present in Section B-B is as follows:

| , : Thickness, Feet
5 Recent to Late ? Pleistocene—Travertine limestone - - -

4 Early?, Pleistocene—Sandy clay, etc. - - ~ - - 57
3. Lower Pliocenc—Fossiliferous sandstone - - - - - 3
2 Younger Till (Lower Cretaceous?) - - - - - - 24
1 Upper Pre-Cambrian—Purple shales (with narrow beds of
purplish quartzite) - 2 rs = - o - - 100 (+)

The line of the cross-section B-B (text fig. 2) has been drawn a few chains south
of the cast-west creek which has cut its channel adjacent {o the northern boundary
of Section 566. Reference has been made above to the presence of a fault which
occurs on the immediate southern side of this creek, but it is partly concealed by
the overlying till, clearly indicating that the fault is pre-younger till in age. The
western limb of the quartzites which have been folded into an anticline (and
exposed on the lower slope and in the creek, north of the fault) has been highly
polished, smoothed and striated by ice action.

Definite evidence can be seen that earth movements took place in the region
under review after the retreat of the glacial conditions. When standing on the
upper slope of the hill on the north side of the creek, and facing southwards, it
will be seen that the upper stratified horizon of the younger till shows a gentle
dip of about 22° to the E.S.E., with the overlying lower Pliocene fossiliferous
sandstone, which is horizontally bedded, lying unconformably upon the glacial
beds, as shown in pl. i, fig. 1.

he critical examination of the upper surface of the younger till (or the
underneath surface of the overlying Lower Pliocene sandstone) to the north of
Black Cliff (as shown in text figs. 1 and 2) indicates that a period of erosion of the
uppermost beds of the glacial deposit has taken place prior to the deposition of
the Lower Pliocene sandstone, as evidenced by the presence of many huge erratics
and boulders which are generally well rounded by water action, and lying upon the
upper surface of the till, It will be shown later that many of these large (and
small) boulders have been caught up by the overlying Lower Pliocene formation
and can be seen on the large upturned blocks of the fossiliferous sandstone which
have slipped down the face of the upper retreating cliff.

It has been stated above that the till can be seen dipping to the E.S.E. on the
northern side of the east-west creck, with the overlying Lower Pliocene sand-
stone (horizontally bedded) resting unconformably upon the till. Unfortunately,

however, the actual junction made by these two formations cannot be examined
in detail along the northern slope of the hill (on the south side of the creek),
owing to surface slip, alluvium, and vegetation, so that the writer was unable to
determine whether the erosion of the upper beds of the till occurred before or after
the earth movements which caused the tilting of the till to the eastwards. It is
suggested that sub-aerial erosion of the glacial beds occurred after the glacial
epoch, followed by earth movements causing the tilting of the till (and the under-
lying formations), with a subsequent transgression of the sca causing a further
period of erosion (of short duration) before the deposition of the sandstones and
the influx of a warmer climate with marine life.

One of the most interesting physiographical features in the vicinity of Hallett
Cove is the “Amphitheatre,” which consists of a retreating cliff formed of un-

PEGS RORMEL ie

a 2 @y
L180

-50

LOW WATER LOW WATER

SCALE He <n ie Tae cies Eee’ 5 CIT Seen ome seiompe ss = eae

rs - ° CHAINS

I]. LOWER CRETACEOUS ? — GLACIAL TILL. 2. LOWER PLIOCENE FOSSILIFEROUS SANDSTONE.
ANDO SANDY LIMESTONE. 3, EARLY? PLEISTOCENE — MOTTLED SANDY-CLAY WITH PEBBLES.

4. LATE ? PLEISTOCENE — FOSSILIFEROUS SANDSTONE (RAISED BEACH). 5, TRAVERTINE ~ LIMESTONE

6. SAND DUNES, ETC.
(SECTION C—C) ACROSS AMPHITHEATRE. 1939 Sead,

Fig, 3
Line of Section C-C across Amphitheatre

consolidated sediments in the northern half of the Cove. There are no exposures
(with the exception of one doubtful small outcrop of purple shale) of the Pre-
Cambrian formations between Black Cliff and the Bluff at the southern end of the
Cove. The younger till swings down to the beach, and is exposed between high
and low water during low tide. Many boulders and huge erratics of greyish
quartzite, granite (Victor Harbour, 9 feet x 5 feet x 5 feet), dolomitic limestone
carrying numerous calcite veins, Sturtian Tillite (Upper Pre-Cambrian), grey
and purple shales, purplish sandstone, and boulders of Tapley’s Hill ribbon slates,
have been weathered out of the till and left stranded on the beach, It is the break
through to low water of the till, and the subsequent erosion of the unconsolidated
sediments including the younger till and overlying formations, that has formed the
bay or cove.

The line of Section C-C (text fig. 3) has been drawn through the Amphitheatre
to show the relationship of the Tertiary sediments to the younger till. The forma-

ions present in the line of the section consist of the following:
Thickness, Feet
6 Recent—Low sand dunes - - - = - e = = A.

5 Recent to Late ? Pleistocene—Travertine limestone - - 2
Recent to Late? Pleistocene—Raised beach (fassiliferous
sands) - = - - - - - - - - 22
3. Early ? Pleistocene:

e Light brownish, very fine-grained argillaceous (in part
calcareous) sand with occasional small pebbles. Shows
stratification.

d Brownish sandy-clay with small boulders,

¢ Red-brown and light greyish mottled sandy-clay with
small pebbles.

b Red-brown argillaceous sand.

@ Basal bed, 3 ft. thick, sandy-clay with several narrow bands
of small angular and rounded pebbles. Bed shows a hori-
zontal banding of the pebbles or stratification - - - 46

Disconformity (or Unconformity ?)

2 Lower Pliocene—Fossiliferous sandstone and sandy-limestone 4
Uncontormity
1 Younger Till (Lower Cretaceous?) - - - t - - 106

The most outstanding feature noted in connection with the younger till av
the Amphitheatre is the great increase in the thickness of the glacial formation,
which is at least 106 feet. No evidence was observed of the easterly dip of the till
as shown in text fig. 2 (Section B-B), but, on the contrary, near the southern end of
the Amphitheatre the younger till strikes 15° W. of N. (magnetic), the bed
dipping to the W.S.\W. at an angle of about 18°. The strike pitches northwards
at an angle of about 15°. The thickness of the till (106 feet) represents the height
above high water mark of the junction of the till with the overlying Lower
Phocene, so that even though the formation has a westerly dip of 18° the true
thickness of the till will still be over 100 feet, as no account has been taken of that
portion of the deposit which extends under the sea below the high water mark.
It is suggested that the pronounced increase in the thickness of the till is due
probably to that section of the coast between Black Cliff and the headland at the
southern end of Hallett Cove having been let down by faulting before the deposi-
tion of the Lower Pliocene fossiliferous beds, thus preserving a greater thickness
of the till than has occurred north of Black Cliffs, as shown in text figs. | and 2.

An important fact which must not be overlooked, however, is that the latest
fluyio-glacial stage represented by the uppermost beds of the younger till noted
and described as being present to the north of Black Cliff, is present also at the
Amphitheatre, which adds to the difficulty of accounting for the great difference
in the thickness of the till (other than by faulting) north and south of Black Cliff,
although the two deposits of the till practically butt against each other.

One of the very few localities where evidence has been observed by
the writer of possible faulting in the younger glacial deposit occurs at the
junction of the creck (which has cut its channel close to the southern
boundary of Section 567) and the coast. The top of the till on the hillside on
the northern side of the creek is 56 fect above high water and is overlain by
Early ? Pleistocene beds, whereas on the southern side of the creek the junction
of the Early ? Pleistocene sediments (the Lower Phocene having been completely
removed by erosion, as will be described later) and the till is only 24 feet above
high water mark. The faulting is obviously Post-Early ? Pleistocene to Recent
in age.

Additional evidence to support the suggestion of faulting of the younger till
at the locality just described can be scen in the outcrop of the till itself along the
higher levels north of the fanlt-line, where the formation, which dips westerly,
has a pronounced pitch or drag to the northwards,

It has been stated above that evidence was noted north of Black Cliff of an
erosive stage at the close of the glacial period. Additional evidence was scen of
the effects of crosion of the uppermost beds of the till whilst making a traverse
round the Amphitheatre at the junction of the till and the overlying formations.
Many huge boulders and erratics of quartzite, granite (Victor Harbour), purple
shale, ete., occur at the top of the till, and in several places the boulders occur in
the overlying Lower Pliocene fossiliferous beds. The boulders are generally well
rounded by water action. In the sides of deeply cut wash-out gutters in the
north-casterly part of the Amphitheatre, the Lower Pliocene consists of a highly
fossiliferous sandy limestone ranging up to 3 feet 9 inches in thickness, with
water-worn boulders lying in the uppermost part of the bed, These boulders have
been derived probably from the erosion of the younger till in the immediate
vicinity during the deposition of the fossiliferous limestone.

On the large-scale detail map of the Amphitheatre it will be seen that the
younger till is not always overlain by the Lower Pliocene fossiliferous beds, but
that in certain parts the overlying formation consists of the sediments of Early?
Pleistocene age.

Howchin has described a whitish and yellowish sand, sometimes
argillaceous, which underlies the Lower Pliocene (Ilowchin’s Miocene) at the
Amphitheatre (5, pp. 288-289) and suggests that the sands may have been
deposited during a late fluvio-glacial stage in the building up of the (till) sedi-
ments, or even later by running water acting on the glacial deposits by gentle
currents, the clay being carried forward in suspension and the sand deposited.
The writer agrees that the sands have been laid down by fluvio-glacial agencies
as suggested by Howchin but at a much later date than the glacial period, and
prior to the deposition of the Lower Phocene. The sands have been derived
probably from the erosion of the younger till in the vicinity of the Cove, ‘The
maximum thickness of the sands is about 10 feet. The overlying formation is an
elongated thin lens of very calcarcous fossiliferous sandstone ranging up to
9 inches in thickness. At its northern extension the sands pass down insensibly
into the arenaceous till, but at the southern end they wedge out rather abruptly.

A small outcrop of the younger till occurs on the slope of the spur which
forms the southern headland of the Cove. The deposit is in part concealed by
travertine limestone. The junction of the till with the overlying formation, a
very thin lens of calcareous sandstone (== Lower Pliocene), is 66 feet above high
water mark,

The most southerly extension of the till in the region of Hallett Cove occurs
along the edge of the sea-cliff, and between high and low water opposite the
south-western part of Section 569 (Noarlunga).

r— aN. fe.

w ; E

ERRATIC as
DISCONFORMITY (64)

UNCGONFORMITY —3>%
2

UNGONFORMITY —~ 33)
MARINE PLATFORM

OF EROSION
Low WATER le he nan a) ee Low WATER
Hil
SCALE Qe nc aoe st = a ==) CHAINS

|. UPPER PRE-CAMBRIAN — PURPLE SERIES. @. LOWER CRETACEOUS ? — GLACIAL TILL.

3.LOWER PLIOCENE — THIN LENS FOSSILIFEROUS SANDY - LIMESTONE. 4. EARLY? PLEISTOCENE —
SANDS WITH BOULDERS, GRAVELS WITH BOULDERS, MOTTLED SANDY- CLAY,

5, LATE? PLEISTOCENE -FERRUGINOUS GRAVEL. 6, TRAVERTINE - LIMESTONE.

(SECTION D—D) 1939, RU |
Fig. 4
Line of Section D-D of Map
The line of Section D-D (text fig. 4) has been drawn through the northern end
cf the glacial deposit to show the relationship of the till to the adjacent forma-
tions. The section consists of the following beds:

Thickness, Feet
§ Recent to Late ? Pleistocene—Travertine limestone - - 1
4 Early ? Pleistocene.
¢ Brownish and greyish mottled sandy clay with boulders,
angular and rounded (83 ft.).
b Calcarcous sand with thin bands and lenses of white
(arenaceous) limestone, gravel and boulders (8 ft.).
@ Yellow and white sand, in part argillaceous with numerous
small boulders and pebbles in the lower-most beds (24 ft.) 115

Disconformity (or Unconformity)
3. Lower Phocene—Narrow irregular band (lens-shaped) white

fossiliferous sandy limestone _ - - - - - 44
Unconformity
2 Younger Till (Lower Cretaceous ?) - = - 4 _ 26

Unconformity
1 Upper Pre-Cambrian—Purple shales - - - - - 40 (+)

The younger till consists of the unstratified arenaceous deposit, carrying
numerous rounded and angular boulders and erratics. The uppermost stratified

fluvio-glacial beds characteristic of the region are not present, having been either
removed by erosion before the deposition of the Lower Pliocene or were never
laid down in this area. The unconformable junction between the till and the
Lower Pliocene is 59 feet above high water mark. The Early ? Pleistocene sedi-
ments range up to 115 feet in thickness. A large erratic consisting of a fine-
grained quartzite carrying numerous thin veins of quartz is perched on the top
edge of the cliffs. The erratic occurs in the basal beds of the Early ? Pleistocene,
and has been derived probably from the erosion of the till in the immediate
vicinity during the early stages of Pleistocene times.

i ad ey
FEET
200
150
190
50
LOW WATER _
S$ o 5 10
SCALE C r as Cees Rees See & I a 1 CHAINS
|, UPPER PRE~CAMBRIAN— PURPLE SHALES. 2. LOWER? CRETACEOUS —
GLACIAL TILL, 3. EARLY? PLEISTOCENE — a, SAND WITH PEBBLES;
b,CALCAREOUS SAND, GRAVEL AND BOULDERS, 8 FT THICK, c, MOTTLEO
SANDY-CLAY. 4. TRAVERTINE LIMESTONE.
“- ___ (SECTION EE) 1939 Ruut,
Fig. 5

Line of Section E-E of Map

The line of Section E-E (text fig. 5) has been taken through the coast about
10 chains south of Section D-D. The formations present are similar in general
respects to those shown in Section D-D, but the glacial deposit dips away beneath
low water. Many large boulders and erratics have been weathered out of the till,
and are strewn about on the beach between high and low water. A large boulder
of granite (Victor Harbour) rests upon the smooth and polished surface of the
purple shales at the base of the till, just above high water mark. The Early ?
Pleistocene sediments have increased in thickness to 156 feet. Numerous glacially
smoothed and striated boulders can be seen in the younger till in the region just
described.

The most southerly exposure of the till occurs on the southern side of a short
wash-out in the extreme south-western corner of Section 569 (Noarlunga), where

a huge erratic of purple shale is perched precariously upon a low cliff. The upper
limit of the glacial bed is marked by a very narrow band of sandy limestone
(= Lower Pliocene).

During the examination of the younger till—not only at Hallett Cove, but
in all localities in the southern Mount Lofty Range where exposures of the glacial
remains have been encountered by the writer, a very careful search has been made
for any evidence of a palaeontological nature which may assist in establishing the
age of the till, but no such evidence has been forthcoming. A carefully sclected
set of samples of the several horizons of the glacial formation at IIallett Cove has
been examined by Mrs. Ludbrook, whose report is negative also.

(ec) Areas Outsipe Tne HaAtrerr Cove District
i MOUNT BARKER

Recently the writer located three arenaceous deposits carrying a varied
assemblage of large (ranging up to 18 inches) and small angular to rounded
boulders of vein quartz, quartzite, sandstone, quartz-felspar-pegmatite and granite
in the valley of the Western Flat Creek and close to the Mount Barker-Maccles-
field main road, which is strongly suggestive of being of glacial origin. One of
these deposits occurs in Section 4474 (Hundred Macclesfield) and about 14 miles
5.5.W, from Mount Barker township. A borehole was drilled into the deposit
to a depth of 103 feet, passing through “drift sands and boulders.’ The full
thickness of the deposit was not penetrated as the barchole was abandoned owing
to the drift sand entering the casing. This deposit is not referred to nor shown
on the geological map which accompanies the published description of the geology
of the locality by the writer, although the main details of the borehole are given
(15, pp. 58, 60) and the site of the hole is shown on the geological map (15).

‘The second deposit occurs in part Section 3724 and 3011 (Macclesfield), a!
short distance south of the first-described location, and exhibits lithological
features similar to those described above. A borehole drilled into the deposit is
reported to have passed through nearly 130 feet of very sandy clay and drift with
occasional small boulders and pebbles.

Very recently the writer inspected the sediments cut in two trial-holes sunk
into the alluvium flat on the western side of the Western Flat Creek (Section 4476,
Macclesfield) and opposite the eastern corner of the Section. The trial-holes
were cxcavated on a proposed site for a storage reservoir. The section exposed
in the trial-holes consists of the following scdiments:

Bed No. 8 Surface- 2'0" Black carbonaceous clay

bs wy OF 20" — 2°3" Greyish-yellow clay with gravel

mn » 6 2’3"~— 83" Argillaceous greyish-yellow very fine-grained

silty-clay

8’ 3"— 8'8" Greyish-yellow clay with boulders and gravel
8'8"-11' 4" = Putty-greyish very fine-grained sandy-clay
11’4”~12'9"” — Greyish-ycllow mottled very fine-grained sand
129” — 139” Gravel and boulder wash
1379" +} Decomposed micaceous slate

mM & tn

The formations numbered 3-7 in the above section exhibit all of the litho-
logical characteristics of the younger till, which may, however, represent re-
distributed glacial material.

The formations exposed in the second trial-hole consisted almost entirely of
very fine-grained sands with small pebbles, and comparable with the sediments
exposed in the No. 1 trial-hole.

li the three arenaceous deposits described above are accepted as remnants
of the younger till in the district of Mount Barker, then the last described deposit
(as shown in the two trial-holes) constitutes the most northerly known extension
of the younger till in the Mount Lofty Range.

i SELLICK ILILL ,
During the geological examination of the country in the vicinity of Sellick
ITill township the writer noted a small deposit of the younger till perched on the
lower slopes of the Willunga Range, which has been cut by faulting.

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF
SELLICK HILL (TOWNSHIP)

PT. HD. WILLUNGA
2 vA

LEGEND
RECENT to PLEISTOCENE
ALLUVIUM OVER CLAY [EJ
EARLY? PLEISTOCENE
FERRUGINOUS GRAVELS IF3

Nl LOWER CRETACEOUS ?
i GLACIAL TILL....-K Gd |
O,/ Z
alle | ee gee gore poe ALY LOWER CAMBRIAN
a eee a LIMESTONES.._.._. £2
| ~ (s CALCAREOUS SHALES.Et S99
nh we. UPPER PRE-CAMBRIAN
a eax GREY SLATES.....cb 2%
éf; ot
z STRIKE AND DIP... at&
FAULTS._...----- a

/939 Raloh W te

Fig. 6
Geological Map of Sellick Hill (Township)

The oldest formations in the immediate locality consist of dark grey micaceous
irregular wavy-bedded slates and shales which show a faint ribbon or banded
structure. This banding in association with the wavy-bedding is quite charac-
teristic of the Lower Group Middle Pre-Cambrian (11). The strike of these
old slates ranges from 30° to 35° E. of N. (magnetic) and the dip of the beds
ranges from 50° to 62° E.S.E. The shales and slates are overlain by a massive
series of greyish-blue limestones with interbedded light grey caleareous shales of
Lower Cambrian age, which have been faulted down alongside the slates. The
uppermost horizons of the limestone scries (which are not shown on the geological

map, text fig. 6), include remains of Archaeocyathinae (15).

The younger till has been deposited unconformably upon Middle Pre-
Cambrian slates, Numerous rounded and angular boulders of sandstone and
quartzite, with occasional boulders of granite, are scattered over the surface of
the lower spurs of the range north-east, east, and south of the Sellick Hill Hotel,
having been weathered out of the underlying arenaceous till. Good exposures of
the glacial beds occur on the upper stceply-sloping sides of the creek which crosses
Section 668 (Willunga), a few chains south from the hotel. The major fault
scarp of the Willunga Range has cut the younger till a short distance west of the
Sellick Hill Post Office. The margin of the till with the Recent alluvium, etc.,
of the plain, however, is not very well defined.

Samples collected from a borehole drilled recently in the north-western
portion of Section 655 (Willunga) have been examined by Mrs. N. H. Ludbrook
(nee Woods), who has made the following determinations :

“Surface to 170 ft. Brown and greyish sandy-clay in part mottled, with boulders of
limestone, ete.
170 ft. -- 205 ft. Dark brown clayey sand
205 it. - 215 ft. Brown and light grey calcareous mottled clayey sand
215 ft. - 255 ft. Yellow argillaceous sand of Miocene (? Lower Miocene) age, with
fossils as follows:
Rotatia Calcar, Eponides scabriculus, Cibicides sp., Cellaria rigida,
Idmonea spp., Retcpora sp.
255 fit. — 260 ft. Similar to previous sample, the following fossils being noted, chiefly
Bryozoa:
Dorothea gibbosa, Eponides seabriculus, Idmouca spp., Lornera sp.
Retepora sp.. Spine of an echinoid, Cytherella lata.
260 ft. ~ 265 ft. Bryozoal litnestone (Miocene) as previous samples:
Sherbornina atkinsont, Cibicides sp., Lepralia sp., Retepora sp.,
Hornera sp., Cellaria sp., Membranipora sp. Spine of an echinoid.

The occurrence of Sherbornina is notable, only one specimen being noted.
It was found to occur numerously in a bore in the same district—that of T. H.
Culley (Section 384, Hundred of Willunga), which the writer (N. H. L.)
examined some months ago—some excellent specimens being obtained.”

A second borehole is situated about a quarter of a mile N.N.W. from the
borchole described above. The driller’s log of the strata cut by the drill con-
sisted of the following beds:

5 it. — 79 ft. - - Red clay with stones

79 ft. — 96 ft. - - Yellow clay with stones
96 ft. — 189 ft. - - Soft yellow sandstone
189 ft. — 230 ft. - - Yellow fossiliferous rock
230 ft. — 233 ft. - - Red sandstone and pebbles

The sediments ranging from 5 feet to 189 feet are regarded as being Recent
to Early ? Pleistocene age and the “fossiliferous rock’ Miocene age. ‘This
determination is based upon some fossiliferous material collected from boreholes
situated a short distance away on the north-eastern and south-western sides
(Sections 433 and 665, Willunga) of the borehole just described. The red sand-
stone with pebbles is suspected as being the uppermost weathered horizon of the
younger till. The junction between the red sandstone and the Miocene limestone
is approximately 40 feet above sea level, whereas the highest point of the younger
till on the slope of the Willunga Range south-east from the Sellick Hill Hotel is
495 feet above sea level, which represents a downthrow of at least 455 feet.

The writer suspects that the long, broad valley flanking the Willunga Range
fault scarp, and extending inland from Sellick Beach to the north of Kangarilla
is, in part, of glacial origin, or that the glaciers of the younger glacial period
passed up a pre-glacial valley in the region under discussion, subsequent to the
initial uplift of the Willunga Range, the valley representing a downthrown block.
The retreat of the glacial conditions was followed by a transgression of the sea
up, at least, part of the glacial valley when the Miocene fossiliferous beds were
deposited. Subsequently faulting occurred, resulting in the downthrow of the
younger till and later sediments.

it porT VINCENT (Yorke Peninsula)

The younger till outcrops along the coast about 14 miles north of Port
Vincent, between high and low water, and along portion of the base of the sea-
cliffs. The length of outcrop is 1 mile. The deposit is arenaceous; of a greyish
colour ; and carries numerous boulders and very large erratics. The latter include
several blocks of very coarse-grained porphyritic granite (many porphyritic
crystals of felspar range up to 4 by 3 inches, and the quartz crystals exhibit the
typical bluish colour characteristic of the Victor Harbour granite) ranging up
to 10 feet by 8 feet, pink and greyish quartzite, grey slates, etc. The upper surface
of the till exposed along the base of part of the sea-cliffs is somewhat undulating
and iron-stained. The till is usually visible only at low water but in one locality
the formation rises 15 feet above high water. Numerous boulders which have
been weathered out of the till have been carried along the coast by tidal action
and left stranded along the beach beyond the northern limit of the till. The
deposit has been tilted westerly at an angle of about 18°.

GEOLOGY OF COAST NEAR
PORT VINCENT, YORKE PENINSULA

Yo t
fs 1 MILES,

1929 Rath Wy.

———

LAT, 34° 44'S.

ul
rr)
hun
i}
iB
uf

!
|
i
}

LONG.

LEGEND
RECENT ve PLEISTOCENE
SAND AND SANDSTONE .__.
ALLUVIUM & RAISED BEACH
FERRUGINOUS GRAVELS. ._

eats TERTIARY

a MIOCENE~SANDSTONES &

- FOSSILIFEROUS LIMESTONE BES
AS LOWER CRETACEOUS?

we Sar GLACIAL TILE me

Pa? SN ERRATICS.
PORT , VINCENT / POINT

Fig. 7
Geology of Coast near Port Vincent, Yorke Peninsula

The glacial deposit is overlain (unconformably) by a bed of fine grit and
coarse even-gained (partly consolidated) sandstone, 4 to 5 feet in thickness,
which exhibits a strong current-bedded structure. Overlying the sandstone is a
highly fossiliferous (polyzoal) limestone of Miocene age, upon which rests a
partly consolidated sand. the basal beds of which are very calcareous. At Red
Cliffs the sands range up to nearly 40 feet in thickness.

About 200 yards along the coast, north of the east-west Hundred boundary
between Curramulka and Ramsay, the sandstone-limestone beds strike 5° W. of N.
(magnetic) the formations dipping westerly at an angle of 10°, but about 200
yards still further north the strike of the beds has swung to 50° W. of N. (mag-
netic) the formations dipping to the north-east at an angle of 35°. The Tertiary
beds have obviously been disturbed by faulting during Post-Miocene times.

(7) PRopaBLe AGE oF THE YOUNGER TILL

Ifowchin has suggested that, “.... this extinct (referring to the younger
ull) glacial feld is an old palaeozoic topography that has through long ages
been buried under great thicknesses of morainic material as well as marine
sediments of a later date, which is now being slowly uncovered and exposed by
present-day atmospheric and fluviatile agencies” (8, p. 139). He has assumed
that the beds are of Permo-Carboniferous age, based on an analogy, in that they
resemble in many respects glacial beds which are certainly of this age in other
Australian States, particularly in Victoria, where remains of typical Permo-
Carboniferous) plants, notably Gangamopteris occur in sandstones, ctc., inter-
calated in glacial beds (17).

The inference that the South Australian beds belong to the same age 1s
based (by Llowchin) on (a) their lithological resemblances to the beds with which
they can be correlated in Victoria and Northern ‘Tasmania, and (b) the absence
of any other known glacial period in Australia with which they could be correla-
tively associated.

The results of the writer’s observations of the features connected with the
till under review, particularly the outcome of the detailed mapping of several
sections and areas, together with a study of structural features of the underlying
formations, have been, in the light of modern geological knowledge, to cast a
doubt on the correctness of assigning a Permo-Carboniferous (or Permian) age
to this glacial deposit, and rather to view the glacial period as being of more
recent date. Undoubted evidence cf a Lower Cretaceous glaciation has also been
forthcoming.

lf this ull was deposited at the close of Upper Palaeozoic times as has been
suggested by Howchin and others, then it will be necessary to make a slight
revision of the generally accepted theory of the commencement of the age of the

©) The Gangamopteris beds and till are now regarded as being of Lower Permian
age (17).

‘Oe

Mount Lofty Period of mountain building, or an adjustment in the sequence of
events which followed the initial uplift. Howchin has described the general physio-
graphical changes which have taken place in this State since the Cainozoic Period
(8, pp. 237-246). The major earth movements during this period of mountain
building have been classified by him into three stages. The first stage “A” is
referred to as the “Tluviatile Stage,” during which time there was a central water-
shed in Central Australia, with great drainage channels extending southwards to
the sea. Stage “B”—"The Plateau-Building Stage” (The Koscuisko Period) is
described as a period when regional (epeirogenic) uplift of the land took place
along the southern portions of the continent, with a corresponding warp or sag
in the interior. Howchin draws attention to the “effects of this uplift, which can
still be seen in the highlands of the Mount Lofty Range, the general level of which
represents a peneplain of about 1,500 feet above sea level.” The third stage “C”
represents a “Period of Collapse” (Block Faulting and Rift Valleys). In his
summing up, Howchin states: “... . The geological age in which these earth
movements took pace can be inferred from the effects produced at the same time
on the Cainozoic marine sediments which also became tilted and dismembered by
the block-faulting, giving evidence that these movements were Post-Miocene aud
to some extent Post-Pliocene (8, p. 242).

Chas. Fenner has made a special study of the major physiographical
features of South Australia and has published many papers dealing with the
subject. In his description of the Age of the Fault Block Movements, and the
Summary of the Major Tectonic Movements he states: “... .. Away back in
Lower Tertiary time we must picture this part of Australia (referring to South
Australia) as a vast land area being slowly worn down to an almost level surface
(peneplane) at or near sea level .... At the beginning of Miocene (mid-Tertiary )
times we may picture this vast plain, climate unknown, reaching away to the
south, Then occurred the great depression of the southern part of the State,
when a broad sea extended up to the latitude of Port Augusta, along an irregular
east-west line, All this land stayed for vast ages below the sea, with minor
oscillations, and thick beds of limestones were deposited. We may still see the
relics of these limestones in the Murray Cliffs, at Noarlunga, Aldinga, Yorke
Peninsula, West Coast and Nullarbor Plains” (18, p. 25). In the same publica-
tion (18, p. 30) Fenner states: “As already stated, the facts as at present known
regarding southern Australian physiography bring one to the inevitable con-
clusion that the whole of the great Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian complex, with
Jater rocks protected in down-faulted or down-warped “pockets,” had been planed
down to a most perfect peneplane by the end of Oligocene time.”

The writer has failed, up to date, to locate any concrete evidence to support
the suggestion that the Miocene sea extended right across that portion of South
Australia now occupied by the Mount Lofty Range, as suggested by Fenner, The
principal evidence quoted to support the suggestion consists of a small deposit of
the Miocene fossiliferous limestone present on the Hindmarsh Tiers. Howchin

has described this outcrop and stated: “.... At the head of the Hindmarsh River
there occurs a very remarkable limestone of Eocene (= Miocene) age .. . . con-
fned to the sides of a narrow creek or land farmed by Mr. Geo. Maslin within
Sections 600-601, Ilundred of Encounter Bay” (19, pp. 15, 16). Howchin has
indicated the location of the limestone on a map in a later publication (20), in
which he estimates the outcrop to be from 900 to 1,000 feet above sea level (20,
p. 56). The writer has examined the fossiliferous limestone in company with
Mrs. Ludbrook, who states: “.,.. The formation is a hard semi-crystalline lime-
stone with remains of numerous Bryozoa (Polyzoa). It is lithologically and
palaeontologically related to the Point Turton limestone which Chapman and
Crespin (Rep. A.N.Z.A.A.S., 1985, p. 125) assign to the Middle Miocene.
Bryozoa are very numerous but difficult to identify specifically. A microscopic
section revealed only Bryozoa and an echinoid spine.” It is of interest to note
that the Miocene limestone has been deposited upon the younger till, in an elevated
glacial valley connected with the Myponga glacial region. A check reading of
the height of the fossiliferous limestone was made by aneroid against a known
datum level at the Hindmarsh Reservoir, and it was found to be 751 feet above
low water. This occurrence is the only one known to the writer where fossilifer-
ous beds of Tertiary age exist at any distance from the coastline (excepting the
Murray basin) within the Mount Lofty Range, and even in this instance the
formation has been deposited in an elevated glacial valley.

It will be noted that all of the references to fossiliferous (Tertiary) beds
(with the one exception—the Hindmarsh Tiers) made by Penner occur round the
flanks or margins of the Mount lofty Range, ete.

The writer has mapped considerable areas of this glacial till (in addition to
the regions described in this paper), particularly along the margins of the deposits
and has, up to date, located very few undoubted faults in the deposits. This
absence of faulting may be due to the practically unconsolidated state of the
arenaceous (and argillaccous) boulder beds and shales which comprise the till.
Ample evidence of the extensive faulting which accompanied the initial upliit,
and later period of block faulting (Ilowchin’s Stage —the Period of Collapse),
can be seen throughout the Mount Lofty and Hlinders Ranges. Examples of the
highly complicated nature of this faulting have been published by the writer in
Bulletins of the Geological Survey of South Australia (11, 15). Large areas
(in addition to those published) have been examined and mapped by the writer,
and in all places evidence has been observed of the very extensive nature of tbe
faulting which has resulted in the formation of a very complicated and irregular
mosaic of small blocks. Under such conditions it is considered by the writer
highly improbable (if not impossible) that such extensive tracts of country
embracing the whole length of the Inman Valley (from Encounter Bay to Gulf
St. Vincent), Ilindmarsh Valley, the wide expanse of country in the region of
Mount Compass, Yankalilla, Currency Creek, etc., where the younger till is known
to occur (see text fig. 8), should have escaped dislocation and distortion during the

period of uplift and collapse, if the glacial epoch had occurred at the close of
Palaeozoic times. Faulting of the old Pre-Cambrian formations (upon which the
glacial till now under discussion has been deposited) is a characteristic feature of
these ancient rocks, but in practically every case the faulting is pre-glacial period
In age.

The writer has already expressed the opinion that many of the faults located
and recorded on the geological map of Hallett Cove have accompanied the general
Early ? Cainozoic (or Mesozoic?) to Recent period of block faulting of the
Mount Lofty Range. The only direct evidence noted of faulting of the younger
till in the vicinity of Hallett Cove has been described on p. 21. It is suggested,
however, that Post-Plcistocene faulting, which bounds the coastline of Gulf
St. Vincent, not only at Hallett Cove, but also at Sellick Hill, has cut the till,
These suggested faults (if they exist) are concealed by the sea in the case of the
coastal deposits of the till.

Definite evidence of faulting of the younger till can be seen in the vicinity
of Sellick Hill township, as described on p, 26.

The writer has prepared a sketch map showing the general distribution of
the younger till within the boundaries of the Southern Mount Lofty Range. The
data shown on the map has been compiled from all known records, which have
included geological maps defining the outcrops of the younger glacial beds. In
many places the till has been examined and mapped in detail by the writer.
Loundarics indicated by other investigators, however, show the same outstanding
feature as the writer has stressed, namely, the generally regular and consistent
unfaulted outline made by the till with the ancient bedrock upon which the glacial
material has been unconformably deposited in the glacial valleys, etc. The feature
described is shown clearly on the sketch map, text fig. 8.

During a recent visit to Victoria the writer examined the Lower Permian
glacial beds in the vicinity of Bacchus Marsh. The most outstanding lithological
feature noted in connection with the glacial till was its remarkable resemblance
to the boulder beds of the Sturtian Tillite (Upper Pre-Cambrian) in this State.
l-xposures of the Lower Permian till adjacent to the south-east abutment of the
Pyke’s Creek Reservoir consist of a well-consolidated mudstone catrying
numerous large and small boulders (a proportion of which are well rounded),
with irregular lenses and bands of hard, dense quartzite and compact sandstone.
The lower-most beds of the glacial deposit which are exposed in the main-road
cutting near the north-west abutment of the reservoir consist of alternating bands
of very thinly lanunated shales, slates and sandstones (resting unconformably upon
metamorphosed sediments of Ordovician age), which pass up gradually into
arenaceous beds carrying boulders characteristic of the normal till. These glacial
beds show no lithological features whatsoever which can be regarded as being
comparable with the younger glacial beds (referred to as Permo-Carboniferous)
in South Australia, where the formations in all of the localities examined by the

writer are unconsolidated with occasional irregular masses of partly consolidated
sediments due to subsequent infiltration of oxide of iron.

It has been suggested by Howchin that there are no other glacial beds (other
than Permo-Carboniferous) in Australia with which the ull under review could
be correlated.

SKETCH MAP COMPILED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
TO sHOW
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE YOUNGER TILL
LOWER CRETACEOUS?
SOUTHERN MOUNT LOorTy RANGE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
TILL... PROBABLE TILL (UNDER)...,.....--. FESS

Mice lao VF

Assistant Government Geologist
299 axtoder 1933

fi
c)

—hat_Is* Y's rw
HALLETT COVEg»

@NOUNT BARKER
°

a
WREYNELLA

WCCHUNGA

PORT NOARLUNGAI

\ \(

a
SCRUB HILL

MooN HILL
Boo

ee ey
TOS (CREE PEERALILA
SI

SENS:
SONG ear ‘Ss
<8 SoS

HINOMARSH ISLAND

Fig. 8
The Distribution of the Younger Till, Mount Lofty Range

Numerous erratics, many of which are foreign to the localities in which they
occur, are found scattered over the surface in some parts of Central Australia,
and in the central region of South Australia, have been noted by H. Y. L.

Brown, who records that: “.... On the stony downs, gravelly plains, and table-
lands of the interior of South Australia, boulders and blocks of rock are frequently
seen resting on soft Cretaceous shale and silt... . . These, without doubt, have

been transported to their present positions by ice action which seems to have, at the
same time, since the Mesozoic period, been in operation all over this region”
(21, 22, 23, 24).

R. Lockhart Jack has described Lower Cretaceous erratics which are
strewn over the surface of the weathered Lower Cretaceous shales of Lake
Phillipson borehole (25, p. 12). hese Creiaceous erratics are composed of
resistant quartzite, felspar-porphyry and granite. They remain on the surface
as the shale is croded beneath them. Az the Glue Pot Crossing near Lake Conway,

“ce

Jack records: Large boulders were noted on the surface of the Lower
Cretaceous rocks of which some were rounded and appeared to be water-worn
but one of approximately 1 ewt. was facetted. .. . It is possible that these boulders
have been transported by ice action at the time of the deposition of the Lower

Cretaceous shale, and that they have been exposed by denudation” (25, p. 42).

IL. Keith Ward has recorded that: The existence of erratics near
Daihousie Station has been recognised by David and Howchin, whose joint
report is published in the Record of the Glacial Rescarch Committee of the
AAAS. (27), where these authors express the opinion that “the glaciation
was later than Lower Cretaceous, and probably Upper Cretaceous.” From his
own observations near the Dalhousie Mound Springs and the Duck Ponds (a [ew
miles south-east of Blood’s Creek borehole), and from more recent observations
made in conjunction with R. Leckhart Jack, in the region of the Great Aus-
trahan Basin and the transcontinental railway, Ward places the glaciation
definitely in the later part of the Upper Cretaceous period (28, p. 74). More
recently still, in the description of the Geological Map of South Australia, he
has shown that: “Boulders to which a glacial origin has been attributed occur
in places in South Australia at Stuart’s Range, where they are associated with
marine fossils, Judged by F. W. Whitehouse to be on the horizon of the
junction of Stages @ and iii of the Roma Series = Lower Cretaceous” (29, p. 9).

I¢vidence of a Mesozoic glacial period earlier than Cretaceous times (but later
than Permo-Carboniferous times) in a region not far removed from South
Australia has been brought forward by E. J. Kenny in connection with the study
of the Geological Formations in the West Darling District, N.SAV. Kenny’
suggests that: “ The glacial period so characteristic of Lower Cretaceous
time had its commencement when the Jurassic sediments were being accumulated.
The case for the transport of ice of the numerous erratics distributed so widely
throughout the area occupied by Cretaceous rocks, not only in New South
Wates, but also in Qucensland and Scuth Australia, is supported by the observa-
lions of a number of investigators, The Jurassic rocks (West Darling District)
occupy a relatively small area in all, and phenomena indicative of glaciation are
present in restricted areas at widely separated localities. Hence it would appear

that ice action in this earlier period was less intense and more local than in the
succeeding Cretaceous period” (30, p. 65).

From the above records it is obvious that the younger till present at Hallett
Cove and elsewhere in the southern portion of this State can be correlated with
a glacial period other than the Permian (also known as Permo-Carboniferous )
of Victoria, as has been suggested by Howchin and others.

During a geological examination of part of the Flinders Range in the vicinity
of South Creck the writer located several deposits along the lower margin of the
western scarp of the range which consisted of an argillaceous and arenaceots
mudstone, carrying numerous rounded and angular boulders. ‘The formation 1s
sub-horizontally bedded, and lying unconformably upon Upper Pre-Cambrian
rocks. The deposit has every appearance of being a glacial till, but as no glacial
beds other than the Sturtian Tillite (Upper Pre-Cambrian) occur in the locality,
the boulder bed is regarded as probably forming part of a southerly extension
of the glacial beds of Lower Cretaceous age present in Central Australia. It has
been shown by the writer that the Lower Cretaceous glaciation has extended

south at least as far as the Andamoo'’sa Opal Field, situated on the western side
of lake Torrens (31, p. 54; 11, p. 146). If the deposit near South Creek forms
part of the Lower Cretaceous glaciation, then there is very sound reason to
believe that the younger till described in this paper (aad by others as Permo-
Carboniferous) is synchronous with che Lower Cretaceous glaciation of Central

Australia.

Several representative samples of the younger till have been collected from
different horizons at [lallett Cove, the critical examination of which has failed to
produce any fossiliferous evidence that may assist in defining its age. The age of
the glacial beds at Bacchus Marsh has been established as Permian by the presence
of interbedded Gungamopteris shales (17), in addition to spores, some of which
closely resemble certain spores obtained in the black Glossopteris-bearing shales
from Palaman in the Daliongunj coalfield Behar, and South Rewa Gondwana
basin, Central India (32).

It is of interest to note that so ong ago as 1913 Howchin appears to have
been somewhat doubtful ahout the possibility of the younger till being so old as
late Palaeozoic, for in his Presidential Address before Section C of the Austra-
lian Association for the Advancement of Science he states: “. . . . Indeed, the
survival of the Permo-Carboniferous terranes would scem to imply the existence
of a Mesozoic as well as a Cainozoie protecting cover to secure the preservation
of these feebly coherent rocks through the long interval down to the present day ;
but as to the age and nature of such lost records, if they ever existed, we have mo
knowledge, and it would he useless to speculate” (33, p. 150).

The general sequence of events in the physiographical history of the Mount
Lofty Range as suggested by the writer is briefly summarised as follows:

The initial Period of Uplift of the range commenced, at the latest, in the
earliest stage of the Cretaceous period, or even in very late Jurassic times, when

the old peneplaned surface of the land was raised as an extended plateau. Exten-
sive faulting accompanied this initial uplift. This major earth movement was
followed by the Lower Cretaceous glaciation, when at least the southern portion
of the uplifted plateau was not only in part covered by land ice, but existing
valleys were more deeply cut by glaciers having a general northerly trend. After
the close of the glacial period an encroachment of the sea upon restricted portions
only—inainly round the fringe of the uplifted land, and along certain of the
glacial valleys—occurred, when marine fossiliferous sediments (of Miocene and
later of Pliocene age) were laid down. Alternations of erosion and deposition
followed through the remainder of Tertiary times, accompanied by faulting, the
former being restricted to the margins of the Mount Lofty Range, but the latter
being general. The final phase—Howchin’s Kosciusko Period of Collapse, etc.,
occurred in Post-Pleistocene times.

(g) Carnozorc—Lower DPLIocene

One of the most important formations present in the region under review
is the very thin bed of fossiliferous sandstone and fossiliferous sandy-limestone
which has been deposited unconformably upon the (eroded ?) surface of the
younger till.

In the earliest descriptions of this fossiliferous formation Tate classified it
as Miocene, the determination being based upon his identification of certain of
the contained marine fossils (2, p. 318).

In a more recent paper Howchin assigned a Lower Pliocene age to this
fossiliferous bed. In his Geology of South Australia, 1918 edition, Howchin has
drawn a section near Black (Point) Cliff (7, fig. 306, p. 410), where he shows
the formation us “Miocene (Marine),” but on the next succeeding page he has
reproduced a photograph of the fossiliferous sandstone and adjacent formations
in which he describes the formations as “Lower Pliocene (Tate’s Miocene).”
Howchin’s confusion is still evident in his later edition of the same publication
(8, p. 135, fig. 76), in which he shows a section drawn through the Amphitheatre,
where the fossiliferous bed is shown as “Marine Miocene” but in the text
(8, p. 232) he describes the bed as “Tower Pliocene.”

The most northerly extension of the fossiliferous bed noted by the writer
in the region under review occurs in the extreme north-westerly corner of
Section 561 (Noarlunga), a few chains north of Section A-A, The formation
is a hard compact highly fossiliferous calcareous sandstone, ranging up to
3 feet in thickness. The northerly extension of the sandstone wedges out. Large
blocks of the sandstone which have slipped down the steeply sloping side of the
cliff (due to the erosion of the underlying unconsolidated younger till) have
many large and small well-rounded boulders of quartzite, etc., adhering to the
undersides. Many large species of Pecten are associated with the boulders on
the undersides of the sandstone.

On tracing the sandstone in a southerly direction towards a small washout,
the bed which maintains a fairly uniform thickness ranging from 2-3 feet thins

out to a few inches. On the spur between the washout and the east-west creek
on the boundary between Sections 562 and 566 (Noarlunga), the sandstone
consists of a thin elongated wedge, and is apparently unfossiliferous. No evidence
of the sandstone was noted along the northern slope of the creek, but along the
southern side the fossiliferous sandstone makes a very conspicuous outcrop, which
can be traced inland for a distance of nearly a third of a mile. The bed can be
traced in a southerly direction round the retreating cliff, to above Black Cliff. A
traverse made round the outcrop with an aneroid indicates that the bed is hori-
zontally bedded, the upper surface being 66 feet above sea level.

The fossiliferous bed can be traced round the Amphitheatre, where a litho-
logical change from the sandstone to an arenaceous fossiliferous limestone takes
place. An enlarged scale map of the Amphitheatre has heen included on the
geological map to show the main physiographical features and distribution of the
formations present. The highly fossiliferous sandstone swings round the cliff
face above Black Cliff and gradually feathers out along portion of the northern
face of the Amphitheatre, where the overlying [Earlier ? Pleistocene sediments
rest directly upon the younger till. The sandstone gradually comes in again in
the vicinity of the washouts in the north-eastern part of the Amphitheatre, where
the formation thickens rather suddenly, and changes to a very arenaceous highly
fossiliferous limestone. large boulders and erratics have been caught up on
the underside and in the basal portion of the fossiliferous bed, with occasional
boulders in the central and upper part of the formation, in this region, The
boulders which are generally well rounded include quartzites, shales, slates and
granites. Percolating (and surface) ground water has dissolved some of the
calcium carbonate out of the limestone and redeposited it in the upper part
of the boulder bed of the til. This feature is particularly noticeable in the
immediate vicinity of the washouts. The fossiliferous bed continues to outcrop
round the small washouts and intervening spurs of the Amphitheatre to a few
yards south of the line of Section C-C (see enlarged map). The thickness of the
formation ranges from about 12 inches to about 3 feet 9 inches, and the lithological
features alternate from the calcareous sandstone to the arenaceous limestone.
The southerly extension of the formation from the line of Section C-C thins out
considerably, finally consisting of very thin elongated lenses of arenaceous lime~
stone ranging up to 3-5 inches in thickness, irregularly spaced, with the last lens a
few chains north of the fattlt-line situated in the southern part of Section 567
(Noarlunga). No further outcrops of the Lower Pliocene were observed
between the last lens mentioned and the spur which forms the southern end of
Hallett Cove. It is suggested that the Lower Pliocene formation was removed
by erosion in the sector just referred to before the fault situated in the southern
part of Section 567 (Noarlunga) occurred. A traverse made round the Amphi-
theatre along the top of the fossiliferous bed with an ancroid, indicates that the
formation is sub-horizontally bedded with gentle undulations, the normal height
of the upper surface of the bed above low water being about 114 feet.

Two very small reninants, representing the former extension of the fossilifer-
ous bed, occur along the cliff face south of the Cove. The first outcrop is on the
spur which forms the southern end of Hallett Cove (extreme south-western
corner of Section 567, Noarlunga), where a very thin lens of calcareous sand-
stone ranging up to about 6 inches in thickness overlies the younger till at a height
of 66 feet above low water. ‘The second exposure is on the southern side of a
small washout (on the line of Section D-D) where the bed consisis of an elongated
narrow band of arenaceous limestone having a maximum thickness of 5 inches’
and overlying Cunconformably) the younger till, The second locality described
is the most southerly outcrop of the fussiliferous bed within the region under
review noted by the writer.

The fossiliterous formation has been examined by Mrs. Ludbrook (in com-
pany with the writer), who states:

“The bed in question is that described by Howchin in 1923 (5, p. 289), in
which he gives a list of fossils occurring in the formation. Howchin considered
it to be of Lower Pliocene age, it being contemporaneous with the Upper Aldingan
beds, and the bed formerly exposed behind Government Ileuse, Adelaide; also
revealed in borings in or near the City.

Chapman in 1916 (Rec, Geol. Sur. Viet., fii, vol. iv., p. 411) correlates ithe
South Australian beds with the Victorian Kalimnan, though later (Chapman and
Crespin, 1935, Rep. A.N.Z.ALA.S., vol. xxii, p. 125) places the Upper Aldingan
and the Hallett Cove beds in the Upper Pliocene, apparently on account of the
eceurreuce of Aferginopera vericbralis.

There scems to be a closer relationship between the South Australian deposits
and the Kalimnan than between them and the Werrikootan. Tt is noteworthy that
both the Aldingan and the ifallett Cove beds have very few fossils and those tha
do occur are typical of neither the Kalimnan nor the Werrikovian. They are,
however, more closely related to the former than to the latter which has a far
lngher percentage of Recent species. It appears, therefore, more satisfactory to
designate the Llallett Cove bed as Lower Pliocene. In the bed at ITallett Cove

most of the fossil remains are casts and difficult to identify, They are besi pre-

served in the Amphitheatre, where the rock is softer. Tere Ostrea and Chlamiys
are numerous, AMarginopora veriebralis shows plainly on weathered surfaces,
and is apparently ihe commonest and best preserved form. Casts of ? Anapella
are extremely numerous in some places and a laree undescribed cerithioid
gasteropod occurs as internal casts. The only species noticed in addition to those
recorded by Howchin are Myadora corrugata, Peneroplis pertusus and Turri-
fella sp.”

The result of the study and distribution of the fossiliferous formation in the

vicinity of Hallett Cove has brought forward several interesting facts.

(a) The formation has been subjected to considerable erosion, as evidenced
by the smooth, gently eroded and weathered surface subsequent to its
deposition—in many instances the bed has been entirely removed before
the deposition of the Early ? Pleistocene mottled clays.

(b) The formation has been disturbed by faulting as shown by the wide
range in the levels of the deposit above low water.

fc) All outcrops of the fossiliferous bed overlie (unconformably) the
younger till only, and do uct extend beyond the northern and southern
extensions of the till within the region examined and shown on the
geological map.

(h) Earty ? PLemstocknr
The formation which has been tentatively classified as Early ? Pleistocene
overlies the Lower Pliocene and generally consists of mottled reddish to olive-
brown and greyish sandy clays, grits and gravels. These sediments were examined
No fossils as yet have
seen found in them? .... and that they... . “fare probably of Miocene? age,

by Yate, Howchin, and David, who stated that:

though possibly later” (2, p. 319). The interesting feature noted in connection
with this classification is that Tate, loweliin and David did not specifically men-
tion any stratigraphical break or discordance in the normal order or deposition
al sediments between the fussiliferous sandstone and the overlying sandy clays, etc.

Many years later Howchin assigned to these sandy clays, etc., a Pleistocene
age, in view of his classification of the underlying highly [fossiliferous bed as
Tower Pliocene (8, p. 133, fig. 73, and p. 135, fig. 76).

The writer has noted that the lithological characteristics of the formation
under review vary considerably. A good exposure of the bed occurs in the north-
western part of Section 566 and a short distance north of Black Cliff, where there
is a prominent outcrop of the fossiliferous sandstone cut by a washout. On the
northern side of the washout the formation consists of a coarse-grained sandy
clay carrying numerous angular (with occasional rounded) boulders and pebbles,
which on being traced northwards through Section 562 and 561, into the south-
western corner of Section 560 (Noarlunga), feathers out against quartziles and
shales on the top edge of the sea-cliff. On the southern side of the washout the
formation consists of mottled sandy-clays with occasional small rounded boulders
and pebbles, which can be traced round Black Cliff to the Amphitheatre, at the
northern end of which they are mottled reddish-brown and light grey argillaceous
sands with rounded (water-worn) clear and milky grains of quartz which range
from fine grains to coarse pebbles. The bed has a general appearance of stratifi-
sation (which is sub-horizonial). The mottled sandy-clays occupy the wpper
portion of the retreating cliffs of the Amphitheatre, and extend south as far as
the fault adjacent to the small creek in the south-western corner of Section 567.
The fault is Post-Pleistocene in age, as has been described alrcady—the Early ?

©) This classification was based on the supposition that the underlying highly
fossiliferous sandstone was of Miocene age.

€% On the figures (73 and 76) Ilowchin shows the fassiliferous sandstone as
“Miocene (Marine) and “Marine Mioceue,” respectively, but in the text, on p. 135, he
refers to the formation as Lower Pliocene.

Pleistocene sandy-clays having been faulted down (with the underlying younger
till) on the southern side of the’creek.

It is of intcrest to note that the basal three feet of the Early ? Pleistocene
sandy-clays consists of a bed carrying several well-defined bands of small, rounded
and angular pebbles, which show a stratification which is sub-horizontal, The
bands of pebbles gradually become less prominent on passing up into the reddish-
brown argillaccous sand, which is about 10 feet in thickness. ‘The normal mottled
sandy-clays overlie the argillaceous sands.

The Early ? Pleistocene sediments form a very prominent outcrop along the
upper retreating slope of the sea-cliffs south of Hallett Cove, where the formation
ranges up to over 150 feet in thickness. A very marked change occurs in the
lithological features of the deposit on passing southwards from the bluff (at the
southern end of the Cove), particularly in Sections 569 and 572 (Noarlunga).
Adjacent to the bluff the lower-most beds consist of sandy grits and occasional
fine gravels, which pass laterally (in a southerly direction) into extremely coarse-
grained gravels and boulder beds, especially in the vicinity of the line of Section
E-E (see fig. 5). The boulders consist of dense, grey quartzites (ranging up to
25 feet diameter), granite (over 3 feet diameter), dolomitic limestones, slates, etc.
The main boulder gravel bed ranges up to about 40 fect in thickness, the upper-
most portion of the formation being about 104 feet above low water. In the
region of the large washout situated in the north-western corner of Section 581

(in the extreme south-westerly corner of the geological map) the Early ? Pleisto-
cene formation consists of a white argillaceous sand rock carrying numerous small
water-worn pebbles aud grit with occasional larger boulders. The deposit ranges
up to over 60 feet in thickness, and is horizontally bedded (see pl. iii, fig. 1).

An approximately north-south fault cuts obliquely across the Purple Series,
forming the cliff and beach in Section 577 (Noarlunga), and north of Curlew
Point. The Early ? Pleistocene sediments overlying this fault have been deposited
subsequent to the period of faulting which has cut the Purple Series.

The Early ? Pleistocene sands and gravels were traced in an easterly direction
(inland) as far as the southerly tributary of ITallett Cove along the castern
boundary of Section 576 (Noarlunga).

Although travertine limestone conceals the underlying formations to the east
of the Amphitheatre. the Early ? Pleistocene mottled sandy-clays have been
exposed in the Adelaide-Willunga railway cutting in Section 487 (Noarlunga),
particularly in the vicinity of the Hallett Cove road bridge over the railway
cutting," where the beds exhibit lithological features similar to those present
at the Amphitheatre. The upper-most surface of the Early ? Pleistocene clays is
396 feet above low water. ‘The writer has not ascertained the maximum easterly
extension of the Early ? Pleistocene formations in the region under review.

The reddish-brown and greyish mottled sandy-clays carrying many large

perfectly smooth water-worn boulders have been exposed in the central railway

C) ‘The railway cutting is situated about } mile east of the eastern boundary of the
geological map.

cutting (Section 560, Noarlunga), where the maximum thickness of the forma-
tion is 7 feet. The clays are overlain by travertine limestone.

(j) Late ? Preistocene To RECENT

Sediments which are classified as being of Late ? Pleistocene to Recent age
consist of the alluvium filling the floors of the valleys and gullies, and the flats
bordering the lower reaches (near the outlet to the sea) of Hallett Creek.

The travertine limestone which covers a considerable portion of the high-level
country in the region under review (and elsewhere) is regarded as being repre-
sentative of an old land surface. The wind-blown calcareous sands and ridges
are included in this classification.

A narrow raised beach occurs a few yards distant from high-water mark
on the beach at the northern end of the Amphitheatre. The deposit, which consists
of loosely consolidated sands and shelly fragments, dips westerly at an angle of
about 20° and is from 8-10 feet in thickness. The upper surface is sub-horizontal
with very gentle undulations, and has the appearance of having undergone erosion.
Wind-blown sand ridges rest upon the upper surface of the deposit (see fig. 3,
Line of Section C-C). A representative sample of the sediments comprising the
raised beach just described has becn examined by Mrs. Ludbrook, who has made
the following determinations and remarks:

“Red sands washing down to water-worn quartz sand with a few foraminitera
identihed as:

Discorbis dimidiatus, Eponides haidingeri, Cibicides ungerianits, cf. Cibicides
refulgens, cf, Elphidiusm sp.

“These species indicate that the deposit is of Late Tertiary—Recent age, but
in the absence of associated mollusca more restricted determination cannot be
made. The material is very badly preserved.”

A small deposit of gravels cemented together by oxide of iron occurs on the
upper slope of the retreating cliff of the coast in Section 569 (Noarlunga). These
cemented gravels represent the remains of an old river system of very ]ate ?
Pleistocene times.

A low retreating scarp consisting of a dense sandstone ranging up to about
8 feet in thickness, crosses the eastern part of Section 563 (Noarlunga) and
about $ of a mile south-east from the Amphitheatre. The sandstone has heen
tilted towards the south at a shallow angle, as shown by the aneroid readings
taken during a traverse along the upper surface of the formation and recorded
on the geological map. At the northern end of the outcrop the upper surface of
the bed is 318 fect above low water but at the southern end on the [allett Cove
(beach) road, the sandstone is 291 feet above low water. No fossils were observed
in the sandstone. Howchin has descvibed the sandstone as an elevated retreating
scarp of Lower Pliocene age, but the writer has observed the presence of the
mottled sandy-clays of the Early ? Pleistocene age beneath this sandstone, so that
the formation is now regarded as J.ate ? Pleistocene in age.

3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The geological formations present in the region of Jlallett Cove and imme-
diate district have been critically examined and mapped in detail.

The oldest formations present consist of a series of rapidly alternating beds
of quartzite, shale, dolomitic limestone and sandstones with grits, of the Upper
Series (C 1-4), Middle Pre-Cambrian, the upper-most bed being a dense massive
quartzite (C2). The quartzite is overlain by the Sturtian Tillite (11) of Upper
Pre-Cambrian age. Faulting has considerably disturbed these old formations, as
a wide gap in the normal succession of sediments of Upper Pre-Cambrian age
oecurs, as the next formation noted consists of purple slates, shales, etc., of the
Purple Series (D6), the Tapley’s Th Series (103) being completely absent.
‘The purple shales pass up contormably to the highest horizon of the Upper Pre-
Cambrian suceession—the quartzites of Flinders Range Sandstone—-Quartzite
Series (107), These formations exhibit all of the characteristic lithological
features associated with the rocks of similar age examined in the Flinders Range,
ctc., indicating the very extensive nature of the Pre-Cambrian seas. Jower
Cambrian rocks are represented by massive beds of limestones and calcareous
shales and slates.

One of the most important formations present is the well-known glacial till
which is usually regarded as being of Permo-Carboniferous age. The general
distribution and lithological characteristics of the till are described and references
made to new localities in the Mount Loity Range (Mount Barker and Sellick Hill
township) and near Port Vincent (Yorke Peninsula), where the till has been

examined and mapped by the writer.

In the present paper this glacial deposit is referred to as the “Younger Tull”
to distingwish 1¢ trom the older Sturtian Tillite of Upper Pre-Cambrian age, which

is present also in the district. ‘The writer discusses the probability of this till
being comparable with the Lower Cretaceous glaciation of Central Australia and
Northern South \ustraha, and states his reasons why he regards the deposit as

being much younger in age than late Palacozoic.
‘he evidence to support the suggestion that the younger till is of Lower
Cretaceous age is briefly summarised as follows:
fa) Although the known exposed area of the till in the Southern Mount
Lofty Range covers at least 280 square miles ef country (the suspected
concealed area amounting to approximately an additional 65 square miles),
portion of which formation extends across the range from coast to
coast (Victor Tlarbour-Normanville), there is an almost entire absence
of faulting in ihe glacial material, with the exception of certain Post-
Pleistocene faults near the margins of the coast and glacial valleys (see
fig. 8). The underlying formations, however, are highly disturbed by
both folding and faulting, many of the faults being regarded as having
accompanied the initial general uplift of the Mount Lofty Range.

(b) The fact that the deposits of the younger till are but little disturbed,
being generally stb-horizontaly bedded, a feature which is characteristic
also of the overlying Tertiary sediments (Miocene to Pleistocene), The
only faulting noted in the younger till being apparently comparable with
the Post-Pleistocene faultang which has accompanied the late tectonic
movements (uphit and downthrew) of the Mount Lofty Range.

fc) From the examination and distribution of the deposits of the younger
till in the Southern Mount Lofty Range, the fact has now been well
established that the younger glaciation consisted almost entirely of land
ice. This tact, together with the evidence of (a) and (b) obviously
suggests that the iniual general uplift of the Mount Lofty Range
occurred prior to the glacial epoch.

(d) The entire Jack of evidence to support the suggestion that the younger
ill Gif of Late Palaeozoic age?) was protected by a thick cover of
Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments which would appear to be necessary
to preserve the loose unconsolidated glacial material from complete
erosion during the long interval of time between the Permian period and
the present day.

(e ) It is considered by the writer that the younger till bears no lithological
features, whatsoever, comparable with the undoubted Permian glacial
beds of Victoria (Bacchus Marsh).

(f) The failure to locate any palaeontological evidence such as spores, ete.,
in mimany samples of the til collected from widely separated localities
in the Southern Mount Lofty Range and critically examined, although
ample palacontological evideice has been obtamed from the Permian
glacial beds at Tiacchus Marsh (Victoria); the Glossopteris-bearing
shales from South Rewa Gondwana Basin, Central India (32); and

well-preserved impressions of Ganguimopterts immediately below the
Dwyke Villite, South Africa. (Lueslic, Proc, Geol. Soc. 5. Africa, 1921,
pp. 19-30).

fy) Vhe evidence of a Lower Cretaceous glaciation over a very wide region
in the north of South Australia, and in Central Australia, with which
the younger ull present in the southern portion of the State can be
correlated.

The Lower Pliocene, Early ? Pleistocene and Late ? Pleistocene to Recent
sediments are described.

Unconformities occur at the base and the top of the younger til, and it has
been suggested that a disconformity Cif not an unconformity) exists at the top
of the Lower Phocene. An old land surface of Late ? Pleistocene to Recent age
occurs at the top of the Early ? Pleistocene, as evidenced by the travertine lime-
stone scarps.

¥*

A brief and gencral outline of the writet’s interpretation of the physiographi-
cal history of the Mount Lofty Range is included in the text.

Attention is drawn to the presence of faults in the region, practically all of
which are pre-younger glacial epoch in age. It has been shown that the east-west
fault situated in the southern portion of Section 567 (Noarlunga) is Post-Karly?
Pleistocene in age. The tilting of the formations on the northern side of this
fault is probably due to an uplift movement rather than a downward movement.
When consideration is given to the present positions of the several outcrops of
the younger till in particular in relation to sca level, both uplift and downthrow
of the faulted blocks are evident.

List oF REFERENCES
1 Abstracts of the Proceedings of the Geological Society, London, No. 1.361,
16 June, 1939
2 Tare, Ratpa; Howcrin, W.; Davin, T. W. E. 1895 “Evidences of Glacia-
tion at Hallett’s Cove,” A.N.Z.A.A.S., 6, 315-320
Tate, Ratpu 1878 Exhibited a glaciated rock from Hallett’s Cove at
Ordinary Mceting of the Philosophical Society of Adelaide, Trans.
Philos. (Roy.) Soc. S. Aust., 2,
4 Towcuin, W. 1895 “New Facts bearing on the Glacial Features of Hallett’s
Cove,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 19, 61-69
3 Mowcriin, W. 1923 “A Geological Sketch-section of the Sea-cliffs on the
Eastern Side of Gulf St. Vincent, from Brighton to Sellick’s Ifill, with
Descriptions,” Trans. Roy. Soc., S. Aust., 47, 279-315
6 Lowen, W. 1924 “Further Discoveries of Permo-Carboniferous Glacial
Features near Hallett’s Cove,” ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 48, 291-302
7 Tlowcemin, W. 1918 “The Geology of South Australia”
8 Mowcnin, W. 1929 “The Geology of South Australia,’ 2nd Td.
9 Howcin, W. 1933 “A List of Original Papers and Other Works Published
by,” Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 57, 242-249
10 Howcuin, W. 1904 “The Geology of the Mount Lofty Range, Part 1—TVhe
Coastal District,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 28, 253-280
Ji Seoxer, Ranprr W. 1937 “Pre-Cambrian—Cambrian Succession. The General
and Economic Geology of these Systems in Portions of South Australia.”
Geo. Sur. S. Aust., Bull. 18
12) Mawson, Sir 1D). 1939 “The Tirst Stage of the Adelaide Series: As illus-
trated at Mount Magnificent.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63, (1), 69
13. Mawson, Sir D, 1926 “Varve Shales Associated with the Permo-Carbonifer-
ous Glacial Strata in South Australia,” rans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 50,
160-162
14. Mawson, Str D. 1907 “Minerological Notes 1 Barytes Sand Crystals,”
Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 31, 119-120

(oe)

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940 Vol.

PURPLE SERIES

Fig. 1 Contorted strata—Purple Series, coast looking south
(north of Curlew Point) and platform of marine erosion.

Fig. 2. Sturtian Tillite (Upper Pre-Cambrian). Outcrop on beach bet
high and low water (platform of marine erosion) cpposite Section

(Hundred Noarlunga).
Photo, R. W. S.

64, Plate |

ween

560

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940 Vol. 64, Plate II

EARLY? PLEISTOCENE

® J oe,
: = LOWER PLIOCENE

seeenmaroennesoresnnnereenennnnnign

YOUNGER | TIL

Fig. 1 Looking south across creek (boundary between Sections 562-566,
Hundred Noarlunga), showing Early ? Pleistocene sediments overlying (dis-
conformably Lower Pliocene fossiliferous sandstone, which has been
deposited unconformably upon gently dipping Younger Till (Lower
Cretaceous?). Strong unconformity between Till and Upper Pre-Cambrian
Quartzites (D7).

EARLY? PLEISTOCENE

oo. we “LOWER PLIOCENE

YOUNGER TILL

s$ ’ :
BEDROCK © ‘ . :
: .

= : . «

Fig. 2. Younger till overlying Purple shales and thin bands of Purplish
quartzite. Striated bedrock in foreground. Coast looking south,
Section 561 (Noarlunga).
Photo, R. W. S.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940

Vol. 64, Plate
: . ‘ :
Fig. | Horizontally-bedded Early ? Pleistocene sands and fine-grained gravels.
Washout near coast, north-western corner, Section 581, (Hd. Noarlunga).
; eo ae “ 2
se a
vit: r%
S : “a
iG ae : ‘a
te. i bs
cas i
By & ms Se Z
7 \ — wi gates
. dl 2% ee
e s Es ae

Basal bed of Early ? Pleistocene sands, gravels and boulders, showing large
water-worn erratic of quartzite derived from the erosion of the younger till,
resting on smoothly polished surface of Purple shales. Cliff-face. coast in
west centre of Section 575 (Hd. Noarlunga).

Photo, R. W. S.

Ill

Secnir, Rare W. 1937 “Geology of the Northern Part, Hundred of
Macclesfield,” Geo. Sur. S. Aust., Bull. 16

Manrean, C. T. 1927 “The Geology of the Willunga Scarp,” Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Aust., 51, 396-409

Jaconson, R., and Scorr, T. R. 1937 “The Geology of the Korkuperimul
Creck Area, Bacchus Marsh,” Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict., 50, (1), (N.S.),
110-156

Fenner, Cuas. 1931 “South Australia, a Geographical Study”

Howey, W. 1898 “Further Discoveries of Glacial Remains in South
Australia,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 22, 12-17

Howcmn, W. 1911 “Description of a Disturbed Area of Cainozoic Rocks
in South Australia, with Remarks on its Geological Signification,” Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 35, 47-59

srown, If Y. LL. 1894 “Annual Report, Government Geologist—I'rom
Strangways to Mount Paisley,” 10

Brown, H. ¥. L. 1898 “Government Geologist’s Report on Explorations
in the Western Part of South Australia.” Parl. Paper, No. 46, 5

Brown, H. Y. 1... 1902 “Record of Mines of S.A., Tarcoola and North-
West District,” 11

Brown, H. ¥. L. 1905 “Report on Geological Exploration in the West and
North-West of South Australia,” 5

Jack, R. Locxirart, 1930 “Geological Structure and Other Factors in
Relation to Underground Water Supply in Portions of South Australia,”
Geo. Sur., S. Aust., Bull. 14

Jack, R. Locxnarr 1915 “The Geology and Prospects of the Region to
the South of the Musgrave Range, and the Geology of the Western
Portion of the Great Australian Basin,’ Geo. Sur. S. Aust., Bull. 5

Davin, Str T. W. E., and Howcuin, W. 1923 “Report of the Glacial
Research Committec,” Proc. A.N.Z.A.A.S., 16, 79-94

Warn, L. Keira 1925 “Notes on the Geological Structure of Central Aus-
tralia,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49, 61-84

Warp, L. Kerri 1928 “A New [dition of the Geological Map of South
Australia,” Geo. Sur. S. Aust.

Kexwny, KE. J. 1934 “West Darling District—A Geological Reconnaissance
with Special Reference to the Resources of Sub-Surface Waters,” Min.
Res., No. 36, Geo. Sur. Dept. Mines, N.S.W.

Seonir, Ratpra W. 1935 “Andamooka Opal Field,’ S. Aust. Min. Rev.,
No. 62, 51-56

Virrki, C. 1939 “On the Occurrence of Similar Spores in a Lower Gond-
wana Glacial Tillite from Australia and in Lower Gondwana Shales in
India,” Proc. Indian Act. Sc., 9, (1), Sec. B

Howcnin, W. 1913 “The Evolution of the Physiographical Features of
South Australia,’ Pres. Add. Sec. C., A.N.Z.A.A..S., 14, 148-178

A NEW SPECIES OF METAPHYCUS (HYMENOPTERA, ENCYRTIDAE)
FROM AUSTRALIA
PARASITIC IN ERIOCOCCUS CORIACEUS MASKELL

By HAROLD COMPERE
University of California, Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside, Calif.
(Communicated by H. Womersley)

Summary

Metaphycus memnonius n. sp.
A distinctive species, largely black in colour, without lines on mesoscutum indicative of parapsidal
furrows ; maxillary palpi four segmented, labial palpi three segmented; scape not expanded;
frontovertex wide; ocelli in slightly less than a right angle; wings hyaline, uniformly ciliated.

A NEW SPECIES OF METAPHYCUS (HYMENOPTERA, ENCYRTIDAE)
FROM AUSTRALIA
PARASITIC IN ERIOCOCCUS CORIACEUS MASKELL

By ILarotp CoMPERE
University of California, Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside, Calif.

(Conuiunicated by LL. Womersley)
{Read 11 April 1940]

Metaphycus memnonius n. sp.

A distinctive species, largely black in colour, without lines on mesoscutum
indicative of parapsidal furrows; maxillary palpi four segmented, labial palpi
three segmented; scape not expanded; frontovertex wide; ocelli in slightly less
than a right angle; wings hyaline, uniformly ciliated.

Female: general colour black, the mesoscutum and axillae with the sides

narrowly orange or testaccous in sharp contrast. Head partly orange or testaceaus

with the ocellar area and occiput black, the checks and the area between scrobes
more or less brown or blackish. Antennas largely brown with the distal one or
two funicle segmicnis, upex of pedicel and part of the scape testaceous or sordid
white. Concealed part of the pronotum black, the collar grading from white to
testaccous. Tegulac white on basal portion and brown on apical portion. Pleura
and sternum of thorax grading from black to dark brown, except the prepeeius
which is whitish, and sometimes the anterior portion of the mesopleura adjacent
to the prepecius also whitish. Abdomen black. Legs partly white with extensive
black to dark brown markings; middle and hind tibiae with two distinct wide
bands; front ubiae less distinctly banded; front femora brown ventrally and
blotched on dorsal margin near apex; middle femora cither dirty white or various
suffusecl with brown; hind femora largely suffused with brown; fore and hind
tarsi brownish; middle tarsi and tibial spur whitish; coxae grading from blackish
or brown to whitish. Head, thorax and abdomen with fine, white hairs. eves
not visibly hairy under ordinary magiiifications. Notum of thorax very closely
aud strongly sculptured.

Frontovertex about once and one-half times as long as wide. Posterior ocelli
about once their own diameter from the occipital margin and close to the orbits.
Antennae rather short; scape about four times as long as wide; pedicel twice as
long as wide, almost as wide as the scape; first funicle segment about as wide as
Jong, asymmetrical, the ventral margin longer than the dorsal margin; suecceding
funicle segments symmetrical, very slightly increasing in size distad, all about as
wide as long, and the sixth almost twice the size of the first; club about two and
one-half times as long as wide, as long as the four preceding funicle segments
combined.

Trans. Roy. Soc. $.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

forewings large, slightly more than twice as long as wide, very finely and
densely hairy distad of speculum, marginal fringe composed of hairs not much
larger than those on the blade; a rather distinct triangular hairless spot at
narrowest part of blade between basal part of submarginal vein and the posterior
marginal hairless area. Speculum interrupted by three rows of hairs, the cut-off
portion large, semi-rounded and separated by one row of hairs from the posterior
marginal hairless area, Veins dark brown, marginal vein about as long as wide;
post-marginal vein extending distad almost as far as apex of stigmal vein, and
plainly much longer than the marginal vein; submarginal vein furnished with
about eighteen coarse hairs and slightly widened from near ihe middle to apex.

Abdomen short, rotund, about as long as the thorax. QOvipositor short, not
exserted, the shaft extending about one-half the length of abdomen, and the
sheaths about twice as long as greatest width.

Length ranging near 1-0 mm.

Male: face, cheeks, and ventral half of posterior aspect of head pale yellow
or whitish, except for the area between the serobes which is brown. Scape con-
colorous with cheeks; pedicel blotched with brown on dorsum; funicle and club
slightly dusky. Funicle segments, cach with two whorls of long curved hairs.

Scape short, slightly more than twice as long as wide. Pedicel about one
and one-half times as long as wide, plainly narrower than scape, subequal to first
funicle segment in size. Funicle segments subequal, cach about one and one-hali
times as long as wide. Club solid, as long as the preceding two funicle segments.

Deseribed from 20 females and 11 mates, holotype, allotype and paratypes,
reared from Eriococcus ceriaceis on Eucalyptus collected at Adclaide, South
Australia, by L. J. Dumbleton, 1956. Types to be deposited in the British Museum
and paratypes in the United States National Museum,

A NEW FLINDERSIAN CHITON

By B. J. WEEDING

Summary

In the Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania of March 1912 the late Dr. W. G. Torr described and figured as
Callocchiton mayi Acutoplax collected by himself in a rock pool at Stanley, Tasmania.

A NEW FLINDERSIAN CHITON
By B. J. Weevine
PLATE IV
[Read 11 April 1940]

In the Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania of March 1912 the late Dr. W. G. Torr
described and figured as Callochiton mayi an Acutoplax collected by himself in
a rock pool at Stanley, Tasmania.

In September of the same year he described, in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
another specimen under the same name, dredged by Sir Joseph Verco in Spencer
Gulf, South Australia. This was done because the South Australian shell differed
from the description he had given of the Tasmanian specimen.

The material collected in recent years proves that the two forms are specifi-
cally distinct, and the South Australian species is here described as:

Acutoplax cottoni n. sp.
(Pl. iv, figs. 1, 1a)
Shell medium, elongated oval, very highly elevated, carinated. Colour usually
pinkish with dark red splashes. Measurement of dried specimen, 13 x 7 x 5:5 mm.
Anterior valve—erect and smooth, except for growth lines. Median valves—
lateral areas prominently raised, nusculptured but corrugated with growth lines
and sprinkled with numerous small ocelli; pleural arcas with ten or twelve short

sulci partly crossing the area and becoming shorter towards the beak, making the
jugal area triangular and smooth. Posterior valve—anti-mucronal area grooved,
post-mucronal area raised and corrugated with growth lines.

Girdle, teeth and internal features generic, Gills—fourteen each side.
extending from valve three to eight.

Station—Dredged in shallow water.

Habitat—-Spencer Gulf and Gulf St. Vincent, South Australia.

The specimen described and figured was dredged from the Fisheries Launch
“Whyalla” in Spencer Gulf, March 1938. It is named after Mr. Bernard C.
Cotton, Conchologist of the South Australian Museum, whose unfailing courtesy
and ready helpfulness make the study of our Molluscan Fauna a pleasure.

A few other specimens from South Australia, listed in the Museum Collection
under the name of Acutoplax mayi Torr, are conspecific with the above.

All species of this genus are still very rare. They may be compared as
follows:

Acutoplax mayi Torr (pl. iv, figs. 2, 2a), which is a Tasmanian species, is
hgured for comparison. It is less elevated, the sulci are fewer, wider and more

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940 Vol. 64, Plate iV

mayi

2
.
Acutoplax

Acutoplax cottoni

irregularly spaced. The lateral areas have two latitudinal ribs absent or obsolete
in the South Australian species and the colour is quite distinct.

Acuioplay rufa Ashby is a red oval shell with a few weak, thin sulci partly

crossing the pleural area. The granulation of the tegmentum is coarser than that
of the preceding species.

Acutoplax klemi Ashby has not yet been recovered. It was founded upon a
small worn valve with five very short sulci on the pleural area; it could not be
confused with the species here described.

The Key to the Genus can be adjusted as follows:

Genus ACUTOPLAX

Key to Sprcres
a Shell highly elevated

aa Shell normally clevated.
b Some sulci extending across the pleural area
bb No sulci crossing the pleural area.

cottoni n. sp.

mayi Torr

ce Sulci extending half-way across the pleural area .- .. rufa Ashby
cc Suici extending one-fourth of the pleural area .. .. Rlewi Ashby

A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN GRACILARITDAE
(LEPIDOPTERA)

By A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.R.E:S.

Summary

This interesting family, which contains some of the smallest and most delicate, as well as some of
the most beautiful of the Lepidoptera, at present consists of about one thousand species referred to
twenty-two genera. Its distribution is world-wide, but with the exception of the genus Lithocolletis
the principal genera are more numerous in tropical and subtropical regions. Owing to their small
size they do not attract the casual collector, and the number of species is destined to be very largely
increased. With the exception of a few described by Stainton, our knowledge of the Australian
species dates from a paper by Meyrick in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South
Wales in 1880. To him we owe the present classification of the family, which was given in the
Genera Insectorum in 1912, with the exception of the genus Phyllocnistis, which was included in
this family in his Revised Handbook of the British Lepidoptera in 1927. My own interest in the
family commenced early; in fact, it was the main subject of my first entomological essay published
in these Transactions in 1894.

A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN GRACILARIIDAE
(LEPIDOPTERA)

By A. Jerreris Turner, M.D., FLR.E.S.
[Read 11 April, 1940]

This interesting family, which contains some of the smallest and most
delicate, as well as some of the most beautiful of the Lepidoptera, at present
consists of about one thousand species referred to twenty-two genera. Its dis-
tribution is world-wide, but with the exception of the genus Lithocolletis the
principal genera are more numerous in tropical and subtropical regions. Owing
to their small size they do not attract the casual collector, and the number of
species is destined to be very largely increased. With the exception of a few
described by Stainton, our knowledge of the Australian species dates from a paper
by Meyrick in the Proccedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales in
1880. To him we owe the present classification of the family, which was given
in the Genera Insectorum in 1912, with the exception of the genus Phyllocnistis,
which was included in this family in his Revised Handbook of the British Lepi-
doptera in 1927, My own interest in the family commenced early; in fact. it
was the main subject of my first entomological essay published in these ‘Trans-
actions in 1894.

‘Yo those who contemplate the study of the smallest Lepidoptera the
Gracilartidae can be commended, as the family and genera are eusy of recognition.
In most cases their attitude of rest with the fore part of the body elevated and
the legs displayed 1s characteristic. ‘The presence in most of three-scgmented
manillary palpi atds in their recognition, but in some these arc minute. ‘The larvae,
which in the majority of species mine blotches beneath the cuticle of leaves, are
not difficult to find and rear.

Family GRACTLARIIDAE

Mead smooth or more or less rough-sealed. Tongue well developed.
Labial palpi moderate or long, straight or curved, usually slender and pointed.
Manillary palpi three-segmented, filiform, porrect ; seldom minute or rudimentary,
Antennae as long as or longer than forewings, seldom shorter. Forewings
lanceolate or narrowly elongate ; cell long, 7 to costa, 8 usually separate or absent,
upper margin of cell usually obsolete in basal third. Hindwings narrowly
lanceolate or linear; neuration sometimes much reduced; cilia 2 to 8. The scaling
of the tibiae gives good generic characters. The family is probably an off-shoot
from the Plutellidae.

Larvae with prolegs on segments 7, 8, 9 and 13, but not on 10; in
Phyllocnistis almost apodal; with few exceptions mining blotches in leaves, but
sometimes in the latest stages leaving the mines.

Trans. Ray. Soc. S.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

Key To G&NERA
1 Posterior tibiae with dorsal series of bristles .. aa on sa 2
Posterior tibiae without dorsal series of bristles .. “ ex 6

2 > Antennae with small basal eye-cap Phyllocnistis
Antennae without eye-cap th ite Se ote a f 3

3 Middle tibiae with dorsal series of bristles uy a: bes 3 Cuphodes
Middle tibiae without dorsal series of bristles 2A ne a 4

4 Middle tibiae elongate and thickened with dense scales int 4 Cyphosticha
Middle tibiae not thickened an ms 2 As . a 5

5 Head rough or loose-haired on crown .. ot a; sy ou 5 Epicephala
Head smooth 4 “a ard af aan 2 cs 42 6 dlcrocercops

6 Forewings with 11 absent; maxillary palpi minute .. be A 1 Lithocoletis
Forewings with 11 present; maxillary palpi modcrately long 7

7 Head rough-haired .. 8
Head smooth 9

8 ace smooth; middie tibiae thickened with scales and hairs “2. 8 Lunodora
Face rough-haired; middle tibiae smooth ~ 7 wtrisiaca

§ Middle tibiae smooth ‘ 7 22 9 Pareclopa
Middle tibiae thickened thre sughout with dense scale i ra 10 Gracilaria

1 Gen, LiritocoLLeris

Hb. Verz., p. 423; Meyr., Proc. Jinn. Soc., N.S.AW., 1907, p. 51; Gen. Ins.
Grac., p. 4.

Head rough or loose-haired on crown, [ace smooth. Labial palpi short or
moderate, porrect or drooping, filiform, pointed. Maxillary palpi minute or ruddi-
mentary. Posterior tibiae hairy or smooth. Forewings narrow; 3, 4, 6, 8 and 11
absent. [lindwings linear-lanceolate or linear; cilia 4/5; 3, 4, and 6 absent.

Type L. alnifoliella Dup. from Europe. larvae leaf-miners; pupae within
the mines. A genus of about 250 species almost confined to North America and
Europe, but with a few stragglers in India and Australia.

1 1. stephanota Meyr., ibid. 1882, p. 199. Larvae mining blotches in the
leaves of Desmodium sp. and Kennedya rubricunda (Leguminosae).
NUS.AWV.: Sydney.

2 L. aglaosona Meyr., ibid. 1907, p. 51. N.S.W.: sydnev.

3. L. desmochrysa Low., ibid. 1897, p. 23, Nepticula beet saee sopper.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1899, p. 280. N.S.W.: 3roken Till; 5. Aust. :
Adelaide. Larvae mining leaves of Hardenbergia ovata pe aera

4 L. acares Turn., Proc. Rov. Soc. Tastu., 1938, p. 100. ‘Tasm.: Mount
Wellington (4,000 feet).

2 Gen. PUYLLOCNISTIS
Zel, (in. Ent., iii, p. 244 (1848) ; Meyr., ibid, 1880, p. 173.

Ilead smooth. Labial palpi moderate, porrect or drooping, filiform, slender,
smooth, pointed. Maxillary palpi obsolete. Antennae with basal segment slightly

dilated and concave beneath to form a small eye-cap. Posterior tibiae with a serics
of long bristles on dorsum. Forewings narrowly or very narrowly lanceolate;
3 and 4 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 8 absent, 11 from beyond middle of cell, Hind-
wings linear-lanceolate, less than 4, cilia 5 to 8; 3 and 4 absent, 6 and 7 stalked.

A genus of over 60 species represented in all continental arcas. Some of the
species are, as stated by Meyrick, amongst the smallest and most delicate of the
Lepidoptera. Larvae apodal, mining leaves. Pupae in cocoons within the mines.

5 P. leptomianta Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1923, p. 175. Qld.:
Brisbane.

6 P. atractias Meyr., ibid, 1906, p. 64. Qld.: Brisbane. N.S.W.: Sydney.

7 P. diplomochla Turn., ibid, 1913, p. 175. Qld.: Bundaberg, Brisbane.

8 P. diaugella Meyr,, ibid. 1880, p. 173, and ibid. 1906, p. 63. N.S.W.:
Sydney.

9 P. acmias Meyr., ibid. 1906, p. 62. N.S.W.: Katoomba.

10 P. psychina Meyr., ibid. 1906, p. 62. W. Aust.: Albany.

11 P. eurymochla Turn., ibid. 1923, p. 175. N. Qld.: Cairns, Atherton,

12 P. iodocella Meyr., ibid. 1880, p. 174. N.S.W.: Sydney.

13 P. hapalodes Meyr., ibid. 1906; p. 63. W. Aust.: Albany.

14 P. triortha Meyr., ibid. 1906, p. 63. W. Aust.: Carnarvon.

13 P. citrella Stin., Tr. Ent. Soc., 1856, p. $02; Fletch. Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind..
vi (7), p. 171, and (9), p. 214; minutella Snel, Tijd. v. Ent., 1903, p. 87;
citricola Nitobe., Formosa Agr. Rep., (8), p. 330. A pest on citrous trees
in cultivation. N. Aust.: Darwin, Also from the Archipelago, Ceylon,
India, China, Japan.

16 P. ephimera Turn., ibid., 1926, p. 149. N. Old.: Cairns; Qld.: Macpherson
Range (3,000 feet),

7 P. atranota Meyr., ibid., 1906, p. 64. N.S.W.: Sydney.

18 P. enchalca Turn., Proc. Roy, Soc. Tasm., 1938, p. 100, Tasm.: Hobart.
The larvae were discovered by Dr. V. V. J. Hickman mining the leaves of
Plagianthes sidoides (Malvaccac ),

3. Gen. CUPHIODES

Meyr., P.L.S. N.SAWV., 1897, p. 314.

Phrixosceles Meyr., Journ. Bombay Nat. list. Soc., 1908, p. 814; Gen. Ins.,
Grac., p. 13.

Head smooth. Labial palpi long, curved, slender, smooth. Maxillary palpi
short, filiform, porrect. Antennae over 1. Middle and posterior tibiae and
proximal tarsal segments with long bristly hairs on dorsum. Forewings narrow,
8 absent. Hindwings linear-lanceolate; cilia 6 to 8.

Type C. thysanota Meyr. A development from slcrocercops containing
20 species recorded from Indo-Malaya and Australia.

Key To SpECTES
1 Forewings with oblique fuscous sub-basal fascia .. AA an holoteles
Forewings without oblique cub-basal fascia .. ee ran fe 2
2 Forewings with eight irregular transverse lines of fuscous irrora-
tion m= basal two-thirds aa ae et oh 1 a lithographa

Forewings without such lines .. 3
3 Forewings with a fine oblique transverse line .. 4
Forewings without oblique transverse lire 5
4 Forewings with inwardly oblique line near middle .. 7 .. lechriotoma
Forewings with inwardly oblique line subapical - 7 4 niphadias
5 Forewings with four pairs of fuscous transverse lines .. a didymosticha _
Forewings without four pairs of transverse lines .. bas ae 6
6 Forewings with fuscous apical fascia .. os + st “6: thysanola
Forewings without apical fascia .. : oe ss ws At. 7
7 Forewings with blackish strigulae on dorsum a Pas a maculosa

Forewings without blackish strigulae habrophanes

19 C. holoteles Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 185. Qld.: Nambour.
20. C. lithographa Meyr., Gen. Ins. Grac., p. 18. N. Qld.: Cairns.

21 C. lechriotoma Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 185. N. Qld.: Cardwell.
22 C. niphadias Turn., ibid. 1913, p. 186. N. Qld.: Cairns.

23 Cuphodes didymosticha n. sp.

diduporreyxos, twin-lined

$,6-7 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax white. Antennae whitish, towards apex
grey, (Abdomen missing.) legs whitish. Forewings marrow, apex obtuse;
white; four pairs of fine pale fuscous transverse lines at one quarter, middle,
three-quarters, and tornus; some fine dorsal strigulae; a fine longitudinal fuscous
subterminal streak; terminal edge fuscous; cilia grey. Ilindwings linear-
lanceolate; grey; cilia 6, grey.

N. QOld.: Kuranda; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

24 C€, thysanota Meyr., P.A.S.N.S.W., 1897, p. 314; sophopasta Turn., ibid.
1913, p. 185. Qld.: Brisbane, Rosewood.

25 Cuphodes maculosa n. sp.

maculosus, speckled.

$, 2,8mm. Head, palpi, and thorax white. Antennae white with pale
fuscous annulations; apex of basal joint blackish. Abdomen grey-whitish. Legs
white with fuscous rings. Forewings narrow, obtusely pointed; white speckled
with pale ochreous; dorsal edge suffused with ochreous and with a series of
minute blackish strigulae; similar strigulae towards apex and on edge of termen,;
cilia white, on tornus and dorsum grey. Hindwings linear-lanccolate; grey;
cilia 6, grey.

Qld.: Brisbane in September, Bundaberg in June and August; nine specimens.

26 Cuphodes habrophanes n. sp.

déBpodavys, soft, gentle

8, @,9-10 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax white. Antennae white, towards
apex grey. Abdomen white. Legs white with fuscous rings. Forewings
moderately narrow, obtuse; white with sparsely scattered fuscous scales; a fine
blackish streak on apex of costa prolonged into cilia; cilia white, on tornus and
dorsum grey. Hindwings narrow-lanceolate; grey; cilia 8, grey.

Qld: Brisbane in September; Bundaberg in June and September; nine
specimens.

4 Gen. CypriosTicHa
Meyr,, PLS.N.S.W., 1907, p. 61; Gen. Ins. Grac., p. 22.

Head smooth. Labial palpi long, curved, slender, acute, smooth or with a
tuft of hairs on second segment. Maxillary palpi moderate, filiform, porrect.
Antennae over 1. Posterior tibiae with dorsal series of bristles. Middle tibiae
elongate and thickened with dense scales. Forewings narrow, apex acute or
obtuse. Hindwings narrowly lanceolate; cilia 5 to 6.

Type C. pyrochroma, An Australian genus, of which Meyrick records one
species from Ceylon. I regard this and picephala also as developments from
Acrocercops.

Key ta Sprcres

1 Labial palpi smooth 2
Labial palpi tufted .. 7

2 Forewings without dorsal streak or series of spots .. ar an fanconita
forewings with dorsal streak er series of spots

3 Forewings with dorsal streak or spots yellow
Forewings with dorsal streak or spots white .. 3 bs 7 6

4 Forewings with dorsal streak ’ 5
Forewings wiih dorsal spot only te Lt 7 om by nucrola

5 Forewings with dorsal streak indented but continuous — .. sf pyrochroma
Forewings with dorsal streak interrupted as aa hs As pandora

6 VForewings with dorsal streak .. tee mn i rie! re dialeuca
Forewings with dorsal spots only a +8 a ste albomarginata

7 Forewings whitish with fuscous dorsal streak ba ‘2 ai cophonota
Forewings with whitish dots .. a amy 3 4 es 8

8 Forewings purple-fuscous ba be Mt ke ie ostracodes
Forewings ochreous-fuscous nt is hi r bryononta.

27 C. microta Turn., Tr. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1894, p. 128. Qid.: Brisbatie.
28 CC. Pyrochroma Vurn., ibtd. 1894, p. 129. Old.: Brisbane; Tweed Hds.
Macpherson Range (low level), N.S.W.: J.ismore.

29° ©. pandora Turn., P.L.S. NS.W., 1913, p. 186. Old.: Stradbroke Island.
30°C. panconiia Turn., tbid., 1913, p. 187. N. Old.: Cairns; Qld.: Brisbane ;
N.S.W.: Murwillumbah.

C. albomarginata Stin., Tr. Ent. Soc., (3), i, p. 294, 1960, pl. x, f. 3.
Qld.: Brisbane, Tweed Hds.

32 Cyphosticha dialeuca n. sp.
duaAevxos, white right through.

é, 2,810mm. Head and palpi white. Antennae pale grey with fuscous
annulations. Thorax white; tegulae grey. Abdomen fuscous; tuft whitish.
Forewings narrow, apex obtuse; fuscous-grey; a white dorsal streak from base
to tornus, broadest at base and gradually attenuated, unevenly edged ; costal margin
pale grey with fuscous dots; a white subapical dot partly edged with blackish;
cilia grey, apices dark fuscous, on tornus and dorsum wholly grey. Hindwings

narrowly lanceolate; grey; cilia 5, grey. N. Qld.: Dunk Island in May; two
specimens.

33. C. bryonoma Turn. P.L.S.N.S.W., 1914. p. 563. 0 N.S.AW.: Ebor
(4,500 feet).
34 C. ostracodes Turn., P.R.S.Q., 1917, p. 88. Tasm.: Cradle Mount
(3,000 feet}, Weldborough.
35. C. sophonota Turn., P.R.S.Tasm., 1926, p. 159. Tasm.: Cradle Mount
(3,000 feet).
5 Gen. EricEPHALA

Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1880, p. 168; Gen. Ins. Grac., p. 13.

Head shortly rough-haired on crown with longer hairs projecting anteriorly
between antennae; face smooth, Labial palpi rather long, porrect or drooping,
filiform, smooth, pointed. Maxillary palpi moderate, filiform, smooth, pointed.
Antennae over 1. Posterior tibiae with series of dorsal bristles. Forewimgs
narrow, pointed; 11 from before middle. Hindwings narrow-lanccolate, about
4, cilia 3 to 4; 3 sometimes absent, 5 and 6 stalked. There are some 30 species
in India, Ceylon, Africa, and Australia.

Type E. colymbetella. As some of the Australian species are very simular
and need considerable care in discrimination, I give a key to the species.

Key To SPECIES

1 Forewings with a white dorsal streak .. 4 ast fy 2
Forewings with a series of white dorsal BAOEE: nn & A, epunicta

2 Forewings with dorsal streak straight-edged or nearly so .. ., 3
Forewings with edge of dorsal streak irregular . . a3 8

3 Head ochreous on crown .. 5 - st wd ar a nephelodes
Head white ad se ba 4

4 Forewings with dendat oblique costal streaks .. s 3 a 5
Forewings with costal streaks very short or dot-like she 7

5 Forewings with first costal streak prolonged to reach dorsal streak eungona
Forewings with first costal not reaching dorsal streak .. wr 6

6 Forewings with two broadly suffused pretornal streaks .. t. trigonophora
Forewings with pretornal streaks slender, distinct .. = ae albistriatella

7 Forewings with dorsal streak indented in middle .. 4 a lomatographa
Forewings with dorsal streak not indented in middle 1g a4 acrobaphes

& Forewings with slender oblique costal streaks be = colymbetclla

Forewings with costal streaks very shart or dot- like te WA solosticha

Additional distinctive characters are given for each species. Owing to con-

fusion of species, some of the localities previously given were incorrect,

Lon)
“I

i. austrais Turn., Tr. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1896, p. 2. Forewings with
ground-colour fuscous-grey, much darker than in the other species; costal
edge white from base to four-fifths; no antemedian costal streak.
Old.: Brisbane.

L. albistriatella Turn., ibid., 1894, p. 129. Forewings with costal streaks
slender, his is the smallest species. N. Qld.: Magnetic Island; Qld.:
Yeppoon, Bundaberg, Nambour, Caloundra, Brisbane, Stanthorpe.

Ki. nephelodes Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 177, E. stephanophora
Turn., Trans. Roy, Soc. 5. Aust., 1923, p. 171. Forewings with costal
streaks short and broad, the two posterior dot-like. Legs white with
blackish rings. N. Qld.: Cairns, Dunk Island; Qld.: Brisbane, Strad-
broke Island, Toowoomba.

i. eugonia Turn, P.L.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 175. Forewings with costal
streaks very distinct, long, slender. The type is still unique. This species
should not be confused with £. albifrons Sttn. Trans. Ent. Soc., (2), v,
p. 122, 1859, from India. Old.: Brisbane.

E, lrigonophora Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1900, p. 21. Forewings
with first costal streak dot-like, the two posterior long and_ slender.
N. Qld.: Innisfail; Qld.: Stradbroke Island, Mount Tamborine; N.S.W.:
Sydney.

E. lomatographa Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 176. Forewings with
costal streaks short and dot-like. Hindwings of male with blackish dorsal
line from base to one quarter. Qld.: Stradbroke Island.

Ii. acrobaphes Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1900, p. 22. Forewings
with costal streaks short and slender. Hindwings of male blackish iu
posterior half. Qld.: Brisbane, Stradbroke Island.

£. colymbetella Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1880, p. 169; Gen. Ins. Grac.. f. &,
£. frugicola Turn., ibid., 1913, p. 175. Forewings with costal streaks long
and slender, the first sometimes reaching dorsal streak. N. Old.: Cairns,
Herberton, Dunk Island; Old.: Brisbane, Stradbroke Island, Mount Tam-
borine, Bunya Mountains. The larva feeds on the seeds of Phyllanthus
Ferdinandi (Euphorbiaceae) and the perfect insect emerges inside the
capsule, where it remains until liberated by the dehiscence.

44 Epicephala zalosticha n. sp.

Earoortiyos, white-lined, like the surf

grey.

?, 10-12 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax white. Antennae and abdomen
Legs pale grey with whitish rings. Forewings grey with white markings;

three short dot-like streaks at one-third, middle, and two-thirds; a broad dorsal

streak deeply indented before and after a median projection, with a continuation

to middle of termen, this portion being irregularly thickened and including one or

two fine grey lines; a leaden-fuscous transverse line from five-sixths costa to
tornus; apical area beyond this whitish with a blackish central spot surrounded
by grey; cilia grey, bases and apices blackish, on tornus and dorsum wholly grey.
Hindwings lanceolate; grey; cilia 4; grey. Qld.: Stradbroke Island, Tweed Hds.;
N.S.W.: Sydney.

45 E. epimicta Turn., P.1.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 183. N. Qld.: Cairns; Qld. :

Brisbane, Toowoomba.

6 Gen, ACROCERCOPS

Wiern. Ent. Tidskr., ii, p. 95; Meyr., Gen. Ins. Grac., p. 14. Conopomorpha
Meyr., PL.S.N.S.W., 1907, p. 54

Head smooth. Labial palpi moderately long, straight or curved, porrect or
drooping, or curved upwards, usually smooth but sometimes rough-scaled or with
a tuft on second segment, pointed. Maxillary palpi short or moderate, rarely
minute or obsolete. Antennae as long as or longer than forewings. Middle tibiae
not thickened. Posterior tibiae with a regular series of dorsal bristles. Fore-
wings narrow; 3 sometimes absent, 6 and 7 sometimes stalked, 11 from before
middle. Hindwings narrowly lanceolate or linear-lanceolate ; cilia 4 to 8.

Type A. brongitardella Vab., fron Europe.

This genus comprises about 240 species and is represented in all regions, but
is most numerous in Indo-Malaya and Australia. In the latter most of the species
aceur in the eastern coastal region from Sydney northwards. Larvae usually
mining blotches in leaves, seldom in fruits or galls. Pupae sometimes within the
mines, more often in a cocoon outside.

The species may usually be easily recognised from their peculiar resting
position with the anterior end raised upwards and the conspicuous maxillary
palpi, but the first four species are exceptional in having these minute or obsolete.
From the other nearly allied genera it is distinguished by the scaling of the middle
and posterior tibiae.

Among the numerous species three natural groups may be recognised :
(1) Those with minute maxillary palpi and brassy-metallic forewings with white
costal and dorsal streaks. (2) Those with one or more white transverse fasciae.
(3) Those with a white longitudinal streak on or near dorsum. The remaining
species are diversified and not adapted for grouping.

46 A. cupetala Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1880, p. 160, Qld.: Nambour, Brisbane,

47 A. eumetalla Meyr., ibid, p. 160, Larvae in galls on Acacia. Qld.: Bris-
bane, Toowoomba, Warwick, Bunya Mountains (3,500 feet); N.S.W.:
Sydney; Vict.: Gisborne; Tasm.: Mount Wellington (1,500 feet),
Deloraine.

48 A, heliopla Meyr., ibid., 1907, p. 57. Qld.: Brisbane; Tasm.: Hobart.

49 A. alysidola Meyr., ibid, 1880, p. 161; Gen. Ins. Grac., f. 10, Larvae in
phyllodia of Acacia longifolia. Qld.: Brishane, Warwick; N.S.W.: Sydney;
Vict.: Sale, Healesville; S. Aust.: Port Lincoln; W. Aust.: Albany, Perth.

50 A, tricalyx Meyr., Exot. Mocro., ii, p. 465. N. Qld.: Cairns.

Sl A mesochacta Meyr., ibid., ii, p. 294. Qld.: Brisbane.

92 A. ordinatella Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1880, p. 145, and Exot. Micro, i,
p. 624; Fletcher, Mem. Agr. Dep. Ind., vi, (6), p. 146. N. Old.: Cairns,
Eungella; Qld.: Gympie, Nambour, Brisbane, Mount Tamborine, Mac-
pherson Range (3,000 feet) ; N.S.W.: Port Macquarie, Sydney. Also from
Ceylon and India. In India the larvae have been found in the leaves of
dlseodaphne semocarpifolia and Litsea sp. (Lauraccae).

33 A. irrorata Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1894, p. 124. Old.: Brisbane,
Beaudesert, ‘Toowoomba, Dalby, Milmerran, Cunnamulla; N.SAW.:
sydney, Broken Hill; S. Aust.: Adelaide.

54° A. pertenuis Turn., ibid., 1923, p. 171. Old.: Tweed Hds.

55 A. hedymopa Turn, P.L.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 181. N. Old.: Cairns,
Atherton Plateau; Qld.: Nambour.

56 A. apoblepta Turn., ibid., 1913, p. 180. N. Old.: Cairns.

97 A. autadelpha Meyr.. ibid, 1880, p. 147; symphyletes Turn.. ibid, 1913,

p. 179. N, Old.: Cairns; Qld.: Brisbane, Mount Tamborine, Macpherson

Range (3,000-3,500 feet); N.S.W.: Sydney. Mittagong.

A. antigrapha Turn., Trans. Roy, Soc. S$, Aust., 1926, p. 147. Differs

from A. autadelpha in the third fascia being broader on costa, and ihe

presence of costal and dorsal spots beyond this, sometimes uniting to form

a fourth fascia. Qld.: Macpherson Range (3,000 feet), Sunya Moun-

tains (3,500 fect).

Loa
RK

59 Acrocercops antimima n. sp.

dv7eepos, closely imitating,

2. 11-12 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax white. Antennae and abdomen grey.
Legs white with dark fuscous rings. Forewings narrow, apex rounded; shining
snhow-white; markings brownish-fuscous edged with dark fuscous; a narrow
basal fascia, succeeded by three rather narrow fasciae with irregularly dentate
margins, sub-basal, at two-fifths, and at three-fifths; a fifth oblique fascia from
four-fifths costa to termen above tornus, its anterior edge incurved; a large apical
spot extending to termen, partly confluent with fifth fascia, leaving extreme apex
and a dot on termen white; cilia on apex white with dark fuscous apices, beneath
apex dark fuseous on a narrow band edged bencath with white, the remainder
pale grey. Hindwings linear-lanceolate; grey; cilia 4, pale grey. Nearest 4 anti-
grapha, trom which it differs in larger size, fasciae narrow, differently shaped, and
not straight-cdged, and by the distinctive cilia. New South Wales: Ebor (4,500
feet) in December; two specimens,

60 4, macaria Turn,, P.L.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 181. Qld.: Caloundra (Bribie
Island). A series reared from larvae mining the leaves of Halfordia
drupifera (Rutaccac), Very near the preceding, but the first three fasciac
are considerably narrower, and this difference appears constant.

61 Acrocercops chionosema n. sp.

xtovernuos, with snow-white markings

é,7-8mm. Ilead whitish-grey; face white. Palpi white with fuscous rings
on apex of second and middle of terminal joints. Antennae dark grey; basal
joint white with fuscous apex. Thorax fuscous with a pair of white spots.
Abdomen grey. Legs white with blackish rings. Forewings narrow, apex
rounded ; brownish-fuscous with snow-white markings; four transverse blackish-
edged fasciae; first basal, very narrow ; second at one-fourth, moderately broad,
narrower on costa; third median, narrow, more so on costa; fourth at three-
fourths, somewhat constricted in middle; a very slender interrupted blackish-edged
line from costa before apex to termen; a white apical dot; cilia white, apices
fuscous, on lower termen and dorsura grey. Hindwings linear-lanceolate; grey ;
cilia grey. Readily distinguished from A. macaria, to which it has a general
resemblance, by the white apical spot on forewings and the different position of
the fourth fascia, which in that species runs to termen, QOld.: Macpherson
Range (3,000-3,500 feet) in December; two specimens.

62. A. tetrachorda Turn., ibid., 1913, p. 180. N. Qld.: Cairns, The fourth
fascia is about twice the breadth of the other threc.

63 A. saplaca Meyr., ibid, 1907, p. 54. Qld.: Caloundra, Toowoomba;
N.SAV.: Sydney.

64 A. argyrodesma Meyr., ibid, 1882, p. 194. Larvae in leaves of Grevillea
linearis (Proteaceae), N.SAV.: Sydney.

65 A, clinoszona Meyr., Exot. Micro., ti, p. 291. Qld.: Brisbane.

660 4. tricuneatclla Meyt., PLLS.N.S.W.. 1880, p. 146. Larvae in blotches
on upper surface of leaves of Typha latifolia (Typhaceac), Papal cocoons
inside the mines. Qld.: Brisbane; N.S.W.: Sydney.

67 A. cacnotheta Meyr., ibid, 1880, p. 148. Larvae mine Icaves of the
Waratah Telopea speciosissiana (Proteaceae), N.S.W.: Iatoomba.

68 4. chionoplecta Mevr., ibid., 1882, p. 195. Larvae in leaves of Phebadiuin
dentalum (Rutaceac), N.S.W.: Sydney.

69 A. lencotoma Turn., ibid, 1913, p. 180. Qld.: Brisbane.

70.4. hoplocala Meyr., ibid., 1880. p. 149; Gen. Ins. Grac., f. 7. Qld.: Mount
‘Tamborine, Yeppoon; N.S.W.: Sydney.

71 A. ealicella Sttn., Ir. E. S., (3), 3, p. 297, 1860; Meyr., P.LLS.N SW.
1880, p. 150; Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1894, p. 124. Larvae im
leaves of Eucalyptus sp. Qld.: Brisbane, Macpherson Range (3,500 feet) ;
N.S.W.: Sydney, Bulli.

72 A. albimaculella Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. Qld.: Brisbane.

73. A. archepolis Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1907, p. 56. S. Aust.: Wirrabara.

74. A. euchlasnyda Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1894, p. 126. Qld.:
Brisbane, Tweed Eds.

7) Acrocercops isotoma n. sp.
igotipos, equally divided
?, 8mm. Flead and thorax white. Labial palpi whitish with two fuscous
rings. Antennae fuscous; basal segment white. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs
white with blackish rings (pesterior pair missing), Forewings grey-brown; seven
narrow, slightly rippled, equidistant, white, blackish-edged, transverse fasciae;
first sub-basal; sixth incomplete, not reaching termen; seventh subapical, con-
stricted in middle; a blackish apical dot; cilia fuscous, apices grey, on tornus and
dorsum wholly grey. Hindwings almost linear; grey; cilia 8, grey. N. Qld:
Yungaburra (Atherton Plateau); ene specimen from a larva mining the leaf of
an unidentified shrub; imago emerged in Brisbane in July.
76 A, pyrigencs Turn., Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1896, p. 13 nitidula Turn.,
ibid., 1894, p. 128 (praeoce.) ; Qld.: Nambour, Brisbane.
77 A, obseurella Turn., ibid. 1894, p. 125. QOld.: Brisbane, Toowoomba,
Tweed Hds,
78 A. symploca Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 183. Old.: Tweed Hds.
79 A, poliocephala Turn., tbid., 1913, p. 182. Qld.: Brisbane.
80 A. ophiodes Turn., Trans. Rov. Soc. S. Aust., 1896, p. 2. Q.: Brisbane,
Warwick; N.S.W.: Sydney.

81 Acrocercops axinophora n. sp.
dEivodopos, carrying an axe
?,8mm. Head white, ochreous-tinged on crown. Labial palpi whitish with

fuscous rings. Antennae fuscous, towards base white. Thorax white. Abdomen
grey. Legs whitish with numerous fuscous rings; posterior tibiae wholly whitish.
Porewings moderately narrow; fuscous; markings white tinged ochreous and
edged with blackish; a dorsal streak from base to one-third, thence continued as
a broad slightly oblique fascia to one-third costa; a large semi-oval pretornal
dorsal spot; a smaller triangular spot on midtermen, its apex connected by a very
fine line with costa; two white streaks blackish-edged anteriorly from costa before
apex to termen; cilia white, apices blackish opposite apex, with a blackish sub-
apical hook, on tornus and dorsum wholly grey. Hindwings linear-lanceolate ;
grey; cilla 8, grey. Near A. ophiodes, of which it is the western representative.
The forewings are proportionately broader, the head and markings ochreous-
tinged, and basal marking of forewings broadly axe-shaped. W. Aust.: Margaret
iver in November; one specimen.

82 . plectospila’ Meyr., Exot. Micro.. ii, p. 469. N. Old.: Cairns.

8&3 . doloploca Meyr., ibid., ii, p. 469. N. Qld.: Cairns.

84 . callimacha Meyr., ibid., ii, p. 293. Qld.: Brisbane.
. prospera Meyr., ibid., ii, p. 293. Qld.: Brisbane.
. feptalea Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1900, p. 21, Qld.: Brisbane.
. heteropsis Low, ibid., p. 1894, p. 112. QOld.: Duaringa, Charleville.
. chionochtha Meyr., P.S.N.S.W., 1907, p. 59. S. Aust.: Quorn.

oe
wn
BAX wR A A RAN

8&9

96
97

A, nereis Meyr., ibid., 1880, p. 163; fluorescens Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Aust., 1894, p. 127. Qld.: Brisbane, Toowoomba; N.S.W.: Lismore,
Sydney.

A. chalceopla Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 188; chalcea Turn., Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1926, p. 147, N. Qld.: Kuranda; Qld.: Macpherson
Range (3,000 feet).

A. tristaniae Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1894, p. 130. Qld.: Bris-
banc. The larvae mine the leaves of Tristania conferta and Eugema
ventenatit (Myrtaceae).

A. retrogressa Meyr., Exot. Micro., ii, p. 467. Qld.: Brisbane; S. Aust.:
Adelaide.

A. perallcla Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1894, p. 130, and ibid, 1926,
p. 147. N. Qld.: Cairns; Qld.: Nambour, Caloundra, Brisbane, Tweed
fds.

A. grammatacma Meyr., Exot. Micro., ii, p. 468. N. Qld.: Cairns.

A. laciniella Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1880, p. 164. Qld.: Brisbane, Mount
Tamborine, Toowoomba; N.S.W.: Sydney, Katoomba, Bathurst, Mount
Kosciusko (5,000 feet); Vict.: Warragul, Gisborne; Tasm.: Launceston,
Deloraine, Campbelltown; Hobart: Cradle Mount (3,000 feet); 5. Aust.:
Adelaide. [Larvae mine the leaves of Eucalyptus.

A. stereomita Vurn., tbid., 1913, p. 182. Qld.: Eidsvold, Brisbane.

A. plebcia Turn., 1894, p. 131, and ibid., 1926, p. 147. Qld.: Brisbane,
Toowoomba, Warwick, Stanthorpe; N.S.W.: Sydney. The larvae mine
the leaves of Acacia podalyriacfolia, a native of Queensland, much culti-
vated for ornamental purposes. Some years back this moth reached, or
most probably was accidentally introduced into, Sydney, and multiplied to
such an extent as to defoliate the trees.

A. unilineata Turn.. ibid, 1894, p. 131. and ibid., 1926, p. 148. Qld:
3risbane, Tweed Hds.

A. leucomochla Turn., ibid., 1926, p. 148. Qld.: Yeppoon; N.S.W.:
Sydney.

A. didvinella Meyr., D.L.S.N.S.W., 1880, p. 164. N.S.W.: Sydney; Vict. :
Melbourne; S. Aust.: Peterborough, Port Lincoln; W. Aust.: Albany.
Larvae in phyllodia of Acacia longifolia and A. cultriforimis,

A, ochrocephala Meyr., ibid., 1880, p. 162. N.SAV.: Sydney.

A, ochridorsella Meyr., ibid., 1880, p. 166. This and the following species
are distinguished by the presence of a tuft of hairs ou the second joint of
labial palpi. N.S.W.: Sydney. Larvae mine the leaves of Phillanthus
Ferdinandi (liuphorbiaceae),

Al. aeolella Meyr., ibid., 1880, p. 167. N.S.W.: Wollongong.

A. melanommata Turn., tbid., 1913, p. 184. N. Qld.: Cairns, Atherton
Plateau.

A. spodophylla Turn., ibid., 1913, p. 184. N. Qld.: Cairns.

106 A. ochroptila Turn., ibid., 1913, p. 181. N, Aust.: Darwin; N. Old. : Dunk
Island, Townsville. Larvae abundant in Townsville mining leaves of
Terminalia catappa (Combretaceae).

107. A. mendosa Meyr., Gen. Ins, Grac., p. 16. N. Qld.: Cairns.

108 A. lithogramma Meyr., Exot. Micro., 11, p. 296. Q.: Brisbane,

109 A, hierocosma Meyr., Gen. Ins. Grac., p. 18.; Fletch. Dep, Agr. Ind. (Ent.),

,p. 153, pl. 38, f. 1. N. Aust.: Darwin. Also from India, where it has
hated bred from larvae mining the leaves of Nephelium litcht (Sapindaccae).

110 Acrocercops clisiophora n. sp.

kAucLoopos, carrying a tent

3, 9,67 mm. Head and palpi white. Antennae grey, towards base white.
Thorax grey with a white central spot. Abdomen grey. Legs white with fuscous
rings. VForewings narrow, obtusely pointed ; ochreous-grey; a white blackish-
edged sub-basal transverse line; two narrow oblique fasciae from costa at one
quarter running to dorsum at one-fifth and three- fifths respectively, separating
at a right angle, white with median blackish lines; a sinuate white blackish-edged
subcostal line from one-half costa to beneath three quarters; between this and
second fascia a suffused median blackish spot; a smaller blackish spot on costa at
three-quarters; an oblique white subapical line edged anteriorly blackish; a white
dorsal spot at two-thirds connected by a sinuate white line with midtermen, both
blackish edged; a white line on apical half of termen; cilia erey-whitish with a
blackish subapical line, on cosia greyish-ochreous, on tornus and dorsum grey.
Hindwings almost linear; pale grey; cilia 8. pale grey. N. Qld: Kuranda, near
Cairns, in June; five specimens.

111 21. habrodes Meyr., P.ALS.N.S.W., 1907, p. 57. W. Aust.: Geraldton.
112 df. penographa Meyr., Exot. Micro., ii, p. 294. Qld.: Brisbane.

113) 4. antimecha Meyr.. PLSN.SW. 1907, p. 58. W. Aust.: Geraldton.
114 -f. erucigera Meyr., lexot. Micro., 3 295, QOld.: Brisbane.

115 if. osteopa Mevr., ibid., 11, p. 292. “Oia Brisbane.

116 4. ennychodes Meyr., ibid., i, p. 467. N, Qld.: Cairns.

117 A. trisigiliata Meyr., ibid., ii, p. 470. N. Qld.: Cairns.

7 Gen. ARISTAEA

Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1907, p. 52.

Head and face loosely rough-haired. [Labial palpi long, straight. pointed;
second joint with long bristly hairs anteriorly, Maxillary palpi short, filiform,
porrect. Antennae 1. Middle and posterior tibiae smooth. Forewings rather
narrow, dilated posteriorly, apex obtuse. Ilindwings lanceolate, apex acute;
ciliation 3. Probably correlated with primitive forms of Gracilaria, Monotypical.

118 uf. periphanes Meyr., P.LS.N.S.W., 1907, p. 52, Gen. Ins. Grac., f. 5
Tasm.: Mount Wellington (2,500-3,000 feet).

8 Gen, Timopora
Meyr., Tr. Ent. Soc., 1886, p. 295; Gen. Ins. Grac., p. 25.

Head roughly tufted on crown, face smooth. Labial palpi long, curved,
sinooth, obtusely pointed. Maxillary palpi moderate, slender, porrect. Antennae
over 1. Posterior tibiae rough-scaled above. Middle tibiae thickened and with
long hairs beneath. Forewings very narrow, pointed. Hindwings linear; cilia-
tions 5. Type T. chryvsochoa Meyr., from Tonga Island. Besides this there are
only another from Fiji and the solitary Australian species, which is unknown to
me. The genus differs from Gracilaria by the roughly tufted head.

119°. cyanorantha Meyr., Exot. Micro., ii, p. 297. Qld.: Brisbane.
9 Gen. Parrcropa

Clemens. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil, 1860, p. 210; Meyr., Gen. Ins. Grac.,
p. 19. Macarostola Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1907, p. 62.

Head smooth. f.abial palpi long, curved, slender, acute, usually smooth, but

sometimes rough-scaled or tufted beneath towards apex. Maxillary palpi
inoderate, filiform, porrect, Antennae over 1. Posterior tibiae sniooth. Middle
tibiae smooth, but sometimes expanded with scales at apex only. Forewings

rather narrow, apex obtuse or acute. Hindwings narrowly lanceolate; cilia 3 to 6.
Type P. lespedesifoliella Clements. from North America. Universally distributed ;
about 60 species have been recorded.

Larvae usually mining blotches in leaves, but sometimes in the latest stage
rolling a piece of leaf into a conical chamber as in Gracilaria,

120 Parectopa machaerophora n. xp.
paymepogopos, carrying a dagger
?,9mm. Ifead and thorax white. Labial palpi white with fuscous rings
on apex of second and middle of terminal joints. Antennae white annulated with
grey. Abdomen pale grey. Legs white with fuscous rings. Forewings rather
narrow, obtuse; whitish-grey; a broad submedian grey streak, partly suffused
with ochreous, from base, terminating in a sharp point above tornus, its upper
edge nearly straight, lower edge wavy; a white dorsal streak with a slight projec-
tion at one-third, broadly suffused at tornus; two white fuscous-edged streaks
from costa; first at two-thirds strongly oblique, reaching middle of disc; second
from five-sixihs less oblique, ending in tornal suffusion; a black apical spot edged
anteriorly by a white bar; an ochreous tornal dot; cilia on apex ochreous with
grey apices, on each end of subapical bar white, on costa and dorsum grey; ou
tornus ochreous. Hindwings lanceolate; pale grey; cilia 3, pale grey. Qld:
Stanthorpe in September; one specimen.
121) P. muesicala Meyr., P.LS.N.S.W., 1880, p. 136. N.S.W.: Sydney.
122 P. Iyginella Meyr., ibid., 1880 p. 157. N.SAV.: Sydney.
123 P. amalopa Meyr., tbid., 1907, p. 63. W. Aust.: Albany.

124 P. clethrata Low., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1923, p. 57. S. Aust.:
Wayville, Adelaide.

125 P. thalassias Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1880, p. 158. Qld.: Stradbroke
Island, Tweed Hds.; N.S.W.: Newcastle, Sydney; Vict.: Melbourne.
Larvae in leaves of Leptospermuim laewigatum (Myrtaceae).

126 P. toxomacha Meyr., ibid., 1882, p. 197. N.S.W.: Sydney. The larvae

mine the leaves of Pultenaca sp. (Leguminesac).

127 Parectopa leucographa n. sp.

Aevxoypados, with white markings

?,8mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen fuscous. Labial palpi white; extreme
apex of second joint dark fuscous. Antennae grey. Legs fuscous; tarsi with
white rings, Forewings narrow, pointed; dark fuscous with white markings; a
straight-edged dorsal streak from base to tornus; four very short, oblique, equi-
distant costal streaks, first at one-third, second at three-fourths; a white spot at
apex and another larger at tornus; cilia fuscous (partly abraded), on dorsum
grcy. Hindwings lincar-lanceolaie; grey; cilia 4, grey. Qld.: Bunya Mountains
(3,500 feet) in March; one specimen.

128 Parectopa cuphomorpha n. sp.

xoudopxopdes, slightly built

6,7 mm. Head white. Labial palpi grey; terminal joint white. Antennae
whitish-grey. Thorax and abdomen grey. Legs whitish. Vorewings very
narrow, apex acute; grey with white markings; a narrow straight-edged dorsal
streak from base to three-fourths; six fine streaks from apical fourth of costa;
first and second outwardly oblique; third and fourth less oblique; fifth and sixth
transverse, subapical; an apical blackish spot; cilia grey. Hindwings linear-
lanceolate; grey, cilia 6, grey. Qld.: Brisbane in December; one specimen.

129 P. ophidias Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1907, p. 62. S. Aust.: Quorn.

130 PP. trapesoides Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1894, p. 123. N. Qld.:
Cairns; Old.: Brisbane.

131 P. actinosema Vurn., ibid., 1923, p. 171. QOld.: Tweed Ids.

132 P. thiesema Turn., PILS.N.SAW., 1913, p. 188. N. Old.: Atherton
Plateau.

133 P. eurythiota Turn., ibid., 1913, p. 189. N. Qld.: Cairns.

134 BP. tyriencha Meyr., Exot. Micro., i, p. 296. Qld.: Brisbane.

135 Parectopa rosacea u. sp.
rosaccus, TOSY.
¢,10mm. Head, palpi, antennac, and thorax white. Abdomen grey. Legs
white. Forewings rather broadly lanceolate, apex pointed; pale rosy except in
costal area from near base to middle. which is grey-whitish ; markings white, costal
streaks partly edged with fuscous; four slender oblique costal streaks, three reach-

ing middle of dise from one-fourth, one-half, and three-fourths, fourth from
seven-cighths to termen; a streak fron: one fourth dorsum very oblique to fold,
thence less oblique to second dorsal streak, joined by a short longitudinal streak
near its end; second from mid-dorsum to third streak, dilated and suffused near its
end, its basal part edged discally with fuscous; a black apical dot preceded by a
small white spot; cilia pale ochreous, towards tornus grey. Hindwings grey;
cilia 3, grey. New South Wales: -Ebor in February; one specimen received from
Mr. G. M. Goldfinch, who has the type.

136 P. ageta Turn, P.RS.Q., 1917, p. 87. Qld.: Stradbroke Island, Tweed Eds.

137 P. miltopepla Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1926, p. 148. N. Old.:
Cairns, Atherton Plateau.

138 P. formosa Stin., Tr. Ent. Soc., (3), i, p. 291, 1860, pl. x, f. 1; Meyr.,
PLLS.N.S.W.. 1880, p. 153. QOld.: Stradbroke Island, Mount Tamborine,
Tweed Ids., Macpherson Range, Toowoomba; N.S.W.: Lismore, Gosford,
Sydney.

139° P. polyplaca Vow., Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust., 1894, p. 112; Turn., ibid.,
1900, p. 20. N. Qld.: Atherton Plateau; Qld.: Caloundra, Brisbane, Mount
‘Tamborine, Tweed Hds.

140 P. ida Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1880, p. 155. Larvae in leaves of Eucalyptus
sp. N. Qld.: Atherton Plateau, Palm Islands: Qld.: Bundaberg, Brisbane,
‘Toowoomba; N.S.W.: Glen Innes, Sydney; Vict., Melbourne; W. Aust.:
Albany.

10 Gen. GRACILARIA
Haw. Lep. Brit., p. 527; Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1907; Gen. Ins. Grac., p. 25.

Head smooth. Labial palpi long, curved, slender, acute or rather obtuse,
usually smooth, but second joint sometimes loosely scaled or tufted towards apex
beneath, terminal joint sometimes loosely scaled or tufted anteriorly. Maxillary
palpi moderate, filiform, porrect. Antennae I or over 1. Posterior tibiae smooth
or shortly rough-sealed, Middle tibiae thickened with dense scales. Forewings
narrow or slightly dilated posteriorly, apex obtuse. Hindwings lanceolate, linear-
lanceolate, or linear; cilia 4 to 8.

‘Type G. syringella Fab., from Europe. The genus is universally distributed,
and about 160 species have been recorded. The larvae mine blotches in leaves,
afterwards usually rolling up a portion of the leaf into a characteristic conical
chamber, seldom in spun-up leafy shoots. Pupae usually in the chamber, some-
times in cocoons elsewhere.

141 Gracilaria tessellata n. sp.
fessellatus, set with small cubes or squares.

$, 2, 9-11 mm. [ead and thorax pale grey. Palpi white; second joint of
labial palpi with narrow apical and third joint with broad subapical fuscous rings.
Antennae whitish annulated with blackish. Abdomen grey. Legs white; anterior

tibiae and thickened middle tibiae fuscous. Forewings with costa straight to two-
thirds, thence arched, apex obtusely pointed; white with fuscous markings; a
broad very irregular streak on fold; four large roundish spots, first beneath mid-
costa, second and third approximated in disc above tornus, fourth subapical; on
the edges of these markings and between them and dorsum and termen are
numerous fine strigulae forming a tessellated pattern; costa finely strigulated ;
cilia whitish sprinkled with fuscous, on termen and tornus grey. Ifindwings
grey; cilia 3, grey. The pattern of markings on the forewing is very peculiar,
more like that of one of the Cossidae than anything | know of. ‘The species,
which has no close ally, may be put at the head of the genus. N.S.W.: Ebor and
Mount Kosciusko (5,000 feet), in February; three specimens received from
Mr. G. M. Goldfinch, who has the type.

142 G. chalchoptera Meyr., P.L.S.NUS.W., 1880, p. 151. Qld.: Brisbane;
N.S.W.: Sydney.

143 G. octopunctata Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1894, p. 123; Meyr.,
Exot., Micro., iii, p. 409, nec. Fletcher Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., vi, p. 163.
N. Old.: Cairns; Qld.: Brisbane; N.S.W.: Sydney.

144. G. ischiastris Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1907, p. 66. N.S.W.: Sydney.

145) G. loxocentra Turn., ibid. 1915, p. 194. N.S.W.: Ebor,

146 G. lepidella Meyr., ibid., 1880, p. 145. N.S.W.: Sydney.

147 G. albicincta Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1900, p. 20, Qld.: Rock-
hampton, Bundaberg, Brisbane, Tweed Ids.

148 G. plagata Stin., Tr. Ent. Soc., (3), i, p. 292, 1860, pl. x, ft. 2; Meyr.,
P.LLS.N.S.W., 1880, p. 144. Qld.: Brisbane.

149 G. albispersa Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1894, p. 121. Qld.:
jrisbane.

150 G. chlorella Turn., ibid., 1894, p. 121. Qld.: Brisbane.

151 G. auchetidella Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1880, p. 143, N.S.W.: Bulli.

152 G. cirrhopis Meyr., ibid., 1907, p. 66. Tasm.: St. Helens.

153 G. curyenema ‘Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1894, p. 122. N. Qld.:

Kungella; Qld.: Brisbane, Macpherson Range (3,000-4,000 feet), Too-

woomba.

G. crasiphila Meyr., Gen. Ins, Grac., p. 27. N. Aust.: Darwin.

155 G. iophanes Meyr., ibid., p. 27. N. Qld.: Cairns.

156 Gracilaria adelosema n. sp.
d8yAornpos, obscurely marked

$,10mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen fuscous. Antennae grey with
blackish annulations. Legs fuscous; tarsi whitish. Forewings narrow, obtuse;
grey-brown densely sprinkled with dark fuscous; three obscure transverse fasciac
formed by the absence of black scales at one-fifth, two-fifths, and three-fifths ;
cilia grey-brown with fuscous points, on dorsum grey. Hindwings linear-
lanceolate ; grey; cilia 6, grey. QOld.: Bunya Mountains (3,500 feet) in February ;
one specimen.

157. G. xylophanes Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 1894, p. 123. Qld.: Bris-
bane, Mount Tamborine.

158 G. euglypta Turn., ibid., 1894, p. 122, N. Qld.: Cairns; Qld.: Brisbane.

159. G. panchrista Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 91. ON. Qld.: Cairns, Dunk
Island, Townsville.

160 G. thiophylla Turn., ibid., 1913, p. 192; Hiparoxantha Meyr., Exot. Micro.,
ii, p. 297. N. Qld.: Townsville; Qld.: Brisbane.

161 G. xystophancs Turn., ibid., 1913, p. 192. N. Qld.: Cairns.

162 G. euxesta Turn., ibid., 1913, p. 193. N. Qld.: Cairns.

163 G. perixesta Turn., ibid., 1913, p. 193. Qld.: Caloundra.

164. G. megalotis Meyr., Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist., Soc., 1908, p. 830; Turn.,
ibid., 1913, p. 192. N. Qld.: Cairns. Also from India.

165 G. crocostola Turn., P.R.S.Q., 1917, p. 88. QOld.: Tweed Hds.

166 G. aeglophanes Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1913, p. 191. N. Qld.: Cairns.

167 G. plagiotoma Turn., ibid., 1913, p. 190. N. Qid.: Cairns.

168 G. aurora Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1894, p. 127. Qid.: Brisbane.

169 Gracilaria ecphanes n. sp.

expavys, shining

@, 11 mm. Head and thorax whitish-ochreous; face white. Labial palpi
with a small inferior tuft on apex of second segment; white with dark fuscous
rings on apex of second and before apex of terminal joints. Antennae whitish
annulated with dark fuscous. Legs fuscous; tarsi white with fuscous rings.
Forewings rather narrow, apex round-pointed; grey with purple gloss and a
regular series of dark fuscous transverse strigulae, a large costal antemedian
blotch shining yellow, its anterior edge from one-fourth costa nearly transverse
and almost reaching dorsum, posterior edge from three-fifths costa and strongly
oblique; cilia whitish-ochreous with basal, subapical, and apical dark fuscous
lines, on dorsum grey. Hindwings narrowly lanceolate; grey; cilia 6, grey.
N.S.W.: Sydney in October; one specimen.

170 G. peltophanes Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1907, p. 67. Qid.: Toowoomba.

171 G. scutigera Meyr., Exot. Micro., ii, p. 471. N. Qld: Cairns.

172 G. ocnopella Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1880, p. 141. Larvae in leaves of
Tetranthera ferruginca (Laurineae), Qld.: Stradbroke Island; N.S.W.:
Sydney.

173 G. leucolitha Meyr., Gen. Ins., Grac., p. 30. N. Aust.: Darwin.

174 G. pedina Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1923, p. 172, Qld.: Charle-

ville.
INDEX TO GENERA
Acrocercops Wlgrn, .. 6 Cyphosticha Meyr. .. 4 Parectopa Clemens. .. 9
Aristaea Meyr. .. .. 7 Epicephala Meyr. .. 5 Phyllocnistis Zel. a 2
Cuphodes Meyr .. .. 3 Gracilaria Haw. .. 10 Timodora Meyr... .. 8

Lithocolletis Hb. oa

acares Vurn,
acmias Meyr.
acrobaphes Turn.
actiiosema Turn.
adelcsema in. sp. ..
acelophanes Turn.
acolella Meyr.
ageta Turn.
agiaozona Meyr.
albicincta. Turn. ..
albimacuiclia Turn
atbispersa Turn. ..
albistriatella Turn.

albomarginata Sttn.

alvsidota Meyr.
amalopa Meyr.
antigrapha Turn.
antimacnha Meyr.
antimima un. sp.
apoblepta Turn. ..
archepolis Meyr.
areyroaesma Meyr.
atractias Meyr.
atranota Meyr.
auchetidella Meyr.
aurora Turn.
australis Turn.
autadeipha Meyr.
axinophora u. sp.
bryonoma Turn. ..
cacnotheta Meyr.
calicella Sttn.
callmacha Meyr.
citrella Stin.
cifricola Nitobe
chaleca Turn.
chalccopla Turn. ..
chalcoptera Meyr.
chionochtha Meyr.
chionoplecta. Meyr.
chionosema n. sp.
chloreda Turn.
cirrhopis Meyr.
clethrata Low.
clinozona Meyr. ..
clisiophora n. sp.
colymbetella Meyr.
crasiphiia Meyr.
crocostola Turn.

oO)

. 142

. 150

152

. 124
. 110
.. 154
. 165

INDEX TO SPECIES

SyNoNYMS IN ITALICS

crucigcra Meyr. ..
cuphemorpha n. sp.
cyanoxantha Meyr.
desmochrysa Low.
dialeuca n. sp.
diaugella Meyr.
didymella Meyr.
didymosticha n. sp.
diplomochla Turn.
doloploca Meyr. ..
ecphanes n. sp.
enchalea Turn.
ennychodes Meyr.
ephimera Turn.
epimicta Turn.
euchlamyda Turn.
cuglypta Turn.
cugomia ‘Turn.
cumetalla Meyr, ..
eupetala Meyr.
euryenema Turn.
eurymochla Turn.
eurythiota Turn. . .
cuxesta Turn.
formosa Sttn.
fluorescens Turn.
frugicola Turn.

grammatacma Meyr. ..

habrodes Meyr.
habrophanes 1. sp.
hapalodes Meyr. ..
hedymopa Turn. ..
heliopla Meyr.
heteropsis Low.
hierocosma Meyr.
holoteles Turn.
hoplocala Meyr. ..
ida Meyr.
iodoccila Meyr.
iophanes Meyr.
irrorata Turn.
ischiastris Meyr. ..
igsotoma n. sp.
laciniella Meyr.
lechriotoma Turn.
lepidella Meyr.
leptalea Turn.
leptomianta Turn.
leucographa n. sp.

. 114
. 128

119
3

leucolitha Meyr. ..
leucomochla Turn.
leucetoma Turn.
liparoxreuha Meyr.
Uthogramma Meyr.
lithographa Meyr.
lomatographa Turn.
loxeccntra Turn,
lyginella Meyr.
muacaria Turn.

machaercphora n. sp. .

maculosa u. sp.
megalotis Meyr. ..
melanommata Turn.
merdosa Meyr. ..
mesochacta Meyr.
microta Turn.
miltopepla Turn.
minmtella Snel.
mnesicala Meyr.
nereis Meyr.
nephelodes Turn.
nigricansella Tepp.
niphadias Turn.
obseurella Turn.
ochridorsella Meyr.
ochrocephala Meyr.
echroptila Turn. ..
oectepunctata ‘Turn.
ocnopeila Meyr., ..
ophidias Meyr.
ophiodes Turn.
ordinatella Meyr.
osteopa Meyr.
ostracodes Turn.
panchrista Turn.
panconita Turn. ..
pendoxa Turn.
parallela Turn.
pedina Turn.
peltophanes Meyr.
penegrapta Meyr.
periphanes Meyr.
perixesta Turn,
pertentus Turn.
plagata Sttn.
plagiotoma Turn.
plebeia Turn.
plectospila Meyr.

poliocephala Turn.
polyplaca Low.
prospera Meyr.
psychina Meyr.

pyrigenes Turn. ..

pyrochroma ‘Turn.
retrogressa Meyr.
rosacea 11. sp.
scutigera Meyr.
spodophylla Turn.

stephanophora Turn. ..

stephanota Meyr.
stereamita Turn.

syatphyletes Turn.
symploca Turn.
tessellata n. sp.
tetrachorda Turn.

thalassias Meyr. ..
thiophylla Turn. ..

thiosema Turn.
thysanota Meyr.
toxomacha Meyr.
trapezoides Turn.
tricalyx Meyr.

tricuneatella Meyr.

. 141
. 62
125

.. 160
. 132

. 126

130
50
66

trigonophora Turn.

triorthra Meyr.
trisigillata Meyr.

tristaniaec Turn. ..
tyriancha Meyr. ..
unilineata Turn, ..

xylophanes Turn.
xystophanes Turn.

zalosticha n.sp. ..

zaplaca Meyr.
csophopasta Turn.

zophonota Turn. ..

40
14

. 117

. 134

.. 157
. 161

44
63
24
35

TUBE-BUILDING CERCOPIDS
(HOMOPTERA, MACHAEROTIDAE)

By J. W. EVANS, M.A., D.Sc., F-R.ES.

Summary

The Cercopoidea or "Frog-Hoppers" are a small and distinct group of plant bugs which are poorly
represented in Australia; Tillyard (1926) records only thirty species as having been described from
this region, but doubtless many more occur.

TUBE-BUILDING CERCOPIDS
(HOMOPTERA, MACHAEROTIDAE)

By J. W. Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.R-ES.
[Read 9 May 1940]

The Cercopoidea or “Frog-Hoppers” are a small and distinct group of plant-
bugs which are poorly represented in Australia; Tillyard (1926) records only
thirty species as having been described from this region, but doubtless many
more occur.

The super-family comprises four families, the Aphrophoridae, Cercopidac.
Clastoperidae and the Machaerotidae. Nymphs of insects belonging to the three
first-named families make and live in froth masses and are commonly known as
“spittle insects,” those of the Aphrophoridae and Clastoperidae living above
ground, whilst nymphs of the Cercopidae are subterranean,

The Machaerotidae occur only in Australia, Malaya, the Phillipines, India
and Africa, and have nymphs which construct calcareous tubes on their food-
plants, in which they live head downwards immersed in excreted liquid. Baker
(1927) has divided the family into two sub-families, the Machacrotinae and
Iindoliinae. Representatives of both occur in Australia but the Llindoliinae are
by far the more abundant, anyhow, in Eastern Australia.

The earliest recorded observations of these tube-forming insects are those of
Ratte (1884), who described and figured three types of tubes which he found in
the neighbourhood of Sydney. He noted the fact that two kinds of nymphs
occurred, one being provided with a broad circular plate at the end of the abdomen,
whilst the other lacked such a plate. Two years later Westwood (1886) described
the adult of a tube-forming frog-hopper from Ceylon, giving it the name of
Machacrota guttigera, His correspondent in Ceylon, Mr. S. Green, found the
nymphs on the Suriya Tulip tree (Adamsonia digitata), and wrote that the insects
in the tubes seemed to be continually working the tips of their abdomens against
and around the inside of the tubes, discharging at intervals clear liquid from their
intestines; also, that when some of the liquid was allowed to dry on a piece of
glass, practically no residue was left.

In 1906 Kirkaldy described two species from Australia and figured the
nymph of one of them, Polychactophyes serpulida Kirk. Ile drew attention to
the operculum on the abdomen of nymphs of this species, and was of the opinion
that it consisted of the second and third tergites. Later illustrations of nymphs
or their tubes are given by Lefroy (1909), Hacker (1922), China (1927, 35),
and Evans (1935). Hacker's are the most notable, as they consist of remarkable
photos showing the emergence of adults of two species from their nymphal
quarters. It may be seen from these photos that the nymphs of one species,
Palychactophyes serpulida have opercula, whilst those of the other Pectinariophyes
pectinaria Wirk. lack them.

Trans, Roy. Sec. S.A... 64 (1), 26 July 1940

The purpose of the present paper is to describe and illustrate in greater
detail than has previously been done the two types of Machaerotid nymphs, and
to compare them with those of the Aphrophoridae.

Figs 1-3
Fig. 1, Nymph of Bathylus albictncta (Aphrophoridae) in ventral aspect.
Figs. 2 and 3, Machaerotid nymphs in ventral aspect.

MorrHoLocy

In fig. 1 is shown a nymph of Bathylus albicincta Erichs. (Aphrophoridae),
in ventral aspect, as representative of the type of spittle-forming nymphs. A
detailed account of the morphology of nymphs of species belonging to this family
has been given by Sule (1911), and a popular account of the method of froth-
formation by China (1927).

There is a deep channel on the ventral surface of the body which extends
from the apex of the abdomen, anteriorly as far as the third abdominal segment,
where it branches into two, terminating on each side of the body at the anterior
margin of the mesothorax, The yentral surface of the channel consists of the
abdominal sterna, and its walls of the pleura internally and the overlapping terga
externally. The spiracles of cach segment open between the sterna and pleura,
whilst a very large trachea connects with a spiracle on each side of the hind
margin of the prothorax.

In the figure the channel is shown open, but it can be closed by the bringing
together of the tergal-pleural flaps which overlap above it. During froth-forma-
tion it is closed, and air is drawn into it at the apex of the abdomen. The manner
in which these insects form their froth is too well known to need repetition.

A Machaerotid nymph of the non-operculate type, of which the specific
identity is unknown, is illustrated in fig. 2. It resembles the nymph figured under
the name of Pectinariophycs pectinaria by Wirkaldy, hence probably belongs to
the genus Hindola Stal, of which Pectinariophyes Kirk. is stated by Baker (1927)
to be a synonym. The head differs from that of B, albicincla in the elongation
of the fronto-clypeus and in the comparatively longer labrum and maxillary and
mandibular stylets. Also the antennae, instead of being freely movable, lie closely
opposed to the side of the head, directed posteriorly, suggesting those of a pupa
of a holometabolous insect. Only a portion of the eye is pigmented and the Jegs
are flattened against the body; the fore legs being directed anteriorly and the
other two pairs posteriorly.

The ventral air channel, which is of the same extent as with the Aphro-
phoridae, instead of being temporarily closed by overlapping tergal and pleural
abdominal flaps, is permanently closed, except at the apex of the abdomen, by a
transparent membrane which joins the ventral edges of the terga.

Figure 3 represents a nymph of the operculate type, probably of Chaetophyes
compacta (Walk.). Another representative of the same species is shown in
position in its tube in fg. 4. The operculum, which 1s formed from the ventral
surface of the terga of the fourth, fifth and sixth abdominal segments, consists of
three pairs of sclerotized plates. The pair belonging to the fourth scgment is
small, but this segment is larger and more distorted than the others and forms a
“heel.” The plates of the sixth segment overlap and conceal the three free
abdominal segments. The air canal is identical in structure with that of the type
of non-operculate nymph already described from its anterior branches as far as
the middle of the fourth abdominal segment. Posteriorly, it is concealed, as the
terga from the opposite sides of the body are joined along the mid-ventral line.

ligure 5 is a diagram of a section through the centre of a nymph and shows
the air canal, which is widest in the heel of the fourth segment. Three sets of
muscle fibres are indicated in the figure. These are the dorsal longitudinal tergal
muscles, the ventral longitudinal sternal muscles, and the fan-shaped tergo-
sternal muscles, which arise from the lateral walls of the abdomen. The points
of insertion of the latter are visible externally as pits (see fig. 4).

In fig, 6 the air canal has been fully exposed by cutting the insect down the
nicd-ventral line and pulling apart the severed sides. There are eight pairs of
abdominal spiracles; the pair belonging to the eighth sternite are close to the
middle of the sclerite and not near the anterior border as in other segments. One
xair of thoracic spiracles lie at the base of the hind wing-pads, the other pair
are at the anterior ends of the canal and connect with very large tracheae.

: Figs. 4-6 ee
Fig. 4, Operculate form of Machaerotid nymph in its tube.

Fig. 5, Median section through the abdomen of an operculate nymph,
to show the air canal.
Fig. 6, Ventral view of a tube-forming nymph with the air canal exposed.

Tuse ForMATION

Observations made on the early stages of tube-formation by Green, and
reported by Westwood, refer to the nymphs of Machacrota guttigera Westw.
Green observed newly-hatched nymphs in the middle of drops of froth, from
which the walls of the tubes gradually arose. Froth is again formed prior to the
final ecdysis as recorded by Ratte and Hacker, and it is probably produced at the
end of each instar, since the insects have to emerge from their tubes in order to
cast their skins. It is thus evident that the hquid excreted by the young hoppers
has, like that produced by spittle insects, the properties of a soap solution. Ratte
found the tubes to be composed of at least 75% calcium carbonate and
considered the insoluble remains to be “chitinous matter,” and Professor R. A.
Peters who examined some tubes made by the nymphs of an African species,
Aphrosiphon bauhiniae China (China, 1935), found that they contained 81°3%
calcium carbonate. Dr. W. A. Lamborn, who first discovered this particular
species, stated that the fluid excreted by the insects was rich in mineral matter
which rapidly solidifies. Whenever liquid has been collected from tubes by the
present writer, and allowed to dry on a glass slide, no deposit has been left after
evaporation. The tops of tubes containing living nymphs are usually soft, whilst
the first-formed parts appear to be of a different consistency from the rest,
resembling hardened froth.

The nymphs of Aphrophoridae have two pairs of glands, known as Batellis
Glands. These he in the seventh and eighth abdominal segments and secrete a
wax-like substance through external pores. ‘Tube-dwelling nymphs have a pair
of round yellow glands in each of the sixth, seventh and eighth abdominal seg-
ments. These are doubtless homologous with Batellis glands. They have as well
a large paired gland, the pseudovitellus, which lies on each side of the fifth
abdominal segment.

The nymphs that have been found in Tasmania during the winter months
have been in their early instars, and immersed in fluid, but on the New South
Wales highlands completely dry tubes have been found in the winter, closed at
the top by a membrane and containing nymphs in the pre-imaginal instar. This
suggests that development may ccase during the cold weather and the last instar
be prolonged. At all seasons tubes are occasionally found containing no liquid
and tightly closed by the insect’s opercula, but the usual condition is for the insect
to be totally immersed in its secretory and excretory products.

Tf a tube is heated, the apical segment of the contained insect is at once pro-
truded, the stale air expelled and a fresh supply taken in. Nymphs in tubes which
were subjected to a temperature of 82° F. were found to protrude their abdomens
into the air for intervals of five seconds, and then to withdraw them below the
surface of the liquid for periods of ten seconds. If kept forcibly emerged for
periods ranging from forty-five to ninety seconds, they will withdraw their stylets
from the wood and back completely out of the tubes.

Discussion

Amongst many groups of insects, structural adaptations correlated with hie
in specialized environments are of common occurrence, but this is not so with the
Homoptera-Auchenorhyncha. Tube-dwelling nymphs belonging to the Machaero-
tidae are especially remarkable, since not only have they themselves created an
environment of a specialized nature, but they have devcloped unique structural
modifications to cope with their acquired environment. Wax production is of
frequent occurrence amongst the Homoptera, and it is possible that the plates of
the operculum are modified wax plates. Tufts of wax have been seen on the
ventral surfaces of both the seventh and eighth abdominal segments of operculate
and non-operculate nymphs.

[t is of interest to note that the nymphs of cicadas, many cixiids and certain
cercopids, are subterranean. This may well be a primitive characteristic, possibly
associated with severe weather conditions that ruled for a long time at some period
of geological history, in areas where the forerunners of the present-day repre-
sentatives existed. A root-feeding insect is not subject to such intense evaporation
from its body-surface as is one that feeds above ground, and it is probable that
the spittle-forming habits of the nymphs of the Aphrophoridae, and the tube-
forming habits of the nymphs of the Machaerotidae are parallel developments,
both serving to prevent excessive loss of body-moisture from orgatiisms descended
{rom subterranean ancestors. It is doubtful whether either froth or tube forma-
tion serve to any great extent for protective purposes against insect parasites and
predators.

REFERENCES

Baker, C. F. 1927 Phillipine and Malaysian Machaerotidae. Philipine Journ.
Sci., 32 (4), 53

Curna, W. E. 1927 Some Strange Relatives of the Frog-hopper or Cuckoo-spit
Bugs. Nat. Hist. Mag., 1 (3), 71

Cuina, W. E. 1935 A New Genus and Species of Machaerotidae from Nyasa-
land. Proc. Roy. Ent. Soc., London, 10, 81

Evans, J. W. 1935 Victorian Leaf-JToppers, ‘Tree-Hoppers and Frog-Hoppers.

Vict. Nat., 52, 91

Hacker, I. 1922 On the Emergence of Two Tube-dwelling Homopterous
Insects. Mem. Qld. Mus., 7 (4), 280

Kirkatpy, G. W. 1906 Leaf-Hoppers. Hawaii Sug. Ass. Bull. 1 (9)

Lerroy, M. 1909 Indian Insect Life, 732

Rarre, F. 1884 On the Larvae and Larva Cases of some Australian Aphro-
phoridae. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 9, 1,164

Sutc, K. 1911 Ueber Respiration, Tracheen System und Schaumproduktion der
Schaumcikadenlarven. Zeitschrift ftir Wissenschafthche Zoologic, 99
(1), 147

Westwoop, J. O. 1886 Notice of a Tube-making Homopterous Insect from
Ceylon. Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 329

THE ENVIRONMENT OF THE AUSTRALIAN PLAGUE LOCUST
(CHORTOICETES TERMINIFERA WALK.) IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By H. G. ANDREWARTHA
Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide.

Summary

Field observations have shown that Chortoicetes terminifera occurs as a solitary grasshopper over
most of South Australia. The character of the winter inhibits the development of swarms in the
agricultural areas; for several months of the year temperatures near the developmental zero are
associated with a P/E ratio greater than 0.5. In the semi-arid area ("outbreak area"), further north,
this condition does not apply and the insect is able to take advantage of the favourable conditions
produced when rain falls in summer.

THE ENVIRONMENT OF THE AUSTRALIAN PLAGUE LOCUST
(CHORTOICETES TERMINIFERA WALK.) IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By H. G. Anprewartita
Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide

[Read 9 May 1940]
Pirates V to VII

SUMMARY

Hield observations have shown that Chortoicetes ferminifera occurs as a
solitary grasshopper over most of South Australia, The character of the winter
inhibits the development of swarms in the agricultural areas; for several months
of the year temperatures near the developmental zero are associated with a P/E
ratio greater than 0-5. In the semi-arid area (“outbreak area”), further north,
this condition does not apply and the insect is able to take advantage of the favour-
able conditions produced when rain falls in summer,

In the outbreak area the locust is associated with local situations which experi-
ence a more humid eco-climate than the surrounding countryside. The boundaries
of the outbreak area are determined largely by climate but the distribution of
favourable habitats within the outbreak area is related to topography, vegetation
and soil type. The most characteristic plants of locust habitats are the two
perennial grasses, Eragrastis setifolia and E. Dielsii.

There is considerable evidence that favourable weather for several successive
years is necessary before a major outbreak can occur. Swarms are likely to
develop in the outbreak area when rain is adequate during the warm months. Two
or more favourable seasons in this way may be required to produce large or dense
swarms. Similar conditions are necessary for swarms to develop in the inter-
mediate breeding areas. For the outbreak to continue its development in the
agricultural districts a dry autumn is required. This whole sequence is necessary
for a major plague. The cycle may be broken at any point; when this occurs the
incipient outbreak will be destroyed.

I INTROpucTION

In South Australia the Australian Plague Locust becomes a pest of major
importance only when swarms occur in the agricultural areas. Such oecasions ure
comparatively rare. ‘Che most recent outbreak occurred in the spring and summer
of 1934-35; the one before that in 1890-91. Earlier records are inadequate, but
probably there were major outbreaks in 1870 and 1845. Minor outbreaks may
have occurred between these years; the absence of records does not necessarily
mean that swarms of the locust were not present. For a discussion of the history
of outbreaks of Chortoicetes terminifera in South Australia see Davidson (9),
Andrewartha (1).

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

‘This paper deals with the ecology of outbreaks in South Australia. The problem
has involved a study of the geographic distribution of the insect, and the climate,
vegetation, soil and topography of the outbreak area@) jn this State.

I] Meruops

The distribution of the insect was studied by means of survey trips in a
motor truck. The numbers in any locality were estimated by counting the indi-
viduals disturbed while walking a given distance (or time). All notes were
referred to speedometer readings and later transcribed to maps. Observations
and notes regarding habitats and vegetation were supplemented by photographs
wherever possible.

The analyses of monthly records of total rain, mean daily temperature aud
humidity for the month were made for a number of stations. Rainfall records
from 82 rainfall stations were used (text fig. 1), Where the temperature and
humidity were not recorded, values were computed by reference to appropriate
stations, by allowing 3° 1. for each 1,000 feet altitude and 2 per cent. relative
humidity for each 1° F.

The ratio of rainfall to atmosphicric saturation deficit was used as an index
of soil moisture. For discussion on the use of this index see papers by Davidson
(5), (6), (7), (8), Prescott (14), (15), and Trumble (16). The relationship of
saturation deficit to evaporation from a standard Australian evaporimeter may
be expressed as E = 14:7 S.D. for the Adelaide evaporimeter or FE = 21-2 S.D.
for twelve standard Australian evaporimeters for a month of 30 days, where E is
total evaporation and S.D. the mean daily saturation deficit for the nionth.@)

In the present paper the critical low value for P/S.D. has been taken as 7.
This corresponds to a P/E ratio of 0°5 using data from the Adelaide evaporimeter,
and to 0°33 using data from the twelve standard Australian evaporimeters listed
in the footnote below. For convenience, the figures for saturation deficit were
converted to values for evaporation using data from the Adelaide evaporimeter.
The rainfall-evaporation ratio has been expressed as P/E where P is the total
rain, and I£, total evaporation in points. The ratio has also been expressed as P/e
in some instances, where e is the mean daily evaporation for the month,

Not all rain is effective in supplying to the soil adequate moisture for plant
growth or the development of the eggs of the locust. In an arid region, isolated
small falls of rain do not sufficiently wet the soil (4), (12). Ina given area where
the total monthly rain was of the order of 10 points in the winter and 25 pots
in the summer months, a value P/E = 0-04 was obtained. This value has been
selected, for the purpose of this paper, as the zero value for soil moisture. Values
for P/E less than 0-04 are therefore considered to be equivalent to zero when

©) “Outbreak area” applies to all the area in which swarms may arise. This complies
with the definition given in the Proc. Third International Locust Conference, London,
1934, p. 56.

©) See Preseott (14). The evaporimeters were situated at the following stations:
Perth, Brisbane, Sydney, Canberra, Dubbo, Eucla, Coolgardie, Merbein, Griffith, Waite
Institute, Melbourne and Hobart.

The value P/E=0°5 (P/S.D.=7) is taken as the lowest value at which
adequate moisture is available in the soil throughout a given month. With higher
values of P/E, the excess moisture is superfluous; during heavy falls of rain
some is lost as “run-off.” Values above 0°5 are therefore considered as equivalent
to 0°5 when calculating the expression PT/$e.

The choice of P/S.D.=7 as the critical low value for soil moisture implies
the assumption that evaporation from a soil surface is half that from the Adelaide
evaporimeter tank, ‘Therefore the expression P/Se gives an estimate of the
number of days during which soil moisture was adequate during a particular
month, since P is the total rain falling during the month and $e is the estimated
mean daily loss of water from the soil.

Records of maximum and minimum temperature (mean daily for the month)
were converted to effective temperature taking the developmental zero of
C. terminifera as 60° F.) he expression PT/Se has been used as an index of
favourablencss for the development of Chortoicetes terminifera, where P is the
total rain in points, e the estimated mean daily evaporation in points, and ‘T the
estimated mean daily effective temperature, for each month. The expression gives
a rational estimate of favourableness, since P/Se is an estimate of the number of
days during which soil moisture was adequate; and the rate of development is
proportional to effective temperature.

Some of the data have been expressed as graphs. Lach graph represents the
mean for the stations in a district (text fig. 1). Districts 9 and 10 comprise the
area between the 10-inch and 20-inch annual isohyets. The southern boundaries
of districts 3,4, 5 and 7 are formed by the approximate southern limit of the out-
break area for Chortoicetes terminifera (see text figs. 3 and 4).

Til DistrRrBpuTIoN OF CilORTOICETES TERMINIFERA

The Australian Plague Locust occurs as a solitary grasshopper over most of
South Australia. It has been found wherever the survey trips have penctrated.
The absence of records in text fig. 1 usually means that the area has not yet been
surveyed, rather than that C. ferminifera has not been found there.

Although the species occurs so widely, it is nevertheless restricted to particular
types of habitat. In the wetter zone of winter rainfall, i.e., districts 9 and 10 (sec
text figs. 2 and 3) the insects are reduced to low numbers between invasions.
The survivors are usually associated with local situations which are more arid
than the surrounding countryside, ¢.g., hill slopes and the sides of valleys and
gutters. Inthe more arid zones (e.g., in the outbreak area) the insects are normally
associated with “pockets” which are more humid than the general countryside.
For a time after good rains the grasshoppers may be more widespread, but as the
herbage dries up they are forced back to the local situations where ephemerals and
perennial grasses may remain green for a much longer period.

@) Based on unpublished work by Mr. D. C. Swan, who found that the developmental
zero for eggs of Chortoicetes terminifera was 16°5° C,

tA7

138

FF 140 wait

SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

SHOWING

Distribution of Chartetceles terminifera

Lense ie Tsohyets
ae}

outbreak

Approximate sauthern

area

Iimit of

* T
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° Stations recording rain

. Stations recording rain,
temperature and humidity

ddace im wes
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139 fri

733° te 133 he a 1 138"

132 133d.

Text Figure 1
Each circle on the map represents an actual survey record of the presence of
Chortoicetes terminifera. It was impracticable to survey the north-west. The
boundaries of the districts used for the analyses af meteorological records presented
in text figs. 2,7 and 8 are also shown. The outbreak area lies nurth of the heavy
black linc. Most of the agricultural districts affected by the locust are included
in district 10.

IV Tre Ecorocy or true OuraruaAk AREA
(a) Ciimate

‘The limits of the outbreak area are determined largely by climate.

The

favourableness of the summer period (measured as PT/3e)™> is remarkably

@) This index does not take into account certain factors which tend to make the
These factors are associated with low
rainfall, absence of winter rainfall, and variability in the amount and distribution of the

summer rainfall more effective in the drier areas.

rainfall in the semi-arid areas (see below, p. 81).

uniform over most of the State; but there is a marked decrease in winter wetness
(measured as P/E) fron: south to north (sce text figs. 2 and 3). In text figure 2
the districts are arranged according to the wetness of the winter. Districts 9 and 10
experience high rainfall associated with temperatures near or below the develop-
mental zero for several months of the winter. These conditions do not allow the
locust to develop into swarms. Probably the winter in districts 6 and 8 is favour-

able to Chortoicetes lerminifera only in the dricr years.
3G T T T am T T T T T ip eas i a ome ney T T ii ot
13
10
i 4 100
Le a
> 50
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71 100 x
es +
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SAN FEE MAR APH MAY GUN FUL ALT

SP OCT NOY DEL
Text Figure 2
Jllustrating the relative favourableness to Chortotcetcs terminifera of districts
J-10 in South Australia, based on figures for mcan monthly rainfall, temperature
and estimated evaporation. The degree of wetness (measured as P/E) is indicated
by the complete line. The shaded area indicates the length of the period for
which P/E was greater than 0-5. The broken line indicates values for PT/2c.
High values for P/E associated with low values for PT/%e represent conditions
unfavourable to Chortoicetes terminifera. Each graph represents the mean for
all the stations in the district coneerned. The boundaries of the districts are
indicated in text fig. 1.

‘The outbreak area is characterised by lower values for P/E and higher
maximum temperatures during the winter. Its southern limit may vary from
year to year; 1t may be defined approximately by the 16° C. isotherm for maximum
temperaiure and the northern boundary of the “semi-humid” zone for the winter
months (see text figs. 3 and 4). Swarms of the locust may develop throughout
the whole area north from this boundary. The climate of this area resembles the
climate of adjacent zones in New South Wales, Queensland and Central Aus-
tralia (8). It is to be expected, therefore, that this outbreak area of Chortoicetes
terminifera extends into neighbouring States.

The area associated with the River Murray needs special consideration.
Reports from irrigation settlements along the river indicate that small swarms of
Chortoicetes terminifera may occur more frequently in this area than elsewhere
in South Australia. Flood plains along the river may provide extensive favourable
breeding grounds for the locust when soil moisture is adequate in the summer.
This may occur relatively frequently since the river is normally at a high level in
the spring or early summer. On the other hand, the winter in this zone is rela-
tively unfavourable for the survival of Chertoicetes terminifera (sec text fig. 3).
Further observations are required to determine the origins of swarms in this area.
It is possible that favourable conditions for breeding occur fairly often in the
spring and summer, and that swarms may arise following an abnormally favour-
able winter. A favourable winter may be one in which precipitation was low, or
temperature high, or both.

The mean monthly precipitation at six selected stations in the outbreak areas
is given in Table 1. Three characteristics of the rainfall are important in relation
to the ecology of Chortoicetcs terminifera: (a) The low rainfall results in the
absence of an organised drainage system, consequently water tends to collect in
local situations after rain, thus producing restricted areas where the eco-climate
is more favourable than that of the surrounding countryside. (b) Associated with
the absence of a reliable winter rainfall, the flora of the semi-arid arca includes a
high proportion of species adapted to take advantage of sporadic rains. Con-
sequently rain falling at any season of the year may produce a luxuriant growth
of ephemerals and herbaceous perennials.) (c) The annual rainfall in the out-
break area is extremely variable. This may result, occasionally, in the run of good
seasons necessary for the production of locust swarms.

For the analysis of “effective rain’ presented in Table 2, daily records from
six stations for fifteen years have heen examined. The “effective” rain has been
expressed as a percentage of the total precipitation. Isolated falls of less than
10 pomts between May to September and 25 points between. October to April,
also rain in excess of 150 points in one fall, have been considered as non-effective.

©) Vhe ephemeral and herbaceous perennial vegetation in the winter rainfall zone of
South Australia consists largely of winter-growing species. Rain falling in the summer
in this zone produces far less “herbage” than an equivalent fall in the northern arid
districts.

The stations show no significant difference in the proportion (about 80 per cent.)
of annual effective rainfall, The proportion tends to be higher in winter; but this
may not be significant.

Osborn and his colleagues (12) showed that at Koonamore? only on one-
third of the wet days did the rainfall exceed 25 points. It is not possible to dis-

cover from their figures what proportion of the total rainfall was made up from
falls exceeding 25 points.

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Text Figure 3

Map based on mean monthly rainfall, temperature and estimated mean monthly
evaporation (ior 82 stations) for the winter period June-August, inclusive. The
southern limit of the outbreak area for Chortoicetes terminifera is defined approxi-
mately by the northern boundary of the semi-humid zone and 16° C. isotherm
for maximum temperature.

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(b) Topography, Vegetation and Soil

Apart from the elevated area associated with the Musgrave Ranges in
the north-west of the State and a central tongue of highland running north from
Cape Jervis to about the 30th parallel of latitude, most of South Australia is less
than 1,000 fect above sea level. Districts 9 and 10 (text fig. 1) include nearly all
the southern and central highlands, Practically all the outbreak area for
Chortoicetes terminifera lies below the 1,000 feet contour line; most of the area
is less than 500 feet above sea level. The surface is relatively flat. There jis no
seaward drainage system; after heavy rain water may run into local “swamps” or
“lakes” which may be dry for the greater part of the time.

In the outbreak area Chortoicetes terminifera is associated with local situations
which receive “run-off” after rain and thus experience a more humid eco-climate
than the surrounding country. The physical features of these favourable habitats
may take the form of watercourse, depression, flat or flood plain. In the terminology
of this country a watercourse is distinguished from a creek in that it is usually
wide and flat with no well-defined channel. The water is shallow and flows slowly ;
very little erosion occurs. A watercourse is an ideal situation for plant growth
(see pl. v, fig. 1}. A creek is more definite. It usually carries more water between
well-defined banks. Erosion is evident from the presence of water-worn stones
and sand in the bed. A ercek bed is not normally a favourable habitat for the
locust. In certain cases flood plains associated with creeks provide favourable
habitats (see pl. v, fig, 2). A swamp is any situation where {fresh water lies after
heavy rains. A depression is a low-lying area where water tends to collect during
rains but does not lie (see pl. vi, fig. 1). A flat is a level area at the base of a hill,
or between two hills, and is frequently better watered than the surrounding
country because it receives “run-off” from the hills (see pl. vi, fig. 2).

These local situations may vary in size from a few square chains to many
square miles. They may be more numerous in areas of lighter soil. Such areas
are often characterised by gentle undulations with frequent and extensive water-
courses in the hollows (see pl. v, fig. 1). In “hard” country, on the other hand,
drainage channels may commonly take the form of gutters or creeks which are
normally less favourable for the breeding of Chortoicetes terminifera. Occasion-
ally a creek flowing through “hard” country may form a favourable habitat for
the locust (sce pl. v, fig. 2).

The distribution of vegetation over the State is closely related to topography
and soil type. The distribution in the area inside the heavy line (text fig. 5) has
been simplified after Wood (17). For the rest of the State T have adopted Wood’s
classification of association dominants.(7) The boundaries have been determined
by direct observation for those areas where the locust surveys have penctrated

©) Further subdivisions would probably be desirable for a more detailed account of
the vegetation than has been attempted in this paper. Particularly towards the northern
limits of the State the typical associations tend to become modified by the presence of
species characteristic of the summer rainfall areas.

{see text fig. 1); for other areas I have referred to the following sources:
Prescott (13), the map of the Mackay aerial survey expeditions, and the journals
of the early explorers. I am indebted to Mr. R. L. Crocker for certain informa-
tion regarding the vegetation around Lake Eyre and near Birdsville. The area
in the north-west of the State has not been included due to lack of information.

429° Lo 131 12. 4133 134) 195"

cy I ] T T Le 7
\ CENTRAL AUSTRALIA

AREA NOT EXAMINED

-
ens WT fo
CHC

QQO°VAA

3 YW Yy io, ‘ Z |

TH
1
a

| NEW | S90U

SOUTHE AUSTRALIA

SHOWING

THE APPROXIMATE SOUTHERN LIMIT
OF THE OUTBREAK AREA AND THE
PROBABLE DISTRIBUTION OF FAVOURABLE

HABITATS FOR CHORTOICETES TERMINIFERA

———— The approximate southern limit of the oulbreak area
RSS Favourable hahiLats may be widespread

Favourable habitats may occur less frequently

pe EGrORTs
g e

Favourable habitats inay be quite rare

Text Figure 4

The approximate southern limit of the outbreak area is based on P/E ratio and

maximum temperature for the winter (see text fig. 3). The probable distribu-

tion of favourable habitats for Chortoicctes terminifera is based on the distribution
of the major vegetation types (see text fig. 9).

In the area characterised by the Atripler-Kochia association the soil is
usually firm and compact. In the south the soil may be a loam overlying sheet
limestone. Where the soil is more shallow Kochia predominates; on the deeper

soils Atriplex may be more prominent. In the far north-west this association
occurs on an undulating (often stony) tableland. The soil is deeper and heavier.
The community may be more open, and certain species of Eremophila and Acacia
tetragonophyllum may be more prominent. In the south Stipa is an important
grass; in the northern areas Astrebla becomes increasingly important on the plain,
and fragrostis in the washes, In the wetter situations in this zone mulga occurs,
particularly in the south, while further north gidgea (Acacia cambagei) also grows
in the drainage channels, These often take the form of steep-sided gutters which
are unfavourable for Chortoicetes terminifera (see pl. vii, figs. 1 and 2).
Restricted flats or swamps, or more extensive flood plains may provide favourable
situations for the locust. On the whole, locust habitats occur rather sparingly in
this zone.

The Atripler-Salicornia association occurs on characteristic soil commonly
described as “gibber” tableland (11). Irregular sunken areas, known as “crab-
holes,” occur. They are relatively free from stones despite the essentially stony
nature of the surrounding plain. Water tends to collect in the crabholes, and they
support a wealth of ephemerals after rain; but they do not provide a breeding
place for Chortoicctes terminifera. Favourable habitats for the locust may be
quite rare in the Afripler-Salicornia zone. Associated with the “gibber” table-
land are more or less extensive islands of sandy country. The sand ridges support
mostly Acacta ancura and Callitris. In between the ridges flat watercourses, which
may provide favourable habitats for Chortoicctes terminifera (see pl. viii, fig. 1),
occur,

The soil in the Acacia Sowdenti zone is firm and shallow, the limestone layer
being normally quite near the surface. The most common undershrubs are
Kochia spp.; where the soil is deeper Atriplex vesicarium also occurs. Spear-
grass (Stipa) is prominent further south; it becomes less important towards the
northern limit of this zone. Drainage channels frequently take the form of gutters
or small ereeks, Favourable habitats for Chortoicetes terminifera are not common.

The Acacta ancura association requires a less arid environment than the
shrub steppe. In the arcas south-east from lake Frome and west from [ake
Torrens this is provided by the lighter and deeper soils. Elsewhere mulga may
be associated with local situations which are less arid, e.g, hill tops in the Flinders
Ranges (17). Where the mulga reaches its maximum development the soil may
be too leose, even in the hollows, to provide favourable habitats for the locust.
Elsewhere, particularly where the Acacia aneura and Atriplex-Kochia zones
merge the soil may be firmer; and favourable habitats for the locust may be
widespread.

The Hakea feucoptera association occurs in an area of low sand-ridges. The
northern part of this zone has not been examined. In the south the country is
gently undulating. The dominant shrub on the rises is Hakea leucoptera;
important undershrubs are Atriplex vesicarium and Eremophila spp. After rains
Sulsola Kali and ephemeral grasses are abundant. Between the sand-ridges exten-

sive flat loamy watercourses may occur. Favourable habitats for Chortoiccics
terminifera may be widespread in this area (see pl. v, fig. 1).

East from Lake Eyre drifting sand dunes (see pl. vill, fig. 2) may be inter-
spersed with areas of stony “tableland.” This area has not been adequately
examined. The shrub steppe association occurs in restricted situations. Towards

129 s30° 134 132° 433° fa Mai te

1 I ( CENTRAL USTRALIA

f40' 77

LAND

sy
QUEENS.

Lg Te ee GT eee ee Sade Bea
1
t TRiodiad IN HOLLOWS
1
| SPINIFEX PARALDOXUS
a 3 ON DUNES
rl SAND RIOGES
iy
el AND
‘
af Le SEMI-DESERT
”
sy ScRua ASSOCIATIONS
<1
i I
lege
1
‘
a
{2
port
yn
hl

by SOUTH AUSTRALIA

SHOWING OISTRIBUTION OF Pe”

4 MATOR VEGETATION TYFES

Savannah Woodland --

Acacia Sowdenit
Sclerophyll Forest

Mallee Serub

| Acacia aneura

4 Eucalyptus givosa —

Myoporuin plalycarpum eh . +] Atriplex <Salicorna
Myoporurns — 7 if =nbau
Atriplex stipitatum C4 Atriplex — Kachia
Cassia — Dodonea—

Lremophula mnt it Hakea leucoptera

Desert sandhills with
, triodia ¢ Spumfex Sotce Oe MILES,

ean ae

ihe te [xy EY 136 137° al ECM 07" vat

Text Figure 5

The distribution of the vegetation types inside the heavy line has been simplified
after Wood. The area in the far North-west has not been examined.

the Queensland border Mitchell grass (Astrebla) becomes increasingly iniportant.
Probably certain of the associations occurring in south-western Queensland (3)
extend their boundaries into this area. The great drainage channels of the
Diamantina River and Cooper’s Creek modify large areas of country. Favourable

habitats for Chortoicetes terminifera may be associated with these rivers; they
may also occur in restricted situations elsewhere in this area.

‘The probable distribution of locust habitats in the outbreak area, based
on the distribution of vegetation types is indicated in text fig. 4. Favourable
situations occur most frequently in those areas where the country is undulating
and the soil light. These conditions are found in the southern parts of the dis-
tribution of the Acacia aneura and Heékea leucoptera associations. In the area of
desert sandhills and on the gibber tableland suitable habitats may be quite rare.
Elsewhere favourable situations may occur, more or less frequently depending
upon the physical features of the area. Quite extensive favourable habitats may
be associated with the flood plains of certain large creeks which occur in the shrub
steppe zone.

Typical situations which may provide favourable habitats for Chortoicetcs
lerminifera are illustrated in pl. v, figs. 1 and 2; pl. vi, figs. 1 and 2; and in pl. viii,
fig. 1. Not all the better watered situations in the outbreak area provide favour-
able habitats for the locust. The factors which determine favourableness are
not fully understood. Probably the frequency with which the situation receives
“run-off,” the length of time that water may lie after rain, and the nature of the
soil are important. Situations which receive “run-off” only after an abnormally
heavy rain may not support a perennial vegetation suitable for the grasshoppers;
situations where water lies for long periods after rain are also unfavourable. The
occurrence of loose sand or the presence of a high proportion of soluble salts may
render a situation unfavourable.

In the plant communities associated with favourable habitats herbaceous
perennials, particularly grasses, are important ; and ephemerals are usually abundant
after rain, The latter provide adequate food in a good season and the perennials
allow a few grasshoppers to persist during dry times. The nature of the perennial
vegetation may indicate a favourable situation. The love grasses Eragrostis
setifolia and FE. Dielstt are the most characteristic and important perennials in
locust habitats. Other perennials commonly present include Panicun: decom-
posttum, Chloris divaricata, Enneapogon nigricans, and Psoralea patens. In the
more northerly areas Astrebla pectinata also occurs.

A wide range of ephemeral species has been collected from locust habitats.
The more important include Dactyloctenium radulans, Tetragonia eremaea, Calotis
multtcaulis, Heliotropium europeum, and Bassia spp. Atriplex angulosum and
A. spongiosum may also be abundant.

Vo WEATHER IN RELATION TO OUTBREAKS
The history of the most recent outbreak of Chortoicetes terminifera in South
Australia has been described by Davidson (9). In the present paper the meteoro-
logical records for the critical years before and during the outbreak are discussed.
The records for the years 1931-35 for the outbreak area and for 1934-35 for the
invasion area have been examined.

Conditions are favourable for the locust when rainfall is adequate during the
summer, as high values for effective temperatures may be expected. Large parts
of the outbreak area received rain well above the normal in March 1931, February
1932, March 1933, and November 1933 (text fig. 6); the values for effective
temperature were also favourable during these months. Maps similar to those in
text figure 6 were prepared for the rernaining months during 1931 and 1934, but

pee

yyy.
Wy,

yee
VELL,

oe eee

February 1932

RAINFALL EVAPORATION RATIO

e/a

TISOTMERMS OF EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE

ee, |e enone cS cacti leaders
Text Figure 6

Shows isotherms of effective temperature for Chortoicctes terminifera (develop-

mental zero taken as 15-5° C.) and the distribution of P/E for certain significant

months during the development of the 1934/35 locust outbreak in South Aus-

tralia. The stippled shading illustrates the distribution of the mean P/E for the
same months.

they are not presented due to lack of space; they show that favourable conditions
obtained during other months. However, the data for the outbreak area have
been summarised in text figure 7. The graph for each district represents the mean
for all the stations in the particular district (see text fig. 1). The expression
PT /4e has been used as an index of favourableness for the development of
Chortoicetes terminifera. In order to allow for “non-effective” rain, valucs of
PT /4e less than 2°5 have been considered equivalent to zero and values greater
than 30 have been considered equivalent to 30.) The broken line shown in the
chart of each district represents the mean for all the years that records have been
taken; it has been included as a basis for comparison, In this case the rainfall
i931 1932 1933 i934 1935

TTT TFG T3T Tae TTT mara SATS TTS RT PTE STON TD
STETSTATATETS ATS OTN DLT TP MATE STATS OTH DIT F MTA TE EATS TON DIS FMA MTS ST ATS TQ NIDIZ ETM ATM JTITRTSTONN TD
0 a

150

b
&

TEMPERATURE

K EFFECTIVE

£
$e

FTA MTS eta STON TOTS FM ATS ya GON DS Fe ale ST aS ONES FM AMS OA

1931 [932 1933 1934 : 1935
Text Figure 7
The heavy black line illustrates for each of the districts 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 (text fig. 1),
the values for the expression PT/ic, month by month, for the years 1931-1935.
The broken line represents the mean.

figures were reduced to 80 per cent. of their recorded value to allow for non-
effective rain (see Table 2, p. 83).

Iligh values are obtained for the expression PT/4e when the rainfall is
adequate during the warmer months. Due to the erratic rainfall in this area the
same months were not always favourable over all districts, ¢.g., in March 1932

(*) See above, p. 78.

(°) These figures correspond to values for P/E of 0:04 and 0-5 respectively (see
pp. 77 and 78).

there was adequate rain in districts 1 and 5 but not elsewhere; February 1933
was dry everywhere except in district 2. Important favourable periods (in addition
to those illustrated in text fig. 6) occurred in April 1931, November 1932, and
February 1934. It is clear from text figure 7 that all the distr icts in the outbreak
area experienced numerous periods favourable for the breeding of Chorloicetes
ferminifera during the years 1931-34. As a consequence swarms developed in
the outbreak area during this period.

Swarms of the locust flew into the agricultural districts in South Australia
and laid eggs there during the autumn of 1934, These eggs hatched in the spring
of that year. The next generation laid eggs extensively in the invasion area
(roughly district 10 of text fig. 1) during the summer of 1934-35. By the follow-
ing spring the outhreak had died out almost completely, and ae locust had been
reduced to its normal status as a solitary grasshopper throughout most of the
invasion arca (9).

PERATURE
g

EFFECTIVE TEM
2
Olly a

1934 1935
Text Figure 8

Illustrating the values for the expressions P/E (broken line) and PT/ie (com-

plete line) month by month for the years 1934 and 1935, for district 10 (text fig. 1).

The arrows indicate the approximate limits of the periods during which the
locusts were ovipositing each year,

The high rate of survival of the 1934 generation and the extremely high
mortality of the 1935 generation were associated with the time of oviposition
and the weather. From text figure 8 it is clear that the eggs laid in the autumn
of 1934 did not experience favourable conditions for hatching until ihe following
spring, since values for PT/3e were low during the autumn and winter. Appar-
ently the wetness (measured as P/E in text fig. 8) during July-August was not
harmful to the eggs. The period March-April was important; in March the rain-
fall was well below normal; in April certain areas received adequate rain but
temperature was too low for the development of Chortoicctes terminifera (see
text fig. 9). Consequently the locusts remained in the egg stage during the
unfavourable winter and were thus able to survive.

The eggs of the next generation were laid earlier, mostly during December-
January. Summer rains fell while temperature was adequate. There were
several periods during the summer and autumn when conditions were favourable
for the development of the eggs (see text fig. 8). Important favourable periods
occurred in January, March, and April. The areas affected by the rain in January
and March 1935 are shown in text figure 9; in both these months adequate rain

Jan

uary 1935

RAINFALL EVAPORATION RATIO ce
AS OVER O25
7 ~ BETWEEN 01 & ee

——— sormenms OF EFFECTIVE TeMPCRaTune

March 1935

Text Figure 9
Shows isotherms of effective temperature for Chortoicetes terminifera (develop-
mental zero taken as 15-5° C.), and the distribution of P/E for certain significant
months during the course of the 1934-1935 locust outbreak in South Australia.
The stippled shading shows the distribution of the mean P/E for the same months.

fell over most of the area where eggs had been laid, As a consequence most of
the eggs completed their development before the winter. Many nymphs died from
starvation during the summer ;@ very few survived the winter. Prolonged
exposure, under humid conditions, to temperatures near developmental zero may
produce high mortality among nymphs of Chortoicetes terminifera.

It is clear that the locust is living in a difficult environment in South Aus-
tralia. It may not develop swarms in the humid or semi-humid areas due to the
marked winter incidence of the rainfall. In the outbreak area rainfall is so low
that swarms may develop only when a sequence of two or three years experienc-
ing abnormal summer rains occurs. Once swarnis have been initiated in the out-
break area they may migrate to the “fringe country” and the wheat belt where
further generations may be produced. But existence in these areas is precarious;
swarms may persist only if a dry summer and a dry or cold atttumn inhibit the
development of the eggs before the spring, as in 1934. All these conditions must
be fulfilled before a major outbreak (on the scale of that of 1934-35) can develop.
It is not surprising that widespread plagues develop only at relatively infrequent
intervals ; records show that they have occurred about once in forty years since
the foundation of South Australia in 1836.

These conditions are quite different from those occurring in central New
South Wales, where important outbreak centres are situated in an area having an
annual rainfall between 15 and 25 inches. A larger proportion of the rain falls
in the summer, and the winter is warmer. Outbreaks occur more frequently than
in South Australia (10).

In South Australia the area in which swarms may develop is vast and thinly
populated; much of it is virtually uninhabited. Consequently it is not practicable
to undertake control measures against Chortoicetes terminifera in the outbreak
area. Nor is it practicable to attempt to modify the environment in this area to
prevent swarms developing. Control measures should aim to destroy the locusts
in the agricultural areas ; thorough preparation for and organisation of the control
campaign is essential. From this point of view it is important to know where
an outbreak may be initiated and to understand the conditions required for swarms
to develop in the outbreak area,

VI AcKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was undertaken on the suggestion of Professor J. Davidson. It
was largely his advice which determined the nature of the approach which has
been made to the problem. The extensive field survey work which was necessary
could never have been undertaken without the generous assistance of the Common-
wealth Council for Scientific and Industrial Research who provided a motor
vehicle for the purpose, and the State Department of Agriculture who arranged
for a special grant for travelling expenses. The helpful co-operation of Mr. N.
McGilp, President of the Pastoral Board, and many pastoralists living in the

©) See footnote, p. 81.

areas visited is also greatly appreciated. J am indebted to Miss C. M. Eardley

who identified the plants collected on the survey trips, to Mr. R. L. Crocker for

some observations regarding the vegetation around Lake Eyre and near Birds-

ville, and to Professor J. G. Wood for some helpful criticism. [I am indebted to

the officers of the Commonwealth Meteorological Bureau, both in Adclaide and

in Melbourne, for much helpful co-operation in the collection of meteorological

records. A great deal of the routine work connected with the examination of the

weather records was done by Mr. F. Cook. Most of the diagrams and maps have

been prepared by Miss H. M. Brookes, The photograph reproduced in plate viu,

figure 2, was taken by my wife. The blocks for the illustrations shown in

plates v-viii were kindly loaned by the Department of Agriculture of South

Australia,

VIT RerFerReNCcES

1 AnprewarTua, Il. G. 1937 Journ. Agric. S. Aust., 41, 366-368

2 Anxprewartea, LH. G.; Davipson, J.; and Swan, D. C. 1938 Dept. Agric.,
S. Aust., Bull. No. 333

3 Brakes, S. T. 1938 Proc, Roy. Soc. Old., 49, 156-204

4 Cannon, W. A. 1921 Carnegie Inst., Wash., Pubn. 308

5 Davipson, J. 1933 Aust. Journ. Exp. Biol. and Med. Sci, 11, 59-66

6 Dayinson, J]. 1934 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 58, 33-36

7 Davipson, J. 1935 Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 59, 107-124

8 Davinson, |]. 1936 Trans. Roy, Soc. 5. Aust., 60, 88-92

9 Dayinson, J. 1936 Trans. Roy, Soc. 5. Aust., 60, 137-152

10 Key, K. H. 1. 1938 Counce. Sci. Ind. Res., Bull. 117

11 Mourkray, B. J. 1931 Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 55, 91-112

12 Osrorn, T. G. B.; Woon, J. G.; and Pattringe, T. B. 1935 Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W., 60, 392-427

13. Prescorr, J. A. 1931 Coun. Sci. and Ind. Res., Bull. 52

14 Prescorr, J. A. 1934 ‘Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 58, 48-61

15 Prescorr, J. A. 1938 Journ. Aust. Inst. Agri. Sci. 4, 33-40

16 Trumete, H. C. 1937 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 61, 41-62

17 Woop, J. G. 1937 “The Vegetation of South Australia,” Govt. Printer,
Adelaide

Vol. 64, Plate V

Trans. Rov, Soc. S, Aust., 1940

Fig. 1
Looking across a flat watercourse in the Hakea leucoptera zone. Several small
shrubs of needlewood occur on the low sand ridges in the distance. The dominant
grass is Eragrostis sctifolia. Other plants are Atriplex angulatum, Dactyloctenium
radulans and Bassia uniflora. An extensive favourable habitat for Chortoicetes
termintfera,

Fig. 2
Flood plain of the Yerilla Creek which flows through an area where the Atriplesr-
Kochia association is predominant. Each row of Coolabahs (Eucalypins nucrotheca)
indicates a billabong. At least eight are visible in this picture. After a heavy
rain the whole of this extensive flood plain may be a favourable habitat for
Chortoicetes terminifera, Prominent plants are Eragrostis Dielsii, Dactyloctenium
radulans, Panicum decompositum, and Bassia spp.

Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940 Vol. 64, Plate VL

Fig. 1
A local depression with Acacia Sowdenii in the background. The plants in the
depression include Enneapogon avenaceum, Tragus racemosus, Dactyloctenium
radulans and Bassia paradova, A restricted favourable habitat for Chortaiceles
lerminifera,

Fig. 2

This flat is a characteristic favourable habitat for Chortoiceles ferminifera in

the Acacia ancura zone. The sandy hill carries Acacia aneura, Acacia Burkiltii

and Callitris sp, The principal plants in the flat are two grasses, Eragrostis
selifolia and Daetyloctenium radulans.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940 Vol. 64, Plate

Fig. J
A view in the Atriplerx-Kochia zone near the northern limit of its distribution,
Mulga (Acacia aneura) clothes the small channels that carry water away from
the hills in the distance.

Fig. 2
A closer view of the drainage channel shown in fig. 1. Stony, steep-sided gutters
like this do not provide favourahle habitats for Chortoicetes terminifera,

Vil

Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940 Vol. 64, Plate VITI

Fig. 1
A watercourse between sandhills associated with an “island” of sandy country in

the Atriplex-Salicornia zone. The sandy banks support Acacia aneura, Mela-
leuca sp. and Callistris sp. Important plants in the watercourse are: Eragrostis
setifolia, FE. pilosa, Calotis multicaulis, Calocephalus multiflorus, and Bergia

trimera. A favourable and extensive habitat for Chortoicetes terminifera,

Fig. 2
A drifting sand dune in the desert zone. The tree is a stunted Coolabah (Eucalyptus
microtheca). The other plants are mostly ephemerals.

NEMATODES FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and PATRICIA M. MAWSON (University of Adelaide)

Summary

Some nematodes from South Australian marsupials have been dealt with in our earlier papers in the
series. The present communication refers to material from the black-faced kangaroo, Macropus
melanops, collected mainly by L. Dinning in the vicinity of Mundalla; the Flinders Range wallaby,
Petrogale xanthopus; Pearson Island wallaby, P. pearsoni taken by Professor Wood Jones; Flinders
Island wallaby, Thylogale flindersi, collected by H. H. Finlayson; and the Kangaroo Island wallaby,
Thylogale eugenii. We have also included in our own study material from Peragale minor from
Macdonald Downs in Central Australia, collected by the senior author. All the nematodes recorded
in this paper, except Dipetalonema roemeri and Austrostrongylus thylogale, were taken from the
stomach. The types of the new species have been deposited in the South Australian Museum. The
present investigation has been undertaken with assistance from the Commonwealth research grant
to the University of Adelaide.

NEMATODES FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS

, T. Harvey Jounston and Parricta M. Mawson (University of Adelaide)
[Read 9 May 1940]

Some nematodes from South Australian marsupials have been dealt with
in our earlier papers in the series. The present communication refers to material
from the black-faced kangaroo, Macropus melanops, collected mainly by LL.
Dinning in the vicinity of Mundalla; the Flinders Range wallaby, Petrogatle
santhopus; Pearson Island wallaby, P. pearsoni taken by Professor Wood Jones;
Flinders Island wallaby, Thylogale flindersi, collected by H. H. Finlayson; and
the Kangaroo Island wallaby, Thylogale eugenti. We have also included in our
study material from Peragale miner from Macdonald Downs in Central Aus-
tralia, collected by the senior author. All the nematodes recorded in this paper,
except Dipetalonema roemeri and Austrostrongylus thylogale, were taken from
the stomach. The types of the new species have been deposited in the South
Australian Muscum. ‘he present investigation has been undertaken with assist-
ance from the Commonwealth research grant to the University of Adelaide.

NEMATODES RECORDED IN THIS PAPER, ARRANGED UNDER TUETR Hosts

Macropus melanops Gould—Pharyngostrongylus alpha J. & M., P. beta J.& M.;
Cloacina communis J. & M., C, parva J. & M., C, curta J. & M., C. obtusa
J. & M., C. macropodis J. & M., C. australis J. & M., C. frequens J. & M.,
C. vestibulata n. sp., C. longelabiata J. & M., C. hydriformis J. & M.;
Paramacropostrongylus typicus n. gen., n. sp.; Dipetaloncma reemeri (Linst.).

Macropus robustus Gould—Dipetalonema roemeri (Linst.).

Phytogale eugenti Peron and Lessueur—Zoniolaimus eugenii J. & M.: Austro-
strongylus thylogale n. sp.

Ehylogale flindersi Wood Jones—Pharyngostrongylus beta J. & M.; Cloacina
macropis J. & M.; C. petrogale J. & M.

Petrogale pearsoni Thomas—Pharyngostrongylus alpha J. & M.; P. beta J. & M.:
Cloacina petrogale J. & M.; Zoniolaimus longispicularis (Wood) ; Macropo-
strongyius pearsoni n. sp.

Petrogale xanthopus Gray—Pharyngostrongylus beta J. & M.; Cloacina communis
J. & M.; C. frequens J. & M. C. australis J. & M., C. curta J. & M..
C. longelabiata J. & M.; Zoniolaimus longispicularis (Wood).

Peragale minor Spencer— Physaloptera peragale n. sp.

CLoAcina Linstow

The majority of the nematodes obtained from Macropus melanops and
Petrogale xanthopus belong to this genus, and we noted a similar occurrence in

Trans. Roy. Soe. S.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

M. rufus, M. robustus and P. lateralis from Central Australia (1938). The genus
is much less commonly represented in collections of parasites from eastern Austra-
lian marsupials. Since the genus predominates in drier regions it is probable that
the eggs or larvae are more resistant. Nearly all the species now recognised from
South Australian hosts were described originally from Central Australia, a fact

Figs. 1-2, Cloacina westibulata: 1, head, lateral; 2, posterior end, female.
Figs. 3-5, Paramacropostrongylus typicus: 3, externo-dorsal and dorsal rays;
4, head: 5, oesophagus. Figs. 6-8, Macropesirongylus pearsont: 6, head;
7, bursa; 8, posterior end, female. Figs. 9-10, Austrostrongylus thylogale:
9, bursa, dorsal view; 10, head, lateral. Figs. 11-12, Physalopiera peragale:
11, head, lateral; 12, bursa, ventral.
Figs. 1, 6, 10 to same scale; figs. 2, 8 and 12; figs. 3, 4, 9 and 11.

which is not surprising in view of the geographical and climatic continuity of the
regions. The exceptions are C. obtusa, originally from ©. rufus from western
New South Wales, and C. westibulata n.sp. Specimens of C. petrogale from
Petrogale pearsoni and Thylogale flindersi, both insular species of wallabies, were
smaller than the types but were of similar proportions, C. macropodis, first
described from Central Australia, and later identified from eastern Queensland
(1939), is now recorded from Mundalla, Flinders Ranges, and Flinders Island;
it is apparently widely distributed.

The following is a list of the species and their new host records: C. australis,
communis, curta, frequens and longelabiata from Macropus melanops and
Petrogale vanthopus; C. hydriformis, parva, obtusa and vestibulata n. sp. from
M. melanops; C,. macropodis from M. melanops, P. ranthopus and Thylogale
findersi; C. petrogale from P, pearsoni and T. flindersi.

Cloacina vestibulata n. sp.
Figs 1-2

From Macropus melanops, Mundalla. Male unknown. female, about 2 mm.
long; characterised by a peculiar development inside buccal capsule. Six low
lips; two small lateral and four large, “two-segmented” submedian papillae; leaf
crown arising from about half-way up buccal ring, and below its origin a con-
tinuous narrow shelf extending into mouth cavity. Buccal ring 0-056 mm.
diameter, 022 mm. deep, base -035 mmi. from anterior end of lips. Oesophagus
‘7 mm. long, with indication of median bulb where it is surrounded by nerve
ring, “3 mn. from head, before widening to its posterior end. Excretory pore and
cervical papillae not observed. Posterior end harrowing near vulva to terminate
in narrow pointed tail, -2 mm. long. Vagina about 1:2 mni. long; vulva °48 from
up of tail, Eggs in vagina about +16 by -08 mm,

PILARYNGosTRONGYLUS Yorke & Maplestone
P. alpha and P. beta were both found in Macropus mclanops and Petrogale
pearsont; but only P. beta in Thylogale flindersi and P. vanuthopus. Both of
these species have a rather longer vestibule than that figured for the type, but the
differences appear to be insufficient to separate them off as new species. In P. beta
from Thvlogale flindersi and P. pearsoni the bristles on the oral papillae are bifid.

ZONIOLAiMUS Cobb
4, longispicularis (Wood) was obtained from P. xanthopus and P. pearsoni;
those taken from four specimens of the latter wallaby being much smaller than
typical members of the species, but the proportions are consistent with those of
Wood’s species.
Z, eugenti, recently described by ts (1940), was recognised in material from
the type host species, Thylogale eugenii, from Kangaroo Island.

Paramacropostrongylus n. gen.

Trichoneminae. Long stout worms. Head with cuticular collar bearing six
small papillae. Buccal ring short, cylindrical. Oesophagus widening posteriorly.
Male: ventral rays parallel; externo-laterals divergent from laterals, externo-
dorsal arising from base of dorsal; dorsal bifurcating about mid-length, each
branch bifid at tip; spicules long, fine, with narrow striated alae. Iemale: tail
tapering, vulva short distance in front of anus. Type, P. fypicus n.sp. from
Macropus melanops.

The genus resembles Cyclostrongylus and Macropostrongylus in many
features, but is distinguished from both in size and in the character of the
externo-dorsal and dorsal rays; and from the latter by the absence of a leaf-
crown. The external appearance is suggestive of Zoniolaimus but it differs in
the structure of the head.

Paramacropostrongylus typicus n. g., n. sp
Tigs. 3-5
From Macropus melanops, Mundalla. Female, 5°5 cm.; male, 3-6 cm.
Mouth collar with six minute conical papillue; buccal ring stout, -032 mm.
diameter, ‘02 mm. deep; oesophagus 1-8 mm. long, widening gradually after its
mid-length to become twice as broad at posterior end. Nerve ring 5 mm. from
anterior end.

Male: Bursa large, lobes not deeply separated. Ventral rays together, cleft
half their length, reaching edge of bursa. Externo-lateral ray shorter than
laterals, stout; medio- and postero-laterals cleft three-quarters length, postero-
lateral slightly longer, none reaching bursal edge. Externo-dorsal ray arising
from base of dorsal, not reaching bursal edge. Dorsal ray stout, bifurcating after
half-length, each branch bifid at tip. Spicules 3-5 mm. long, 1:10 of body length.
Pair of prebursal papillae. Gubernaculum absent.

Female: Body tapering to pointed tail, latter -35 mm. long. Vulva 1:3 mm.
from posterior end; vagina very short. TEggs 150 by 70 p.

Macropostrongylus pearsoni n. sp.
Figs. 6-8

From Petrogale pearsoni, Pearson Island, Great Australian Bight, coll. Prof.
Wood Jones. Male, 5°5 mm; female, 6°2 mm. Jong. Anterior end flattened ;
with four rounded submedian and two large lateral papillae, each of the former
with two setae. Buccal cavity in male -018 mm. diameter, 0-3 mm. deep, and
from its walls ‘02 mm. from anterior end a downwardly projecting shelf com-
posed apparently of numerous tooth-like projections.

Male: Spicules broken, part remaining in body -85 mm. long Dorsal part
of bursa much longer than ventral. Ventral rays parallel, cleft; externo-lateral

separate from laterals for whole length; laterals cleft half length; externo-dorsa!
arising with laterals, distal half divergent from them. Dorsal ray bifurcating
after half length into two long thin branches; at point of bifurcation a pair of
short laterals, also a very short conical median projection.

Female: Tail -41 mm. long, curved dorsally. Vulva * 8 mm. from tip of
tail. Eggs, °07--08 by *05--06 mim.

The species differs from any previously described in the genus in the
characters of the head and buccal capsule, combined with the shape of the
dorsal ray.

Austrostrongylus thylogale n. sp.
Figs 9-10

From Thylogale cugenti, Kangaroo Island. Small coiled worms. Males
3 mm. and females 5 mm. long. Cuticle inflated in head and neck region for
-06 mm., and marked with wide transverse striations. Behind this region six
longitudinal, transverscly striated ridges, lateral ridges wider than submedians.
Buccal capsule 15 » deep and 25 » wide at base; dorsal tooth 10 » long, ventral
teeth 3. Ocsophagus *23 mm. long, surrounded by nerve ring just behind its
mid-length and -15 mm. from head. J{xcretory pore -19 mm. from head end.

Maile: Spicules tapering, stout, -36 mm. long, about 1:9 of body length.
Bursa large, with two large lateral lobes and a small dorsal lobe. Rays slightly
asymmetrical, externo-lateral and medio-lateral of one side rather stouter than
those of the other, latero-ventral more slender on the former side. Ventral
and lateral rays stout near base, tapering to tips. Ventro-ventrals bending
ventrally, latero-ventrals more or less straight, neither quite reaching bursal edge ;
externo-lateral curving ventrally, medio- and postero-laterals bending dorsally at
tip, all three reaching edge of bursa. Externo-dorsals long, thin, arising from
base of laterals, curving to reach bursal edge. Dorsal ray slender, short, giving
off pair of rather long branches near its base, and dividing near its extremity
into four short rays, the outer pair longer than the inner.

Female: Body tapering to conical tail. Anus -05 mm. and vulva -42 mm.
from posterior end. Eggs, °06 by -03 mm. (uterine).

The species differs from the three already known in having three pairs of
branches to the dorsal ray, instead of two pairs.

PIYSALOPTERA Rud.

This genus has not been reported from kangaroos and wallabies but is
common in bandicoots, occurring in the stomach. We now record a second
species, the host being the rabbit bandicoot or bilby, Peragele minor, from Central
Australia (Macdonald Downs).

100

Physaloptera peragale n. sp.
Figs. 11-12

Large stout worms. Males about 24 mm., females up to 30 mm. long.
Cuticle finely striated transversely. In the four specimens available, the cervical
cuticle does not cover the lips, but is wrinkled and possibly contracted, Two
lateral lips each with a pair of sublateral papillae, and each with tripartite median
tooth and a larger tooth external to it. O0csophagus 5:3 mm. long (in male).
anterior part narrower and surrounded about its mid-length by nerve ring
42 mm. from anterior end of head. Excretory pore -7 mm. and short. stout
cervical papillae -6 mm. from head end.

Male: Bursa large, 1:25 mm. long, -7 mm. in maximum width at level of
anus, median portion covered with longitudinal rows of bosses. lateral parts free
from them. Bursal papillae irregularly arranged; three large pre-anal papillae on
one side, five on the other; then one pair immediately pre-anal, two pairs post-
anal; laterally from the last pair, a pair of larger papillae; and then posteriorly
six papillae arranged more or less medially, the series almost reaching tip of tail.
Spicules obscured, larger probably -6 mm. long.

Female: Tail rounded; anus ‘6 mm. from tip. Vulva 9-3 mm. from anterior
end. Utert full of oval eggs. 50 by 35 4, with very thick shells and containing
embryos,

The species differs from P. peramelis in its shorter length and in having a
larger bursa with more papillae.

DIPETALONEMA ROEMERI (Linstow)
Specimens were identified from Macropus robustus, Flinders Ranges (coll.
H. B. Holmes), and M. melanops, Mundalla.

ON A NEW GENUS OF SPONGES
FROM THE CAMBRIAN OF THE FLINDERS RANGE,
SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By FREDERIC CHAPMAN, A.LS., F.G.S., ete.

Summary

The specimens upon which this paper is based were recently discovered by Sir Douglas Mawson in
the Flinders Range, South Australia, and I am greatly indebted to him for the opportunity of
investigating this unique occurrence. These fossil sponges were Found in an horizon a little above
the main Archaeocyathinae "reef," and proved to be one of the most remarkable discoveries of
recent years. All previous records of sponges in the Australian Cambrian have been confined to
sporadic occurrences of anchoring spicules and separated spongespicules scattered through the
cherts and cherty limestones of that age.

101

ON A NEW GENUS OF SPONGES
FROM THE CAMBRIAN OF THE FLINDERS RANGE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By Freperick CuapmMan, A.L.S,, F.G.S., ete.
{Read 9 May 1940]
Prates [X To XII

INTRODUCTION

The specimens upon which this paper is based were recently discovered
by Sir Douglas Mawson in the Flinders Range, South Australia, and I
am greatly indebted to him for the opportunity of investigating this unique
occurrence. These fossil sponges were found in an horizon a little above the main
Archaeocyathinae “reef,” and proved to be one of the most remarkable discoveries
of recent years. All previous records of sponges in the Australian Cambrian have
been confined to sporadic occurrences of anchoring spicules and separated sponge-
spicules scattered through the cherls and cherty limestones of that age.

The present examples are remarkable in that they represent actual sponge-
bodies, with the spicular structure more or less in position, and are, therefore, the
first of their kind to afford definite evidence of their taxonomic position amongst
Lower Palaeozoic sponges.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

in general descriptive terms these ancient sponges are cup-shaped, varying
from vase-like forms to elongate, almost cylindrical bodies. Since no other sponges
comparable to these have hitherto been found in the Australian Cambrian, nor
indeed in that formation elsewhere, morphological comparisons must be meagre.
Their spicular structure, however, shows that they belong to the Lyssakine group
of the Hexactinellida, in having the spicules of the skeleton separate, or united
at a late period of growth in an irregular manner by siliceous masses or by
transverse synapticulae (Minchin, 1900, p. 121). That author has also pointed
out that the Family Pollakidae, to which a related form, Hyalostelia was referred,
“has been broken up and distributed amougst other families, and it only remains
for the fossil forms to be similarly treated” (op. cit., p. 123). It is therefore
suggested here that the present Cambrian genus, Protohyalostelia and other
related ones, as Hyalostelia (Cambrian to Carboniferous), should be placed in a
new Family, the HyaLosTELripae.

The present type of siliceous sponges from the Flinders Range does not
appear to show any structural features common to the numerous genera described
by Dr. C. D. Walcott from the remarkable assemblage of Middle Cambrian
organisms of the “Wapta Pool,” British Columbia; except it be the species,
Protospongia hicksi, in which exceptionally stout cruciform spicules are present.
On the other hand, it seems to be closely related in skeletal features to Hvalastelia

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

102

of the British Carboniferous, and, incidentally, to the already described
Hyalostelia australis Eth. fil.

In the present fossils the wall is definitely densely spicular. These spicules
are principally microscleres, which would naturally be held together by the flesh
of the sponge in the living condition. These dermal spicules are mainly of a
curved and fusiform shape (oxeote microrhabds) and occasionally acerate. ‘The
interior of these cup-shaped sponges seems to have been largely occupied by a
comparatively coarse but loose spicular mesh, embedded in which, especially
towards the inner dermal layer, are pin-shaped, cruciform, or even five- and six-
rayed spicules, as in Hyalostelia, particularly in the Carboniferous examples. In
places larger spicules (megascleres) are seen to fuse into a reticulate mesh, but
only in rare instances, showing that they are normally loosely aggregated. The
fusiform microscleres, which are an abundant feature of the outer wall of the
cup, ate also scen scattered throughout the inner portion, but more sparsely. All
these spicular elements, when not re-crystallised, show the axial canal usually
present in the Silicispongiac. ‘The altered spicules have been changed in struc-
ture to the form of polysynthetic quartz and chalcedony, and this almost invariably
obliterates the axial canal.

Where cruciform spicules can be recognised in thin sections they appear to
closely resemble those of AHyalostelia from the British Carboniferous. As yet
no anchoring spicules have been found associated with the sponges from the
Flinders Range, so that no direct comparison can be made between these forms
and the long rod-like spicules of Hyalostelia australis of Curramulka and the
MacDonnell Ranges.

The cruciform spicules seen in Protospongia, excepting in P. hicksi, are more
slender as compared with those in the present examples, nor do the latter show
any fenestrate character essential to Protospongia, Moreover, the dermal layer
of the cup in Pretespengia appears to be characteristically tenuous.

The spicular mesh of the inner cup in the present form, generically defined
here as the type of a new genus, Protehyalostelia, is remarkably close to that of
the genotype of £fyalostelia, H. smithii (Young and Young), Zittel, 1878, from
the Carboniferous of England, Scotland and Ireland. The spicules of that genus,
by the way, are occasionally accompanied by anchoring spicules (Hinde, 1887,
pl. vi, figs. 2, 2a). The actual form of the sponge in Ayalostelia is unknown;
therefore, on this and other grounds, it seems advisable to regard the Flinders
Range fossils as generically distinct.

Notes on Generic Standing of Pyrrronema, McCoy, 1850

This genus, with genotype P. fasciculus, was founded on “a fragmentary
hand of spicules embedded in dark limestone of Llandeilo age” (Hinde, 1888.
p. 111). These remains have usually been regarded as anchoring sponge-spicules
of a form met with in the living Glass Rope Sponge (Hyalonema), Similar
fasciculate and elongated spicules, when occurring in the Australian Palaeozoic,

103

have been referred to as Hyalostelia australis (R. Etheridge, jun., 1916). The
species has oceurred in the Cambrian of Curramulka, South Australia, and in
the Ordovician of the MacDonnell Ranges, Central Australia. With reference to
this record (Etheridge, jun., 1916, p. 149) that author says: “As a matter of
priority the name Hyalostelia Zittel, 1878, should give place to that of Pyritonema
McCoy, 1850. Dr. Hinde, however, has retained the former, but in the English
edition of Zittel’s ‘Text-book of Palaeontology’ by Eastman the two are
separatcly maintained, Pyritonema being defined as ‘fascicles of long stout
spicules, supposed to be ‘root tufts’; whilst in Hyalostelia the anchoring spicules
are root tufts composed of elongated, slightly bent fibres, sometimes terminating
in four recurved rays.’ ”

Dr. Ruedemann (1925, p. 36, et seq.) has placed Pyritonema McCoy in the
Family Ilyalonematidae, as Prof. Rauff has already done (1893, p. 257). This
generic form has also been recorded under the name of “Leptomitus” sitteli by
Walcott (1886, p. 89, pl. ii, figs. 2, 2a) from the Lower Cambrian of Vermont,
U.S.A. Pyritonema is also known from the Ordovician of Britain (Tremadoc
and Llandeilo beds) and Canada (Metis Shales) and the Ordovician of Scan-
dinavia. Rauff would restrict Pyritonema as a Lower Palaeozoic genus and refer
the Carboniferous anchoring sponge-spicules to I] yalostelia.

The present writer is of the opition that Pyritonema, in conformity with
its original definition and subsequent interpretation, as a band of spicules or
“tubes” (anchoring spicules}, should be retained for such, when not associated
with undoubted spicules of the mesh; for, as Dr. [inde remarked (1888, p. 111):
“No hexactinellid body-spicules are as yet known in connection with this species
(Pyritonema fasciculus McCoy), which is founded exclusively on fragments of
the bundles of spicular rods forming the anchoring appendages of the sponge.”
‘The Australian form may, therefore, be regarded as a species of Pyritonema,
P. australis (Eth. fil.).

”

SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION
Order HEXACTINELLIDA Oscar Schmidt
Sub-order LYSSAKINA Zittel
Family HYALOSTELIIDAE noy. (Pollakidae Marshall, 1876. pars)

Genus Protohyalostella nov.

Siliceous sponges of Lyssakine affinities, that is, with the spicules of the
skeleton either separate or united at a late period of growth, the loosely con-
joined spicules held together by the flesh of the sponge. The discovery of these
sponges, having a definite cup- or vase-shaped body, in so old a formation, makes
it of outstanding interest. The chances of finding such fossils, in which the
original skeleton was so loosely compacted, is slender indeed.

The walls of the cup usually appear to be duplicated in these specimens,
with an interspace of about 2 mm., the external wall measuring about 4 mm. and

104

the inner about 3 mm. in thickness. Spicules of the wall massed together, con-
sisting largely of curved, fusiform microscleres,

‘The interior of the cup, more or less filled with disintegrated spicules, repre-
sents what was once the spongy skeleton held together by tissties since destroyed.

The external surface of the sponge, where preserved, shows a verrucose
structure, resembling the surface of a gherkin. The border of the cup, forming
the margin of a shallow cloacal cavity, is more or less elliptical, with, in places,
an involute or vellicate (pinched up) portion.

Protohyalostelia mawsoni sp. nov.

Note—In view of the gradational variation in size, shape and relative propor-
Uons, it scems at present impossible to separate these fossil examples even into
varieties. It may be sufficient here to regard them as conspecific and monotypical
of the genus, although morphological variations are indicated.

The specimen, 4200 F (pl. ix, figs. 1 and 2) is here designated as the fole-
ivpe, since it is the most typical of the series, showing the cup margin, doub‘e
wall, well-preserved external surface and general form of the sponge. In oral
aspect the ends of the longer diameter show an angulation partly due to com-
pression in the embedding stratum. There are also indications of an invaginated
border or diverticulum, obscured, however, by weathering; these invaginated
margins are also similarly to be noticed in some Cretaceous Ventriculites
(Hexactinellida), as well as in the Calcarea.

When examined microscopically, the wall of the sponge is scen, in most cases,
to be formed of a dense mass of microscleric spicules, which are gently curved and
accrate. This dermal wall shows a dark, smoky staining. A somewhat similar
appearance is noted by Dr. Walcott (1920, p. 308) in connection with the Burgess
Shale occurrence of Protospongia hicksi, who states that it is due to abundant
minute crystals of pyrites. In the present case this smoky tint appears to he due.
when sections arc examined under a high power, to finely disseminated crystals
of specular iron or haematite.

The weathered surface of the cup, where it has presumably been partially
filled with matrix, exhibits etched and roughly areolate depressions, appearing in
conseyuence almost tessellated. The lateral surface of the walls over a limited
area, shows a verrucose character, as though encrusted with a hydractinian ; this,
however, is probably due to the weathering of the skeletal structure of the sponge
itself.

Length of sponge, 4200 F, 97 mm. Diameter at summit, 58 mm. x 36 min.

Description of Paratypes:

4200 B (pl. ix, fig. 3). Forma brevis. Length of sponge-body, 52 mm.
Surface of cup, 44 mm. x 27 mm.; with a shallow depression. Margin diverticu-
late at one side and generally undulate. Gencral form apparently somewhat
flattened by subsequent compression in the stratum.

105

4200 A (pl. ix, fig. 4). Forma gravida, Two adjacent sponge-bodies in the
one rock specimen, indicating habit of forming small colonies. One is nearly
complete in outline, the other showing about two-thirds of the rim. Cup originally
nearly circular, 50 and 45 mm. in diameter. These cups have a shallow depres-
sion, bordered by a thickened rim. The blackened surface of the rim extends in
this case to the matrix between the adjacent sponges. The walls in these specimens
measure circ, 5 mm. in thickness.

4200 C (pl. ix, fig. 5). Forma preducta, Length of sponge-body, 104 mm. ;
with marginal diameter of 39 mm. x 29 mm. A much more elongated form than
the preceding specimens. Border of cup, irregularly undulate.

4200 D (Form not illustrated). Sponge-body greatly compressed; long-
elliptical in section. Length unknown.

Micrascope-sections for study were made from this and the following
specimen (4200 E) ; the structures from: these are shown on plates x-xii.

Sections made from 4200 D appeared to pass through the cup and base, and
portions are shown in pl. x, figs. 1 and 2. In both figures the curved and fusi-
form microscleres are seen to predominate, and have a fairly uniform length of
0-214 mm. ‘There are also present some occasional triactines with a length of
0-7 mm., and hexactines 1-07 mm. long.

4200 E (Form of Sponge not illustrated). A short, roundly outlined sponge-
body. Micro-sections from this specimen show the spicular structure in good
preservation.

The cavity of the sponge is filled with loose meshwork of spicular tisstie,
in which elements having from 3 to 5 rays are seen. They range from about 1 mm.
to 1-5 mm, in length, and are associated with some pin-shaped spicules; whilst
numerous gently-curved and fusiform microscleres, like those which make up the
bulk of the sponge-wall, are sparsely scattered throughout.

A good example of a 5- or 6-rayed spicule is scen in plate x1, figure 1, where
a cross section of 4200 E was taken, cutting through the cloacal cavity with its
loose meshwork. The rays in this spicule are stout and have a length of 0-8 mm.
Triactines, tetractines and irregularly anastomosing spicular mesh are all present
in this section.

Plate xi, figure 2, taken from the same specimen, 4200 E, shows a pin-shaped
spicule, with traces of an axial canal, measuring 0-8 mm. in length, There ig also
in this photograph a furcate spicule somewhat resembling that of Chancelloria
drusilla Walcott, a genus which he places in the Hexactinellida. Since this type
of spicule is unique in our micro-slides, it may be presumed that it is either
adventitious or merely an anchor-shaped spicule of the Hyalostelian group. The
portion of figure 2 containing this spicule represents the wall of the sponge, the
boundary line of the cup being noted between the arrows.

The boundary between wall and cloacal cavity is also shown in plate x,
figure 3, with less magnification. It is taken from a longitudinal section of 4200 E.

106

The darker portion is the wall, with minute acerose spicules; the lighter portion
representing the loosely welded skeleton of the inner cavity,

Ecotocic AND PryLocenrtric REFERENCES

The Lyssakine Group of the Hexactinellida, to which Protofyalostelia un-
doubtedly belongs, is acknowledged by competent authorities to represent a more
primitive type than the Dictyonines, such as Ventriculites of the Chalk. The
living representatives of the deep water Lyssakines comprise Explectclla,
Hyaloncma and several others, most of which are furnished with anchoring
spicules by which they attach themselves to the bed of the sea in abyssal areas.
Some of these living species occur, indeed, at a depth of only a few hundred
fathoms, whilst [7valonema, the Glass Rope Sponge, ranges down to 2,550 fathoms.
Remains of anchoring or tufted species are found fossil from the Cambrian to
the present.

Cup-shaped sponges of the Lyssakine group, on the other hand, were also
most likely to have assumed their characteristic form when living just below or
above the niud-line, from the earliest times. For evidence in support of this
conclusion we may cite the sponge-fauna discovered some years ago by Dr. C. D.
Walcott, where, amongst the fossils embedded in the black, silty shales of the
Middle Cambrian, in British Columbia, such cup-sponges as Protosponyia aud
the related but dictyonine Vauaia occurred in association, under similar fairly
shallow conditions.

Another Cambrian form that was vase-shaped is Protospongia hicksi Hinde
(1888, pt. ii, pp. 107-108), which in dimensions and structural features, bears some
resemblance to the present species. For example, robust cruciform spicu‘es occur
in both, although this character may be common to more than one genus of this
ancient group. P. hicksi also occurred in the Middle Cambrian black shales of
3ritish Columbia, of similar age to that of its original locality at St. David’s,
South Wales,

The Cambrian and Ordovician genus, Pyrilonema and lower Cambrian
Protohyalostelia, are therefore representatives of the ancient sponge fauna of
abyssal and neritic habitats, respectively.

ft was hoped that this exceptional occurrence of well-preserved. siliceous
sponges from so old a formation as the Lower Cambrian might have thrown more
certain light on the phylogeny, if not the ontogeny of the hexactinellid group.
Suffice it to say, however, that the evidence here presented demonstrates the
early existence of hexactines and triaxons, having definite axial canals similar
to most modern types of this group. In Protehyalostelia many of the spicular
elements are precisely similar to those of the Carboniferous Hyalostelia, eveu to
the essentially Lyssakine characters seen in the loosely welded spicular mesh of
the inner wall of the sponge skeleton,

We must indeed go back in retrospect to a period long before the Cambrian
in order to discover the true relationships, for example, between the Choano-

107

flagellata (probably through forms like Proterospongia) and the most primitive

frame-building sponges. This transitional period would embrace such a theoretical

phase as that suggested by Prof. Haeckel—the sponges acquiring the habit of

secreting a siliceous skeleton from rooting in deposits of Radiolarian ooze, whilst

the Calcarea may have likewise formed the calcareous spicular skeleton from

immersion in Globigerina ooze.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dawson, J. W. 1896 Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, ser. 2, 2, sect. iv

Krueripcr, R., yun, 1916 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 40, 148-150, pl. xviii

Hinpe, G. J. 1887 and 1888 British Fossil Sponges. Palaeont, Soc,

McCoy, I. 1850 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 2, 6, 273

Mincrin, E. A. 1900 In Ray Lankester’s Treatise on Zoologie. Part il.
Sponges

Raurr, Ll, 1893 Palaeontographica, 40, Memoir on Palacospongiae

RurepEMANN, R. 1925 N.Y. State Bulletin, No. 62. The Utica and Lorraine
Formations of New York, pt. 2. Systematic Palaeontology, No. 1
Plants, Sponges, etc.

Satter, J. W. 1864 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 20, 238

Scuuze, F. E. 1887 Report on the Hexactinellida. Results of the “Challenger
Expedition. Zool., 21,

Waccort, C. D. 1886 Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv., No. 50

Watcort, C. D. 1920 Middle Cambrian Spongiae. Smithson. Misc. Coll., 67,
No, 6.

ZivreL, C, von 1878 Handbuch der Palaeontologie, Bd. I, Lief. 2, 85

Zirren, C. von 1913 Textbook of Palaeontology (Iastman}. Second edition

EXPLANATION OF PLATES IX, X, XI, XII

Pate 1X

Fig. 1 Protohyalostelia mawsoni gen. et., sp. nov. Holotype. Reg. No. 4200 F. Lower
Cambrian; Flinders Range, South Australia, Viewed from side, Cire. nat. size.

Fig. 2 Ditto. Same specimen. Oral view. # nat. size.

Fig. 3 Ditto. Paratype of species; forma brevis. A shorter form. Oral view. Reg.
No. 4200 B. Slightly reduced.

Ditto. Paratype; forma gravida. More heavily built; two cups in juxtaposition.
Reg. No, 4200 A. Slightly reduced.

Ditto. Paratype; forma producta. Elongated form. Reg. No. 4200C. Cire.

} nat. size.

aol
a
fs

mt
ga

Pilate &

Fig. 1 Protohyalostelia maiesoni, gen. et., sp. nov. Tectotype, from 4200 D. Section through
hase of cup. Showing abundant microscleres; also a stout, cruciform spicule.
X 28.

Fig. 2 P. mawyont. Tectotype, from 4200 D. Section near base of cup. Showing abundant
microscleres (rhabds of varying lengths). Also a pentactinal spicule in centre.

Fig. 3° P. mazesont. Tectotype, from 4200F. Showing dense with microscleres of
outer wall below, and lighter mesh of the inner skeleton, anastomosing as in
Hyalostelia, above. X14.

108

Pate XI

Fig. 1 P. mawsont. Tectotype, from 4200 E. Thin cross section through inner portion,
showing a 6-rayed spicule, as in /Tyalostelia, Also the general structure of the
inner mesh. X 28.

Fig. 2 P. mawsoni. Tectotype, from 4200E. Cross section through cup. Outer dense
portion of wall, Shows a comparatively large pin-head spicule with canal:
immersed in a mass of microscleres (curved, acerose forms). This outer
portion also shows a furcate spicule resembling Chancelloria. Between arrows
lies the boundary between the inner and outer tissue. X 28.

Piatre XII
Vigs. 1-8 Three, four and six-rayed spicules from the dermal and occasionally inner layer
of Protohyalosteta, Compare similar forms figured by G. J. Hinde (1887, pl. iv)
—Hyalostehia smithii (Young and Young) and H. parallela (McCoy), from the
British Carboniferous. Figs, 2, 4 and 8 are suggestive of imperfect terminals
of anchoring spicules. Drawn from sections 4200 D and 4200 E.

Vig. 9 Rayed spieule partially reduced to knobs, from inner part of the wall, section 4200 D.
Compare Hinde (1887, pl. v, figs. 1 f, g) in Hyalostelia smithii (Young and
Young). Carboniferous.

Fig. 10 Transverse section of rod-like spicule (rare), with large axial canal. Section 4200.
Irom wall.

Tig.11 Pin-shaped spicule in wall. Section 4200 D.

Fig.12 Acerate microsclere of the wall (mingled with smooth forms in all sections of
Protohyalostelia). Coropare similar spicules in Geodites of the Scottish Car-

boniferous (Hinde, 1887, pl. v, figs, 3, 4ce). From 4200D. Section through
walls.

Fig. 13 Anastomosing spicular structure of the inner skeleton within the cup. Section 4200 1D.
Fig. 14 Coarse cancellated mesh-structure of the interior of the sponge-body. Section 4200 E.

All figures magnified 37 times.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940

F.C, photo

Protohyalostelia mawsont

og
gg,

Vol. 64,

Plate

Cambrian, S. Aust.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940

=
a
s
-
‘

Fig, 2

Structure

F, C. photomier.

Vol. 64, Plate X

in Protohyalostelia mawsont g, et. sp.noy., L.

Fig. 3

Cambrian, S. Aust.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940 Vol. 64, Plate XI

Fig. 2

Structure in Protohyalostelia mawsoni g. et. sp.nov., L. Cambrian, S. Aust.

F.C. photomicr.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940

ff
ae Pe
a) ; F}
tS, EO FAN = I
hou.
Ee. Mae TAY Gy Fives n

4 4 oe VO Ne
Pee Bye oe
4 ea wey

Spicular and Skeletal Structure in Protohyalostelia

F.C. del. ad nat.

Vol. 64, Plate XIi

All figures x 37

A SIDEROLITE FROM PINNAROO, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By A. R. ALDERMAN, University of Adelaide.

Summary

This meteorite was found in 1927 by Mr. S. Hamilton on his property in the south-west corner of
Section 6, Hundred of Pinnaroo, about 9 miles S.S.E. from the town of Pinnaroo (latitude, 35° 17’
S.; longitude, 140° 55' E.) in South Australia. It was ploughed out of the soil and brought, for
identification, to Sir Douglas Mawson, who acquired it for the geological museum in the University

of Adelaide.

109

A SIDEROLITE FROM PINNAROO, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
By A. R. AvvermMaAN, University of Adelaide
[Read 9 May 1940]
Prate XIII

This meteorite was found in 1927 by Mr. S. Hamilton on his property in
the south-west corner of Section 6, Hundred of Pinnaroo, about 9 miles S.S.E.
from the town of Pinnaroo (latitude, 35° 17’ S.; longitude, 140° 55’ E.) in South
Australia. It was ploughed out of the soil and brought, for identification, to Sir
Douglas Mawson, who acquired it for the geological museum in the University
of Adelaide.

The main mass was roughly ellipsoidal in shape with many irregularities, and
had dimensions of approximately 37 x 29 x 17 cms. The original weight was
&7 Ibs. 10 oz. (39-4 kg.) and the external colour a deep rusty-brown. Weather-
ing has very considerably altered the surface from which crumbly rust-like
material exfoliates and can be easily rubbed off with the fingers. Ifurther evidences
of the very high rate at which this meteorite alters in air will be given later. It
seems obvious, therefore, that the weight and dimensions of the meteoric mass
were considerably greater at the time of fall than when found.

‘The meteorite was cut at the South Australian Railway workshops, using
the saw set up for cutting the Huckitta Pallasite (Madigan, 1939). A ptece
weighing about 14 lb. was thus removed from one end, and it gave a surface of
about 23 x 14 cms. for polishing (pl. xiii, ig. 2). Later a piece weighing just over
half a pound was sawn from this polished portion. After cutting and removing
material for examination, the meteorite now exists in three masses, weighing 694 Ib.

(31-2 kg.}, 13§ Ib. (5-9 kg.), and 84 oz. (243-25 gm.).

One sawn surface was polished and etched with dilute nitric acid, washed
well in water followed by alcohol, and dried. After examination the surface, which
had tarnished, was re-polished, washed and dried as before and lacquered with
*duco.” Some wecks later the surface was found to have altered very consider-
ably. Veins of, apparently, lawrencite had worked into the metal, and fine crumbly
material had broken through the lacquered surface in a number of places. It was
afterwards found that both oldhamite and lawrencite were present, and con-
sequently a very small trace of water produced alteration. The extremely
weathered condition of the exposed surface of the meteorite is thus easily
explained. In order to guard against further decomposition of the surface after
etching in acid, the specimen was first washed with water, then with alcohol,

Trans. Ray. Soe. S.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

110

followed by acetone and finally dried in a vacuum desiccalor before Jacquering.
At the time of writing, this treatment appears to have been successful.

STRUCTURAL DESCRIPTION

The general appearance of the cut and polished specimen seems to have
similarities to both the Morristown and Estherville mesosiderites as featured by
Merrill (1930). Actually, however, the Pinnaroo meteorite seems to have some
structural or mineralogical differences from any other siderolite whose description
was available, The photograph (pl. xii, fig. 2) shows that most of the metal is
in fine and irregularly shaped masses embedded in a dark-brown ground-mass of
silicate minerals which are, for the most part, also of fine grain-size. Scattered
through this finer metal and silicate are occasional blebs of nickel-iron which are
frequently oval in shape and measure a centimetre or more in length. Occa-
sionally, a number of metallic blebs have segregated into conspicuous glomero-
porphyritic groups which may measure up to 4 cms. in diameter. One such large
group is shown in plate xiii, figure 2, and its structure is enlarged in plate xin,
figure 1. The silicate also occurs in porphyritic individuals and crystals of olivine
sometimes have a diameter of nearly 2 cms. A spheroidal cracking of the silicate
around these olivine phenoerysts is usually to be seen, and a similar cracking some-
times occurs around some of the larger nickel-iron masses. Troilite, in irregular
patches, is also very abundant and is frequently situated at the junction of the
nickel-iron and the silicate. The relative abundance of the three main con-
stituents, obtained from a series of lincar measurements is metal 44%, silicate
514%, and troilite 44% (by volume). Much of the troilite is in very small grains,
so that the figure given for this mineral is probably much too low.

DESCRIPTION oF METAL

The structure of the metallic portion is well shown on a cut and polished slab
after etching with dilute nitric acid, when a well-marked Widmannstetter struc-
{ure appears. The whole of the metal is made up of broad kamacite bands, which
may be as broad as 2 mm., and fine taenite lamellae. In place of normal,
apparently homogeneous, plessite, the “fields” between the taenite and kamacite
lamellae are filled with a very fine intergrowth of the same two alloys, and this
also shows a minute Widmannstetter structure. The metallic particles are nearly
always bordered by kamacite, bands of which extend inwards from the edge of
each grain for a distance of from 1 to 2 mm.; this “swathing kamacite” thus out-
lines the shape of each metallic grain. It is only very rarely that a taenite band
reaches the edge of one of the nickel-iron grains and thus abuts on the silicate
material (pl. xiii, fig. 1).

The smaller metallic patches are of irregular outline and have a fairly
uniform distribution throughout the silicate base. ‘he larger metallic patches
tend to be circular or oval and, as has already been mentioned, a number of these

111

have sometimes segregated into large glomeroporphyritic groups. Plate xii, figure
1 shows the structure of such a group. The spaces between the metallic blebs are
seen to be filled with granular troilite or black olivine,

The shape of the larger metallic masses strongly suggests that they had
solidified before the main bulk of the meteorite. It is possible that the finer metal
and the silicate fraction solidified together and at a later stage.

DescRIPTION OF SILICATE

In the stony portion olivine is the most obvious constituent and phenocrysts
of this mineral, which may occasionally have a diameter of 2 cms., are embedded
in a finer ground-mass which consists of olivine, clino-enstatite and plagioclase.
All grains of these minerals are anhedral and the whole presents a brecciated
structure. The olivine is positive and is thus a magnesium-rich varicty. Many
of the pyroxene grains show straight extinction, so thai there may be some ortho-
enstatite as well as clino-enstatite. The plagioclase, which shows polysynthetic
twinning and contains many minute opaque inclusions, has refractive indices and
extinction angles corresponding to a composition of about Ab, ,Ango, te., a soda-
rich anorthite. It may be noted here that the normative plagioclase calculated from
the analysis of the stony portion has a composition of Ab,,An,,. Oldhamite in
yellow-brown isotropic grains with good cleavage was found only in crushed
material and not in the thin sections, the grinding of which in water would decom-
pose the CaS. It is notable that this is the first record of oldhamite in an Aus-
tralian meteorite (Hodge-Smith, 1939, p. 46). The presence of this mineral was
confirmed by positive tests for Ca and S made on an aqueous extract of the
powdered material used for analysis. ‘lhe same extract was used to confirm the
presence of lawrencite.

An advanced stage of weathering is shown by much of the stony portion,
which is obscured by reddish-brown rusty material which has frequently worked
in from the surface along thin veins and cracks. The presence of both lawrencite
and oldhamite would facilitate this process.

ANALYSES, ETC.

Material for chemical analysis was obtained from a piece sawn from one
end of the cut and polished mass. Fragments were broken from this and crushed
with a hammer, the oxidised crust being avoided as much as possible. Sieving,
followed by treatment with a magnet, removed practically all the metal and the
residue consisting mainly of mixed silicates and troilite with some oxidized, rusty
matter may now be referred to as the “non-magnetic portion.”

The composition of the metallic portion was determined from a large frag-
ment of metal which had remained on the sieve after the original crushing. This
metallic fragment was well hammered to remove as much as possible of the
adhering stony material.

112

Analysis of these two portions gave the following results :

Non-Magnetic Portion Metallic Portion
sid, - - 37:°02% Fe - - - - 86°33%
TiO, - & nil Ni - - - - 8-49
ALO, - - 7:60 Co- - = = O14
FeO” - - 15-15 Insel, = + << 185
MgO - - 11-06 S,P,C - - - nd.
CaO - - 5-01 Soluble - 2 5
Nar oe Ord SiO,, MgO, ete.) ~ 4
K,O- - - 0:04
H,O-+ - - 0:87 96°31
H,Q- - - 0:34 =
Fe l - - 13°77\
st d woes Reealculating Fe + Ni # 100.00
Ne 2 - “(12 ecaiculating be NI ao to W.00 :
Se ous Fe =~ 90-91%
é Ni - - 8:94
qp0r48 Co = - Q-15

In the statement of the analysis of the non-magnetic portion the figure given
as FeO is that obtained from determining total iron and subtracting sufficient Fe
to satisfy all the 5S in forming FeS. The figure for FeO thus includes much ferric
iron present (with some NiO) in rusty matter produced by oxidation of the
metal. Another point is, that although the analysis as stated above suggests that
all sulphur is present as troilite, it has been noted that oldhamite is also present.
If we assume (very doubtfully) that all the calcium in excess of that required
io form normative anorthite is present as CaS, calculations show that 2% of
oldhamite may be indicated.

The density of the bulk of the meteorite determined by hydrostatic weighing
of a 243 gm. fragment is 5°05; that of the unattracted portion, determined by
pycnometer, 3°36, and a fragment of metal, determined on a Joly balance, showed
a density of 7°66. Linear measurements gave the relative abundance of the main
portions as metal 44%, and unattracted (silicate and troilite) 56% by volume.
From these figures, the weight percentages of the two portions may be calculated
as metal 64°1%, and unattracted 33°9%. The bulk composition is thus recalcu-
lated as follows:

Fe = = 5825 FeO - = = 5:43
Ni - = = 573 NiO - = - 0:37
Co - - - 0:10 MgO - - - 3:97
Fe = 4:94 C40 2 1-80
S- - 2825 776 NaQ - - - O15
Si sl ca A <P? KO S - = rl
TiO, - - - nil 11,04 - - 0:31
ALO, - - = 2°73 HO - .& 3 “O42

©) Co was kindly determined by Mr. D. W. Dewey, using the colorimetric method
of Marston and Dewey, Biochem. Journ, (in press).

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940 Vol. 64, Plate XIII

ig. 1
Enlargement of metal-rich area shown at top of fig. 2. The filled interspaces
between kamacite-taenite blebs are sometimes filled with granular troilite,
or olivine which appears black. x 12.

Fig. 2
General view of polished and etched surface.
Scale of inches is given.

Photographs by H. E. FE. Brock

lis

Owing to the presence of rusty oxidation products and the uncertainty of
their composition, no attempt has been made to calculate the percentages of mineral
molecules from this analysis.

SUMMARY

This stony-iron (weighing 39:4 kg.) was found near Pinnaroo, South Aus-
tralia, latitude 35° 17’ S.; longitude 140° 55’ E. in 1927 and may be classed as a
mesosiderite. The metal (Fe 90°91, Ni 8-94, Co 0°15) shows Widmanstetter
figures and occupies 44% by volume of the mass. Troilite is plentiful and the silicate
portion is made up of olivine with clino-enstatite and anorthite, Oldhamite and
lawrencite have assisted weathering, and much rusty oxidised material is alsa
present. The main mass is in the geological museum of the University of
Adelaide.

REFERENCES
Hovcr-Sairi, T. 1939 Australian Meteorites. Austr. Mus. Mem. 7
Manican, C. T, 1939 The Huckitta Meteorite, Central Australia. Min. Mag.,
25, 353

Merriii, G. P. 1930 Composition and Structure of Meteorites. U.S. Nat. Mus.,
Bull. 149

EVAPORATION FROM A WATER SURFACE IN RELATION TO
SOLAR RADIATION

By J. A. PRESCOTT Waite Agricultural Research Institute.

Summary

In most studies of the evaporation from a free water surface it has been customary to consider as the
two principal factors: the saturation deficit of atmospheric water vapour pressure and the wind. The
work of Rohwer (1931) and of Graham Millar (1937) may be cited particularly as affording
valuable discussions of the correlations between evaporation and atmospheric conditions. Graham
Millar has carried the matter further by introducing turbulence into the wind factor, a feature of
these discussions first introduced by Sutton (1934).

114

EVAPORATION FROM A WATER SURFACE IN RELATION TO
SOLAR RADIATION

By J. A. Prescorr, Waite Agricultural Research Institute
[Read 9 May 1940]

In most studies of the evaporation from a free water surface it has been
customary to consider as the two principal factors: the saturation deficit of
atmospheric water vapour pressure and the wind. The work of Rohwer (1931)
and of Graham Millar (1937) may be cited particularly as affording valuable
discussions of the correlations between evaporation and atmospheric conditions.
Graham Millar has carried the matter further by introducing turbulence inte the
wind factor, a feature of these discussions first introduced by Sutton (1934).

Agricultural physicists, as for example Briggs and Shantz (1917), Angstrom
(1924), and Haines (1925), have however recognised a relationship between solar
radiation and evaporation and have suggested that atmometers could well be used
to measure solar radiation. Briggs and Shantz (1916) considered the transpira-
tion of plants and the evaporation from a free water surface to be influenced by
the four factors: radiation, temperature, saturation deficit and wind, and give
regression equations connecting evaporation with the vertical component of solar
radiation and with saturation deficit during various periods of their experiments
on hourly rates of transpiration by rye, lucerne and Amaranthus.

Although Briggs and Shantz measured both solar radiation and evaporation
on cloudless days during the period of their experiments at Akron, Colorado,
the radiation was measured normal to the sun’s rays, so that it is not possible
in the absence of any measure of sky radiation or of total radiation on a horizontal
surface to correlate the radiation with the rate of evaporation from a water sur-
face. The evaporation tank used by these workers was three feet in diameter,
was blackened inside and held water to a depth of one inch. It is possible to
estimate the probable radiation received at Akron from Angot’s tables (Brunt,
1934) for the days of the experiments recorded and to compare this with the
latent heat of evaporation required to account for the daily evaporation observed.
Tt will be seen from the data below that such a shallow evaporimeter gives a very
fair measure of radiation and that the evaporation recorded is accounted for by
the solar radiation received. The solar radiation for these cloudless days is
assumed to be 0°76 of that given in Angot’s tables for the amount that would
be received if the atmosphere were transparent.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

115

TasLe I

Evaporation and Solar Radiation at Akron, Colorado.

Data of Briggs and Shantz (1916) for Cloudless Days

Radiation on a horizontal surlace
in month of 30 days

Outer limit Assumed value Evaporation per Ratio

of Atmosphere at earth’s month of 30 days

(Angot) surface Latent heat

Period it 0.76x0,=0 E E/Q

1914 gm. cals. perem.? gin. cals, per cm.? gm, cals. per cm.
7, 8,9 July .... is seed 29,500 22,460 22,900 1-022
18, 19, 20, 21 July 29,000 22,000 21,300 0-969
16, 17, 18, 19, 20 October .... 16,100 12,200 13,200 1-U8t
Mean... 1:024

The factor 0-76 has been calculated from the data published for Mount
Weather Va (Kimball, 1914), which give the following regression equation
relating solar radiation with hours of sunshine, a procedure suggested by Angstrom
(1924).

QO/Q, = 0°22 + 0°54 n/N (r = 0°896)
where Q, = radiation on a horizontal surface with a transparent
atmosphere (Angot’s value)

( =radiation measured at the earth’s surface
n ==actual hours of sunshine
N = maximum possible sunshine on cloudless days.

lt can be assumed, therefore, that under certain conditions of evaporation
and with a sufficiently high saturation deficit, evaporation may well be entirely
accounted for by solar radiation. With deeper evaporimcetcrs there is some storage
of heat from day to day so that the relationship would not be expected to be
perfect, but taking monthly averages, a general relationship may be anticipated.
In order to investigate the matter further the records for the Australian Capital
Territory have been examined, The only values for solar radiation in Australia
are those for Mount Stromlo. Use was made of these in estimating the probable
solar radiation at Acton, Canberra, a few miles away, where meteorological
observations were made until the end of 1939, There is less sunshine at Acton
than at Mount Stromlo, the mean monthly values for hours of sunshine recorded
for Acton varying from 79 to 91% of those at Mount Stromlo.

The records of sunshine and radiation at Mount Stromlo were kindly made
available by Mr. W. B. Rimmer, of the Commonwealth Solar Observatory, and
as a first step the relationship between Angot’s values, the observed values and
the proportion of sunshine was calculated as for the case of Mount Weather,
quoted above.

‘The regression equation for Mount Stromlo was found to be:
Q/Q, = 0°25 + 0°54 n/N (r = 0-796)

116

Irom this equation the probable solar radiation at Canberra itself has been cal-
culated, and in Table 2 are recorded the essential data for the study of the general
relationships between evaporation and radiation for this centre. ‘The values for
saturation deficit are calculated from the temperature and vapour pressures given
in the Commonwealth Yearbook for 1938 (No. 31), from which source the
evaporation records are also taken. The evaporimeter is the Australian standard
instrument, three feet in diameter and three feet in depth.

Taste Il
Evaporation, Solar Radiation and Saturation Deficit for Canberra, A.C.T.
Observed mean monthly Observed Calculated Ratio
evaporation; 30-day basis mean monthly mean
saturation monthly solar
deficit radiation on
horizontal
surface ;
30-day basis
em. gm. cals, per millibars gm. cals. per
cutt.? em.

E s.d. QO E/Q
January : ashe oe 18-04 10,530 11-18 16,720 0-608
February He Le near 15-38 8,976 10-13 14,770 0-630
March Says Le ; 10-91 6,387 7-11 12,600 0-507
April... : oil he 6°78 3,986 4°47 9,656 0-413
May 4-23 2,492 3°32 6,717 0-371
June . ante ww 2-59 1,531 2:37 5,464 0-280
July... = . Mest 2°83 1,670 2:37 6,234 0-268
August 4-10 2,423 2°88 8,545 0-284
September mn 7-06 4,159 3°66 11,820 0-352
October ea i Bs, 9-93 5,834 5+32 14,790 0-395
November... a ant 14-05 8,230 7°55 16,220 0-507
December — .... sh me 16°28 9,515 9-48 16,700 0-570
Mean .... 0-432

From the last column it is evident that evaporation accounts for a substantial
proportion of the solar radiation falling on the evaporimeter. The proportion of
radiation used in evaporation varies from 27% to 63%, with a mean value of
43%. It is worth recalling that Angstrom (1920) calculated that on Lake
Vassijaure, in Sweden, about one-third of the incoming net radiation is used in
evaporation.

Tt 1s generally recognised that the depth of evaporation from a large sheet of
water is only about 80% of that from a tank three or four feet in diameter, so
that the 43% above corresponds to 34% for a large body of water, a result in close
agreement with that of Angstrom.

From the above table it has proved possible to calculate a satisfactory regres-
sion equation linking evaporation with saturation deficit and solar radiation.

‘The most useful equation takes the form:

E
log (1 -—) = -0-03303 s.d. -0-0649,
@)

117

where E and Q are expressed in gramme calories and saturation deficit in millibars.
The correlation coefficient is 0-991. The relationship is exponential in form but in
simple terms implies that as the values for saturation deficit increase a growing
proportion cf solar radiation is used in evaporation until for sufficiently high
values solar radiation is used entirely in evaporation. The relationships are shown
graphically in the figure.

cm.

s.d. 5 lo S 0 mb.

Illustrating the relationship between evaporation, saturdtion deficit and solar
radiation for Canberra month by month. ‘The thinner line in the right-hand

diagram is of the form log (1---) =k (s.d.) +c, where k and c are constants

and E and Q are both expressed in gramme calories per square centimetre.

The monthly march of evaporation in relation to saturation deficit shows a
characteristic loop which is common to all recording stations and which is an
expression of the lag between the combined forces controlling evaporation and
those of temperature and humidity on which the values for saturation deficit
are based,

When allowance is made for radiation a much better relationship is observ-
able but with some over-correction. “lhe calculation of radiation from the sun-
shine records is still subject, however, to further refinements, which it is hoped
will be capable of assessment when the examination of the records of the Common-
wealth Solar Observatcry at present in progress at Mount Stromlo is completed.

SUMMARY
When the saturation deficit is sufficiently high, evaporation from a free water
surface tends to be limited by the net radiation falling on the water surface. The
relationship between the measured evaporation, measured saturation deficit and
estimated solar radiation for Canberra has been examined and a suitable equation
satisfactorily applied to the data.

118

REFERENCES
Anestrom, A. 1920 Geog. Ann., 2, 3
Anastrom, A. 1924 Q. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 50, 121-125
Brisas, L. J., and SHantz, H. L. 1916 J. Agr. Res., 5, 583-649
Brices, |.. J., and Suantz, H.L. 1916 J. Agr. Res., 7, 155-212
Briacs, L. J., and Suanrz, H.L. 1917 J. Agr. Res., 9, 277-292
Brunt, D. 1934 Physical and Dynamical Meteorology, lable 2, 100
Hatnes, W. B. 1925 Q. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 51, 95-100
Kimpatt, H. H. 1914 Monthly Weather Rev., 42, 474-487
Miuzar, IF. Grawam 1937 Canadian Met. Mem., 1, No. 2
Rouwer, C. 1931 U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech., Bull. 271
Sutton, O. G. 1934 Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 146a, 701-722

THE ADULT STAGE OF
THE TREMATODE, LEUCOCHLORIDIUM AUSTRALIENSE

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and E. R. SIMPSON, University of Adelaide

Summary

In 1938 we gave an account of the larval stages of Leucochloridium autstraliense from Succinea
australis collected at Elwomple, near Tailem Bend (Johnston and Cleland, 1938). The anatomy of
the cercariaeum was shown to resemble that of L. insigne (Looss) and of L. macrostomum (Rud.), as
identified by Witenberg and other authors. Szidat (1936), however, has re-examined Rudolphi's
type material and has shown that the true L. macrostomum has the testes and ovary arranged in a
linear series instead of forming a triangle, as had been described for the fluke generally regarded as
belonging to Rudolphi's species. Szidat also showed that L. holostomum (Rud.) was a valid species
whose gonads possessed the triangular arrangement; consequently L. macrostomum of most authors
really belonged to L. holostomum or perhaps to some related species. Hsti (1936) discussed the
relationship of L. insigne (Looss) of Witenberg and of some other species.

119

THE ADULT STAGE OF
THE TREMATODE, LEUCOCHLORIDIUM AUSTRALIENSE

sy T. Harvey Jounston and E. R. Simpson, University of Adelaide
[Read 13 June 1940]

In 1938 we gave an account of the larval stages of Leucochloridium
australiense from Succinea australis collected at Elwomple, near Tailem Bend
(Johnston and Cleland, 1938), The anatomy of the cercariaeum was shown to
resemble that of L. insigne (Looss) and of L, macrostomum (Rud.), as identified
by Witenberg and other authors. Szidat (1936), however, has re-examined
Rudolphi’s type material and has shown that the true L. macrostomum has the
testes and ovary arranged in a linear series instead of forming a triangle, as had
been described for the fluke generally regarded as belonging to Rudolphi’s species.
Szidat also showed that L. holostomum (Rud.) was a valid species whose gonads
possessed the triangular arrangement; consequently L. macrostomum of most
authors really belonged to L. holostomum or perhaps to some related species.
Hsti (1936) discussed the relationship of L. insigne (Looss) of Witenberg and
of some other species.

In August, 1938, three adult specimens of Leucochloridium were found in
the cloaca of Pomatostomus superciliosus, and, in the following month, four were
taken from one out of four birds of the same species, all hosts having been
collected by Mr. F, Jaensch at Elwomple, the same locality as that from which
the larval stages had been obtained in 1937, Succinea shell fragments were
abundant in the gizzard and intestine of most of the birds. Eggs from some of
the flukes were used in an attempt to infect Suecinea, but the latter soon died. In
August, 1938, in a specimen of Corcorax melanorhamphus from the same locality,
six minute Leucochloridium flukes were obtained, all of the same size and stage
of development, agreeing in all particulars with the cercariaea already described
by us, These had apparently only just been liberated from a Succinea whose
fragments were also present. The adults possessed the genital arrangement
described in the larva, and we have no doubt that they belong to L. australiense,
which is the first Australian digenetic trematode whose life cycle is known, The
various stages in the life history of Fasciola hepatica, the liver fluke of sheep, in
eastern Australia have been investigated by Bradley, McKay and Ross, but the
species is not native to the Commonwealth and must have been introduced along
with its domesticated hosts soon after the original settlement, as Rudolphi in 1819
recorded its occurrence in a kangaroo, Macropus major.

Adults of L. australiense measured (under coverglass but without pressure)
2°25 to 2-4 mm. long by 1:15 to 1-4 mmm. wide; the anterior sucker 0°55 mm. long
by -62 to ‘66 mm. broad, and the ventral sucker -60 to °61 mm. long by °55 mm.
wide. The two suckers are thus subequal and about one-quarter the length of the

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

120

‘Sram

yy ae

121

worms. The ventral sucker ts nearly central, but rather more of it lies in the
posterior than in the anterior half of the parasite. The pharynx is nearly circular,
measuring *19 mm. long by 2 mm. wide. The cesophagus is extremely short. The
narrow, slightly wavy, caeca lie near the margins and terminate just behind the
level of the posterior border of the posterior testis and near the hindmost lint
of the uterine coils.

‘Lhe testes and ovary are arranged as a triangle, the latter lying very close
io, or touching, the posterior testis. The testes measure about -46 by -32 mm. The
anterior is separated from the ventral sucker by the descending uterus, and from
its fellow by the fecundarium and by some loops of the descending uterus. The
vasa efferentia form an oblique straight line. The vas deferens is rather wide
and thrown into several loops as it travels back to enter the rounded cirrus sac
within which it lies twisted when at rest. The sac measures about °2 mm. in
diameter. The genital opening lies in a slight depression, somewhat dorsal, near
tne posterior extremity, the male duct terminating on a very slight prominence
at its base. The male ovening lies on the same side of the median Jine as the
ovary; the female pore is on the other side of the depression. In one specimen
the male apparatus is partly extruded, and if fully protruded the cirrus would
probably measure about 0-125 mm.

The ovary is about *32 mm. broad by :23 mm. long. It touches the posterior
testis and the fecundarium but is separated from the posterior sucker by loops ol
the ascending and descending uterus. The oviduct arises from the inner surface.
travelling inwards, backwards and slightly dorsally to enter the fecundarium, in
whose vicinity it joins the long Laurer canal. The anterior part of the latter is
rather wider, forming a seminal receptacle, the remainder being narraw with a
strongly chitinized wall. This canal passes back near the dorsal midline, above
or near the posterior testis, to enter the dorsal aspect of the very small excretory
bladder just as the latter receives its two longitudinal canals, these junctions lying
just above or in front of the anterior part of the cirrus sac. ‘The fertilizing duct
travels in a coiled course through Mehlis’ gland (fecundarium) which occupies
a median position between the ovary and the two testes, coming into contact with

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES
Fig, 1, adult; 2, adult, male system, latera! view; 3, adult, fermale system, lateral
view (figs. 2 and 3 constructed fram seri¢s of longitudinal sections); 4, T.S. at
level of genital apertures; 5, T.S. region of excretory pore; 6, T.S. at level of
voik reservoir; 7, T.S. showing yolk ducts; 8, T.S. across region of oviduct;
9, longitudinal section, nearly median; 10, cercariaeum; 11, sporosac; 12, T.S.
pigmented band of sporosac.

References to T.ettering—at, anterior testis; aut, ascending uterus; c, cirrus;

em, circular muscle; co, cirrus opening; cs, cirrus sac; db, dark brown band;

dut, descending uterus; ep, excretory pore; f, fecundarium: g, green band;

i, intestine; im, inner membrane; Ie, Laurer's canal; o, ovary: od, oviduct;

out, opening of uterus; p, pigment; pc, pigment cells; pog, pale olive green

band; rb, red brown band; sr, seminal receptacle; u, uterus; vd, vas deferens;
ve, vas efferens; yd, yolk duct; yr, yolk reservoir.

122

the three organs. The uterus passes forwards between the ovary and anterior
testes and may overlie parts of these glands, It then travels between the ovary
and the posterior sucker and forwards, its coils occupying most of the zone
between the latter and the crura, sometimes underlying the crura. It extends
forwards as a massive structure, reaching at least the mid-level of the anterior
sticker and then its folds cross between the pharynx and the posterior sucker
below the crura to become strongly coiled on the other side of the worm, where
it extends about as far forwards as on the opposite side. Just in front of the
anterior testis it crosses to the opposite side, just behind the posterior sucker and
below the ascending limb of the uterus. It forms a series of loops laterally from
the ventral sucker, ovary and posterior testis, lying ventral to the level of the two
latter organs, and then travels below the ovary across to the opposite side of the
worm to occupy the region between the anterior testis and the cirrus sac. Its
terminal portion lies beside the cirrus sac and opens beside the male pore, Some-
times uterine loops lie above the crura as well as below them, and also above
some of the inner vitelline follicles.

The vitellaria form a long series of rather large, irregularly shaped, closely
arranged follicles lying ventrally and ventro-laterally from the intestinal crura.
Posteriorly they extend almost to the end of the crura or they may reach the end
on one side only. ‘Their limit lies at about the level of the hinder border of the
posterior testis. In front they reach at least half-way along the oral sucker,
approximately to the same level as the foremost loops of the uterus, or they may
do so on one side, being shorter on the other. As in the case of the uterus, they
extend considerably in front of the crura. Each transverse yolk duct passes
inwards above the corresponding ascending excretory canal and below the crus,
then upwards to meet its fellow to form a yolk reservoir. One vitelline duct lies
between the ovary and the posterior testis and the other behind the antcrior testis.
The common yolk duct travels obliquely forwards to join the oviduct near the
origin of Laurer’s canal. Eggs measure 22 by 13-5-l4n.

The excretory pore is dorsal, in front of the genital apertures, and leads
downwards and forwards, very soon entering a small excretory bladder into
which enter almost transversely the two main collecting canals, The bladder lies
above the anterior part of the cirrus sac or just in front of it. The canals pass
outwards, forwards, and slightly ventrally above the descending uterus and then
below and close to the crura, They travel forwards ventro-laterally from the
latter, but above and inwardly from the vitellaria. Each canai extends forwards
to the vicinity of the pharynx, then curving back to lie above and laterally from
the ascending canal. In the posterior region the latter, as well as the descending
canal lie almost directly ventrally from the corresponding crus. A delicate canal,
probably the anterior branch, lies above the corresponding crus.

Our species belongs to the same group as L, holostomum, as figured by
Szidat in regard to the arrangement of the gonads, but in that species the uterine
loops are limited anteriorly by the caeca. The uterine disposition in

125

L. custraliense resembles that in L. macrostomum, as illustrated by Szidat, who
gave as synonyms of the latter, L. insigne Witenberg, 1925 (nec Looss), as well
as L. paradoxum Carus of Zeller, 1874, and of Heckert, 1889, L. insigne (I.ooss)
being quoted (along with L. turanicwm) as a synonym of L. holostomum. It
MclIntosh’s key (1932) be followed, our species would be placed beside L. icteri
MclInt., 1927, but the latter is a more clongate parasite, with its suckers smaller
in relation to the length of the worm, and has much shorter vitellaria, a circular
ovary, and gonads more remote from the ventral sucker. /, australiense differs
from L. ectitis, L. variae and L. cyanocittae mainly in regard to the posterior
extension of the intestinal crura, vitellaria and uterine loops. McIntosh (1932,
39) referred to the similarity between L. actitis and L. insigne of Witenberg
(nec Looss). L. australiense somewhat resembles L. dasylophi Tubangui (1928),
but differs in regard to the distribution of the yolk glands and the forward exten-
sion of the uterine loops.

LEUCOCTILORIDTUM FROM SUCCINEA AUSTRALIS

In a snail collected in May, 1938, at Elwomple, there were found two pulsat-
ing sacs, one in each antenna. In strong sunlight the pulsation and the coloured
bands could be seen through the snail’s tissues. One sac measured about 7:5 mm.
long and 1:4 mm. broad. The banding was different from that occurring on
sporocysts previously described by us. ‘The coloured bands on the distal third of
the sac consisted of an irregular ring of brown wart-like processes proximally ;
then two complete reddish-brown rings, a green band occupying the more distal
part of the second brown ring; then two green bands; a bright reddish-brown
band; and a narrow dark brown band; and a series of six brown warts arranged
at the free extremity. The other sac was similar, except that there were fewer
warts in the proximal row, the colouration of the second green band was
irregular, and the dark brown ring was interrupted on one side to form wart-hke
processes. One sac was sectioned and the structure of a coloured band (fig. 12)
was seen to be similar to that described by Monnig (1922). The cercariaea
(fig. 10) resembled those of L. australiense in all features. The anterior sucker
was *2-'21 mm. long by -19 mm. broad, and the posterior -15--17 mm. in diameter.
Some of the worms were fed to a canary, but adult stages were not obtained.

The presence of both brown and grcen sacs in European Succinea has been
referred to by authors and slight differences in sucker ratio in their cercariaea seem
to exist (Johnston and Cleland, 1938, 32). Monnig (1922) described and figured
both kinds of sporocysts and tabulated the measurements of the organs of the
cercariaca from each type, stating that the differentiation of them as specifically
distinct could not be justified. His figure of the cercariaeum of L. macrostomum
shows it to be L. holostomum.

Hsti (1936) described green sporocysts with brown apical spots from
Succinea putris in Germany and fed the cercariaea to five species of birds, obtain-
ing infection in a canary, a charadriid (Pavoncella pugnax), and sparrows.

124

Various stages in development were figured. Variation in the relation of the
vitellaria to the termination of the crura was observed, and similar variation was
found in natural infections, ‘The structure of the vitelline follicles, as well as
their lateral extension appeared to afford specific characters, as also did the
relation of the uterine loops to the crura. He reported that the species which he
obtained by feeding green sporocysts, was that erroneously identified by Witen-
berg as L. msigue and was possibly the same as that described by Zeller in 1874
as 1, paradoxum, but was different from that described by Heckert in 1889 under
the latter name, Heckert’s sporocyst was green with bright red apical flecks and
probably belonged to a species found by Hsii in Vanellus, the species being
related to L. holostomunt and being most probably L. sie Yamaguti. Witen-
berg’s L. insigne appeared to be without a correct name. We may point out that
McIntosh (1932, 39) considered Witenberg’s species to be distinct from L. insigne
Looss, but closely related to L. actitis. As the differences mentioned by McIntosh
seem to be very slight, it is likely that the correct name for Witenberg’s form
may be L actitis,
LITERATURE
Hst H. IF. 1936 Studien zur Systematik und [ntwicklungsgeschichte der Gat-
tung Leucochloridium Carus, I], ete. Z. f. Parasitenk., 8, 714-728
Jounsron, T. LL, and Crezanp, E.R. 1938 Larval trematodes from Australian
cerrestrial and freshwater molluscs, pt. iii, |-eucochloridium australiense.
Tr. Roy. Sec. S. Aust., 62, 25-33
Mclsxtrosu, A 1927 Notes on the genus Leucochloridium Carus (‘Trematoda).
Parasitol., 19, 353-364
McIntosm, A. 1932 Some new species of trematode worms of the genus
Leucochloridium Carus, parasitic in birds from northern Michigan, ete.
Jour. Parasit., 19, 32-53
Monnic, H. O. 1922) Ucber Leucochloridium macrostomum. 61 pp. Jena
ozipar, L. 1936 Studien zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Gattung [eucochlori-
dium Carus, l, ete. Z. f. Parasitenk., 8, 645-653
Turancui, M.A. 1928 Trematode parasites of Philippine vertebrates. Philipp.
Jour. Sct., 36, 351-371
WiITENBERG, G, 1925 Versuch einer Monographie der Trematoden-unterfamilie
Harmostominae Braun. Zool. Jahrb. Syst.. 51, 167-254

ON CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS
PARTI THE MURIDAE

By H. H. FINLAYSON

Summary

During the summers of 1931-1935 the writer made collections of mammals in that portion of South-
west Central Australia lying between latitudes 23° 30' and 28° 0' south (approximately) and
longitudes 136° 30' and 128° 10' east (approximately). The material personally taken has since been
increased by the efforts of friends in the area, and in working it out I have included in the
examination specimens acquired by the South Australian Museum at various times from the same or
adjacent parts of the country.

125

ON CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS
PART I THE MURIDAE

By H. H. Frxrayson
[Read 13 June 1940]
Prates XIV anp XV

During the summers of 1931-1935 the writer made collections of mammals
in that portion of South-west Central Australia lying between latitudes 23° 30’ and
28° 0’ south (approximately) and longitudes 136° 30’ and 128° 10° east (approxi-
mately). The material personally taken has since been increased by the efforts of
friends in the area, and in working it out I have included in the examination
specimens acquired by the South Australian Museum at various times from the
same or adjacent parts of the country.

Noromys ALExis Thomas

‘This species, after a period of confusion with mitchelli, was recognised by
Thomas in 1922 at Alexandria in approximately 19° S and 136° 50’, and has since
been proved to have a range, froni east to west, extending from 144° to at least
124° E. longitude. The occurrences now recorded provide an extension of its
range to the south of nearly 700 miles. While three races have been defined, they
are distinguished by comparatively trivial differences, and over the whole of this
enormous tract it maintains a notable constancy in its essential distinctions from
allied species.

It is the “dargawarra” of the Pitchenturra natives, and though they speak of
another allied animal, the Wilchimba, it is the only species of the genus personally
taken in the area worked over, and greatly predominates also in all other collec-
tions of Notomys from the same region, which I have examined.

It was taken chiefly in the more grassy areas of the loamy mulga flats
between the main ranges, but also in flat valleys within the ranges, particularly
in the Musgraves; it was less frequent in sandhill areas. [ike all the small
maninals of the centre its occurrence is sporadic and fluctuating, and areas in
which it was very plentiful in one scason were found to be destitute of it in the
next, though conditions were often apparently unchanged. It eats a small amount
of green vegetation, and at permanent camps in the Everard hills where vegetables
were grown near the soaks, it became for a time in 1932 a nuisance owing to Its
depredations on the young shoots of cucumbers and beets, etc. Ordinarily, how-
ever, there is little doubt that seeds are its staple diet, and the movements of its
colonies are conditioned probably more by the abundance of seeds than of green
vegetation. This is clearly shown by the frequent prevalence of dargawarras in
areas of seeding spinifex. In January, 1933, a few miles east of Mount Conner,
a considerable area of Triodia was crossed which had made luxuriant growth after

Trans. Roy. Soc. 8.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

126

a local rain and upon which the seeding tops were rapidly ripening, Around the
base of nearly every clump was strewn a mat of severed stalks from which the
seed had been removed and the sand was reticulated with Notomys tracks, though
no doubt other murids participated in the harvest also.

According to the blacks, the large round woody seeds of the quondong
(Eucarya acuminata), which have a rich fatty kernel, are also eaten by this
species ; the seed case is neatly drilled on one side only with a small hole, and the
contents extracted. Under almost any quondong tree a proportion of such drilled
and emptied seeds may be found, though the fact that so many are left untouched,
suggests that it is an emergency food rather than a staple diet. In trapping it,
both fat and bread were found effective.

The burrow is usually comparatively simple; one completely excavated on a
loamy flat on Tietkens Birthday Creek in the Musgraves was six feet long and
about one foot deep, with a single exit and entrance hole and no side passages:
in other less completely examined systems, a series of side passages with inde-
pendent pop-holes seemed to have been developed from a simple straight drive
such as the above. In neither case was any of the excavated soil brought to the
surface, and the array of pebbles about the exits and entrances which has been
recorded for other species was not seen.

In summer it is very seldom seen in the day time, except momentarily, when
one may be dislodged from a surface shelter while travelling. But at night it is a
frequent visitor to camps and does not seem at all embarrassed by firelight or even
an electric torch. At Walthajalkanna, on the northern front of the Everards,
the southern race was very plentiful in February, 1933, and came boldly into the
camp in numbers every night, and if given bread and cautiously approached could
be freely examined by torchlight at a distance of a few feet. When moving about
slowly, they go on all fours like the less specialized murids and look rather
ungainly, the long brushed tail being carried always well clear of the ground and
frequently arched over the back. When startled they resort at once to saltation;
the action in doing so is appreciably different from that of the macropods, the
trunk being thrown far forward out of the vertical with the tail almost straight
out behind. In trapping them a light set is necessary, as they remove the bait with
remarkable gentleness and finesse; frequently I watched individuals completely
remove the bait from a trap without springing it, though it would probably have
caught a house mouse. Buckcts of water left two-thirds full proved very effective:
traps, and the only completely undamaged examples suitable for skeletons were
secured in this way; those dug out by the blacks are nearly always mutilated in
some way in the handling,

At Chundrinna, also near the Everard Range, several living examples were
kept for a few days for observation. In aspect they are quite like cervinus of the
Lake Eyre Basin. They took a miscellaneous diet freely and appeared quite com-
fortable and reconciled. With pleasing recollections of the gentleness of fresh
caught examples of N. aistoni at Appamunna, I made free to handle these alexis:

127

in the same way, but was startled to find a great difference in temperament; all
advances being repulsed with vigorous biting and squealing.

The animal is almost odourless. A Laclaps occurs very freely and another
flea-like parasite, unfortunately not preserved.

The material examined comprises an excellent series of 132 specimens, of
which 34 are skins and the rest alcoholic preserved. The bulk of the material
belongs to properly localized and dated collections, and the following list gives the
data on reproduction and sex ratios which can be extracted from the records.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

February, 1932. Between Wollara and Basedow Range. Approximately
24° 55’ south and 132° 25’ east, about six weeks after heavy rain; ll ¢,
10 @, and 2 unsexed. Of the series 11 are adult, 10 subadult or immature
and 2 nestlings. Several males have well developed scrotal testes, and of
5 adult females examined 4 are pregnant.

February, 1932. Ayers Rock. Approximately 90 miles west-south-west
of the above. One adult male.

January, 1933. Itrliwunyawunya and adjacent points on the south side
of the Musgrave Range, at approximately 26° 23’ south and 131° 40’ east;
two months after good rains; 4 6 and 5 @, and 2 unsexed; 7 are immature
of half to two-thirds growth. One adult @ only examined, and this
pregnant; two subadult males show gonad activity, but the adult male with
testes completely retracted.

Winter months of 1931. From unspecified localities on the same latitude
as the above, but beginning further west and extending from the Tomkinson
through the Mann to the Musgrave Range; 7 6, 5 9, and 9 unsexed.
Two examples only, fully adult, and of the remaining subadults 8 are
nestlings. Two females were pregnant, but none of the males showed
scrotal testes.

February, 1933. Chundrinna, between the Musgrave and Everard Ranges
at approximately 26° 50’ south and 132° 15’ east; 10 ¢ and 109. All
adult or nearly so, and reproduction entirely suspended; no trace of gonad
activity in any male, and all females non-pregnant with nipples so strongly
retracted as to be difficult to find.

February, 1933. Walthajalkanna, in the northern outliers of the Everard
Range, about 15 miles E.S.E. af the above; 10 2, 13 ¢, all adult or near
adult and with reproduction quiescent as above. Of 8 males examined
2 only show a slight development of testes in the scrotal site.

Winter of 1915. Wantapella, at approximately 65 miles E.S.E. of the
above; 6 6 and 2 9. Two only are adult or nearly so, and the remainder
represent almost as many litters descending in size to small nestlings.
Evidently a time of active reproduction; the adult female is lactating and
several subadult males show signs of gonad enlargement.

128

(8) Winter of 1930. Wells 24 and 26 on Canning Stock Route, in approxi-
mately 23° 15’ south and 123° east. Two ¢,1 9,3 unsexed. Reproduc-
tion evidently active; of the females one is lactating and the other pregnant.

(9) Miscellaneous specimens, including the Elder [Expedition material, not
properly localized but from as far west as Mount Squires at 26° 17’ south
and 127° 24’ east, and others from south of Oolarinna water, ca. 27° 35’
south and 132° 50’ east. Idracowra on the Fincke at 25° 0’ south and
133° 45’ east, Mount Burrell 50 miles north-west of Idracowra, and
Charlotte Waters 25°55’ south and 134° 55’ east.

The most northerly and westerly records in the collection are given by the
Alroy topotypes and the Canning Stock Route material, respectively, the most
southerly by the south of Oolarinna specimens, and the most easterly that from
Charlotte Waters.

The data is sufficient to show that the incidence of reproduction is not
seasonal, since highly active groups are to be found in both winter and summer,
but in two cases, at least, follows upon periods of good rains. An interesting
feature is the high incidence of sexual activity amongst young males as compared
with full adults; in most collections the maximum development, both of gonads
and of the sympathetically responding gular gland, is to be found in definitely
subadult material.

The number of embryos in unmutilated uteri varies from 2 to 5, with 3 as
the most frequently occurring number. In the combined collection which can be
sexed, the ratio is 54 8:55 9,

External Characters

Within the area defined, two races, overlapping in distribution and inter-
grading in pelage characters coexist. In all collections north of the Musgrave
Range, the dominant form can apparently be reconciled with the typical NV. alexis
Thomas of Alexandria in the Northern Territory. South of this line in the
area of huge granite intrusions, a second form becomes increasingly numerous
until in the Everard Range it is so dominant over the typical race as to form
almost pure communities. With two minor exceptions which will be noticed
later, all characters other than pelage are either constant or show similar varia-
tions having no geographical concentration, so that they may be dealt with by
reference to the entire series cn bloc.

Size, build and general appearance much as in N. cereinus of Waite ef aucl.
of the Lake Eyre Basin, Mysticial vibrissae rather weaker, 45-55 mm. Ear con-
spicuously short and narrow, 21-24 mm. with a mean of about 22 mm.

‘The gulo sternal glandular arca (pl. xv, fig. E) is highly characteristic and
presents a combination of a distinct gular pit as in cervinus Waite with a well
marked sternal tract of specialized hair as in mitchelli. In the sexually active male
the gular pit at its maximum development is deeper and more pouch-like than in
any of the forms I have reviewed; the area involved by it, however, is smaller

129

than in others and the feature correspondingly conspicuous. ‘The floor of the
recess slopes caudad and anteriorly merges indefinitely with the mental area
without the interposition of labia or skin folds, but laterally and posteriorly
these are well developed and fleshy and tend to overhang the cavity which reaches
a depth of 4 mm. and has a diameter at the surface of 5-6 mm. The greater part
of the labia and the anterior part of the floor of the recess are well haired, though
the hair is not strongly contrasted with that of the surrounding areas, while the
deeper parts of the recess and sometimes the posterior parts of the labia are naked.

In inactive tales and females the pil is much less deep but the structures
remaining are essentially similar and show a circular sunken area, naked and
creased posteriorly and with more or less developed lateral and posterior skin
folds. In the unsunken condition this small circumscribed area of nude skin is
especially characteristic, and in well made skins it shows up as a conspicuous naked
disk. The degree of invagination of the pit is definitely linked to the sexual cycle,

AAA A
Maahfe Wey
ALE AadarA

VA SS DE ES SS SES
SSSA S
Al Sle SS

AN *
CON SUAMERNT og ao ye 1 aS
GAGA Ages WO
a Fa ig Lee Ss LS wiles
UTE Oy» —> A/C

TA a - Cg AE Kae
Miidel te
ASSN S922 FO ae

Diagram of the hair tracts about the gulosternal glandular area in an adult male
of Notonmnys alexis everardensis, Drawn from fresh material before preservation.
(The gland sites are somewhat more posterior than indicated.)

just as the raising of the presternal gland is in “aisten?’ but there appear to be
marked individual variations in the degree of response. The site is plainly indicated
in furred nestlings.

The sternal patch is present in all males and in a small proportion of females.
In its maximum development it takes the form of a shield-shaped area on the
chest 12 mim. wide by 15-16 mm. long, densely covered by short, rather stiff
specialized hairs separated from the gular pit by a band of ordinary ventral fur.
In the dark-bellied southern race the area is very conspicuous as in nitchelli

130

macropus, but in the pale-bellied northern form and intermediates it is much less
so, though the glistening of the area is usually apparent if the specimen is suitably
held, and the increased density of hairing is usually obvious also, on close inspec-
tion. Its condition does not vary with gonad develpment. No example of the
southern race with well-developed scrotal testes has yet been examined, and none
of the 40 or more examined show a deeply invaginated gular pit such as occurs
in the pale-bellied form, though the surface structures are precisely similar.
Whether there is a racial difference in the degree of development of the gland
in the south is not determinable with the present material.

The manus varies considerably in absolute size and is frequently unequally
developed on the two sides; the length from base of outer carpal pad to tip of
third apical pad, from 7-8 mm., and the width at base of digits 2-5, from 3-4 mm.
The third digit to 4 mm. The size and proportion of pads also very variable ;
usually the length of outer carpal > 2nd interdigital > Ist = 3rd. The elongation
of the outer carpal is greater than in cervinus Waite and “aistont’” and resembles
mutchelli macropus, but examples in which the carpals are subequal are numerous.
‘he palm is pink.

The pes is conspicuously short, 32-34 mm. with a mean of 33 in fully adult
examples, but frequently as low as 30 in subadults of nearly full growth. The
maximum width of foot across pads at the base of digits 2-4 is 3°5-4-5 mm., and
the length of third digit, 7 mm. The pads very much as in cervinus of Waite,
though the interdigitals average somewhat wider; 3 > or = 2> 4 > 1. The
hallucal pad is present in 43, absent in 34. The undersurface of the toes is lightly
haired, about as in mitchelli macropus, not obscuring the apical pads. The sole
is slate or bluish pink in life, the digits a lighter pink.

The tad varies in length within wide limits in individuals at the same growth
stage, and tends to be slightly shorter in females than males. In a few individuals
there is a slight tendency towards incrassation of the basal third.

The clitoris is very small. The posterior mammary nipples are about 10 mm.
from the clitoris and the anterior about 11 mm. from the posterior; when not
functioning they are very strongly retracted. The scrotum is lightly pigmented
at the posterior extremity only.

Pelage

(a) In the form which predominates in the batches from north of the Mus-
grave Range individual variation is considerable both in the colour of the sub-
terminal band of the dorsum (as given by Brazenor), in the degree of grizzling of
the coat by dark guard hairs and consequently in the texture and general external
colour, and in the basal colour of the belly fur, which is usually pale plumbeous
but frequently white. The latter character, which has been claimed as the
exclusive possession of cervinus Waite, occurs in about 48% of subadults other-
wise quite normal and is occasionally retained until nearly full growth is reached.
The moult changes are very pronounced also, more so than in any of the other
three species of the genus reviewed in these papers, though they are fore-

131

shadowed by certain anomalous pelages in the large “aistont” series from the
Lake Eyre Basin. The incidence of the moult is highly irregular but is obviously
responsible for the considerable proportion of thin dull and fluffy pelages devoid
of guard hairs, which are to be found in most of the batches, on individuals having
precisely the same skull and external characters, as normally clad individuals.
The covering of the tail is particularly variable, dark blackish-brown upper sur-
faces well contrasted with a pure white undersurface, being varied capriciously
by others in which the upper surface is a pale uncontrasted greyish-brown. ‘The
brush is generally inferior in development to that in cervinus, “aistont” and
mitchelli macropus, but there is great variation and the difference is sometimes
slight. Sexual differences almost nil; age differences chiefly shown by a tendency
to duller colours in immature stages.

The characters of the original series from Alroy and Alexandria have not
been adequately reviewed and the range of variation there is not defined, but
three topotypes kindly made available by Mr. Glauert of the Western Australian
Museum can be very closely matched in the northern part of the present area.

(b) As indicated above almost the entire collection from the Everard Range
area and a proportion of these from the Musgrave Range differ from those from
more northerly localities in certain pelage characters, which may be thus
summarized :

(1) the pelage is denser and longer on all surfaces and frequently reaches
16 mm. on the posterior back, where it is more heavily grizzled;

(2) the basal colour on all surfaces is much darker, particularly on ventrum
and inner surfaces of limbs where the basal colour is deep plumbeous to
almost black, the gulo-sternal tract alone excepted ;

(3) while the dorsal colour varies as in the north, the dark based ventrum is
quite constant, and in 50 examples examined white or pale-bellied variants
analogus to those so numerous in the north have been quite absent.

The effect of alcohol immersion upon the colouration of this species has been
very fully investigated, a series of closely matched individuals having been
selected in the field and a portion of them then skinned and the rest alcohol
preserved. In the majority of individuals the change is striking; in two ycars
the original yellow and orange buffs of the subterminal band changed to a pinkish
rust colour, and after six years to a deep brown rust; at the same time the black
guard hairs and the basal fur faded to rusty brown greatly reducing the effect of
egrizzling, and the pure white of the belly became yellow. The individuals which
have changed least are those at the thin dull moult phase noted above.

Skull and Dentition

An excellent series of 40 skulls, all derived from individuals of known
characters in the flesh and representing a wide range of growth stages has been
examined,

The skull resembles cervinus Waite et auct. of the Lake Eyre Basin but is
less specialized, has a smaller braincase and less tapered zygomatic outline. There

132

is so much variation, however, that many examples could scarcely be separated
trom that species by mspection.

The range of linear skull dimensions of individuals which have attained average
bulk and which are free from obvious immaturity in externals is not excessive,
but, as in some murid series recently reviewed from the Lake Eyre Basin, there
is a wide individual variation in structural characters, and considerable dis-
proportion of parts in examples at approximately the same growth stage. Indi-
vidual capricious variation involves particularly the antorbital fossa, the meso-
pterygoid fossa, anterior palatal foramina and lachrymals, while disproportion is
shown largely in the muzzle region and antcrior zygomata. The retention of
juvenile characters of slender muzzle and narrow anterior zvgomata in otherwise
advanced skulls is responsible for some marked contrasts in the shape of some
of the largest examples of the serics derived from individuals, precisely similar
externally. Much of the variation is undoubtedly due to varying pressure of
ecological conditions cn the life cycle of individuals, though direct demonstration
af such a relation is rarcly possible. An accessory cingular cusp on the anterior
lamina of the upper M1, very much as in N. cervinus Waite et auct of the Lake
Eyre Basin and N. mitchelli macropus of Ooldea, is well developed in 10 examples.
The anterior lamina of the first upper molar is usually bicuspid even when unworn.
but a distinct third buccal cusp is present in a small proportion of individuals as
in most of the species.

The variations noted are shown by both races in about the same degree, but
there is a distinct tendency for the skull of the southern race to be stouter, and
with relatively broader muzzle and squarer zygomatic outline. though the presence
of numerous exceptions renders it difficult to illustrate the difference by measure-
ment. The only important difference from the type skull of alexis alexis from
Alexandria shown by the whole series is the inferior zygomatic width; the 17 mm.
quoted for the type seems excessively large and is possibly an aberration if
correctly recorded, though a single very large skull of the present series approaches
it with 16°5 mm.; the value for this measurement, quoted independently by
Drazenor, agrees with the present series.

Flesh Dimensions

As the values for the two races are in complete agreement, no segregation is
made in the following figures which give the range of dimensions and true mean
in (1) 7 6 and @ subadults, and (2) 10 4 and 13 @ fully adult. The means
aire in brackets.

1 2
Head and body - 95-102 (99); 95-100 (97) 101-109 (103); 97-112 (104)
Tail - - - - 131-142 (136); 120-132 (128) 141-150 (145); 130-139 (134)
Pes” - - - - 31-32 (31-5); 30-31 9 (31) 32-34 (33); 32-34 9 (33)
Ear - - - - 19-23 (22); 19-20 (19-5) 21-24 (22-5): 21-23 (22)

Weight in grammes - 27-37 (30); 27-34 = (29) 30-45 (40); 31-47 = (36)

133

Skull Dimensions

The following figures give the range and true mean of the skull dimensions
of adults of Notomys alexis vars, in (1) 3 6 and 3 @ of the typical race from
Wollara, (2) 8 8 and 8 2- of the southern race from ithe Everard Range. All
skulls show wear on all laminae of the upper M! and are extracted from indi-
viduals free from any obvious immaturity in external characters.

Greatest length - - 28-8-39-2 (29-5); 30+0-30°8 (30-3) 29-0-30-4 (29°7); 29-1-31-6 (30-
Basal length - - - 23-8-24-5 (24-1); 23-8-24-6 (24-3) 23-7-25-5 (24-4); 23-8-26-0 (24-
Zygomatic breadth ~ 15°0-15:6 (15-3); 14-5-15-8 (15-1) 15-0-15-7 (15-3); 15:0-16-5 (15-
Braincase breadth - - 14-1-14-7 (14-4); 14-4-14-6 (14-2) 14-0-14-9 (14-5); 13-6+15-0 (14°
Interorbital breadth - 5*0-5-1) (5-1); 5-1-5-7) (5:4) 5-2-5-5 (5-4); 50-56 (5S
Nasals, length - - 10-2-10-8 (10-6); 10°7-10°9 (10-8) = 10-5-11-2 (10-8); 10-7-11-4 (11-
Nasals, greatest breadth 2-8-3-0 (2-9); 2-8-3-0 (2-9) 3-0+-3-4 (3-1); 2°8-3-1 (3-
Palatal length = - = 13+2-15+3 (15-2); 15-0-15-7 (15-3) 15-0-16+0 (15-4); 15-0-16-2 (15+
Ant. Pal. Foram., length 5-0-5-6 (5-3); 5-3-5-5 (5:4) 5-065-7 (5-3); 50-555 (5:
Ant.Pal.Foram.,breadth 1-6-1-9 (1-8); 1+7+-1-8 (1:7) 1-5+2-0- (47); -1-6-1-9) 1+
Bulla length ~~ = 59-60 (5-9); 5+6-5°8 (5+7) 5+546-0 (5°77); 59-63 (3
Upper molar series - 5-0-5-0 (5-0); 5-0-5-0 (5:0) 4-9-5-1 (5-0); 4°9-5-0 (5-
Incisive angle - = 63°-68° (65°); G0°-60° = (60°) 58°-GO° (59°); 58°-65° (62°)

Definition of the Southern Race

Vhe form of Nolomys alevis occurring in the area about the Everard Range
and representing the southern limit of the distribution of the species, | would
propose to recognise as distinct, under the name Notomys alexis everardensis.

General characters, flesh dimensions and range of external colourations as
in the typical race, but the pelage differing as indicated above. The skull is some-
what heavier in build and in general has a wider muzzle, stouter zygomata, and
squarer zygomatic outline. The gular gland site in males is probably less invaginate
than in males of the northern race of comparable gonad development.

Cotypes: in the South Australian Museum, M.3685 Adult ¢. skin ©) with-
eut skull (original number 1649HHIF), and M.3673 Adult ¢. skin with skull
(original number 1609HHF).

Type Locality: Approximately 26° 50’ south and 132° 15% east; about the
waters of Chundrinna and Walthajalkanna north of the Everard Range in the
north-west of the State of South Australia, and about 650 miles south-west of
the type locality of the northern race. The cotypes are selected from a series of
40 examples collected by the writer at the above camps in February, 1933, 20 of
which are deposited in the South Australian Museum.

An unexpected result of the examination of the large collection of Notonys
from this portion of the centre, has been the proof of the complete absence of
Notomys cervinus of Waite et auct (nec Gould) as I have recently defined it

©) The skins are from alcohol preserved material and are to be interpreted as
representing individuals in which the original subterminal colour of the dorsum was
near Ridgway’s Ochraceous Tawny, the terminal dorsal colour about Fuscous Black, and
the general effect near Prout’s Brown.

134

from Mulka in the Lake Eyre Basin. While this may be no more than a coinci-
denice, it arouses a suspicion that Waite’s identification of the entire Horn Expedi-
sion material of the smaller Notomys, from Charlotte Waters and adjacent areas,
as N. cervinus may have been mistaken, and that the dark-bellied form which,
according to Brazenor, is numerous in these collections, is, at least in part, ale-ris.
Two other circumstances tend to confirm this. Firstly, although the skulls
figured by Waite (6) almost certainly represent cervinus as it occurs also at
Mulka, some details of his measurements and figures, especially the gular
“pouch,” are more suggestive of alexis. Secondly, a series fron: Wantapellya,
which was recorded by Waite (8) in 1915 as Ascopharynx cervinus has been
carefully re-examined during this review and undoubtedly represents ale.vis in toto.

In view of this uncertainty it may be well, therefore, to briefly restate the
characters which, in my view, separate the two species. Dimensions: both ear
and foot in alevis are distinctly shorter; the short narrow ear is highly charac-
teristic. Pelage: alexis, though very variable in external colour, is always
browner and usually more distinctly grizzled and the dorsal coat crisper. Pure
white belly fur, however, although more characteristic of cervinus than any other
species, is not an infallible distinction as it occurs in alexis and “aiston:,” usually
as a juvenile or early moult character, but occasionally in adulis also. Conversely
dark-bellied examples of cervtnus occur. The gulosternal area: alexis ditfers
from cervinus in the constant possession in the male of a well-developed tract of
specialized glistening sternal hairs as in witchelli macropus. The gular pit in its
maximum development in alevis is smaller, deeper, with more fleshy but less well-
defined labia, and the posterior floor of the pit differs in having a more conspicuous
area of naked creased skin. Skull: individuals of both may be found which are
indeterminable by inspection, but in series alerts is seen to be less specialized,
more Pscudomys like, with a less globular braincase and normally with squarer
zygomatic outline, especially in the var. everardensis.

The Status of Ascopharynx fuscus Wood Jones (9)

It has been suggested (1) that this is synonymous with N. alevis alexis
Thomas. Unfortunately, no type was designated for this animal, and the
only specimen available here which might reasonably be supposed to represent it,
is in the collection of the Zoology Department of the University of Adelaide. It
is stated to have been from Ooldea and to have formed part of the collection of
Professor Wood Jones, though the original label is no longer attached. It is a
nearly adult male, greatly faded, but represents an animal very close to N. cereinus
of Waite ef auct. of the Lake Eyre Basin, the sunken gular gland site in par-
ticular being identical. The pes is 34 mm., with a maximum width of 4 mm. (as
measured in these papers across the pads of digits 2-4); the tail 127 mm.; the
ear 25 mm.

There is no trace of a sternal patch, and the animal clearly has nothing to
do with aleats.

135

NoTOMYS MITCHELLI var.

Since Spencer’s (4) misapplication of this name to longicaudatus and
Waite’s (7) correction of the same, the opinion has prevailed that this form is
somewhat coastal in distribution and does not occur in the centre. Recently,
however, Brazenor (op. cit.) has published a record of his N. mutchelli alutacea
from an unspecified locality in ‘‘Central Australia.” No form of mutchelli was
taken during the field work of 1931-1935, nor is it present in any recent collection
from the centre which | have examined, but in the old collections of the South
Australian Museum are two mounted skins, much faded but apparently reconcil-
able with alutacea. They are labelled, respectively, “Alice Springs” and “Central
Australia 1879.” The gulosternal tract is exactly as in N. mitchelli macropus, and
the foot length is 35 and 38 mm., respectively.

‘The colouration of the type series of alufaced, as recorded, is rather sugges-
tive of alteration by alcohol.

Notomys “arstoni” Brazenor

This species which probably represents the true ceremus of Gould and Sturt
(nec Waite et auct.), is represented by numerous imperfectly localized examples
in the older Museum collection from ‘‘Central Australia.” There is some reason
to believe that the bulk of them are from Cowaric in the Lake Eyre Basin, and are,
therefore, topotypical. Four of the remainder are definitely from Ooldea, however,
and have already been recorded (3), and the other two from Charlotte Waters,
whence they were received in company with alevis, They do not differ in any
important respect from those of the large series recently reviewed. One originally
represented the clear buff Type 1 pelage, and the other is an intermediate. “These
two records from Ooldea and Charlotte Waters are of value in proving the
presence of this very distinct species, west of the Lake Eyre Basin.

Noromys LoncicAupATus Gould

Most of the Central Australian examples of this species, so far examined,
have come from north central localities beyond the Macdonnells. It was not
obtained in the area worked over personally, but there is a specimen in the South
Australian Museum from Mount Burrell, 50 miles north-west of Idracowra on
the Fincke. This is a male with: Head and body 127 mm.; Tail, 205; Pes,
44 x 6; Ear, 29.

As pointed out by Brazenor (op. cit.), the presternal gland is exactly as in
“aistont’ and the general structure of manus and pes appear also to be nearer
this species than to mtchelli or cervinus or alexis, The propriety of using these
features in erecting a genus, however, seems strongly contra indicated by the
circumstance that the actual range of structural diversification in manus and pes
in the group is very slight, while the individual variation is extraordinarily high;
and secondly by the fact that glandular structures (however useful in the dis-
crimination of species) frequently occur in confusingly similar form in widely

136

sundered groups and in consequence are notoriously unreliable as criteria of
affinity.

The current nomenclature of this large Central Australian form can scarcely
be considered as more than provisional, until detailed comparison of series with
topotypes from the south-west of Western Australia can be made.

REFERENCES
1 Brazenor, C. W. 1934 Mem.. Nat. Mus., Melb., 8, 80
2 Frnvayson, IT. HW. 1939 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63 (1), 108
3. Fintayson, Il. H. 1939 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63 (2), 358
4 Spencer, B. 1896 Rept. Ilorn Expd., 2, 10
5 Tuomas ©. 1922 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 9, 9, 315
6 Warr, E.R. 1897 Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 10, pl. vi, fig. 3 a-f
7 Waite, E.R. 1897 Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 10, 117
8 Warte, E.R. 1915 Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 39, 735
9 Woop Jones, F. 1925 Recds. S. Aust. Mus., 3 (1), 3

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

Pirate XIV

Fig. A Dorsal aspect of the skull of an adult @ of Notomys alexis cocrardensis, to show
the retention of juvenile characters in muzzle and zygomata. x 2-2 ca.

Fig. B Dorsal aspect of a normally developed skull of an adult @ of Notomys alexis
everardensis, extracted from an individual having external characters identical
with A. x 2-2 ca,

Fig. C Lateral aspect of B. x 2-2 ca.
Fig. D Palatal aspect of B. x 2-2 ca.
hig. E Right manus of an adult @ of Nofomys alexis everardensis. x 3+4 ca.

Fig. fF Right manus of an adult g of Nelomys cf. longicaudatus from Mount Purrell. x 3 ca.

PLATE XV

Figs. A, B, C Aspects of the skull of Notomms longicaudatus, @. (The example figured by
Waite. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 1897, pl. v, fig. 2). x 1-7 ca.

Fig. D Right Pes of Notomyvs longicaudatus. @, adult. (Cid. pl. xiv, fig. F.) x 1-8 ca.

Fig. E General aspect of the gular glandular area as scen in alcohol preserved material of
Notomys alexis alexts from Bascdow Range area, Central Australia. Adult, @.
x 1:2 ca.

Fig. F Right Pes of Notowrys alexis everardensis, Adult, 2.x 2:3 ca. Cid. pl. xiv, fig. 12).

Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust. 1940

Vol. 64, Plate XIV

Photo by H. H. Finlayson

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940 Vol. 64, Plate NV

Photo by H. H. Finlayson

A NEW SPECIES OF CERATRIMERIA (COLLEMBOLA)
FROM TASMANIA

By H. WOMERSLEY, South Australian Museum.

Summary

The following new species of Ceratrimeria has recently been sent to me by Dr. J. W. Evans, of the
Department of Agriculture, Hobart, Tasmania.

137
A NEW SPECIES OF CERATRIMERIA (COLLEMBOLA) FROM TASMANIA
By H. Womerstey, South Australian Museum
{Read 13 June 1940]

‘The following new species of Ceratrimeria has recently been sent to me by
Dr. J. W. Evans, of the Department of Agriculture, Hobart, Tasmania.

Ceratrimeria bicornis n. sp.
Description—Superficially with the facies of C. dendyi (1ubb.) but the dorsal
spine-like prominences much longer and upturned, Length of animal 4-0 mm.. width
slightly less than 2 mm. Colour black, except for the pair of dorsal horns on the

Ceratrimeria bicornis n. sp.

A, entire dorsal view. B, postantennal organ and anterior ocelli. C, claw and tihiotarsus.

Trans. Ray. Soc. S.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

138

head, three pairs of spots on the meso- and metathorax, and the tips of the dorsal
-prominences which are yellow. Antennae as long as head, ratio of segments
1-5:1-0; 1-1:2:0. QOcelli 8 on each side on dark patches of pigment. Post-
antennal organ subelliptical and consisting of an irregularly arranged cluster of
tubercles. Abdomen VI hidden under V, as in the genus. The dorsal prominences
are: a pair of short horn-like ones on the head and a pair of long upwardly
curved ones on each segment from the mesothorax. Legs rather longer than in
dendyi; claws strongly granulate, without inner teeth but with a pair of dorso-
lateral outer teeth at # from base, and extreme base on each side with a short
spine-like seta. Clavate tibiotarsal setae and furca absent. Clothing of very fine
short hairs as in other Tasmanian species.

Locality—Two specimens from Ida Bay, Tasmania, collected by Dr. V. V.
llickman in November, 1939; a half-grown specimen from Belgrave, Victoria,
in March, 1940 (O. W. T.); another full-grown specimen from Olinda, Victoria,
26 May 1940 (F. E. Wilson).

Remarks

This interesting species is very closely related to C. dendyi and
belongs to the Tasmanian group of the species of the genus. It differs, however,
in the form of the postantennal organ, in this respect showing relationship to
species of the Indo-Malayan and African groups. From dendyi it also differs in
the structure of the claws and the position and lengths of the dorsal prominences.
The paratergites are otherwise as in the rest of the Tasmanian species.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ORCHIDACEOUS FLORA OF AUSTRALIA

By R. S. ROGERS, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., etc.

Summary

Pterostylis allantoidea, n. sp

A very slender plant, about 6-10 cm. high. Leaves rosulate at the base of the stem on rather long
petioles, ovate, reticulate, margins slightly crenulate; a subulate bract a little above them. Flower
single, erect, about 10 mm. long; galea markedly acute and decurved, green with dark purple
longitudinal stripes and markings ; the junction of the lateral sepals dark coloured and very gibbous,
their segments produced into filamentous points erect or reflexed greatly exceeding the galea.
Labellum mobile unguicule, semicylindrical, fleshy, channeled above, slightly curved, pubescent in
the anterior part and protruding a little at the sinus, about 4.5 mm. long; appendage trifid.

139
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ORCHIDACEOUS FLORA OF AUSTRALIA
By R. S. Rocers, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., ete.
{Read 13 June 1940]

Pterostylis allantoidea, n. sp

A very slender plant, about 6-10 cm. high. Leaves rosulate at the base of
the stem on rather long petioles, ovate, reticulate, margins slightly crenulate; a
subulate bract a little above them. Flower single, erect, about 10 mm. long; galea
markedly acute and decurved, green with dark purple longitudinal stripes and
markings; the junction of the lateral sepals dark coloured and very gibbous, their
segments produced into filamentous points erect or reflexed greatly exceeding
the galea. T.abellum mobile unguiculate, semicylindrical, fleshy, channelled above,
slightly curved, pubescent in the anterior part and protruding a little at the sinus,
about 4°5 mm. long; appendage trifd.

Planta gracillima, circa 6-10 cm. alta. Tolia radicalia, 4-5, petiolata, ovata,
reticulata, marginibus crenulatis. Prope basin bractea subulata. [los solitarius,
erectus, circa 10 mm. longus; galea acutissima, subviridis, cum notationibus
atratis longitudinalibus, decurvissima; segmenta lobii inferius erecta vel recurva
filamentosa galeam multo excedentia; junctio gibbosissima; labellum carnosum,
semicylindricale, leviter curvata, superne canaliculatum, anteriori pubescente.

This interesting little plant bears a superficial external resemblance to three
other Australian species, vis.:

(1) P. concinna, R. Br.
This orchid has a markedly emarginate labellum, a character which readily
excludes error in determination. It has doubtfully been reported from
Bugle Ranges, South Australia, but not further west.

(2) P. pedunculata, R. Br,
No inflexed tooth separating the two segments of the lower lip. ‘The
labellum is neither fleshy nor pubescent; the galea is not decurved. More
than one stem-bract present. Not reported west of this State. Not gibbous.
(3) P. nana, R. Br.
Inflexed tooth separating segments of lower lip, Labellum is neither fleshy
nor pubescent. Galea rather blunt. More than one stem-bract present,
Doubtfully reported from Western Australia. Not gibbous at base of
flower.
The plant was discovered by Horbury, in September, 1938, at Kumarl, near
Salmon Gums, Western Australia, and was forwarded by Colonel B. T. Goadby.

It derives its name from the somewhat sausage-like shape of the labellum.

Trans. Roy. Soc. 5.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

RESULTS OF THE HARVARD-ADELAIDE UNIVERSITIES
ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXPEDITION, 1938-1939

DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL TRIBES:
A FIELD SURVEY

By NORMAN B. TINDALE, Ethnologist, South Australian Museum.

Summary

The following paper is one of the first fruits of the joint expedition organised by the Department of
Anthropology, Harvard University, and the University of Adelaide, under a research grant from the
Carnegie Corporation of New York. The field work was materially assisted by grants from the
South Australian Government and the University of Adelaide, while the services of the present
writer were made available to the expedition by the authorities of the South Australian Museum.

140

RESULTS OF THE HARVARD-ADELAIDE UNIVERSITIES
ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXPEDITION, 1938-1939

DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL TRIBES:
A FIELD SURVEY

By Norman B. Tinpare, Ethnologist, South Australian Museum
Wirt One Mar
[Read 13 June 1940]

‘The following paper is one of the first fruits of the joint expedition organised
by the Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, and the University of
Adelaide, under a research grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York.
The feld work was materially assisted by grants from the South Australian Govern-
ment and the University of Adclaide, while the services of the present writer
were made available to the expedition by the authorities of the South Australian
Museum.

A prehminary ficld report by Tindale and Birdsell was in press late in 1939
but the reference has not yet been received. ‘The present paper deals with data
regarding tribes obtained during the field work, and forms a basis for further
studies in social and physical anthropology by both observers. Results have been
included of other field work accumulated in past years.

INTRODUCTION

In the present paper and accompanying map an attempt has been made to
give a list of all established tribes, and, where possible, a concise account of the
known boundaries and a précis of recent natural tribal displacements that have
oceurred, As far as possible, new information, principally from present enquiries
in the field, was the basis of the map, and where this failed, published data
obtained by other professional research workers in recent years, have been pre-
ferred. In the absence of both these sources, attempts have been made to
assimilate the mass of less critical data available in the general literature. The
method of setting out will, it is hoped, enable the new data to be distinguished
from those culled from published sources. Much information has been obtained
about the component hordes and minor groupings within these tribes; this data
must be considered separately.

UTILisED SouRCES OF INFORMATION

Fourteen months were spent in the field by the Harvard-Adelaide Expedi-
tion, principally along the castern and southern portions of Australia, from north
of Cairns to Perth. Survivors of many aboriginal tribes were interviewed, often
in their own country, and the data may be said to have been acquired during the

Trans. Roy. Sac. S.A., 64 (1), 26 July 1940

141

course of interviews with approximately 2,450 people (the total number subjected
to anthropometric examination). First-hand data have also been added from
material obtained during the past nineteen years on journeys in the Western
(Great Victoria) Desert, in Central and Western Australia, on Cape York
Peninsula and in Arnhem Land; a total of forty-eight months of field work.

Having recently interviewed a lone survivor of the [’Punandi: tj] tribe,
the writer has, for example, now obtained direct information regarding former
tribal distributions and boundaries for nearly every tribe in South Australia. In
the sole exception, the extinct [’Nauo] tribe of Port Lincoln district, information
supplied by [’Paygkala] individuals has had to suffice.

Despite objectiveness of approach, the methods employed in gathering the
new material may be considered to introduce a personal bias into the data. This
may be outweighed by the possible advantage that the information has been
collected in a uniform manner, has been transcribed phonetically by the one hand,
and hence represents a synoptic view of a large mass of information relating to
tribal umits in Australia.

When compared with the independent results of other recent field workers,
it may be seen that there is a high degree of correlation between the results
obtained. There is less agreement with the results of brief surveys and the
scattered data obtained from relatively casual enquiries and through the agency
of questionnaires. The material from the last-named often requires considerable
sifting and analysis before it can be utilised. As stated above, the data that has
been used to fill in gaps in personal observation is, as far as possible, derived from
the published work of, and in some cases from personal contact with, other
research workers. Where there are over-lappings between the data from two
independent sources, the degree of corresondence evident is such as to engender
confidence in the methods adopted. Differences do occur, but these are often
mere variations in details of phonetic transcription and occasional lapses. Some
seeming contradictions can be clarified only by further field work.

With regard to the earlier data, those of the elder Strehlow, Spencer and
Gillen, and Howitt proved most helpful. Mathews’ data is of unequal merit, their
value depending on the nature of the varied sources from which it was gleaned.
Generally, less satisfactory tribal details occur in the writings of Basedow, Bates,
and Spencer.

Roth’s work, based entirely on field researches, is of exceptional clarity; his
spelling is a trap to those who do not keep his system (1897, p. 1) in mind. He
adinits inability to adequately reproduce the nasal sounds.

Davidson (1937, 1938) has summarised the literature and published a map,
without indicating boundaries. The only previous attempt of any consequence
was that of Roheim (1925), which likewise suffers from lack of field data and
coutrols.

In sifting and discarding earlier published terms purporting to be tribal,
increasing knowledge of native vocabulary and practice is of some help.

142

Most tribes have a term which they apply to themselves; usually it is a proper
name derived from their own language, or, more rarely, it is a name adopted
from members of some neighbouring tribe who have applied it to differentiate
their neighbours from themselves. When genuine variations, synonyms and
alternatives, terms of opprobrium, etc., given by others, and erroneous or mis-
takenly applied terms are taken into account, it may be readily understood there
is present in the literature many more tribal names than there are valid tribes.
Where possible, such terms have been equated and indicated in the synonymy.
In a few cases it has been difficult to ascertain a real tribal name; thus only after
over a century of casual contact and several visits by freld workers has Hart
(1930) suggested a name [’Tiwi] for the Melville Islanders.

As might be expected, tribal names take many forms, among which may be
recognised the following:

(a) Proper nouns without known meaning.

(b) Words meaning “man,” “amen,” or “people.” Sometimes these may denote
only a nebulous aggregate of tribes.

(c) Words derived from peculiarities in the language spoken, Differences in
vocabulary may be seized upon to provide some key term to separate one’s
own tribe from neighbouring ones. In parts of Victoria, for example,
there are names derived from the duplicated terms for “no,” as in
[Wemba’wemba], ['Ji:ta’ji:ta] or modifications of it as in
[Be’rap:e’ra:pe]. In the Western (or Great Victoria) Desert the terms
of enquiry “what is it?” [/nayata-], [’yana-] and [‘na:da-] are utilised to
make names such as Nangatadjara, Ngadadjara, ete.

(d) Terms based on ccological and/or geographical differences. |’ Anjimatana |
“hill people,” [’Ba:rindji] “forest people,” [’Wirameju| ‘“‘gum_ forest
people,” and [’Ba:kendji] “river people.’ Such names are commonly
found as terms applied by neighbours since, surprisingly enough, it is not
always as easy to recognise the unity of one’s own ecological or geographical
niche as to summarise another’s,

(c}) Words incorporating a term for “language” or “speech.” A widespread
root word, e.g., [’woya], [’wayga], ['woyka], meaning “talk” or
“speech” may be combined with qualifying adjectives similar to “good,”
“clean,” “smooth,” etc., to denote the members of a tribe. In such tribes,
cognate terms are apt to be used to describe the “hard-,” “rough-,” “in-
comprehensible-,” ‘“stupid-,” speech of neighbours. The latter terms must
usually be rejected when seeking a valid term for a tribe.

(f) Names derived from compass directions. In South-western Australia,
terms such as [’Ko:rey] (literally east, or easterners), [’Kanean|
(westerners), [’Min:ay] (southerners) seem to be valid tribal names, and
no more suitable terms have been suggested for these tribes. In many other

143

places, names incorporating compass directional terms are seemingly invalid.
Thus, in a large part of Western Australia the term [’Kaieli] is used to
denote any tribe situated to the north or north-west of the informant. This
term generally means “north-west,” and is not applicable to specific groups.
In the same area, and extending well into western South Australia, and
the Northern ‘Vlerritory, words meaning, respectively, “north,” “south,”
“cast,” “west,” have been reported, These are not tribal names, although
they have been treated as such. Their adoption would be confusing. As a
rule, they do not refer to specific ethnic groups. What is east to one is
west to another.

Some terms for cardinal points which have been mistaken for tribal
names in West-Central Australia and clsewhere, together with several of
the invalid derivatives, are given in the following list. Several of these
are merely words for the cardinal points disguised by cumbersome methods
of transcription:

EXAMPLES

[’alindjara] North Alinjerra, Yallingarra
[’ulpararal ) . ¢ Ulbaritja, Ulparidja, Ulpara, Yoolbarie,

: . South - And
[‘julbari] 5 ( Julbari, Julbara
[‘kakarara] { Wast Kakaringa, Karkurerra, Kakararu, Kakarrura,
|’kakara] : t Karkar, Kar-Kar, Kogara, Kikkar, Kugara, Kokar
|’wilurara | Wilrurrerra, Wilruddidda, Willewroo, Willeuro,
| ‘aldo: la] wes ) Witronera Willara, Willuro, Willuri, [lilleri ;
[ Aldorla, Alduling, Aldolinga

’wiljaru] =»

(g) Names in Queensland terminating in |-’bara] to be excluded. Numerous
names with terminations -bara, -bura are to be found in the earlier litera-
ture of Central Queensland from Gympie north to Townsville and west
to Winton. They usually denote hordce-like units of local organisation and
can seldom if ever be given the status of tribes. In the present map only
one has been admitted, the [’Kabelbara], from west of Isaacs River, and’
it is suspected that another term may have originally existed even here.
In a second case, the [’Koinjmal] of Broad Sound, the appellation
[’Koinjmurbare] belonging also to a single horde living at Torilla, was
once given to me as a name for the whole tribe, but another native assures
me this is strictly mecorrect.

OTHER ExcLupEep TERMS
All general and descriptive terms (such as Wepulprap [’wepur] = south,
[’prap| = people, applied by Tangane to all people of the south-east of South
Australia) have been omitted from our lists:
Terms which relate to loose or indefinite agglomerations of tribes, ¢.g., the
[’narindjeri] (Narrinyeri, etc., of the Lower Murray River), have been omitted,
as well as all terms which apply to supposed supernatural tribes or beings. For

144

example, at Ooldea, Madutara are a legendary folk of dwarf-like dimensions who
are believed to live in the Western Desert and have magical powers. Maduntara
(Madutara) is also a general Pintubi and Pitjandjara term for people who live to
the south-east of their country, and it has been passed over, for it does not apply
exclusively to one tribe and is not an endemic term.

Where the native language is little understood, errors are apt to creep in,
Thus [‘jaganko], ( [’jaga] = mother, and [-nko| suffix meaning “to” or
“towards”) applied in the form Jagangu to some people north-west of Ooldea
seems likely to have arisen from some misunderstanding of a native’s explanation
about his mother’s people.

Other terms winnowed out (principally from the earlier literature) are
obviously generalised terms, lapses and misunderstandings, such as: qwambandi,
“{ don’t know”; bardu, bardoak and bardok, “circumcised people,” and yuunea,
“women.” The word [‘natari|, “stranger,” is often used by natives in Western
Australia; it is obviously not a tribal proper term.

A combination of words such as [’Kata’buyata], meaning “head pad people,”
does not form a tribal term; in this instance it is a descriptive reference to the
peculiar head pad or coiffure worn by males of most Western (Great Victoria)
Desert tribes. Similarly, [’jawayilambaluk |, “people of the mountains,” and the
previously mentioned [’anjimatana], “hill dwellers,” and [’wirameju], “people of
the gum forest,” are descriptive labels and must often be passed over in favour
of other terms. Similar objections have been raised to [’Kokata]. on the score
that |’Kokata] was derived from [’koka] = meat; the name bcing interpreted
to mean ‘“meat-caters” or “cannibals.” More recent field studies have shown that
the majority of [’Kokata] natives themselves prefer this term to any other and
that the suggested derivation is not acceptable to [’Kokata] people, even
if it be so aseribed by others. Similarly |Ba:kendji] has no serious rival as
a tribal term. Occasionally, subclass and moiety terms may be confused with
tribal names, ¢.g., [/kurabana|, [’korakulu] and [‘kuraminja] in North Queens-
land are moiety terms. ‘Vhere are also doubtful cases such as [barge and Jaruru,
which are thought probably to be subclass terms [’1: paruka] and [’Taroro], but
first-hand information is lacking.

An important source of past confusion in tribal nomenclature has been the
presence, often in widely separated arcas, of diserete tribal groups which have the
same or markedly similar tribal names. In some cases prehistoric tribal continuity
could, perhaps, be postulated. They are at present real tribal groupings. In other
cases the resemblances are likely to be mere coincidence. Because of their
importance, and to prevent possible confusion, the principal ones may be listed.
When phonctically transcribed, it will be noticed there are often differences which
may not be appreciated when they are more casually written.

\’Bidie, ‘Biria] Tower Thomson River, circumcising tribe.
j’Biria] Non-circumcising tribe, Bowen River, coastal Queensland.
[’Wiri, ‘Widi| Highlands behind Mackay, Queensland.

145

[*Widi] Take Monger district, Western Australia,

Sine Sutton River, Queensland,

[7Jaga:| Upper Gilbert River, Queensland.

j’Ru: aes ‘Ku:gka:i] Thomson River, near Stonehenge, Queensland.
|INuygari| Upper Nebine Creek, Qucensland.

[| Pitjare| Non-circumcising, Warrego River, Queensland.

|’Bitjara] Circumcising people at Bulloo Downs, South-west Queensland,
‘Badjiri| Seuth of Cunnamulla, Queensland.

[Kutjel| Einasleigh River, Queensland.

Kutjale| Basalt River, Queensland.

‘Maikuduy| Circumcising tribe, Upper Leichhardt River, Queensland.
|’Maikulan, “Maikulun] Non-circumcising, head waters of Norman River,
Queensland.
|’Jukam'be| Boonah district, South Queensland,

Jukembal} New Ifngland Plateau, New South Wales.

| Kutebal| Upper Staaten River, Queensland.

fKitabal] Upper Richmond River, New South Wales.

"Kukatji| Non-circumeising tribe, Gulf of Carpentaria, Queensland.

| Kukatja] Tfight-class circumeising tribe in Western McDonnell Range,

Central Australia
‘Kokata| No-class tribe, north of Wynbring, South Australia.
jyalia} Light-class tribe north-west of McDonnell Range, Central Australia.
yalea| No-class tribe north-west of Ooldea, South Australia
[’Min:e)] (means south); apphed to non-circumcising tribe at Albany,

Western Australia.
[Mirniy, Mi:nin| (means man) applied to cireumcising tribe near Eucla,
Western Australia.
J’Jukul] Leichhardt Bar at head of tidal waters of Roper River, North
Australia.
[*Jokula| Mainland opposite Wellesley Islands, Queensland.
|’nandi| North of Roper River, North Australia.
[‘gandji] = [’Kotandji] Jfeadwaters of McArthur River, North Australia.
A distinction must also be made between similarly sounding names with entirely
different meanings. ‘Thus, the name [’Min:ey] is applied to people around
Albany, South-western Australia. The root of this term means “south” and their
word for man is [’njunaj. It thus must not in any way be confused (as has,
unfortunately, happened in the literature) with the [’Mirnin}] = [’Mi: nin], a
circumceising-and-subincising tribe of the coast between Eyre and the Head of
the Great Australian Bight, among whom the root [’mirnit) | means “man.”
Where extended and contracted forms of a name occur, the more usual one
has been adopted if knowledge is sufficient to enable a fair assessment to be made of
native usage. Sometimes the penultimate syllable of a name tends to be lost, ¢.g.,
[Wilja: li] for [Wiljakali], [’Ku:nka:if for ['Ku:ykari], [’Wai: pi] for

146

[’Wailpi]. In such cases, the vowel preceding the elided syllable is often extended.
Usually the more clearly enunciated form is preferred. In a few cases, ¢.g.,
[‘Jankundjara], instead of [’Jankundjadjara], which are about equally commonly
employed, the shorter form has been arbitrarily chosen because it is less
cumbersome.

The last-named example brings up the vexed question of synonyms and the
contradictory results occasionally obtained by different workers using varied
methods of approach. In 1933 the term Jangkundjara was obtained for the
people whose ancestral home was about the castern Musgrave and Everard
Ranges. In 1934 a similar term was independently volunteered by members of a
group of the same tribe who, having left the Everard Range country in 1917
(date fixed by eclipse), were then living at Ooldea. The term has validity, since
it is independently known to two groups of the same tribe. It ts paralleled by a
term, Pitjandjara, used by a neighbouring people to the west. More recently
(1937) another worker heard, but has not yet published, a word |’Wirtjapa-
‘kandja| as the tribal term for the same folk. In 1939 the last-named term was
unknown to another individual consulted, estimated to be eighty-five years of age,
who used the term Jangkundjara.

An explanation which cecurs is that new tribal designations may arise in
some areas, and old ones may fall into disuse. If a new word has arisen since the
break-up of this tribe in 1917, it may not be known to all the dispersed survivors.
It is also likely that more than one term may be in use concurrently. Thus at
Ilermannsburg Mission, elderly [’Kukatja] people still dislike the derisive term
[’Loritja] applicd to them by the [‘Aranda|. Nevertheless, members of a
younger generation are apparently becoming reconciled to it, especially as it has
become customary to use it on the mission in preference to the real term
[’Kukatja].

Meruop or SETTiInc Out CATALOGUE oF TRIBES

In the following catalogue of tribes, a phonetic rendering is first given on
the left side of the page, followed, where considered desirable, by phonetic
transcriptions of alternatives, extremes of native usage, etc. A brief description
of the location of the tribe is then given in terms of present-day names of places
on the maps. It is hoped that most place names mentioned in the list may be
found on the map. A non-phonetic list of the principal forms current in the
literature is also given at the end of the description of localities to assist im the
tracing of references, the more important of which are cited. Exhaustive treat-
ment could not be considered within the limits of space in these Transactions. In
the list of old spellings the data has, as far as possible, been arranged in order of
departure from the accepted form, so that aberrant renderings, when they occur,
are usually placed near the last.

To extend the tribal list to embrace all names, synonyms and variations
applied to them by other surrounding tribes would tend to swell the list over-
much; important ones are given in the following form:

147

Loritja (Aranda term) Maduntara (of southern tribes).

Owing to printing difficulties it has not usually becn possible to give close
transcriptions of some of the less important synonyms relegated to the list of
alternatives, even when new; they can usually be distinguished by the remarks
which follow them in brackets. For general writings, where close phonetic render-
ings are unnecessary or difficult owing to typographical and other difficulties, the
form shown at the extreme right of the page is recommended for use. All tribes
of which the names aud new data have been obtained during field work are indicated
in the catalogue by being shown without brackets. The capital letter “IT” is added
at the end of list of references to show that the sources include new data in the
present author’s possession. Fresh information is given for the distribution of
about 400 tribes. Where the information given has been derived from published
or manuscript sources without field control the tribal name is indicated in the
catalogue by the deduced and rather generalised phonetic equivalent being placed
in round brackels.

Puoxeric TRANSCRIPTION EM PLOYED

The phonetic transcription employed is an adaptation of the International
Phonetic Alphabet arranged by a Language Committee at the University ol
Adelaide, with additions (Tindale 1935 (2) and 1937, Capell 1940), For con-
venience, the symbols employed may be summarised as follows:

CONSONANTS
Labial Interdental Alveolar Palatal Cerebral Velar
Plosives - - b op d™t d t dj tj at g ok
Fricatives - vow a) j r Ww
Nasals - - m n n 1 gn n
Rolled - - r
Lateral - - 1 lj
VOWELS
i] it, machine fu] full, food
e| there fo] comme (Fr.), almost not
e| allez (Fr.) almost they fo] obey, almost oak
e| earth, nurse fei] they
ja] father, Mann (Ger.) fai] light
fa] cat jau| Ilaus (Ger.), almost house
jal cut foi] boy
[’} stress mark | : |] indicates lengthened vowel or
consonant,
[°] glottal stop [ | indicates isolated word in
general text is phonetically
transcribed.

@) Tn the accompanying map letters with a vertical stroke beneath them correspond
to those shown in black letters here; those with a dot beneath them are indicated in this
text by italics.

148

A median course has been chosen in the differentiation of the vowel sounds.
This may have led to the perpetuation of some errors, but these are perhaps of
less importance, since the pronunciation of the vowels is subject to variation in
the mouths of the aborigines themselves. In the main Hst the terms shown in
phonetic script have been transcribed after personal contact with one or more
individuals of the tribe concerned. Tor names of tribes of which the author has
no first-hand information to offer, the form given in round brackets as a phonctic
equivalent is merely an attempt to give a broad approximation to the pronuncia-
tion, and may be regarded as of the value of a personal opinion.

Mistakes introduced by absence of accurate phonetic renderings are respon-
sible for many sccming duplications of tribal terms. The use of unnecessary or
misleading prefixes and suffixes may also prove a source of confusion, There
are also undcubtedly wide variations of current usage within even a single tribe,

as instanced by Tindale 1935 (2). p. 264.

The Queensland tribal term |[’Maidakari|, which tends to [’Maidakadi], is
an iluminating example of the range of error introduced by imperfect attempts
at transcription. The normal variation of [r] to [d], which is indicated in the
above phonetic transcription, has perhaps added to the confusion. Some attempted
spellings of this tribal name are: Mitakoodi, Mitakudi, Mitro(o)-goordi,
Mit(t)agurdi, Maitakudi, Mayatagoorri1, Mythuggadi, Mythaguddi. In the four
first-named the first vowel, written “7,” should evidently be given the value of
fai]. The [d] sound has been variously attempted. It is evident that it is lack
of a sure phonetic vehicle that has been responsible for the majority of the seem-
ing differences, for cach transcriber has had confidence in his own rendering.
On the basis of the literature, without field control, Davidson (1938) preferred
AMitakudi which, read phonetically, is likely to perpetuate an error, originally
caused by bad phonetics.

A glaring fault in old Australian vocabularies and among the older carto-
graphers, often affecting tribal terminology, is the defective hearing and iran-
scription of nasal sounds. This is marked in the rendering of |[q] (as in singer)
by gn, thus Gnuin for [’gewin], a tribal name; gnanema for [’yama|, meaning a
rock-waterhole; Wongkongnuru for [’Woukanuru], a tribal name. Some af these
errors of hearing are so confirmed in popular use that critical observations to the
contrary are apt to be ignored and decried. The error is the more insidious since
oceasional field workers have found difficulty in discriminating between [4] and
[gn], habitually using [gn] in speaking native words, especially those with initial
ly]. The cerebral nasal [gn] does occur but is rare.

Differentiation between the various nasal sounds is important in Australia,
and aberrant transcription of [n] and related sounds has been the cause of some
errors and apparent synonyms. Thus Yunga is written for [’Njuna:] =
[Nuna:]. In this case, the interdental [n] which tends towards [nj] has been
mistakenly rendered as [j].

149

PilyStOGRAPLLIC AND ECOLOGICAL CONTROLS APPARENT IN TRIBAL DISTRIBUTION

‘The principles of human geography apply with particular force in the dis-
tribution of primitive aboriginal tribes. Without technical aids other than spear,
boomerang, fire and canoe, the Australian aborigine has had relatively little power
to transgress barriers set by ecological and geographical position. Living, as he
often does, near the borderline between adequate nutrition and starvation, his
personal skill and his very detailed knowledge of nutritional sources in his own
territory are often the only assets separating hint from starvation and _ thirst.
With feeble resources for transport and restricted means for preservation of food,
he is limited in his wants by the immediate availability of the primary stuffs of
life, water, firewood, vegetable foods and game. If he camps too near to water,
game will be disturbed, and there will be no firewood, for this will have been
already used by his ancestors; if he remains too far away there will be transport
difficiiies. Ife must observe a nice balance between these factors, bearing in
nund also the importance of visibility in ensuring safety from cnemics, and the
inability of his only burden bearers, his wives, to travel more than three to five
miles away from camp, gather root foods and return in the day.

When accurately plotted on large scale maps, it is thus not very surprising to
find often there is a high degree of correlation between tribal limits and ecological
and geographical boundaries, Divides, mountain ranges, rivers, general ecological
and plant associational boundaries, microclimatic zone limits, straits and peninsulas
often furnish clear-cut and stable boundaries. Some of ihese are evident even
on the small seale of the present map. In the deserts, cluster distributions of
hordes around the few permanent waters are equally clear and waterless tracts
effectively delimit many tribal boundaries. Other seemingly waterless arcas
possess tree-root water resources sufficient to maintain communities which have
become adapted to the utilisation of such specialised sources.

So also lines of communication and migration routes have tended to follow
natural lines of least resistance across Australia, often clinging to open plains,
erecks and rivers, and to lines of waters along ranges, shunning dense forests
and rugged mountains. There are migration trend-lines running away from areas
ol easy access in the north into areas of isolation and refuge in the cast, south
and south-west.

In considering these ecological facts, it must be remembered that while an
advanced agricultural economy demands heavily watered country and timbered
areas may be desirable and attractive, the reverse is likely to be the case for the
aborigines—the most attractive areas are often open and preferably grassy plains
wherever there is some water aud much game. Dense wet forests become refuge
arcas, only to be sought by those less fortunate tribes whose physical and material
inferioritics condemn them to the least desirable paris of primitive man’s
environment. Previously Tindale (1937) has commented on some geographical
factors involved in tribal distributions and boundaries; many examples can be
noted on the accompanying map.

150

The gencral reverse relationship between size of tribal area and rainfall is
marked. The dry belt west of Townsville contrasts with the wetter country north
and south. Note also the wide-ranging desert tribes whose areas increase to a
maximum size in the sterile Western (or Great Victoria) Desert. Notable
exceptions seem to be: (1) the fisher-folk of the Murray River who enjoy special
food advantages; (2) areas of postulated culture clash, such as in North-east
Arnhem Land, Daly River and Boulia District, Queensland, where fragmentation
scems to have taken place; and (3) possibly among the Kamilaroi and Wiradjuri,
where especially widespread communities seem to have developed in relatively
fertile country, In the last-named areas we seem to discern the beginnings of a
more advanced type of political organisation.

Where boundaries for a tribe scem to be well established, the fact is indicated
on the accompanying map by heavy broken lines. Where this boundary is based
on good but insufficiently detailed information, dots indicate a probable
boundary, while the absence of any indication points to absence of data. ‘Two
thicker Hnes, the onc indicating the limits of dispersion of the custom of cireum-
cision and the other of the less widespread rite of subincision, are also shown.
The boundary for the last-named rite is fixed in the cast, but is less satisiactorily
established in the west, and is possibly not the same as the rather well-established
line indicating the limits of circumcision rites.

Since there have been gross changes of boundaries in Post-European times,
every endeavour has been made to indicate all these boundaries as they were
immediately preceding the advent of white interference. The detailed subject of
recent historic iribal movements may be disctissed more fully elsewhere. Some
tribal movements which at first sight seem entirely natural may have been brought
about by release of population pressure through white interference, the change
having its reaction in movements far beyond areas of white occupation.

in the Great Western Desert, there are seeming incoherencies imposed on
tribal aggregation by the long and frequent dispersal of hordes and single families
over a wide area. This dispersal alternates with irregularly occurring temporary
contacts with other units of the tribe brought about by the necessity for finding
succour at common watering places whenever the drying up of wells, cte., forces
small parties to diverge from their normal beats. On the border of the tribal areas
there may be a temporary mingling of tribes. This occasional necessity for making
common cause with others in obtaining water and food supplies tends to develop
or keep alive the widespread community of language, modes of living, and
cusioms among the Desert tribes. It also leads to some fighting. It might be
well argued that the groups called tribes in the Western Desert are not of the
game political value as those found in other parts of Australia. Careful enquiry,
however, suggests that they are equally valid, that the areas occupied are discrete
and that the distributions are based on physiographic realities. Among the

[’Pitjandjara] there is a native term meaning “anywhere is a camp,” denoting

that rare and brief period after heavy general rain when temporary waters are

151

abundant. At this time the uttermost confines of the Desert may be visited, and
the tribal territories might even seem to interdigitate or overlap. As soon as
drier weather arrives, the people fall back on more permanent supplies of water.
The most permanent are jealously husbanded against a dry period. ‘The
|’Pitjandjara] turn to deep sand soaks and rock-sheltered pools in the Mann and
Petermann Ranges, the |’Jaykundjara] always returned towards the Everard
Range waters (prior to the 1914 drought and the onset of pastoral settlement in
1919), for these had never previously in living memory failed them. Many
|‘na: dadjara] go to Warupuju Spring in the Warburton Range which, they also
claim, has never failed. Thus in ordinary dry times the tribal limits are rather
rigidly defined, and it is only when unusual droughts occur that the limits are
transgressed by other than native travellers. In this category may be included
men carrying trade parcels, new songs, or dances, or accompanied by youths seek-
ing potential fathers-in-law to initiate them by means of the rites of circumcision
and subincision.

At Warburton Range our 1935 Anthropological Expedition unexpectedly
witnessed the arrival of a horde of [Nan:a] or [’yan:adjara| folk who, having
been driven east from the country about Lake Carnegie by lack of water, had
made their first important eastward contact in a generation. A few of the visitors
were known to the local [’na:dadjara], the rest were strangers; the languages
show dialectic differences. An inter-marriage had at one time occurred, but the
bride had been a stolen one.

The well-timbered and mountainous areas of castern Australia, cut into
numerous isolated areas by the vagaries of the Great Dividing Range and its
crosion planes and surfaces, have been responsible for the development of many
tribal groupings; some of these have been seemingly preserved for relatively long
periods of time.

In another place, Tindale and Birdse!l have drawn attention to the presence
of an important rain-forest or rain-scruh refuge area in the Cairns hinterland in
Queensland where mixed peoples, whose physical type tends toward that of the
primitive Tasmanians, have survived. They appear even to retain some cultural
elements found principally in those extinct people. Of these Tasmanoid peoples
about a dozen small tribes are now known.

Notes on SoMeE Nortir AUSTRALIAN ‘TRIBES

Tribes in the vicinity of Darwin became disrupted and dispersed before
adequate enquiries were made, so that uncertainty exists regarding the status of
some within the area north of a line joining Fog Bay, Mount Bundecy, Mount
Danicls, and Liverpool River, where tribes not practising circumcision formerly
occurred.

Several foci of very early disturbance of the aborigines existed, such as on
Melville Island, where a British military establishment was present at Fort
Dundas for five years (from 1824 to 1829). At Raffles Bay from 1827, and

152

later at Port Essington in 1838, there were also settlements which were later
abandoned. Along the north coast of Arnhem [and there was much intericrence
through the trading and fishing voyages of Malays. Earl (1846) indicates that
every prau carried one or more aborigines among its crew, leading to early inter-
tribal intercourse and changes on a scale not found elsewhere on the continent
until modern times.

Accounts of the Malays and of the results of their visits have been given by
Tindale (1925, 1928), Jennison (1927), and Warner (1933 and 1937). Slave-
making raids from Portuguese Timor are believed to have occurred before 1818
(King, 1827), and occasional individuals of probable mixed Malay origin were
reported among them when first noticed by European voyagers.

Stanner (1933 and 1937) has discussed tribes from the Daly River district,
but there are synonyms among his names and he has not yet given adequate data
to enable them to be differentiated. ‘Tribes of the southern parts of North Aus-
tralia are, on the whole, better known, except in a region west of Tennant Creck
where the western limits of several are not defined.

For Arnhem Land tribal data are so conflicting that reference to original papers
is recommended, In north-eastern Arnhem Land, neither Webb (1933) nor
Warner (1931, 1937) have sccmingly disentangled the skeims of hordes, languages,
tribes, and sub-tribes. Warner, partly for convenience, chose a term Murngin
for the people occupying the area east of a line drawn from Goyder River to
Blue Mud Bay. He regarded the major unit as a tribe. Webb (1933) suggested
that Murngin was a term applicable only to people belonging to the Jiritja moicty,
and that it could not be regarded ag a tribe in the sense acceptable in other parts
of Australia. Warner (1937) did not directly discuss Webb’s conclusions, and
some uncertainty still exists. Meanwhile an historical interpretation of the
published data may be indicated as follows:

Legends indicate that the focus of Murngin life formerly lay at Blue Mad
and Caledon Bays. May we not, therefore, assume that a recent expansion of the
former inhabitants of this district has occurred? During this period some of the
Caledon Bay folk have moved out into surrounding areas, where there has been
an absorption of surrounding tribes. In the process, some of the primitive
Caledon Bay hordes have grown so large that each has become in effect a super-
horde (the mala of the aborigines). thus developing virtually a new type of local
organisation, Some of the horde clements still remain in the mala, although it is
so much larger than the normal horde. Within the sala a more restricted
organisation is now developing by the expansion of single families. In the place
of the normal hordes there are now superfamilies.

During this postulated expansion of the Caledon Bay people, elements of
several formerly distinct peripheral tribes may have been partly ingested in the
mala, including the Ritarngo, Djinba, Jandjinung, Dai. They were relegated to
the local organisation as parts of the mala. It may be noticed that in the case

153

of the Djinba, one of these suggested peripheral tribes, the mala is coextensive
with the tribal term as applied by Mara and other southern people.

This theory of the expansion of the horde to form a azala or superhorde
might account for the retention among more southern tribes such as the Ngandi.
Nungubuju, Ingura, and Mara of patterns of thought which regard the Ritarngo.
Djinba, Dai, ete., as tribes equivalent to their own, even though these original
tribal units may have become absorbed :n the expansion of the people whom they
now know as Balamumu.

Of the aggressiveness of the Balamumu there can be no doubt, and the
present writer was, in 1920-21, witness of the fears of the Ingura men on Groote
Lylandt when, for many months, they were under threat of invasion by
Balamumu raiders.

Qf the causes of the suggested expansion little is known, but Warner
attributes the breaking down of older levels of Murngin culture to the stress of
impact with the Malays.

Warner says that clans of both Dua and Jiritja moieties are present among
the historical Balamumu, so that even today it could be regarded as a tribe in the
normal Australian sense; nevertheless, the boundary between it and Murngin
territory is poorly defined, and Webb, by applying the term Balamumu merely to
one superfamily of one mala (the Djiring) belonging to the Dua moiety, shows that
the available data are inconclusive and our knowledge is not yet sufficient for an
understanding of the status of these “tribes.”

Since Warner (1937) has not discussed Webb’s (1933) data, the matter rests
until further studies have been undertaken. For convenience, Warner's 1937
views are pliced on the map.

Notes oN Some QutenstAnp TRIBES

In 1939 Sharp gave a list of tribes in the north-eastern part of Queensland
without definite localization beyond numbers on a sketch-map, of which the scale
is too small to ensure correct placings. For most of the tribes he lists from south
of the Nassau River the present writer had independent field-data as to boundaries,
eic. The present map was first compiled in August, 1939. In 1940 McConnel
published additional data for Cape York with an excellent map, and also gave data
for a coastal strip between Cooktown and Cairns. Most of her southern tribes
are detailed also in the report of the present expedition. This was forwarded to
Harvard for printing in September 1939; the reference is not vet to hand. Miss
McConnel’s new data has been taken into consideration as far as possible in the
final stages of compiling this text. Tor detailed studies of Northern Cape York
tribes original papers should be consulted, since the statements of Sharp, McConnel
and Thomson seem to be in some ways conflicting. For about half the tribes the
present writer has some independent information, chiefly obtained from dispersed
members of these tribes; he has also visited the Princess Charlotte Bay district.

154

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is indebted to Mr. and Mrs. J. B. Birdsell and Mrs. N. B. Tindale,
his companions on the Harvard-Adelaide Universities Expedition, for their
co-operation with him in these studies, which formed one section of the pro-
gramme of the Expedition.

He is indebted to Professor E. A. Hooton who perceived the desirability of
detailed studies of the full- and mixed-blood peoples of Australia, and whose
interest made the expedition possible. Mr. S. J. L. Simmons, the draughtsman of
the South Australian Lands Department, redrew the accompanying plan for
reproduction, and its clarity is due to his painstaking care.

SUMMARY

This paper gives a tribal map of Australia and a catalogue of the established
tribes, based principally on recent field-work with additions from the literature.
Wherever known the boundaries of each tribe are given, together with some of
the more important references. ‘ihe paper is an outcome of the combined
Anthropological Expedition of the Department of Anthropology, Harvard Uni-
versity, and the University of Adelaide, 1938-1939.

QUEENSLAND TRIBES
‘Ankamuti Ankamuti
Loc.: From Cape York south-west to Vrilya Point; inland almost to
head of Jardine River.
Alt.: Yumakundji (probably Jathaikana term).
Rei: MeConnel 1940, T.

’Arebe, “A: rap Araba
Loc.: At Retreat, Miranda Downs and Vanrook; south to Gilbert River;
north to Staaten River and beyond; not further east than Emu Creek.
Alt.: Aripa, Ngariba (Walangama term).
Ref.: Sharp 1939, T.

‘Atyinuri, ’Atjinadi Atjimurt
Loc.: Upper Ducie River south to Upper Batavia River. The Ulwau-
wutyana (or Ebawudjena) are probably a part of this tribe.
Alt.: Adjinadi, Itinadyand.
Ref.: Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940, ‘T.
*Ajabada Ajabatha
Loc.: From near Coen south to Upper Morehead River; east to
Musgrave; west to headwaters of Coleman and Holroyd Rivers; at Ebagoola.
Alt.: Aiabadu, Aiyaboto, Koka Ai-ebadu.
Ref.: Thomson 1935, Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940, T.

“Ba:berem, ‘Ba: baram Rarharam
Loc.: Great Dividing Range, north to Mareeba, south to Mount Garnet;
west to Alma-den (formerly a rain scruh dwelling people; now on sterile and
rugged granite ranges).

155

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—CONTINUED

Alt.: (Um)Barbarem, Wumbabaram (Tjapukai term), Woombarbarram,

Booburam.

Ref.: Mathews 1898 (2), Richards 1926, Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940, T.

*Badjiri Badjiri

Loc.: From Hungerford to Evlo on Paroo River; east to Barringun,
Tinnenburra, Tuen and Cunnamulla; at Caiwarro and eastern side of
Currawinya. Not west of Paroo River or at Thargomindah. (Not to be
confused with Pitjara of headwaters of Warrego River).

Alt.: Baddyeri, Byjerri, Baderi, Poidgerry, Badjedi.

Ref.: Myles in Curr 1886, Looker in Curr 1886, Mathews 1898 (2), 1904,
Kelly 1935, T.

(Baiali) Baiali
Loc.: At mouth of Fitzroy River; on Curtis Island; at Keppel Bay,
south to Calliope River and Gladstone.
Alt.: Byellee, Bich, Byellel, Orambul.
Ref.: Curr 1887, Howitt 1904.

‘Bakanambia, ’Wanbara, Kokolamalama Bakanambia

Toc.: Southern and western shores of Princess Charlotte Bay; inland
to tidal limits of Normanby and North Kennedy Rivers, at about Lakefield.

Alt: Wanbara (alternative terra), Kokolamalama (of southern tribes).
Ref.: Roth 1901, Hale and Tindale 1933, T.

(Bakanu) Bakanu
Loc.: Upper Edward River.
Ref.: Sharp 1939.

“Bandyjin, ’Bijai Bandyjin
Loc.: Hinchinbrook Island (but not on adjoining mainland).
Alt.: Bijai (language name),
Ref.: Tindale.

"Barada Barada
Loc.: On Boomer Range from Fitzroy River north to Nebo; west to

Mackenzie and Isaacs Rivers, and Bombandy.
Ref.: Tindale.

‘Bar: ne, ’Parnabal "Barna
Loc.: Headwaters of Isaacs River, west to Denham Range; south to

Cotherstone; at Grosvenor Downs.
Ref.: Tindale.

‘Baruyngam, ’Baruygama Barunggam
Loc.: Head-waters of Condamine River east of Jackson to about Dalby;
north to Dividing Range about Wongongera; south to Tara; at Chinchilla.
Alt.: Murrungama, Murrum-ningama.
Ref.: Mathews 1898 (1), T.

‘Baruyguan Barunguan
Loc,: West side of Princess Charlotte Bay north to Cape Sidmouth.
Alt.: Baka (Kandju term), Banjigam (Bakanambia term), Entjinga
(native name of place at mouth of Stewart River), Yintjangga, Yintyingga.
Ref.: Hale and Tindale 1933, Thomson 1933, 1934, McConnel 1940, T.

156

QUEENSLAND TRIBES--CONTINUED
‘Gatjala, ‘Batala Batjala
Loc.: Iraser of Great Sandy Island. (Name means sea folk; the
majority were transferred to Yarrabah, near Cairns, about 1902.) (Curr
apparently does not distinguish between real inhabitants of Iraser Island
and Kabi Kabi mission residents from the adjoining mainland.) (N.B.—On
map Fraser Island is joined to mainland in error.)
Alt.: Badiela, Patyala.
Rei.: Curr 1886, Mathew 1910, Keliy 1935, T.
’Bidie, ’Liria Bidia
T.oc.: Western side of Thomson River and Cooper Creek, from Jundah
to near Gilpeppic; east to Keeroongooloo; west to Whitula Creek (must not
be confused with Biria of Bowen River).
Alt.: Birria, Piria.
Ref.: Curr and Fraser in Curr 1886, Mathews 1898 (1), T.
*Piganbul Rigambul
See New South Wales List.
“Bindal Bindal
Loc.: From mouth of Burdekin River north to Cape Cleveland; inland
to Leichhardt Range; at Avr.
Ref.: Tindale.
‘Diria, “irigaba Biria
Loc.: Bowen River north to junction with Burdekin River; east to
Clarke Range; west to Leichhardt Range; south to Netherdale. (Not to be
confused with Bidia of South-west Queensland.)
Alt.: Birigaha, Breeahba.
Ret.: Hodgkinson in Curr 1886, Kelly 1935, T.
"Bitjara Litjara
Loc.: At Bulloo Downs; north to Orient, west to Grey Range; cast to
Clyde, south to Bulloo Lake floodplain. (Not to be confused with Pitjara of
Upper Warrego River, C. Queensland, or Badjiri of Paroo River.)
Alt.: Bithara.
Ref.: Myles in Curr 1886, T.
‘Buluwat, ’Buluwandji Buluwai
L.oc.: East of Volga on crest of Coast Range; north to Kuranda (rain
forest dwellers).
Alt.: Bulwandji.
Ref.: McConnel 1940, T.
‘Dalra, “Djalia "Dalla
Loc.: Sandgate north to Noosa; inland to Woodford; at Nambour.
Alt.: Mooloola (place name, now Mooloolabar),
Rel: Westaway and Landsborough in Curr 1887, T.
‘Darembal Daramba!
Loc.: Arthur Point along cast side of Normanby Range (Pine Mount)
to mouth of Fitzroy River and Keppel Bay; inland to Boomer Range (other
information suggests an extinct tribe at foot of Range); at Marlborough,
Yeppoon, Yaamba, Rockhampton and Gracemere,
Alt.: Varumbal, Tarumbul, Charumbul,
Ref.: Archer in Curr 1887, Roth 1901, Howitt 1904, ‘I.

157

QUEENSLAND TRIBES-~-CONTINUVED

( Djagaraga ) Djagaraga
Loc.: Cape York south to Escape River.
Alt.: Dyagaraga, Gudang (horde name), Kekosino (horde name).
Ref.: Jardine in Curr 1886, Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940,

*Djaku:nde Djakunda

Loc.: Between Upper Boyne and Auburn Rivers; north to Hawkwood;

south to Dividing Range.

Ref.: Tindale.

*Djankun, ‘yaikuyu Djankun

Leec.: From Mount Mulligan south to Alma-den; east to Dimbula near

head of Walsh River; west to Mungrana.
Alt.: Chungki, Chunkunbura, Chunkunberry, Shanganburra, Koko-

tjangun (Koko-jelandi term), Kokomutju (northern term), Mutju,
Ngaikungo.
Ref.: Mathews 1898 (2), Richards 1926, Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940, T.

"Djiru:, [: mba Dyiru
Loc.: Clump Point and vicinity; north to Murdering Point; south to
mouth of Tully River (rain forest dwellers with social organisation of dual
type; not to be confused with inland Djirubal).
Ref.: Tindale.
*Dyiruhal Dyjirubal
Loc.: Herberton south to headwaters of Herbert River north of Cash-
mere; at Ravenshoe, Millaa Millaa and Woodletgh; east to Tully Falls.
(Plateau rain forest dwellers with social organisation of four-class type;
not to be confused with the coastal Djiru; erroneously placed on David-
son's map.)
Alt.: Tjirbal, Chirpalji.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), Sharp 1939, T.
E‘wamin, ‘“Gwamin, E‘gwamen Agwamin
Loc.: Head of Einasleigh and Copperfield Rivers; north to Georgetown,
east to Dividing Range, west to Oak Park and Forsayth. (Sharp's frag-
mentary data apparently did not permit his recognition of the unity of this
tribe.)
Alt.: Ak Waumin, Wamin, Wornmin, Waumin, Wawmin, Walamin.

Ret.: Roth 1897, Sharp 1939, T.

*Gia Gia
Loc.: Bowen to St. Helens; inland to Clarke Range; at Proserpine, Cape
Gloucester and Repulse Bay; not at Cape Conway,
Alt.: Kia, Bumbarra (place name; probably a horde).
Ref.: Shea in Curr 1886, Roth 1993 (5, p. 22), T.
Giabal

‘Giabel. ’Gomaigguru
Loc.: Between Allora and about Dalby, east to Gatton; west to Mill-
merran. (Data from adjoining tribe only; compare Kwiambal in N.S.W. List.)

Ref.: Tindale.

158

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—CONTINUED
’Goer Goeng
Loc.: From south end of Port Curtis to Kolan River, inland to Lowmead,
Miriam Vale and Baffle Creek.
Alt.: Goonine, Meeroni, Maroonee.
Ref.: Palmer 1884, Mathews 1898 (1), T.
"Gulyat Gulngai
Loc.: Tully River below Tully Falls, and Murray River; south to range
above Kirrama. (Inland rain forest dwellers.)
Alt.: Mallanpara, “Tully blacks.”
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), T.
‘Idindji Idindji
Loc.: Babinda north to Gordonvale; inland to Lake Barrine; a lowland
strip fronting Main Range from Gordonvale north to near Cairns; cast to
Prior Range. (Rain forest dwellers).
Alt.: Yidindji, Yidindyi.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), Sharp 1939, McConnell 1940, T.
‘T: tba Tlba
Loc.: On Cape River west to Dividing Range; north probably to
Goldsborough; east to about Suttor River; south to Lake Buchanan and
beyond; at Natal Downs.
Alt.: Yukkaburra, Mungerra (horde names); Eneby (said to be language
name).
Ref.: Armstrong, Tompson and Chatfield in Curr 1887, T.
Indjilindyi Indjilindji
See North Australian List.
*Tninai Iningat
Loc.: West of Dividing Range to Maneroo Creek and Longreach;
south to Mexico or beyond; north to Muttaburra, Bowen Downs and Aramac
(some moved west to Alpha in later years; the Wadjabangai may be a sub-
tribe; the Yankibura of Howitt are probably a horde of Kungkari and placed
too far east on his map).
Alt.: Muttaburra (horde name), Moothaburra, Mootaburra.
Ref.: Bennett 1877, Palmer 1884, Mathews 1898, Howitt 1904, T.

‘Trukandji lrukandji
Loc.: Narrow coastal strip from Cairns to Port Douglas (Mowbray
River); on tidal waters of Barron River at Redlynch.
Alt.: Yirkandji.
Ref.: Richards 1926, Sharp 1939, McConnell 1940, T,
*[:tu Ithu
Lec.: Noble Island and islands off Barrow Point (data scant; possibly
a horde of Mutumui).
Alt.: Wurkuldi,
Ref.: Hale and Tindale 1933, T.
‘Kabelbara Kabalbara
Loc.: West of Mackenzie and Isaacs Rivers to Peak Range; north
nearly to Cotherstone (Howitt’s term, written Jeti-marala, might be the
proper name; my informant knew only the above, which appears to be one

159

QUEENSLAND TRIBES-—-CONTINUED

applied to a horde of the tribe).
Alt.: ? Yetti-maralla,
Ref.: Howitt 1904, T.
‘Kabi’kabi Kabikabi
Loc.: Maryborough district; north to Childers and Hervey Bay; south
to head of Mary River and Cooroy: west to Coast Range and Kilkivan; at
Gympic; not at Fraser Island.
Alt.: Kabi, Karbi, Dippil (general term embracing several tribes in
S.E. Queensland).
Ref.: Ridley 1866, Mathew in Curr 1887, Howitt 1904 (borde names
only), Mathew 1910, 1914, T.
"Kairi Kairi
Loc.: Springsure north to Capella; west to Drummond Range; east to
Comet and Mackenzie Rivers |the Khararya (Kelly, 1935) are shown in
about the same position as is this tribe].
Ref.: Tindale.
‘Kalali Kalah
Loc.: Eulo west to Thargomindah and Bulloo River; upstream to
Norley; south to Orient, Clyde and Currawinya.
Alt.: Kullalh, Kullally.
Ref.: Mathews 1905 (2), Kelly 1935, T.
‘Kalibamu Kalibamu
Loc.: Between Leichhardt River and Morning Inlet; inland to Floraville
and Punchbowl.
Ref.: Tindale.

‘Kalkaduye, ‘Kalkedun Kalkadung

Loc.: West of Cloncurry to Mount Isa; south to Duchess and Selwyn
Range; at head of Cloncurry River; north to Glenroy.

Alt.: Kalkatongo, Kalkadoon, Kulkadoon, Kalkaladoona, Muntaba
(Maithakari term for southern Kalkadung), Rungkari (Maithakari term for
northern Kalkadung), Roongkari.

Ref.: Palmer 1884, Urquhart in Curr 1886, McGillivray in Curr 1886,

Roth 1897, T.

‘Kambuwal, *Gambabal Kambuwal
Loc.: Inglewood to Bonshaw, N.S.W.; north to Millmerran; on western
Slope of Dividing Range.
Alt.: Kambuwal, Kaoambal.
Ref.: MacPherson 1905, Kelly 1935, ‘T.
*Kandju Kandju
Loec.: Headwaters of Archer River; on tableland from Coen north to
head of Lockhart and Batavia Rivers; east to coastward slope of Mcllwraith
Range; west to Geikie Range and edge of plateau.
Alt.: Kanju, Kandyu, Kantju, Kanyu, Karnju, Karntju, Karnyu, Karnu,
Kamdhue.
Ref.: Mathews 1900 (5), McConnei 1932, 1940, Ilale and Tindale 1933,
Thomson 1933, T.

160

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—CONTINUED
‘Wa: yqulu Kangulu

Loc.: Dawson River south to Banana and Vheodore; west to Mackenzie
River, Comet River and northern end of Expedition Range; north to junction
of Isaacs and Mackenzie Rivers; at Blackwater and Dingo. The Don River,
Mount Morgan, east of Banana and about Rannes may have belonged to a
separate tribe (east of Gogango Range, west of the Coast Range).

Alt.: Kaangooloo, Khangalu, Kongulu, Kongalu, Konguli.

Ref.: McIntosh in Curr 1887, Howitt 1904, Kelly 1935, T.

‘Karendala Karendala

Loc.: On Cooper Creek at Durham Downs; north to Mount Hawitt,

east to McGregor Range and to Eromanga. (lhe Kurnandaburi of Howitt
probably this tribe, but may be the Kungadutji.)

Alt.: Kurnanda-buri, Kunanda-burt.

Ref. Howitt 1891, 1904, Mathews 1905, T.
‘WKaranja ivaranja
Loc.:. At Bedourie and King Creek: south to Cluny; west to Mount

David (Moorabulla); on Georgina River.

Alt.: Kurrana ( [’karana] = man), Mooraboola, Moorloobullo, Ooloo-

pooloo, Ngulubulu.

Ref.: Machattie in Curr 1886, Roth 1897, Elkin 1931, T.
‘IKarawa Karawa
See North Australian List.

‘Narbuyga Karbungga

Loc.: Jeannie River (data secant; may be a horde of Mutumui, which see).

Ref.: Tindale.
‘Warinbel Karingbal
Loc.: Headwaters of Comet River from below Rolleston to the Carnar-

von Range; west to Consuelo; cast to Expedition Range and Bedourie
(separate from Kangulu; Davidson's placings of this and neighbouring tribes
are based only on Kelly's sketch map showing Emerald fifty miles out of
position with respect to Springsure).

Alt.: Kaingbul, Karranbal, Kanoloo.

Ref.: Josephson in Curr 1887, Kelly 1935, T.
“Warundi Karundi
Loc.: Mouth of Norman River; west of Normanton to Flinders River,

inland to Milgarra.

Alt.: Karunti, Kurandi, Karrandee, Kutanda (allernative name; also a

“local group” t. Sharp).
Ref.: Armit in Curr, 1886, Sharp 1939, T.
‘Karuwali Karuwali
Loc.: Farrar Creek from near Connemara south to Beetoota, Haddon
Corner and Morney Plains; west to Durri and Monkira on Diamantina
River; east to Beal Range. (The Tunberri of Curr are probably part of the
same tribe.)
Alt.: Karawalla, Kurrawulla, ? Karorinje.
Ref.: Anon. in Curr 1886, Mathews 1898 (1), Elkin 1931, T.

161

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—-CONTINUED

‘Kaura’reg JNaurareg
Loc.: Prince of Wales Island and south-western islands of Torres
Straits.

Alt.: Kowrarega, Kauralaig.
Ref.: Haddon 1904, Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940, T.

‘Ka: wadji Kawadyji
Loc.: Night Island and on coast opposite (may include the Ombila,
which sce).
Alt.: Yankonyu, “Night Island.” Kawadji (Kandju term also).
Rel.: Hale and Tindale 1933, Thomson 1934, T,

“Keinjen Keinjan
Loc.: Stanthorpe north to about Hendon, east to Dividing Range; west
to beyond Thane.
Alt.: Gee-enyun.
Ret.: MePherson 1905, T.
‘Keramai Keramai

Loc.: Rockingham Bay south to Cardwell: north to near Murray River,
west to Cardwell Range (open forest dwellers),

Alt.: Kiramai, Wombelbara (Warkamai term),

Ref.: Cassady in Curr, 1886, Mathew 1926, T.

“Koa, “Goamalku

Koa
Loc.: Headwaters of Diamantina north to Kynuna, west to Middleton
and Hamilton River divide; east to Winton and Sesbania; south almost
to Cork.
Alt.: Goa, Goamulgo.
Ref.: Bennett 1877, Curr 1887, Roth 1897, Kelly 1935, T.
‘Koamu, “Oamu Koamu
Loc.: South of St. George on Balonne River, to Angledoo! and Brenda;
west to Bollon and Nebine Creck; at Dirranbandi, (Macpherson confused
this tribe with portion of Kamilaroi).
Alt.: Kuam, Kaoambal.
Ref.; Macpherson 1905, Kelly 1935, T.
*Koenpel, ’Djandai “Koenpal
Loc.: Southern two-thirds of Stradbroke Island. (The Nunukul,
which see, occupy northern portion.)
Alt.: Goenpul, Jandai, Tchandi, Jundai.
Ref.: Watkin in Curr 1887, Roth 1901 (1), T.
“Koinjmal, ’Koinjmurbare Koinjmal

Loc.: West of Normanby Range (Pine Mt.) to Styx; on Broad Sound
north to Cape Palmerston along a narrow coastal strip; inland to Coast
Range; south to Marlborough (nisprinted as Maryborough in Curr).

Alt.: Kooinmerburra, Kungimal, Kungalburra.

Ref.: Budgeman, Bucas and Muller in Curr 1887, Mathew 1898 (2),
Kelly 1935, T.

162

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—CONTINUED
‘Woko’bididjt Koko-bididji
Loc.: Headwaters of East Normanby River; at King Plains, south to
headwaters of Daintree River.
Alt.: Kokobididvi, Koko Piddaji.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), McConnel 1931, 1940, Sharp 1939, T.
‘Woko’bujyundji Koko-bujundyi
Loc.: Annan River; south to Rossville; west to Annan-Normanby
Divide. N.B.—Accidentally omitted from map; occupies northern half of
area indicated as for Jungkurara.
Alt.: Kokonyungal.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), McConnel 1931, 1940, T.

“‘WNokadaue Koko-daua
Toc.: North of Staaten River (boundaries not well defined).
Ref.: Sharp 1934, 1939, T.

‘IWoko’imudji Koko-imud ji
Loe.: From Endeavour River (Cooktown) north to south side of Cape
Ilattery; inland to Battle Camp and Welcome; at Cape Bedford.
Alt.: Kokojimoji, Kokoyimidir.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), McConnel 1931, 1940, ‘T.

‘WWoko’kuluygur Koko-kulunggur
Loc.: Mossman north to Daintree; inland to Mount Carbine.
Alt.: Koko-yalung.
Ref.:: McConnel 1940, T.

‘Koko’mini, A’kunkun IKoko-mini
Loc.: Middle Palmer and Mitchell Rivers west to about their junction;
east to Mount Mulgrave and Palmerville.
Alt.: Koko-minni, Kookaminnic, Koogaminny, Mirkin, Akunkun,
Akoon-koon, Akoonkool.
Ref.: Palmer 1884, Palmer in Curr 1886, Roth 1910 (18), Richards 1926,
McConnel 1931, Hale and Tindale 1933, Sharp 1939, T.

‘KKoko’njekodi oko-njekodi
Loc.: Starcke River; west nearly to Port Murdoch; south-east to Cape
Flattery; at Munburra. N.B—-On map naime is a little too far south.
Alt.: Koko-negodi.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), Hale and Tindale 1933, T.

“iSoko’patun Koko-patun
Loc.: East of Great Dividing Range, south of Mount Garnet; east to
Burdekin River; south to Dry River.
Ref.: Sharp 1939, T.

(*Koko’pera) Koko-pera
Loc.: About north of mouth of Nassau River.
Ref.: Sharp 1939,

163

QUEENSLAND TRIBES-——CONTINUED
Kwoko-walandja

‘INoko’walandja
Loc.: Head of Fast Normanby River: west to Dividing Range (secant
data only).
Alt.: Koko Katji (of Koko-jelandji).
Ref.: McConnel 1940, T.
“Koko’wara Ikoko-wara
Loc.: Normanby River from Lakefield south to Laura and Laura River
(the proper name has probably not been determined; Kokowara means

“rough speech’).
Alt.: Kookoowarra, “Laura-Deighton” tribe.
Mathews 1898 (2), Roth 1910 (18), McConnel 1931, Male and

Ref:
Tindale 1933, Sharp 1939, T.
KKoko-jawa

"Noko’jawa, Djauen, “Koko’rarmul
Loc.: East of Morehead River to Laura; south to Great Dividing Range;

Upper Hann and Kennedy Rivers.

Alt.: Jouon, AkuRarmul.
Ref.: Roth 1897, Hale and Tindale 1933, T.
Koko-jelandji

‘Koko’ jelandji
Loc.: Head of Palmer River, cast of Palmerville; south and west of
Dividing Range to Upper Mitchell River; east to Byerstown.
Alt.: Kokoyellanji, KokoYerlandji, Koko-yerlantji, Koko-yerlantchi.
MeConnei 1931, 1940, Sharp 1939, T.

Ref.: Roth 1910 (18),
‘KKona’ni:n, ‘Koko’papuy lkonanin
Loc.: South of Nassau River mouth (boundarics not yet defined),
Alt.: Gunanni, ? Goonamon, Kokopapung, Kokopapun (misprint).
Ref.: Mathews (1899), Roth 1910 (18), Sharp 1934, 1939, T.
Kongabula

‘Konyabula, ‘Onebula
Headwaters of Injune and Dawson Rivers above their junction;

Loc.:
east and north of Dividing Range; south of Carnarvon Range.

Alt.: Khungabula.
Ref.: Kelly 1935, T.
‘Koykandji Kongkandji
Loc.: Cape Grafton Peninsula west of Prior Range, south to mouth of

Mulgrave River.
Alt.: Kunggandyi, Kungganji, Kungand)ji.
Mathews 1898 (2), Roth 1910 (18), McConnel 1935, 1940, ‘T.
korenggoreng

Ret.:

‘Korengorey
Loc.: West bank of Upper Burnett River from Mundubhbera north to
Monto and Many Peaks; west to Dawson River; at Theodore and Hawk-
wood (not to be confused with Goeng).
Alt.: Curang-gurang, Gurang-gurang, Goorang-goorang, Koreng-
koreng.
Ref.: Marrett 1910, Mathews 1914, 1926, Brown 1918, Kelly 1935, ‘T.

164

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—-CONTINUED
"Kukatji Kukatji
Loc.: From Donor Hills north to Gulf of Carpentaria; at Inverlcigh and
Tempe Downs.
Alt.: Kukatja.
Ref.: Sharp 1939, T.

"Kulumali, ‘nule’yqulanji Kaulumali
Loc.: Near and east of Windorah. This is the casternmost circumcising
tribe in Queensland.
Rer.: Tindale.
"Kuyadu: tj Kungadutji
Loc.: Cooper Creek north of Durham Downs, east to Mount Howitt and
Kvyabra Creek; north to near Lake Yamma Yamma.
Alt.: Kungaditji, Kungarditchi, Kunatatchee.
Ref.: Heagney in Curr 1886, Mathews 1898 (1), Elkin 1931, T.
Kuygere Kunggara
Loc.: From Karumba north to Delta Downs; inland to Midlothian and
Lotus Vale.
Alt.: Koonkurri, Ungorri.
Ref.: Palmer in Curr 1886, Roth 1903 (5, p. 39), Sharp 1939, T.
"Kuygari Kunggari
Loc.: Upper Nebine and Mungallala Creeks north of Bonna Vonna and
Bollon, to Morven. Extended eastward and absorbed the Mandandanji in
early historic times; not to be confused with the Kuungkari of Barcoo
River.)
Alt.: Kungeri, Kungri, Ungorri.
Ref.: Ridley 1875, Kelly 1935, T.

‘Kuykalenja Kungkalenja
Loc.: On Georgina River north of Bedourie; from Moorabula west to
near Mulligan River; north to about Talaera Springs (scant data only
available).
Alt.: Kunkulenje, Koonkoolenya, Koomkoolenya.
Ref.: Roth 1897, T.
‘Ku: gkari, “Kuyhari, "Ku: yka:i Kuungkari
Loc.: On Thomson and Cooper (Barcoo) Rivers west to Jundah; north
to Westland and near Longreach; east to Avington, Blackall and Terrick
‘Terrick; south to Cheviot Range, Powell Creek and Welford. Not to be
confused with Kunggari of Upper Nebine Creek. N.B—On map final i of
Ku: ykari has been misprinted in green.
Alt.: Koonkerri, Kungeri, Koongerri; Yangeeberra, Yankibura.
Ref.: Ahern and Heagney in Curr 1886, Mathews 1898 (1), Howitt 1904,
Kelly 1935, T.
‘Ku inja Kunja
Toc.: Wrarrego River from Cunnamulla north to Augathella and
Burenda; west to Cheepie; east to Morven and Angellala Creck.
Ref.: Tindale.
‘Kutebal Kuthabal
Loc.: Middle Staaten River; south to about Emu Creek (not to be con-
fused with Kutjal).
Ref.: Tindale.

165

QUEENSLAND TRIBES-—-CONTINUED
‘Kutjel, “Kuritja:1 Kutjal
Loc.: Upper Staaten and Middle Einasleigh Rivers; north to about Lynd
River, south to about Lane Creck (not to be confused with Kutjala, which
were probably originally a detached segment of this tribe).
Alt.: Koochulburra, Okuntijel.
Ref.: Mathews 1898, Sharp 1939, T.
‘Kutjale Kutjala
Loc.: Mount Sturgeon, Mount Emu Plains; Lolworth and Reedy
Springs along both sides of Dividing Range; eastern boundary not defined
(moved south to Hughenden and Pentland in early days of settlement).
Ref.: Tindale.
’Laia Laia
Loc.: North of Palmer River, east to Dividing Range; west to head of
Alice River.
Alt.: Koko Laia, Kokowara (Koko-jelandji term; means feor or bad
speech), ? Koogobatha, Koogobathv.
Ref.: Palmer 1884, Mathews 1898 (2), Sharp 1939, T.

"Lardi: 1, “Kun: e’na Lardil
L.oc.: Mornington Island and Forsyth Islands.
Alt.: Laierdila, Kunana (native name for Mornington Island).
Ref.: Sharp 1935, 1939, T,

(Lo: tiga) Lotiga
Loc.: Upper Dulhunty River and McDonnell.
Alt.: ? Okara.
Ref.: Sharp 1939, McCounel 1940.

*Maikuduy Maikudung
Loc.: Upper Leichhardt River; north to Augustus Downs; south to
Mount Cuthbert; western boundary not well defined. (Similarities between
the name of this tribe and Maikulung and Maithakari have been sources of
confusion.)
Alt.: Mygoodan, Mayagoondoan, Mikoolun (sic Roth 1897; probably
nusprint).
Ref.: Armit in Curr 1886, Palmer in Curr 1886, Roth 1897, T.

‘Maikulan, ’Maikuluy Maikulung
Loc.: Middle Norman, Yappar and Clara Rivers; north to Milgarra;
east to Gregory Range. (In early historic times moved partly to the coast
about Normanton, where they have been thought to be indigenous).
Alt.: Mygoolan, Mykoolan, Micoolan, Mikkoolan,
Ref.: Armit in Curr 1886, T.

*Maisakari, ’Maidakadi Maithakari
Loc.: From Cioneurry north to Canobie on Cloncurry River; east to
Julia Creek junction, and Mount Fort Bowen.
Alt.: Maitakudi, Mayatagoorri, Mythugadi, Mythuggadi, Mythaguddi,
Mit(tjagurdi, Mitagurdi, Mitakoodi, Mitro(o)-goordi, Mitakudi.
Ref.: Palmer 1884, Palmer in Curr 1886, Roth 1897, Strehlow 1910,
Sharp 1939, T.

166

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—-CONTINUED
*Maijabi Maiabi
Loc.: On Cloncurry River south to Canobie, north to just above Donor
Hills, at Numbera (Conan Downs): east to midway between Flinders and
Saxby Rivers; west to Upper Dismal Creek and Leichhardt-Cloncurry Divide,
Alt.: Myabi, Miappe, Myappe, Miubbi.
Ref.: Armit and Palmer in Curr 1886, Roth 1897, T.

’Malununde Malununda
Loc.: Bentinck Island (these people have remained free from contact
with Europeaus; the name given is as from a Lardi:1 informant at Palm
Island. Sharp’s information is similar),
Alt.: Marlanunda, Maldanunda.
Ref.: Sharp 1939, T.

’Ma: mu Mamu
Loc.: Johnstone River; at Innisfail; inland to Nerada and Coast Range;
south to Murdering Point (rain forest dwellers).
Ref.: Tindale.

*Mandandanjt Mandandanji
Loc.: Maranoa and Balonne Rivers north of St. George: west to Bollon
and Wallan Creek; north to Donnybrook, Orallo, Yuleba and Dividing
Range; cast to Alton and Glenmorgan. (Amalgamated with Kuneggari in
early days of white occupation; now not always distinguished.)
Ref.: Tindale.

’Mare’ynanji, “Marukanji Marnganji
Loc.: Quilpie to Cheepie and Beechal, thence Paroo River to Eulo; on
Bulioo River south to Thargomindah; at Dynevor Downs and Ardoch.
Alt.: Murngain, Murgoin, Murgoan.
Ref.: Myles in Curr 1886, Mathews 1898 (1), Kelly 1935, T.

’Marulta Marulta
Loc.: At Lake Barrolka; south to Lake Yamma Yamima; west to Beal
Range; north-east towards Opalville and Cooper Creek, eastern boundary
uncertain. (The place name Barrolka may be an anglicisation of Marulta.)
Alt.: Marula.
Ref.: Howitt 1904, Strehlow 1910, Elkin 1931, T.

Maule Maula
Loc.: Roxborough Downs north to Carandotta and Urandangie on the
Georgina River; on Moonah Creek to near Rochedale, south-west to Pituri
Creek; at Walga. \
Alt.: Wolga (locality name}, Waloo-kera, Wollegarra, Elookera,
Yunnalinka (? horde at Carandotta).
Ref.: Curr 1886, Roth 1897, T.
’Majuh Majuli
Loc.: On Diamantina River from Davenport Downs and Diamantina
Lakes to Cork; Mayne River and Vergemont Creeks east to Tocal and
Carella; west to Springvale.
Alt.: Miorli.
Ref.: Roth 1897, T.

167

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—CONTINUED
(\{beiwum )

Mbeiwum
Loc.: Upper Watson River; at Merluna.
Alt.: KokMbewam.

Ref.: Sharp 1939, MeConnel 1940.
*Mian Mian
Loc.: Lower Belvando River north to Mount Douglas; at Bulliwallah;
west to Dividing Range; south to somewhere beyond Labona. (nian = men).
Alt.: Munkibura.
Ref.: Bennett 1877, Howitt 1883, 1888, 1904, T.
’Min’gin (not Minin) Mingin
Loc.: Barkly (Barclay) River south of Burketown; west of Leichhardt
River; south to Gregory Downs. (Sharp said this tribe was extinct: a few
are still living, having migrated to the east coast).
Alt.: Minkin, Myngeen.
Ref.: Palmer 1884, E. Curr in Curr 1886, Sharp 1939, T.
*Minjeybal Minjangbal
Loc: From Southport south to Cape Byron, New South Wales; inland
to Murwillumbah and Nerang Creek. (minjang = whal, lit. “people who
say minjang.” mi: bin = man).
Alt.: Minyung.
Ref.: Bray, Fowler, O'Connor and Prior in Curr 1887, Schmidt 1919, T.
’Mitaka Mittaka
Lec.: From Durri north to Cluny; east to Monkira: about Lake
Machattie.

Alt.: Mittuka.
Ref.: Reese 1927 (ms), T.
‘Mityamba, 7Kumbulmara

Mitjamba
Loc.: On Woolgar and Stawell Rivers; north to Gledswood, west to
Saxby Downs, east to Chudleigh Park: south to Cambridge Downs.
Ref.: Tindale.

’Morowari

Morowari
Sce New South Wales List.
Muluridji Muluridji
Loce.: i

Headwaters of Mitchell River, north to Mount Carbine, east to
Rumula; south to Mareeba: west to Woodville.

Alt.: Molloroiji, Mularitchee, Koko-moloroitji (Koko-kulunggur term),
Koko-moloroiji.

Ref.: Mathews 1898 (2), McConnel 1931, 1940, Sharp 1939, T.
(Mu: tjati) Mutjati
Loc.: Shelburne Bay north to about Orfordness.

Alt.: Mutyati.
Ref.: McConnel 1940,

‘Mutumui, “Baulam, “Bas@éom Muttumui
Loc.: From Bathurst Bay and Cape Melville south to Starcke River.

Alt.: Baulam (Bakanambia term), Basthom (Bakanambia
? individual).

Ref.:

variation,

Hale and Tindale 1933, T.

168

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—-CONTINUED
‘Neweg Nawagi
Loc.: South-west of Herbert River; principally on high ranges (rain
forest dwellers; contrast with Warkamai who live in coastal “dry” forest
country).
Ref.: Tindale.

‘nandanara Negandangara
Loc.: Upper Wilson River; north to Eromanga and beyond; south to
Nockatunga.

Alt.: FEromarra (? place name).
Ref.: Myles in Curr 1886, T.

“yaro, “galani Negaro
Loc.: Whitsunday Island; ranging over Cumberland Islands; also to
mainiand at Cape Conway and on mountains east of Proserpine; (ironbark
canoes used for journeying between the islands).
Rei.: Tindale.

(yjathokudi ) Negathokudi
Loc.: South side of Upper Ducie River.
Alt.: (Ng)uthukuti, Athokurra.
Ref.: Thomson 1932, Sharp 1930, McConnel 1940.
‘natjen Ngatjan
Loc.: From Atherton east to Upper Russell River; at Malanda and
Millaa Millaa (rain forest dwellers, principally on plateau).
Alt.: Ngachanji, Ngaitjandji.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), Sharp 1939, McConnell 1940, T.
yaun Negaun
loc.: At lffley, Taldora and Millungera; cast to Gregory Range and
Saxby Downs; on upper Norman River; west to Julia Creek. (In early
historic times many migrated towards Cloncurry district).
Alt.: Nouun, Naungaun.
Ref.: Roth 1897, Armit in Curr 1886, T.

(ygerikudi) Negerikudi
Loc.: From Dulhunty River north to about Vrilya Point (Cockatoo
Creck); at Skardon Creek.
Alt.: Ngkamadyi, Ngammatti, Gamete, Gamiti, Gametty.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), Thomson 1933, McConnell 1940.
(ggerikudi) Negerikudi
Loc.: Between Pennefather and Batavia Rivers (ior discussion of a
polyglot series of allied hordes or small subtribes between Pennetfather and
Watson Rivers, see McConnel, le. p. 61-62).
Alt.: Ngerikadi, Yupngit, Yupungati, Yopngadi,
Ref.: Roth 1903 (1), 1910 (18), Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940.

(njoborundji) Negoborundyji
Loc.: Southern headwaters of Gregory River, at Morstone and Mount
Margaret.

Alt.: Ngoborindi, Ngoboringi, Oboroondi, Obor-indi.
Ref.: Roth 1897, Sharp 1935.

"10era
Loc.:

169

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—CONTINUED
Ngoera

Head-waters of Brisbane River; at Nanango; east to Durundur

(ten miles east of Kilcoy); south probably to south of Toogoolawah; west to
Haden and Bell; on Bunya Mountains.

Alt.: Njalbo (northern term for this and other Moreton Bay tribes),
Kaiahara.
Ref.: Landsborough and Curr 1887, Howitt 1888, 1904, Mathews 1898
(1), T.
‘yundjen, “Koko’kuntjan Negundjan
Loc.: South of Alice River; on lower Mitchell River; at Dunbar.
Alt.: Koonjan, Okundjain, ? Koko Wansin.
Ref.: Mathews 1899, Roth 1910 (18), Sharp 1934, 1939, T.
‘yurawola Neurawola
Loc.: At Arrabury and Durham Downs and western vicinity (data scant).
Ref.: Strehlow 1910, T.
‘gurl Neguri
Loc.: Upper Maranoa River from Donnybrook north to Merivale on

west side of Dividing Range; west to Hillside and Redford.

(Not on Upper

Warrego, as stated by Mathews.)

Alt.: Gnoree,
Ref.: Mathews 1898 (1), T.

(ywataijeti) Negwataingeti
See Winduwinda.

“yugi: Ngugi
Loc.: Moreton Island.
Alt.: Wogee, Goowar, Gooar.
Ref.: Watkin in Curr 1887, T.

(Nunukul), “gundjen Nunukul

Loc.:

tribe, gave name as Ngundan).

Alt.:
Ref,:
(Njuwathai)
Loc.:
Alt.:
Ref.:
(Oikand)
Loc.:
Alt.:
Ret.:
(Okerlika)
Loc.:
Ref.:

“Olkulo, ’Ollkolo

Loc.:
Alt.:
Ref.:

Northern portion of Stradbroke Island (an informant, not of the
N.B.—Name omitted from map.
Noonukul, Moondjan.
Watkin in Curr 1887, (T).

Njuwathai
Middle Batavia River. N.B.—Name omitted from map.
Nyuwathayi.
McConnel 1940.

Oikand
Probably about Old Koolatah.,
KokoWanggara (term applied by other tribes).
Sharp 1934, 1939.

Okerlika
Probably about Lotus Vale.
Sharp 1939.

Olkulo

Middle Coleman River; south to Crosbie Creek.
Koko Olkolo, Olkolo.
McConnel 1932, 1940, Thomson 1933, Sharp 1939, T.

170

QUEENSLAND TRIBES-—-CONTI NUED

‘Ombi :le Ombila
Loc.: Cape Sidmouth and north nearly to Night Island. (This is
probably only a horde of the Kawadji, of Night Island, which see.)
Alt.: Ompeila, Ompela, Umpilo.
Refi.: Thomson 1933, 1934, Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940, T.
'© stati Wotali
Loc.: Southern part of Shelburne Bay; cast and south to Macmillan
River.
Alt.: Wotati, Otati, Wautati, Wotadi.
Ref.: Roth 1903 (5, p. 26), Thomson 1933, 1934, Sharp 1939, MeConnel
1940, T.
*Pakadji Pakadji
Loe.: Cape Wermouth, Pascoe River and ? Temple Bay.
Alt.: Koka-vao (term applied by southern tribes), Yao.
Ref.: Thomson 1934, T.
’Pitapita Pitapita
Loc.: Boulia and fifty miles to south and west. Under this is grouped

an indeterminable series of sub-tribes or other groups. Roth is the principal
authority. He suggests tribal fragmentation and reintegration as having
been formerly in progress; the situation may be comparable with that in the
Murngin area of Arnhem Land and the Daly River district. Among the
groupings not indicated on the map are the Boinji, Dungadungara, Kwokwa,
Rungo Rungo, Tinkatinki, Weelko, Njuntauntaya; other peripheral ones
about which there is more information, are marked.
Alt.: Pittapitta, BittaBitta.
Ref.: Eglinton in Curr 1886, Roth 1897, T.
: Pitjara

Loc.: Head-waters of Nogoa and Warrego Rivers; south to Caroline;
east to Killarney and Chesterton; west to Nive River. (Not to be confused
with Badjiri of Lower Warrego River or Bitjara of south-west Queensland.
Some evidence suggests that late prehistoric eastward movement of tribes
south of Charleville caused division of Pitjara and Badjiri; they are now
separate tribes.)

Alt.: Bidjera, Peechera.

Ref.: Conn, Playford and Hollingworth in Curr 1887, Kelly 1935, T.

’Pitjare

‘Po: ntunj Pontun]
Loc.: From Cape Weymouth south to coast near Night Island.
Alt.: Yankonya, Yankonyu.
Ref.: Thomson 1934, McConnel 1940, T.

‘Puntamara, Puntemara Punthamara

Loc.: East of Grey Range on creeks running from Orient north to near
Quilpie: on west side of Grey Range to Mount Margaret and Congie (pre-
or proto-histaric movement was across Grey Range from the west).

Alt.: Bunthomarra, Buntamara, Banthamurra, Buntha-burra.,

Ref.: Myles in Curr 1886, Mathews 1898 (1), 1905 (2), Howitt 1904, T.

17)

QUEENSLAND TRIBES——-CONTINUED
(Rak: aie) Rakkaia
T.oc.: Coorabulka to Springvale.
Alt.: Rukkia.
Ref.: Roth 1897.
"Ragu’rigu Ringuringu
Loc.: On Hamiiton River south of Warenda; west to Boulia; on Burke
River, south-west to Marion Downs; east to Lucknow.
Alt.: Ringoringo, Ringa-ringa, Ringa-ringaroo, (not RungoRungo),
Ref.: Colins and Mcl.can in Curr 1886, Roth 1897, T.

"Tagalag, ’Dagalay ‘Tagalag
Loe.: Middle Gilbert River, north nearly to Einasleigh River, south-
west to Abingdon Downs: south to Gregory Range; at Forest Home; east
to near Georgetown and Glenora; west to near Croydon,
Alt.: Takalak, Targalag.
Ref.: Sharp 1939, T.
(Paior ) ‘Taior
Loc.: Probably about mouth of Coleman River (not well defined).
Alt.: Kokkotaijari.
Ref.: Sharp 1939,
’*Taribeley Taribelang
Loc.: Vicinity of Bundaberg: inland to about Walla: at north to Avon-
dale; along Kolan River (believed extinct; scant data only).
Alt.: Tarribelung, ? Yawai.
Ref.: Howitt 1904, (T).
(‘Vepiti) Tepiti
Loc.: Middle Ducie River.
Alt.: Tepithiki.
Ref.: Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940.
’Tereila Thereila
Loc.: South from Nockatunga and Nocundra to Grey Range, west to
Branshby and lower Warriwarri Creek.
Alt.: Thiralla.
Ref.: Myles in Curr 1886, T.

*Tja: pukai, ’Tjapukandji Tjapukai

Loc.: Barron River from south of Mareeba to Kuranda: north to Port
Douglas on plateau (rain forest dwellers).

Alt. Tja:pukanja, Tjabogai-tjandji, Tjabogaijanji, Koko-njunkulu
(northern term), Koko-nyungalo, KokoTjumbundji (Kokojelandji term),
Hileman (lapsus calami), Njakali (Buluwai term), Nyakali.

Ref.:: McConnel 1931, 1940, Hale and Tindale 1933, Sharp 1939, T.

‘Tjyoykandji ‘Tjongkandji
Loc.: Cullen Point; west of mouth of Batavia River.
Alt.: Tyongandyi, Chongandji, Tjcongangi, Tjungundji, Joongoonjee,
Joongoonjie, Joonkoonjec, Chunkanji, Chinganji.
Ref.: Mathews 1900 (4), 1906, Roth 1910 (18), Radcliffe-Brown 1930,
McConnel 1936, 1940, Sharp 1939, T.

172

QUEENSLAND TRIBES--CONTINUED
(To: tj) Tot]
Loc.: Upper Mission River and Cox Creek (Middle Batavia River); at
York Downs.
Alt.: ? Kauwala.
Ref.: Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940.

(Tulua) Tulua
Loe.: Calliope River to Port Curtis; inland to Coast Range and head-
waters of Boyne River; at Many Peaks (may be a part of the Goeng).
Alt.: Dandan (dan = man),
Ref.: Police Commissioner in Curr 1887.
(Ulaolinja)
Loc.: At Carlo Springs on Upper Mulligan River.
Alt.: Ulaolinya, Yoolanlanya.
Ref.: Roth 1897, Mathews 1901 (2).
(Unjadi) Unjadi
Loc.: Upper ,Dulhunty River (boundaries not known).
Alt.: Unyadi, Onyengadi, Oyungo (Tjongkandji term), Eimpikeno
(Jathaikana term).
Ref.: Thomson 1933, Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940.

Ulaolinja

‘Wadje, ‘Wadjaingo, ‘Wainjago, “Waingo Wadja
Loc.: Streams on east side of Expedition Range; south to Bigge Range;
east nearly to Dawson River (closely related to Kangulu).
Alt.: ? Maudalgo.
Ref.: McIntosh in Curr 1887, T.

’Wadjebanai Wadjabangat
Loc.: South of Glenbower, boundaries fixed only by those of neighbour-
ing tribes (data scant).
Alt.: 2 KunGait (but this may be Iningai, which see),
Ref.: Welly 1935, T.

Wadyjelay Wadjalang
Loc.: Headwaters of Bulloo and Langlo Rivers from Quilpie north to
Northampton Downs and near Blackall and Tambo; east to Cheepie, Burran-
dilla and Nive Downs; at Ambathalla and Minnie Downs.
Ref.: Tindale.

*Wakamen Wakaman
Loc.: Head of Lynd River; north to Mungana, east to Alma-den and
Dividing Range; west to Dagworth; south to Mount Surprise (near Brook-
lands).
Alt.: Warkaman, Warkeeman, Warkamin, Warkeemon.
Ref.: Mathews 1898 (2), Richards 1926, T.
Wakara Wakara
Loc.: Southern side of Upper Mitchell River; cast to Mount Mulligan,
west to Wrotham Park and Blackdown. (Apparently placed too far to
north-east by McConncel.)
Alt.: Wakura, Wakoora, Koko-wogutra.
Ref.: Sharp 1939, McConnell 1940, T.

173

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—-CONTINUED
’Wakawaka, “Wa: Wakawaka
Loc.: Nanango north to Mount Perry behind Coast Range; west to
Boyne River, Upper Burnett River and Mundubbera; at Kingaroy, Murgon
and Gayndah. (The Wulili of Mathews are probably a western horde.
Mathew (1926) includes under this name several tribes with kindred
languages.)
Alt: Wakka-wakka, Waka, Woga, Wokka, Wogga, Wokkari, ? Nuku-
nukubara,
Ref.: O'Connor in Curr 1887, Howitt 1904, Mathew 1910, 1926, T.
"Wakaja Wakaja

See Central Australian List.

*Walayame Walangama
Loc.: On Carron River and Walker Creek; west to Normanton; east
to Croydon, south to Belmore Creek; north to Stirling,
Alt.: Wollangama, Wollongurmee, Wallankammer,
Ref.: Roth 1897, Armit, Poigndestre and Palmer in Curr 1886, T.

’Walmbaria Walmbaria
Loc.: Flinders Island Group and extensive reefs north of Princess
Charlotte Bay; on mainland at Bathurst Head.
Alt.: Walmbar.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), Hale and Tindale 1933, T.

*Wanamara Wanamara
Loc.: Headwaters of Flinders River, east to Richmond; south to the
Divide and Kynuna; west to near Cloncurry; north to Cambridge Downs
and Dalgonally,
Alt.:: Wunamara, Woonamurra, Unamara, Oonoomurra.
Ref.: McGillivray in Curr 1886, Roth 1897, 1905 (5, p. 34), Kelly 1935,
Sharp 1939, T.

“Wangan Wangan
Loc.: Capella north to near Blair Athol, east to Peak Range; west to
Drummond Range.
Ref.: Tindale.

‘Wangare Wangara
Loc.: South of mouth of Staaten River to about Gilbert River (scant
data only from Koko-nini and Konanin informants).
Ref.: Tindale.
Wa:nji Wanji
Loc.: South of Nicholson River; on Spring and Lawn Hil! Creeks;
east to Barkly (Barclay) River; at Lawn Hill and Bannockburn,
Alt.: Wanyi, Wanvee, Wanec.
Ref.: Mathews 1901, Power in Bascdow 1907, Spencer 1914, Sharp
1935, T.

*Wanjuru Wanjuru

Loc.: Mouth of Russell River; inland to Babinda (rain forest dwellers).
Ref.: Tindale.

174

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—-CONTINUED
‘Warekemai Warkamai
Loc.: Coast at Halifax Bay; inland to slope of Coast Range; north to
Ingham and Lucinda Point; south to Black River, twenty miles north of
Townsville (seven hordes are mentioned in literature),
Ref.: Cassady and Johnstone in Curr 1886, T.
WWartyu Warungu
l.oc.: Head-waters of Burdekin River, south probably to about Clarke
River; west to Dividing Range; east to intand foot of Coast Range.
Ref.: Tindale.
Wik— Wik-
Aggregate of subtribes irom Watson River south to Edward
River; east to Rokeby. (For detailed map see MeConnel 1940, p. 55; sce also
notes under Wikmunkan.)

(Wikampama ) Wikampama
T.oc.: Middle Archer River; north to Watson River.
Alt.: Kokala (probably a place name).
Ref.: Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940.

(Wikapa: tja) Wikapatja
Loc.: Mangrove islands of Archer River delta (extinct). N.B.—Not
marked on map.
Rei: McConnel 1940,

(Wikatinda ) Wikatinda
Toc.: Coast from Archer River south for about cight miles; extinct.
N.B.—Not marked on map.
Ref.: McConnel 1940.

{ Wikepa ) Wikepa
loc.: Near Cape Keerweer (extinct).
Ref.: McConnel 1940,

(Wikmean ) Wikmean
juoc.: Inland from Cape Keerweer.
Ref.: McConnell 1940.

Wilk’muynkan Wikmunkan
Loc.: From Edward River north to Archer River; inland. This is the
dominant Wik tribe; the Wikianji and Bakanu are southern subtribes in
process of separating from rest.
Alt.: Munkanu (Ajabatha term), Monkanu.
Ref.: Thomson 1933, McConnel 1931, 1940, T.

(Wiknantjara ) Wiknantjara
Loc.: Between mouths of Edward and Holroyd Rivers. N.B.—Not
marked on imap.
Ref.: McConnel 1940.

(Wiknatanja } Wiknatanja
Loc.: Coast at mouths of Kendall River.
Ref.: McConnel 1940.

175

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—CONTINUED
Wik’ yatara Wikngatara
Loc.: Coast north of Cape Keerweer.
Alt.: Wiknatara.
Ref.: McConnel 1940, T.
“\WWinduwinda Winduwinda
Loc.: East of Duifken Point to Watson River; inland to head of Embley
River; thirteen or more hordes or subtribes each with a name terminating in
[iit]; Winduwinda is a valid name apparently equivalent to one of lower
Gulf tribes—(see McConnel 1940 for horde names).
Alt.: Windawinda.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), T.
Wiri, Widi Wiri
Loc.: On Coast Range behind Mackay; inland to Nebo and heads of
Suttor and Bowen Rtvers; inhabitants principally of rain scrub country.
Alt.: Wierdi.
Ref.: Kelly 1935, T.

(Woykadjera) Wongkadjera
Loc.: At Glenormiston and Herbert Downs; Malvina Creek.
Alt.: Wonkatyeri.
Rel.: Roth 1897.

‘\Woykumara, "Waykumara Wongkumara
Loc.: Cooper Creek east of Oontoo to Wilson River at Nocundra; at
Chastleton and Narcowlah. (Tribal disruption took some to Thargomindah
where they mixed with uncircumcised Kalali.)
Alt.: Wonkamara, Wonkomarra, Wonka-marra, Wonkamura, Wonka-
murra, Wonkubara.
Ref.: Myles in Curr 1886, Mathews 1904 (1), Elkin 1931, Kelly 1935, LT.

(Workabunga ) Workabunga
Loc.: Upper Leichhardt River and Gunpowder Creek (data scant).
Alt.: Workoboongo, Wakobungo, Waggabundi (name of a cattle
station).

Ref.: Roth 1897.

’Wulgurukaba Wulgurukaba
Loc.: On Palm Istands and Magnetic Island; on Ross River; cast nearly
to Cape Cleveland; west for about twenty miles beyond Townsville;
{7wulguru| = man.
Ref.: “Vindale.
‘Wulpure Wulpura
Loc.: Head of Daintree River on high Mount Windsor Tableland (rain
forest dwellers).
Alt.: Wulurara, Kokowaldja.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), McConnell 1940, T.

(JaSaikana ) Jathaikana
Loc.: Escape River south probably to about Orford Ness.

Alt.: Yathaikeno, Yaraidyana.
Ref.: Sharp 1939, McConnel 1940,

176

QUEENSLAND TRIBES—-CONTINUED
‘Jagalinu Jagalingu

Loc.: Headwaters of Belyando River south to Avoca; north to about
Laglan; west to Dividing Range; east to Drummond Range. (Six or more
hordes; Howitt’s map indicates that the attribution of his “Wakelbara” to
“est of the Great Dividing Range” was probably in error).

Alt.: Wakelbara (a horde name; arbitrarily adopted as tribal term).

Ref.: Howitt 1904, T.

*Jagara jagara
Loc.: Brisbane River inland to Dividing Range about Gatton; north to
near Toogoolawah; at Ipswich. (Several hordes; compare Jicgera of New
South Wales.)
Alt.: Yagara, Turrubul, Yackarabul.
Ref.: Ridley 1866, Mathews 1898 (2), Brown 1918, Radcliffe-Brown
1931, T.

‘Jaleye Jalanga
Loc.: On Witls River from south of Duchess to Fort Willtam; on
Burke River north to Chatsworth; at Noranside and Buckingham Downs.
Alt.: Yellunga, Yelina.
Ref.: Eglinton in Curr 1886, Roth 1897, T.

(Jambi: na) Jambina
Loc.: Logan Creek south of Avon Downs; east to Denham Range;
west to about Elgin Downs. (Some new indirect data.)
Alt.: Yambecna.
Ref.: Wilson in Curr 1887 (T).
(Janda) Janda
Loc.: Head of Hamilton River, north of Warenda.
Rei.: Eglinton in Curr 1886, Roth 1897.
‘Jaya: jJangaa
Loec.: Head of Gilbert River, ‘south of Forsayth to Gledsweod and
Gregory Range; east to near Oak Park; west to Glenora. (Distinguish from
Jangga of Upper Suttor River.)
Ref.: Tindale.
‘Jayga Jangga
Loc.: Eastern headwaters of Suttor River; south to Glen Avon; at
Yacamunda and Hidden Valley; northern boundary unknown. (Not to be
confused with Jangaa of Upper Gilbert River.)
Ref.: Tindale.

‘Jaroija Jaroinga
See Central Australian List.

*Jeljendi Jeljendi
See South Australian List.

‘Jet: eneru Jeteneru
Loc.: Saltwater Creek (south-west corner of Princess Charlotte Bay);
inland towards Musgrave.
Ref.: ITale and Vindale 1933.

177

QUEENSLAND TRIBES-——-CONTINUED
‘Ji:man Jiman
Loc.: From Bigge Range south to Great Dividing Range; east to
Theodore, Cracow and Cockatoo Creck; west to Baroondah and Durham
Downs; at Wandoan and Taroom.
Alt.: Iman, Emon.

Ref.: Howitt 1904, Kelly 1935, T.

(Jinwum) Jinwum
Loe: Upper Batavia River south of Moreton.
Alt.: Yinwum.
Ref.:| MeConnel 1940,

“Jisrandan Jirandali

Loc.: West of Great Dividing Range from near Mount Sturgeon south
to Caledonia, west to near Richmond, Corfield, and near Winton; on Torrens
and Landsborough Creeks: at Lammermoor, Hughenden and Tangorin,

Alt: Yerrunthully, Irendely, Dalebura,

Rei.: Howitt 1904, Kelly 1935, T.

(‘Jir’joront) Jirjoront
Loc.: About mouth of Coleman River.
Alt.: KokoMindjin, KokoMandjoen, Koko Minjen.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), Thomson 1933, Sharp 1939.

‘Jokula Jokula

Loc.: From Burketown to west of Cliffdale Creek on coast; inland nearly

to Nicholson River.

Alt.: Yukula, Yookala, Eugoola.

Ref.: Armit in Curr 1886, Mathews 1901, Sharp 1935, T.
(}uipera ) Juipera
Loc.: At Mackay; St. Helens south to Cape Palmerston; inland to
Connor Range.

Ref.: Bridgeman and Bucas in Curr 1887, Mathews 1898 (2), Howitt
1904.

‘Jukambe, ‘Jukem, ’Jampal Jukambe

Loc.: Logan River from Rathdowney to mouth, south to Southport;
west to Boonah and Dividing Range.
Alt.: Yukum. (Apparently separate tribe from Jukambal of New Eng-
land ‘Vableland.)
Rel.: Radcliffe-Brown 1931, T.
‘Junkurara Jungkurara
Loc.: Bloomfield River: south to beyond Cape Tribulation, (This term
appears to embrace the Yanyu of McConnel.)
Alt.: Yungkarara, Kokojalanja, Kokoyalunyu, Kokolaluniu, Kokolaliu,
Kokobaldja.
Ref.: Roth 1910 (18), MeConnel 1931, 1940, Sharp 1939, T.
“turn Juru
Loc.: From Bowen north to Burdekin River at Home Hill: west to
Bogie River; at Upstart Bay; south to Mount Pleasant and Clarke Range.
Ref.: Tindale.

178

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN TRIBES

‘Anta’kirinja, “Ande’keriga Antakirinja

Loc.: Head-waters of Hamilton, Alberga, Wintinna and Lora Creeks
north to Erldunda, Central Australia; south to Stuart Range; at upper limits
of Lilla Creek, but not extending down to the Finke River, which is Aranda
country. (Movements since 1917 have taken portion of tribe south to
Ooldea. Earlier movement was from west after massacre by them of some
previous inhabitants of Mount Chandler district; closely related to
Jangkundjara.)

Alt.: Antakerrinya, Andekarinja, Antekarinja, Andigirinji, Andigarina,
Andingiri, Antigerinya, Andjirigna, Unterrgerrie (ms.), Tangara, Yandai-
runga, Mbenderinga, Madutara.

Ref.: Giles in Taplin 1879, Krichauff 1885, Howitt 1891, Helms 1896,
Mathews 1900 (1), Bates 1918, Elkin 1931, 1940, Tindale in Fenner 1936, T.

’ Arabana Arabana

Loc.: West side of Lake Eyre to Stuart Range, Macumba Creek to
Coward Springs. ;

Alt.: Arabuna, Arrabunna, Arrabonna, Arapani, Urapuna, Urabuna,
Urabunna, Ngarabana, Rabuna, Wangarabana, Wongkurapuna, Wangara-
bunna.

Ref.: Helms 1896, Spencer and Gillen 1899, Mathews 1900 (1), Howitt
1904, Eylmann 1908, Strehlow 1910, Spencer 1912, Bates 1918, Basedow 1925,
‘Tindale in Fenner 1936, Elkin 1931, 1940, T.

Aranda Aranda
See Central Australian List.

‘Buyanditj, “Puyandaitj, “Buanditj, “Buandik Buandik

Loc.: Glenelg and Wannon Rivers, Victoria; at Dartmoor, Sandford,
Western Grampians, Hamilton and Discovery Bay; west to Mount Gambier,
Penola, Robe and coast south to Cape Jaffa. (Under pressure of Jardwa
were contracting southwards towards Casterton about time of first white
contacts. The Burhwundeirtch of Smyth were possibly the same people.
Their word for man was [‘trua: 1).)

Alt.: Bungandaitj, Bungandaetch, Bungandaetcha, Pungantitj, Pungatitj,
Pungandik, Booandik, Boandik, Boandiks, Borandikngolo, ? Burhwundeirtch.

Ref.: Fisher in Taplin 1879, Smith 1880, Curr 1887, Fast 1889, Mathews
1900 (1), Howitt 1904, Campbell 1934, T.

Danga: li Danggali
See New South Wales List.

‘Dierl Dieri
Loc.: Cooper Creek between Killalapaninna and near Coongie; at
Cowarie, Lake Howitt, and Lake Hope; south to Lake Gregory and Clayton
River and low country north of Mount Freeling.
Alt.; Diari, Diveri, Dieyerie, Decrie, Dieyric, Dthee-er.
Ref.: Gason 1874, Howitt 1891, 1904, Helms 1896, Eylmann 1908,
Strehlow 1910, Elkin 1931, Tindale in Fenner 1936, Berndt and Vogelsang
1939, T.

179

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—CONTINUED
‘Erawiruy, ‘Jirau Erawirung
Loc.: Eastern bank of Murray River from Loxton to above Paringa and
about fifteen miles south, away from river.
Alt.: Eraweerung, Erawirrangu, Erawiruck, Yerraruck, Yirau, Yiran
(misprint),
Ret.: Shaw in Taplin 1879, Brown 1918, Tindale 1939 (2), T.

’ Karaquru Karanguru

Lee.: South of Alton Downs on Mulligan River; east to Pandi Pandi,
south to Goyder Lagoon.

Alt.: Karangura, Kurangooroo.

Ref.: Paull in Curr 1886, Howitt 1904, Eylmann 1°08, Strehlow 1910, T.

‘Kaurna, “Widniya Kaurna

Loc.: Rapid Head to Wakefield along eastern shore of Gulf St. Vincent,
inland to Crystal Brook, Blyth, Hoyleton, Hamlcy Bridge, Yatala, Clarendon,
Gawler and Myponga; on east side of Hummock Range to Red Hill.

Alt.: Kaura (? misprint), Coorna, Koornawarra, Nganawara, Kurumid-
lanta (Paugkala term, lit. “evil spirit’), Milipitingara (ms.), Widninga
(Ngadjuri term applied to Kaurna of Port Wakefield and Buckland Park),
Winnaynie, Meyu ( [’meju] = man).

Ref.: Teichelmann and Scharmann 1840, Cawthorne (ms. 1844), Wyatt
1879, Stephens 1889, Tlowitt 1904, Strehlow 1910, Tindale 1936, T.

“wokata, ’Kukata Kokata

Loc.: At Tarcoola, Pimba and McDouall Peak; west to Ooldea, north
to Stuart Range and Lake Phillipson (southward migratory movements were
in progress before 1850. Tarliest historic boundaries are indicated on map).

Alt: Kukatha, Kukata, Kokatha, Koogatho, Kugurda, Koogurda,
Koocatho, Kokit-ta, Kukataja, Maduwonga (Arabana term), Madutara,
(Antakirinja term).

Ref: Schurmann 1844, 1879, Provis in Taplin 1879, Curr 1886, East 1889,
Mathews 1900 (1), Eylmann 1908, Elkin 1931, T,

‘Kujani Kujani

Loc.: From ParachiiIna north to Marree on west side of Flinders
Range; around north end of Lake Torrens, west to Turret Range, north-east
to Murnpeowie.

Alt.: Kuyanni, Kwiani, Kwiana, Kooviannie, Cooyiannie, Kooyeeunna,
Kootecunna, Koonarie.

Ref.: Jessop 1862, Kingsmill in Curr 1886, Helms 1896, Mathews 1900
(1), Howitt 1904, Eylmann 1908, Strchlow 1910, Hale and Tindale 1925,
Elkin 1931, T.

‘Maljayapa Maljangapa
See New South Wales List.

*Maraura Maraura
See New South Wales List.

*Marditjali Marditjali

Loc: Naracoorte, S.A., to Goroke, Viet.; Mosquito Creek and Apsley
north to Bangham and Kaniva; at Edenhope and east ta Mount Arapiles
( [’ba: qe] =man).

Ret.: Tindale.

180

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED
’Meint’a: yk Meintangk
Loc.: Lacepede Bay; north to Granite Rocks twelve miles north of
Kingston; south to Cape Jaffa; east to Blackford and Naracoorte;
inland from Lake Ifawdon to Mosquito Creék (with at least seven hordes).
Alt.: Meintank, Painbali (Tangane term).
Ref.: Tindale 1937, T.

Mirniy, ‘Mi: nin, ‘yandaSa, ’Wanbiri Mirning
See Western Australian List.
‘Nar: ayga, “Naranga Narangga

Loc.: Yorke Peninsula; north to Port Broughton, east to Ilummock
Range; at Bute, Wallaroo, Ardrossan, Cape Spencer (four hordes are
recognised).

Alt.: Narranga, Narrang-gu, Narrang-u, Adjahdurah (lit., my peaple),
Turra.

Ktihn in Fison 1880, Kihn in Curr 1886, Sutton 1889, Mathews 1900 (1),
Howitt 1904, Strehlow 1910, Tindale 1936 (3), 1939 (2), T.

"Nauo. “Njao, ’Njau Nauo

Loc.: Southern half of Eyre Peninsula; west to Cape Radstock; north
to beyond Minnipa; east to near Darke Peak, Cleve and half-way between
Carrow and Franklin Harbour; at Port Lincoln, Mount Hope, Coffin Bay,
and Elliston (principally inhabiting coastal gum tree country; pressure from
Pangkala was causing contraction to south-west at time of early white
contacts; their proto-historic boundary ran from about the Gawler Ranges
to Port Augusta; extinct; data from Pangkala informants).

Alt.: Nawo, Naua, Nowo, Gnowoo, Battara ( ["bat: ara] = scrubby

gunn).

Ref.: Schiirmann 1844, Angas 1847, Bull 1878, East 1889, ITowitt 1904,
Strehlow 1910, (T).

‘yadjuri, “Wirameju, ’Manuri Negadjuri

Loc.: From Angaston and lreeling north to Crystal Brook, Gladstone,
Carrieton and north of Waukaringa; east to Mannahill; in Orroroo, Peter-
borough, Burra and Robertstown districts; inhabitants of the gum forest
areas,

Alt.: Ngadluri, Ngaluri, Aluri, Alury, Eeleeree, Wirameju, ( [’wira] =
gum tree, [‘meju] = men, lit. gum forest men), Wirrameyu, Wirramayo,
Wirramaya, Wuiramaya, Wirra, Weera, Eura, Manuri (Nukunu term, lit.
inland people), Manu, Monnoo, Manuley.

Ref.: Angas 1847, Noble in Taplin 1879, Le Brun in Curr 1886, Mathews
1900 (1), Hossfeld 1926, Gray 1930, Elkin 1931, Tindale 1937, T.

‘yaiawen, ‘qaijawa, ‘Aiawuy, ’Birta Negaiawang

T.oc.: Along Murray River from Herman Landing to Penn Reach, west
to scarp of Mount Lofty Range (about ten hordes listed, including Molo, not
previously recognised. Moorhouse carried southern limits of tribe too far
downstream).

Alt.: Nyaiawung, Ngaiyau, Aiawung, Aiawong, Iawung, Nggauaiyo-
wangko, Birta (Kaurna and Ngadjuri term), Pitta, Pieta, Peeita, Meru (term
for mat).

Ref.: Eyre 1845, Moorchouse 1846, Ewens in Taplin 1879, Fulford in Curr
1886, Teast 1889, Tindale in Parkhouse 1935, Tindale 1939 (2), T.

181

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—CONTINUED
"nalea Negalea
Loc.: Salt Lake districts in Western (or Great Victoria) Desert north-
west of Ooldea, including Lakes Auwuru, Maurice, Wyola, Nurrari, Forrest,
Waigen and Wright; also mallee scrub belt north of Nullarbor Plains, where
water supplies are obtained almost solely from mallee roots, at Leisler Hills.
Not to be confused with the four class tribe, Ngalia, of Mount Davenport,
Central Australia.
Alt.: Negalia.
Ref.: Elkin 1931, 1940, 1.

‘yameni, ‘yamini, “A: mini Ngameni

Loc.: South side of Goyder Lagoon: on Warburton River to Lake
Howitt and Berlino; north to Pandipandi, Birdsville and Miranda.

Alt.: Gnameni, Ngaminni, Ngnaminni, Aumini (of northern tribes and
casual variant), Aumine, Amini, Ominee, Ahminnie, Uminnie, Agaminni,
Awmani.

Ref.: Gason 1874, Howitt 1891, 1904, Ilelms 1896, Eylmann 1908,
Strehlow 1910, Elkin 1931, Tindale in Fenner 1936, T.

‘yayuruku Nganguruku
Loc.: On Murray River from Mannum to South Rhine River junction;
west to scarp of Mount Lofty Ranges.
Ref.: Brown 1918, T.
‘yaralte Negaralta
Loe.: On Murray River from Wood Ifill to Port Mannum; west to
Bremer Creek, Palmer, and eastern scarp of Mount Lofty Ranges.
Alt.: Wanaulun, Wanjakalde (Jarildekald terms), Wanyakalde, Wunya-
kalde, Wanakald, Ngaralt, Ngaraltu.
Ref.: Brown 1918, T.

“narket, ‘neruketi, “Beripuy, ‘Me: kani, Mankaru: pi Negarkat

Loc.: Mallee scrub belt east of Murray River; south of Alawoona to
Taunta, Keith and Coonalpyn; east to Tatiara and about Murrayville,
Victoria, (Water supplies principally from mallee roots and, therefore,
camps widely dispersed.)

Alt.: Merkani (Jaralde and Tangane term), Merkanic, Mangkarupi
Jarildekalde term), Buripung ([’berip] =man), Booripung (ms.), Boripar,
Duwinbarap (eastern term, [‘barap] =man), Doenbauraket, Tjakulprap
(south eastern term, [’prap] = [’brab] = man), Jakalbarap, Jackalbarap,
Jackegilbrab, Jakel-baluk (Wotjobaluk term), Ngeruketi (Maraura, term),
? Wragarite.

Ref.: Smyth 1878, Humphries in Taplin 1879, East 1889, Howitt 1904,
Eylmann 1908, Tindale 1939 (2), T,

yawait, qawaitjin, “Njawatjurk, ’Eritark Ngawait
Loc.: Banks of Murray River from between Boggy Fiat and Penn Reach
to near Loxton; a smal! tribe with three or more hordes.
Alt.: Nauait, Nanait (misprint?), Niawoo, Ngawaijung, Ngawijung,
Narwejung, Eritark (Ngangurukw term), Njawatjurk (Maraura term).
Ref.: Angas 1847, Taplin 1879 (p. 30), Brown 1918, Tindale 1939 (2), T.

182

SOUTIT AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED
*yintait Negintait

Loc.: Principally on southern bank of Murray River from above Paringa,

to near Mildura, Vict., southern limit approximately fifty miles from river;

at Ned Corner, Vict., and Salt Creck, N.S.W.
Alt.: Inteck, Nutcha.
Ref.: Pegler in Curr 1886, Mathews 1898 (2), Brown 1918, Tindale

1939 (2), T.

‘yurawola Negurawola
See Queensiand List.

‘Nukunu Nukunu

Loc.: Eastern side of Spencer Gulf from mouth of Broughton River
and near Crystal Brook north to Port Augusta; east to Melrose, Gladstone
and Quorn; at, Baroota.

Alt.: Nukunnu, Nukuna, Nookoona, Noocoona, Nokunna, Pukunna
(misprint ?), Wongaidya, Tyura, Doora, Warra.

Ref.: Teichelmann and Schttrmann 1840, Schtrrmann 1844, Hack in
Taplin 1879, Valentine in Curr 1886, Mathews 1900 (1), Black 1917, Gray
1930, Elkin 1931, T.

’Pankala, ’Baygala Pangkala

Loc.: East side of Lake Torrens south of Mdeowie and west of Hookina
and Port Augusta; west of Lake Torrens to Island Lagoon and Yardea; at
Woorakimba, Hesso, Yudnapinna, Gawler Ranges; south to Kimba, Darke
Peak, Cleve and Franklin Harbour. (Pre- and proto-historic pressure from
the Kokata was modifying their northern boundary, causing a shift of their
southern limits also from between Port Augusta and the Gawler Ranges
down towards Franklin Harbour.)

Alt.: Banggala, Bahnga-la, VPankalla, Parnkala, Punkalla, Bungela,
Bungeha, Kortabina (place name).

Ref.: Schiirmann 1846, Angas 1847, Green in Curr 1886, Eylmann 1908,
Strehiow 1910, Hale and Tindale 1925, Elkin 1931, Cleland and Johnston
1939, T.

‘Peramayk, ’Merildekald, ’\Wanarainbula Peramangk

Loc.: In Mount Lofty Ranges from Myponga north to Gawler and
Angaston; east to Wright Ifill, Strathalbyn, Kanmantoo, and along the
eastern scarp of the range to near Towitta. N.B.—On map area enlargement
must be utilised in ascertaining distribution of this tribe; on small scale
eastern limit is wrongly delineated and boundary line for circumcision rite
should run south of Strathalbyn.

Alt.: Peramarma, Mereldi (Ramindjeri term), Merildakald (Tangane-
kald term), Marimejuna ( [’mari] = east, [’meju] = man, Kaurna term),
Wangarainbula ( [’wanara] = hill, Ngaiawang term), “Mount Barker Tribe.”

Ref.: Angas 1847, T.

‘Dilatapa, ‘Pidlatapa Pilatapa
Loc.: North-east of Northern Flinders Range; north of Lake Frome,
east to Callabonna and almost to Tilcha; north-west to Lake Blanche and
Blanchewater: south to Wooltana and Hamilton Creek.

183

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED

Alt.: Piladapa, Pillatapa (ms.), Pillidappa (ms.), Pulladapa, Berluppa,
Pilliapp.

Ref.: Mathews 1898 (2), 1900 (1), 1904 (3), Strehlow 1910, Morgan
(ms.) 1930, Elkin 1931, T.

‘Pitjandjara Pitjandjara

Loc.: Mann and Tomkinson Range north-west to beyond Rawlinson
Range, W. Aust.; west to Cavanagh, Finlay and Bedford Ranges, also in
W. Aust.; south to Birksgate Range and near Lake Wright; east to Mounts
Kintore and Caroline, Butler Dome, and Stevenson Peak; north to Lakes
Amadeus and Hopkins; in Western Musgrave Range only to Opparina.
Basedow (1914) refers to several tribes in this area by terms meaning north,
south, east and west.

Alt.: Pitjandjadjara, Pitjindjatjara, Pitjindjara, Pitjinjara, Pitjinjiara,
Pitjanzazara (z= editorial substitute in journal Oceania for “dj? symbol),
Wongapitjira, Wongapitcha.

Ref.: Strehlow 1910, Tindale 1933, 1935 (1) and (2), T.

’Porta’ulun Portaulun
Loc.: Western bank of Murray River from Wood Hill to Wellington
and Pomanda Point; west to Grote Hill.
Alt.: Warawalde.
Ref.: Brown 1918, T.

‘Po:taru’wutj. “Wepulprap, ’Potayola Potaruwut)

Loc.: Naracoorte west to within ten miles of the sea along the third
inland dune range of the Coorong; at Taratap:; north to Tatiara, Bordertown,
Witrrega and Keith (eight or more hordes), [‘wutj] = man).

Alt.: Potangola (alternative term), Woychibirik, Wepulprap (Meintangk
term), Yaran, Tatiara (a place name, also a horde), Tattayarra, Tyatyalli,
Tyeddyuwurru, Wirigirek (a northern horde; Wirrega, a place name),
Wercka-tyalli.

Ref.: Angas 1847, Lawson in Taplin 1879, Haynes in Curr 1887, Mathews
1904 (3), Tindale 1935 (2), 1937, T.

‘Ra: mindjeri, "Ra: minjeri, “Ramoy, ’Tarbanawalun Ramindjeri
Loc.: At Encounter Bay; west to Cape Jervis, Mount Hayfield, Inman
Valley; east to Middleton, thence across to Goolwa and Currency Creek; not
along coast sandhills east of Middleton (five or more hordes).
Alt.: Ramong, Raminyeri, Ramindjerar, Ramingara, Tarbanawalun
(Jarildekald term).
Ref: Meyer 1840, 1846, Angas 1847, Wyatt in Woods 1879, Newland
1895, Brown 1918, Tindale 1935 (2), 1937, 1938, T.

*Tayane’kald, “Tan‘alun, “lengi, Tanani’kald Tanganekald
Loc.: Narrow coastal strip along Coorong from Middleton south to
Twelve Mile Point (north of Kingston): inland only to about inner margin
of first inland dune terrace (usually five to eight miles); on islands in Lake
Alexandrina, except eastern and western extremities of Hindmarsh Island;
at Meningie, south end of Lake Albert, Salt Creek and Taratap (Ten Mile
Point).

184

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—CONTINUED

Alt.: Tenggi (Potaruwutj term), Tangane, Tanganalun, T(h)unga,
Thungah, Milmenrura (a clan name only; often used in early days for whole
tribe, owing to notoriety associated with their murder of survivors of the
wreck “Maria’).

Ref.: East 1889, Brown 1918, Tindale 1937, 1938, T.

*Tirari, ’Terari Tirari
Loc.: Eastern shore of Lake Eyre from Muloorina north to Warburton

River; east to Killalapaninna; a small tribe now extinct; not a horde of Dieri.
Ref.: Howitt 1904, Strehlow 1910, 1931, T.

’Wadikali Wadikali

J.oc.: Yandama and Callabonna Creeks; east to Milparinka and
Naryilco; at Lake Pinaroo and Tilcha.

Alt.: Wadigali.

Ref.: Hale and Tindale 1925, Elkin 1931, T.

Wailpi Wailpi

Loc.: At Umberatana and Mount Serle; south to Parachilna Gorge only
in Flinders Range; east to above Wooltana on range; west to western scarp
of range.

Alt.: Nuralda, Binbarnja (Wadikah terms, [‘binba] = Callttris “pine
tree’), Kanjimata, Anjimatana, Benbakanjamata (Kujani terms; lit. “hill
people’ and “pine hills people’), Anjiwatana (misprint), Anjamutina,
Anyamatana, Unyamootha, Kudnamietha, Kutchnamootha, Keydnjamarda,
Mardala (Dieri terms), Mardula, Wéipie, Umbertana (contraction olf
Umberatana, a place name), Nimbalda, Nimbaldi (? misprint), Nimalda.

Ref.: Smith in Taplin 1879, Phillipson, Gason and Wills in Curr 1886,
Howitt 1891, Mathews 1904 (3), Hale and Tindale 1925, Tindale 1937,
Moutford 1938, Cleland 1939, Elkin 1940, T.

’Warki, ’Warkend Warki
Loc.: North and west of Lake Alexandrina from Grote Hill to Currency
Creek; on castern and western extremities of Hindmarsh Island (eight or
more clans).
Alt.: Koraulun (Jarildekald term), applying principally to one clan, the
Korowalde).
Ref.: Brown 1918, T.

"Wiljakali, “Wilja: li Wiljakal
See New South Wales List.

‘Wiraynu Wirangu
Loc.: Coast between Head of Bight (White Well), and Streaky Bay;
inland to Ooldea, Kokatha, Kondoolka and almost to Yardea (in earliest
historic times were contracting southward before Kokata people).
Alt.: Wirrung, Wirrunga.
Ref.: Mathews 1900 (1), Black 1916, Elkin 1931.

*Wonga:i Wonggal

See Western Australian List.

185

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED
“Wonkanuru, ’Wonkoyuru Wongkanguru

Loc.: On Stevenson Creek north to Mount Daer; at Blood Creek,
east of Macumba Creek; on lower Finke; in southern portion of Arunta
Desert; south to Kallakoopah Creek; at Atna Hill.

Alt.: Wongkongaru, Wonkanguru, Wonkonguru, Ongkongura, Wong-
kaooroo, Wonkgongaru, Wonkongaru, Wonkaoora, Wongonooroo, Won-
kongnuru, Wonkagnurra.

Ref.: Gason 1874, Paull in Curr 1886, Helms 1896, Mathews 1900 (1),
Howitt 1904, Eylmann 1908, Strehlow 1910, Spencer 1912, Elkin 1931,
Tindale in Fenner 1936, T.

"Jadliaura Jadliaura
Loc.: Eastern side of Northern Flinders Range from Wertaloona south
to Carrieton; east to Frome Downs; on Siccus River; west to Arkaba,
Hawker and Quorn.
Alt.: Yadliaura, Arkaba-tura (|’Arkaba] place name, ['tura] = man),
Wonoka (place name).
Ref.: Green in Curr 1886, Elkin 1931, 1938, T.

*Jandru’wanta Jandruwanta
Loc.: South of Cooper Creek from Innamincka to Carraweena; on
Strzelecki Creek,
Alt.: Yandruwunta, Yantruwunta, Jendruwonta, Yandrawontha, Yander-
awantha, Yanduwulda, Endawarra.
Ref.; Gason 1874, Mathews 1898 (2), 1900 (1), 1905 (1), Howitt 1904,
Ieylmann 1908, Strehlow 1910, Elkin 1931, T.

‘Jagkundjara, ‘Jankundja’djara Jangwundjara
Loc.: Musgrave Range east of Opparinna, on Officer Creelk; north to
Lake Amadeus, Mount Olga, Ayers Rock and Mount Connor; in Everard
Ranges. (The Everard Range tribe of Helms (1896) and White (1916); in
1917 (dated by eclipse), a portion of tribe moved south to Ooldea in company
with some Antakirinja; western limits now usurped by Pitjandjara).
Alt: Jangundjara, Jankunzazara (z = editorial substitute in the journal
Oceania for “dj” symbol), Wirtjapakandja.
Ref.: Tindale and Hackett 1933, Love 1938 (ms.), Elkin 1940, T.
‘Jarildekald, ’Jaralde Jarildekald
Loc.: Fast side of Lake Alexandrina and Murray River from Loveday
Bay to Mobilong; on Narrung Peninsula; east to Meningie (more than fifteen
clans).
Alt.: Yarilde, Yaralde, Yarrildie.
Ref.: Taplin 1873, 1879, East 1889, Eylmann 1910, Brown 1918, Tindale
1935 (2), T.

‘Jauraworka Jauraworka

Loc.: North of Cooper (Creek to Haddon Downs and Cadelga: west
nearly to Goyder Lagoon; east to about Arrabury; south-east nearly to
Innamincka.

Alt.: Yauroworka, Yarrawaurka, Yaurorka, Yauarawaka, Jaurorka,
Yaurorka, Yerawaka, Yowerawoolka, Yowcrawarrika.

Ref.: Gason 1874, Cornish in Curr 1886, Mathews 1900 (1), Howitt 1904,
Eylmann 1908, Elkin 1931, T.

186

SOUTIT AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED
Jeljendi Jeljendi
Loc.: Mulligan River south of Annandale to Alton Downs; cast to
Birdsville and TMamantina River; west to near Atna Fill.
Alt.: Jeljujendi, Yelyuyendi, Yarleeyandee.
Ref.: Paull in Curr 1886, Howitt 1904, Strehlow 1910, T.

CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN TRIBES
’ Andekerebina Andakerebina
Loc.: Tarlton Range cast to Togo Range; head waters of Field River;
south-western range uncertain, probably to about Lake Caroline.
Alt.: Undekerebina, Walwallie, Willi-willi, ? Yanindo.
Ref.: Curr 1886, Roth 1897, Mathews 1901 (2), T.

‘Anmatjera, “Nmatjera, ’Unmatjera Anmatjera
Loc.: Forster Range, Mount Leichhardt, Conistan, Stuart Bluff Range
east of Central Mount Wedge, Burt Plain north of Mount Zeil, Connor Well,
Harper Springs, Woolla Downs; at Hann and Reynolds Ranges.
Alt.: Anmatjera, Unmatjera, Imatjera, Urmitchee.
Ref.: East 1889, Spencer and Gillen 1904, Strehlow 1910, Spencer 1912,
Tindale 1931, T.

‘Aranda Aranda

Loc.: Mount Zeil; Finke River to Idracowra, Blood Creek, and Mount
Daer; north-east to Intea on Lower Hale River in Arunta (Simpson) Desert,
thence north to Hbala on Plenty River, west to Inilja and Hart Range; in
Central MacDonnell, James and Ooraminna Ranges. (The Aranda south
of Engcordina have almost the status of a separate tribe with a four class
social organisation, while the northern hordes are divisible into castern and
western portions.)

Alt.: Arunta, Arrinda, Urrundie, Herrinda,

Ref.: East 1889, Spencer and Gillen 1899, 1904, Basedow 1908, 1927,
Strehlow 1910, Strehlow T.G. ms., T.

* Lliaura Uliaura
L.oc.: Sandover, Bundey, Ooratippra, and Fraser Creeks; Mount Swan,
northern face of Hart Range, Plenty River north and west of Ilbala, Jervois
Range, Mount Playford, Elkedra River; at MacDonald Downs and Huckitta.
Alt.: Tl(iaura, [jauara, Ilvauarra, Hlyowra.
Ref.: Spencer and Gillen 1899, Eylmann 1908, Strehlow 1910, T.

‘Kaitit}, “Kaititje ' Kaitity
Loc.: Elkedra, Gastrolobium Creek, Frew River, Whistleduck Creek,
Davenport Range, Murchison Range, Mount Singleton, and westward into
sand desert; Taylor and Barrow Creeks; Forster Range.
Alt.: Kaititj(a), Kaititja, Kaititje, Kaitije, Katitja, Katitch-a, Kat-tit-ya,
Kaitish, Kadda-kie.
Ref.: East 1889, Spencer and Gillen 1904, Eylmann 1908, Strehlow 1910,
Spencer 1912, T.

187

CENTRAT, AUSTRALIAN TRIBES-—CONTINUED
‘Kukatja Kukatja

T.oc.: Western side of Finke River from Western MacDonnell Range
south to Idracowra; west to Basedow Range, Lake Amadeus, George Gill
Range, Cleland Hills, and Mount Solitary; on Palmer, Walker and Rudall
Creeks, (Not to be confused with Kokata of South Australia.)

Alt.: Kukatja, Kukacha, Luritja (Aranda term), Luritcha, Loritja,
Loritcha, Lurritji, Aluridja, Loorudgie, Loorudgee, Juluridja, Maduntara
(Pintubi and Pitjandjara term). Maiulatara (7 Antakirinja term).

Ref.: Spencer and Gillen 1899, Mathews 1901 (2), Eylmann 1908,
Strchlow 1910, Elkin 1931, T.

‘nalia Negalia

Loc.: North of Stuart Bluff Range from Central Mount Wedge west to
Mount Cockburn; about Ethel Creek, Mounts Farewell and Singleton; at
Mounts Saxby and Doreen, Cockatoo Creck, Treuer Range, and Mount
Davenport. (Not to be confused with Ngalea of western South Australia.)

Alt.: Ngallia, Nambuda.

Ref.: Strehlow 1910, Tindale 1931, 1933, T.

‘Pintubi, “Pi: ntupi Pintubi
Loc.: Lake Mackay, Mount Russell, Ehrenberg Range, Kintore Range,
Warman Rocks; an unknown distance to west.
Ref.: Tindale 1932, 1933, Fry 1933, T.

*Pitjan’djara Pitjandjara
See South Australian List.

Waianara Waiangara
See Western Australian List.

’Wakaja, ‘Workaia Wakaja

Loc.: Soudan, Avon Downs, Camooweal, Yelvertoft, Flora Downs,
Austral Downs and country to the west; on Buckley, James, Rankine and
Georgina Rivers, north of Lake Nash.

Alt.: Waggaia, Wagai, Waagai, Waagi, Warkya, Worgaia, Worgai,
Workia, Lee-wakya, Ukkia.

Ref.: Roth 1897, Glissan in Mathews 1899, 1901 (2), Spencer and Gillen
1899, IXylmann 1908, Strehlow 1910, T.

‘Walmala Walmala
Loc.: At Tanami and the Granites; boundaries not yet defined.
Alt.: Wulmala, ? Wommana.
Ref.: Spencer and Gillen 1904, Strehlow 1910, T.

‘Walpari, ’Upira Walpari
Loc.: Lander Creek below Mount Leichhardt, sandplain north of
Mounts Turner, Saxby and Singleton; north-west towards the Granites;
northern boundary not vet well defined.
Alt.: Walpiri, Wolperi, Wolpirra, Ipira (chiefly Anmatjera and wAranda
term), [lpir(r)a, Ilpirra, Ulperra, Ilpara, FElpira.
Ref.: Spencer and Gillen 1899, Kylmann 1908, Strehlow 1910, Spencer
1912, T.

188

CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN TRIBES-—CONTINUED
“Wonkamala Wongkamala
Loc.: North-west of Annandale, at Kaliduwarry, lower portions of Field
and Hay Rivers, and in eastern segment of Arunta (sometimes called
Simpson) Desert, including the areas carrying pitjurt (Dubotsia) shrubs.
Alt.: Wonkamala, Wonkamudla.
Ref.: Mathews 1900 (1), Howitt 1904, Strehlow 1910, Elkin 1931, T.

‘Jaykundjara Jangkundjara
See South Australian List.

’Jaroiga Jaroinga
Loc.: At Urandangie, Bathurst, Headingly, north to Lake Nash and
cast towards Mount Ida, Qld.; west to about Mount Hogarth.
Alt.: Yaroinga, Yarroinga, Yorrawinga, Yarrowin.
Ref.: Roth 1897, Mathews 1900, 1901 (1), Spencer 1912, T.
*Jumu Jumu
Loc.: Western MacDonnell Range from Mount Russell east to Mount
Zeil; north to Central Mount Wedge and Lake Bennett, south to Mounts
Solitary and Udor; at Haast Bluff and Mounts Liebig and Peculiar.
Ref.: Strehlow 1910, Tindale, 1932, 1933, T.

NEW SOUTH WALES TRIBES
(Anaiwan) Anaiwan
Loc.: New England Tableland from near Glen Innes south to Uralla;
west to Tingha.
Alt.: Anaywan, Anewan, Nowan, Ennt-won, Yenniwon, En-nee-win,
Eneewin, Inuwon, Nee-inuwon.
Ref.: Mathews 1897, MacPherson 1905, Radcliffe-Brown 1931.

“Ar’a: kwal Arakwal
Loe.: From Lismore and northern bank of Richmond River to Cape
Byron,

Ref.: Tindale.

(Awabakal) Awabakal
Loc.: Lake Macquarie, south of Newcastle, N.S.W. (not Port.
Macquarie).
Ref.: Threlkeld 1892, Howitt 1904.

“Badjelayy. “Widje Badjelang
Loc.: From northern bank of Clarence River to Richmond River; at
Ballina, intand to Tabulam. Coastal hordes (Widje) go only to Rappville.
N.B.—On map the northern boundary excludes Widje hordes; it should run
to about Ballina.
Alt.: Bunjellung, Bundela, Bundel, Watchee.
Ref.: Mathews 1897, MacPherson 1905, T.
‘Ba: kendji Barkindji
Loc.: Darling River from Wilcannia downstream to Avoca and twenty
to thirty miles cach side of the river. T'eulon’s account shows them as at
Bourke, but his remarks probably apply specifically to the Naualko.
Alt.: Barkinji, Barkunjee, Bahkunji, Bahkunjy, Parkungi, Parkengee,

189

NEW SOUTIL WALES TRIBES—-CONTINUED
Bakanji, Bakandi, Bargunji.
Ref.: Bonney 1884, Teulon and others in Curr 1886, Newland 1889,
Mathews 1898 (2), Howitt 1904, Brown 1918, T.

(Ba: nbai) Banbai
Loc.: A circumscribed area embracing Ben Lomond, Gleneoe, Marowan,
Mount Mitcheil and Kookabookra (MacPherson).
Alt.: Banbai, Bahnbi, Ahnbi, Dandai (sic).
Ref.: MacPherson 1905, Brown 1918, Radcliffe-Brown 1931.

‘Barenbinja Baranbinja
Loc.: Bourke to Brewarrina on northern bank of Darling River.
Alt.: Burranbinya, Burrunbinya, Barrumbinya,
Ref.: Ridley 1875, Mathews, 1903, Howitt 1904, T.

*Barindji Barindji
Loc.: In mallee, swamp and sand country parallel to and east of Darling
River from Moira to within thirty miles of Euston; at Ivanhoe, Manara
Range, Carowra, Kilfera and Manfred (term means forest people).
Alt.: Barrengee, Berri-ait (not the Barinji of Cameron).
Ref.: Cameron 1885, Newland 1889, T.

‘Berap: e’ra: pe Baraparapa
Loc.: Between Murrumbidgee River above Hay, N.S.W., and Kerang,
Vict.; at Cohuna, Gunbower, Brassi, Conargo and across river from Carra-
thool.
Alt: | Burrabura-ba, Baraba-baraba, Barraba-barraba, Boorabirraba,
Burappa, Burabura, Boora-hoora, Burapper, Karraba (sic), Boort (a place
name).
Ref.: Parker, 1843; Smyth, 1878, Curr 1887, Mathews 1898 (1), Howitt
1904, T.

‘Bidewel Bidawal

See Victorian List.

‘Bigambul, “Bigabul sigambul
Loc.: Weir and Moonie Rivers, cast of Nindigully, Qld.: at Talwood,
Qid.; MacIntyre River from east of Boomi to Texas: at Yetman, Boggabilla
and Middle Creek.
Alt.: Pikambul, Bigambal, Bee-gum-bul, Pikanbal, Pikum-bul, Pickum-
bul, Picum-bul, Pickumbil.
Ref: Ridley 1875, Thretkeld 1892, Mathews 1902 (1), Howitt 1904, 1

Dirpasi 3irpai
Loc.: Mouth of Manning River at Taree, inland to near Gloucester;
principally on south side of river. (According to Radcliffe-Brown at
Hastings River.)
Alt.: Birripat, Bripi, Birrapec.
Ref. Curr 1886, Mathews 1898 (1), Radcliffe-Brown 1931, Enright
1932, T.

190

NEW SOUTH WALES TRIBES-——-CONTINUED

‘Daingali, ‘Djaingadi, ‘Burugadi Dainggati
‘ Loec.: At Bowraville; Nambucca River and its watershed; south to
Macleay River, Kempsey and Bellbrook; inland to Dividing Range, Walcha
and Armidale (according to MacPherson, the south-western area around
Walcha and Ingleba was occupied by the “Himberrong”).
Alt.: Dang-getti, Dhangatty, Thangatti, Thangatty, Dangati, Thangatty,
Tang-gette, Burgadi, Boorkutti.
Ref.: Mathews 1898, 1901, 1904 (3), MacPherson 1905, Radcliffe-Brown

1931, T.
‘Danga: li Danggalt

Loc.: Plains north-east of Broken Hill from near Gnalta, south-west-
wards to near Morgan, S. Aust., in the arid country, eastwards to within a
few miles of Darling River.

Alt.: Tungarlee, Tung-arlee, ? Tongaranka.

Ref.: Bonney 1884, T.

‘Darkinuy Darkinung
Loc.: South of Ilunter River, from Jerry Plains towards Maitland, south
to Wollombi Brook, at Putty, and including Macdonald, Colo, and Hawkes-
bury Rivers (Mathews); western boundary on divide east of Rylstone (based
on Wiradjuri tribe data).
Ref.: Mathews 1897, (T).
(Daruk) Daruk
Loc.: Mouth of the Hawkesbury River; inland to Mount Victoria,
Campbelltown, Liverpool, Camden and Penrith.
Alt.: Dharruk, Dharrook.
Ref.: Mathews and Everitt 1900, Mathews 1901.

(Gandayara ) Gandangara
Loe.: At Goulburn and Berrima; down Hawkesbury River to about
Camden. N.B—On map Goulburn should be further to east where a town
is indicated.
Alt.: Gundungurra.
Ref.: Mathews and Everitt 1900, Mathews 1901 (4).

(Geawegal ) Geawegal
Loc.: Valley of Hunter River above Glendon, Muswellbrook, Scone
and lower part of Goulburn River.
Alt.: Geawegal, Gweagal.
Ref.: Rusden in Fison 1880, Howitt 1904.
“Walibal Kalibal
Loc.: Macpherson Range from Unumegar, N.S.W., to Christmas Creek,
Qid., east to Upper Nerang and south to Mount Cougal, Tyalgum, and the
Richmond River at Kyogle.
Ref.: Tindale.

Kambuwal Kkambuwal

See Queensland List.

191

NEW SOUTH WALES TRIBES-—CONTINUED
(Kameraigal ) Icameraigal]
Loe.: Northern shores of Port Jackson (Coliins). Perhaps a horde of
Thurawal.
Alt.: Camera-gal, Cammerray-gal.
Ref.: Hunter 1793, Collins 1804, Howitt 1904.
‘Kamila’roi KKamilaroi
Loc.: Walgett, N.S.W., to Nindigully, Qld., Talwood, Garah, Moree,
Bingara, Tamworth, Quirindi, Bundella, Gwabegar, Come-by-Chance.
Alt.: Kamilarai, Kamilroi, Kamalarai, Koomilroi, Gumilroi, Gummilroi,
Gummilray, Comleroy.
Ref.: Ridley 1886, 1875, Fraser 1892, Mathews 1898, 1900 (4), 1904 (3),
Howitt 1904, MacPherson 1905, Brown 1918, T.
"Karengapa Karenggapa
Loc.: Mount Bygrave, Qld., Tibooburra, N.S.W.; at Yalpunga and Con-
nulpie Downs. Bulloo River about Bulloo Lakes; south to Milparinka.
Alt.: Karrengappa, Kurengappa.
Ref.: Curr 1886, Mathews 1898, T.
‘Kitabal Kitabal
Loc.: Head-waters of Richmond and Logan Rivers on Main Dividing
Range; Killarney to Urbenville, Woodenbong, Unumgar; at Rathdowney
and about Spicer Gap, Qld.
Alt.: Kidabal, Kit(t)a-bool, Kitapul, Gidjoobal, Kuttibul.
Ref.: Mathew 1926, Radcliffe-Brown 1931, T.
(Koinberi) Koinberi
Loc.: Upper Castlereagh River and part of Liverpool Plains (may be
part of Weilwan, which see).
Alt.: Koinberri,
Ref.: Ridley, 1875.

"Ku:la, ‘Gu: nu Kula
Loc.: Western bank of Darling River from near Bourke to Dunlop,
Warrego River to Enngonia, and Barringun; at Yantabulia.
Alt.: Kurnu, Guerno, Kornu, Cornu, Koonoo, Kuno.
Ref.: Taplin 1871, Ridley 1875. Fraser, 1892, Mathews, 1906, Brown
1918, ‘TV.
‘Kumbaiygiri, “Kumbaingir Kumbainggiri
Loc.: Head-waters of Nymboida River and across the range towards
Urunga, Coff (Korff) Harbour and Bellingen; at Grafton and Glenreagh.
Alt: Kumbaingeri, Kombaingheri, Koombanggary, Koombanggherry,
Koombainga, Coombangree, Kombinegherry.
Ref.: Palmer 1884, Mathews 1898, 1901, 1904 (3), McDougal 1901,
Howitt 1904, T.
‘Kureinji, Kareigi Kureinji
Loc.: From Euston on Murray River downstream to Wentworth; on
northern bank.
Alt: Karin, Kerinma, Karinma, Karingma, Orangema, Keramin,
Kemendok, Pintwa.
Ref.: Cameron 1885, Curr 1886, Howitt 1904, Brown 1918, T.

192

NEW SOUTH WALES TRIBES—-CONTINUED
(JX wiambal ) Kwiambal
Loc.: Lower Severn River, Fraser Creek and Ashford.
Ref.: MacPherson 1905, Radcliffe-Brown 1931.

*Maljanapa Maljangapa
Loc.: Milparinka, N.S.W., to eastern shores of Lake Frome, south to
Eurinilla Creek, S. Aust., on western side of the Barrier and Coko Ranges
(located too far to the east in early accounts).
Alt.: Malya-napa, Mulya-napa, Mulyanappa, Milya-uppa, Muliaarpa,
Malynapa, Malyapa, Nalyanapa.
Ref.: Ronney 1884, Reid and Morton in Curr 1886, Elkin 1931, T.

“Maraura, ’Mare’aura Maraura
Loc.: From Wentworth on northern bank of Murray River downstream
to Chowilla and Ral Ral, S. Aust.; on western anabranch of Darling River
to Popilta Lake; on Darling River upstream to Avoca.
Alt.: Maroura, Marowera, Jakojako, Yaako-yaako, Waimbio.
Ref.: Holden in Taplin 1871, Fison and Howitt 1880, Bulmer in Curr
1886, Brown 1918, Tindale 1939, T.

*Mingjanbal Minjangbal
Loc.: From Byron Bay north to Southport, Qid.; inland to Mur-
willumbah.
Alt.: Minyung, Minyowa.
Ref,: Livingstone in Threlkald 1892, Mathews 1901 (1), T.

’Morowari, “Murawari Morowari
Loc.: Barringun, N.S.W., and Enngonia on Warrego River: Brenda
Bokhara, Weilmoringle and Milroy on Birrie and Culgoa Rivers, chiefly in
N.S.W.; north to Mulga Downs and Weclamurra, Qld.
Alt.: Murawari, Murrawarri, Muruwurri, Moorawarree, Moorawarrie,
Marraa-waree.
Ref.: Ridley 1862, Mathews 1898 (1), 1903, Richards 1903, T.

*Mutimuti Muthimuthi
Loc.: Qn Lower Lachlan River at Balranald; west to Murray River.
Alt.:| Muthi muthi, Matimati, Mataua. N.B.—-On map the second t is
not shown as an interdental.
Ref.: Cameron 1885, Brawn 1918, T.

’Naualko. ’“Nawalko Naualko
Loc.: Compodore to Murtee on Upper Darling River; on lower Paroo
River north to Lake Tongo. Probably only a northern portion of the
Barkindji, which see.
Alt: Ngunnhalgri, Unelgo, 7 Bungyarlee (of Bonney 1884), ? Mil-pulko,
Mailpurlgu.
Ref.: Mathews, 1898 (2), T.
“Nai rv’na ri Narinari
Loc.: Southern bank of the Lachlan River from Booligal to Balranald,

up the Murrumbidgee River to Hay.
Ref.: Cameron 1885, T.

193

NEW SOUTIHL WALES TRIBES—CONTINUED
“ya: ku Negaku
Loc.: From Macleay River to Rolland Plains, inland to Kemp Pinnacle
Mountain.
Ref.: Radcliffe-Brown 1931, T.

‘yamba Ngamba
lioc.: From Manning River north to Rolland Plains.
Ref.: Radcliffe-Brown 1931, T.
‘yarigo Negarigo
Loc.: Monaro Tableland: Bombala River from Delegate to Nimmitabel;
west to divide of the Australian Alps.
Alt.: Ngarigo, Ngarego, Ngarago, Garego, Ngarrugu, Bemeringal (of
eastern tribes).
Ref.: Bulmer in Curr 1887, Mathews 1908 (2).

‘ye: mba Ngeinba
Loc.; South bank of Barwon and Dariing Rivers from Brewarrina ta
Yanda Creck; south to head of Mulga Creek; on Bogan River.
Alt.: Ngeumba, Ngiamba, Ngiumba, Ngaiamba, Gai-amba.
Ref.: Ridley 1862, Fraser 1892, Mathews 1904 (3), T.

(qunawal) Ngunawal
Loc.: Queanbeyan to Yass, Tumut ta Boorowa and across to Gundagai.
Alt.: Ngunawal, Ngoonawal, Nungawal, Yarr.
Ref.: Curr 1887, Mathews 1902 (2), 1908 (2).

Payngeray Pangerang
See Victorian List.

’Paru:ndji, ’Paruindji Parundji
Loc.: Paroo River and Kulkyne Creek from Murpa, north to Brindin-
gabba, Berawinnia Downs and Hungerford, Qld.
Alt.: Paruindi, Paruinji, Parooinge, Barungi, Barinji, Bahroonjee,
Baroongee, Bahroongee, Barrengee, Parooinge, Barunga.
Ref.: Bonney 1884, Scott in Cameron 1885, Scrivener in Curr 1886,
Mathews 1898 (2), Howitt 1904, Brown 1918, T.

‘Tatitati Tati-tati

See Victorian List.

*Taua, ’Tauaira ‘Vhaua
Loc.: From Cape Dromedary south to Green Cape; west to crest of
Dividing Range; at Twofold Bay, Bega, Cobargo and Narooma.
Alt.: Thawa, Thauaira, Thoorga, ‘Vhurga, Tadera-manji, Guyangal
(it. Southerners), Guyangal-yuin.
Ref.: Mathews 1902 (2), 1903 (1), Howitt 1904, T.

( Turawal) Thurawal
Loc.: Port Hacking to Shoalhaven River (may include also Kameraigal
of Port Jackson, and Wodiwodi of Wollongong to Shoalhaven River).
Alt.: Thurawal, Thurrawal, Thurrawall, Turuwul, Turrubul, Turuwull.
Ref.: Ridley 1875, Mathews 1901 (4), 1904 (3).

194

NEW SOUTIL WALES TRIBES—-CONTINUED
U’alarai Ualarai

Loc.: North-eastwards from Narran Lake (Terrewah) to Angledool;
east to Walgett; on Narran and Bokhara Rivers.

Alt.: Yualarai, Uollaroi, Yualai, Yerraleroi. (Often confused with a
different tribe, Weraerai, with which synonymy seems to have become almost
inextricably mixed).

Ref.: Ridley 1875, Hammond in Curr 1887, Mathews 1898 (2), 1903,
Brown 1918, T.

‘Wadikali Wadikali
See South Australian List.
‘Walbana Walbanga
Loc.: Cape Dromedary north to Ulladulla; at Braidwood, Araluen, and
Moruya.

Alt.: Thoorga, Thurga (part), Bugelli-manji (Bargalia, a place name
near Moruya).
Ref.: Mathews 1902 (2), Howitt 1904, T.

{ Wandandian ) Wandandian
Loc.: Ulladulla to Shoalhaven River and Nowra.
Alt.: Wandandian, Tharumba, Kurial-yuin (lit, northern men).
Ref.: Ridley 1875, Mathews 1903, Howitt 1904.

*Wanjiwalku, ’Wainjawalku Wanjiwalku
Loc.: Milparinka to White Cliffs, west to Coko Range and nearly to
Mount Arrowsmith, east to near Tongo Lake; at Yancannia and Lake
Bancannia.
Alt.: Weyneubulkoo, Wonipalku, Wanyabalku, Wonjimalku, Pono.
Ref.: Bonney 1884, Crozier in Curr 1886, T.

‘Watiwati Wati-wati
See Victorian List.

“Weilwan Weilwan
Loc.: Southern side of Barwon River from Brewarrina to Walgett;
south along Castlereagh, Marthaguy and Macquarie Rivers to Warren,
Trangie, Dubbo, and Coonabarabran, (Equated with Ngemba hy Ridley,
who places the Koinberi on upper Castlereagh River and on part of Liver-
pool Plains).
Alt.: Wailwan.
Ref.: Ridley 1875, Curr 1886, Mathews 1898 (2), 1904 (3), T.

‘Wemba'wemba, ’Wamba’wamba Wembawemba
Loc.: From Kerang, Vict., to Swan Hill on Loddon River; on Avoca
River south to Charlton, Vict.; northwards to Booroorban and Moulamein,
N.S.W.; at Barham, Lake Boga and Boort.
Alt.: Wamba-wamba, Womba, Weumba, Waamba, Yamba-yamba,
Yamba.

Ref.: Smyth 1878, Curr 1887, Mathews 1898 (2), Howitt 1904, T.

NEW SOUTH WALES TRIBES—-CONTINUED
’Weraerai Weraeral
Loc.: Gwydir River from Moree to Bingara, north to Warialda and
Gilgil Creek.
Alt.: Wiraiarai, Wallaroi, Wolroi, Walarai, Walari, Wolaroi, Wollaroi,
etc. (often confused with a different tribe, Ualarai).
Ref.: (See references mixed with those under Ualarai.) T.
‘Widjebal Widjabal
Loc.: Upper Richmond River from Kyogle south to Casino, east to
Coraki; an inland tribe.
Ref.: Tindale.

*Wiljakali, “Wilja: fi Wiljakali
Loc.: Barrier Range; west to Olary, S. Aust.; at Boolcoomatta; east to
Wilcannia.

Alt.: Wilyakali, Wilya, ? Willoo.

Ref.: Shaw in Taplin 1879, Bonney 1884, Dix in Curr 1886, Howitt
1904, T.

Wiradjuri, ’Wiraduri Wiradjuri

Loc.: Neckarboo Range, Ivanhoe, St. Andrews, Carrathool, Wagga-
wagea, Mudgee, Parkes, Trundle; headquarters along the: Lachlan River;
east to Gundagai, Boorowa and Rylestone; south to Howlong on Upper
Murray; at Albury and east to about Tumbarumba.

Alt.: Wiradhuri, Wiraduri, Wiradjeri, Wira-dhari, Wirraidyuri,
Wiiratheri, Wira-shuri, Werogery, Woradjera, Woradjerg, Wirra-Athoorree,
Wirrajeree, Wirrai-yarrai, Wirrach-aree.

Ref.: Ridley 1875, Smyth 1878, Lane in Smyth 1878, Howitt 1882, 1904,
Cameron 1885, Rouse in Curr 1887, Fraser, 1892, Threlkeld 1892, Mathews
1897, 1904 (3), Richards 1902, Brown 1918, T.

(Wodiwodi) Wodiwodi

Loc,: North of Shoalhaven River to Wollongong.

Rei.: Ridley 1875.

(Wolgal) Wolgal

Loc.: Head-waters of the Hume (Murray), Murrumbidgee, and Tumut
Rivers; at Kiandra.

Alt.: Walgalu.

Ref.: Howitt 1883.

(Won: arua) Wonarua
Loc.: Upper Hunter River from ten miles above Maitland: west to
Dividing Range.
Alt.: Wannerawa.
Ref.: Miller in Curr 1887, Mathews 1898.

*Wonaibon Wongaibon
Loc.: Head-waters of Bogan River, Yanda, and Crowal Creeks. At
Trundle, Narromine, Nyngan, Girilambone, Abbotsford, Tiltagara and
Gilgunnia.
Alt.: Wongai-bun, Wonghibon, Wonghi, Wombungee.
Ref.: Ridley 1875, Cameron 1884, Howitt 1904, Mathews 1904 (3),
Brown 1918, T,

196

NEW SOUTH WALES TRIBES—-CONTINUED

‘Worimi, ‘Kata: 9, "Katja: y Worimi
Loc.: Hunter River to near Tuncurry, along coast; inland to about
Glendon Brook and head of Myall Creek.
Alt.: Warrimee, Kattang, Kutthung, Guttahn.
Ref.: Enright 1899, Radcliffe-Brown 1931, Firth 1932, Etkin, T.

(Jiegera ) Jiegera
Loc.: Lower Clarence River.
Alt.: Yiegera.
Ref.: Radcliffe-Brown 1931.
*fiteyite, “Tjuop Jita-jita
Loc.: Northern side of Lachlan River from Booligal to Balranald.
Alt.: Tta-ita, Ithi-ithi, Eetha-eetha, Yit-tha, Yitsa.
Ref.: Macdonald in Curr 1886 (note correction in his list of errata, v. 3),
Mathews 1898 (1), T.
‘Jo: ti’jo: ta Joti-jota
Loc.: Murray River from Cohuna to Echuca and a point twenty miles
west of Tocumwal; at Shepparton and Nathalia, Vict. Tuppal, N.S.W.,
Conargo, and Deniliquin.

Alt.: Yotayota.
Ref.: Mathews 1898 (2), 1904 (3), T.

‘Jukembal, ’Jukambil Jukambal
Loc.: From Inverell north-eastward across New England to Tabulam
and Wallangarra. (The western portion, including Upper Severn River,
Beardy River, Stonehenge, and Bolivia, is sometimes called Ngarabal.)
Alt.: Yukambal, Yukumbil, Yookumbul, Yookumbill, Ukumbil,
Yookumble, Yurimbil (misprint), Ngarabal, Ngarrabul ? Preagalgh.
Ref.: Myles in Curr 1887, Mathews 1898 (1), 1902 (2), MacPherson 1905,
Brown 1918, Radcliffe-Brown 1931, T.

VICTORIAN TRIBES
‘Berap: e’ra: pe Baraparapa
See New South Wales List.
’Bidewel Bidawal
Loc.: Coast between Green Cape, N.S.W., and Cape Everard; inland
to Delegate, N.S.W., and on head-waters of Cann and Bemm Rivers.
Alt.: Bidwell, Bidwill, Bidwelli, Biduelli, Beddiwell, Birdhawal,
Birtowall.,
Ref.: Parker 1843, Smyth 1878, Curr 1887, Howitt 1904, Mathews
1898 (1), 1908 (2), T.

‘Brabraluy Brabralung
Loec.: Mitchell, Nicholson and Tambo Rivers; south to about Bairns-
dale and Bruthen. This is one of the five Gippsland tribes often grouped
together as the Kurnai [’Ga: nai, ‘Ka: nai].
Alt.: Brabrolung, Brabrolong, Brabriwoolong, Tirthung, ‘Tirtalowa-
kani (? horde name).
Ref.: Smyth 1878, Curr 1887, Howitt 1904, T.

197

VICTORIAN TRIBES-—-CONTINUED
’Braiakau’luy Braiakaulung
Loc.: Providence Ponds, Avon and Latrobe Rivers; west of Lake
Wellington to Mounts Baw Baw and Howitt.
Alt.: Brayakaulung, Braiakolung, Bravakau.
Ref.: Smyth 1878, Curr 1887, Howitt 1904, T.

“‘Bratauoluy Bratauolung
Loc.: From Cape Liptrap east to mouth of Merriman Creek; inland to
about Mirboo; at Port Albert and Wilson Promontory.
Alt.: Bradowoolong, Brataualung, Bratanolung (sic), TVarrawarracka,
Tarrawarrachal.
Ref.: Smyth 1878, Curr 1887, Howitt 1904, T.

*Buneroy Runurong
Loc.: From Melbourne south-east to west side of Cape Liptrap; on
Mornington Peninsula; a coastal tribe; inland to Dandenong Range; at
Mirboo, Warragul, Neerim, Upper Latrobe River.
Alt.: Boonurrong, Boonoor-ong, Bunwurung, Bunwurru.
Ref.: Smyth, 1878, Mathews 1904 (3), Howitt 1904, T.

*Buyanditj Bunganditj
See South Australian List.

‘Gu: nditjmara, “Ku: nditjmara “Gurnditj‘mara
Loc.: At Cape Bridgewater and Lake Condah in west, Caramut and
Hamilton in north; Hopkins River in east: at Warrnambool, Woolsthorpe,
Port Fairy and Portland.
Alt.: Gournditch-mara, Kuurn-kopan-noot, Kirurndit.
Retf.: Smyth 1878, Dawson 1881, Howitt 1904, T.

"Ka: nai, ’Ga: nai Iwurnai
An agglomeration of tribes. See Brabralung, Braiakaulung, Bratauo-
lung, Krauatungalung and Tatungalung.

(‘Kir: ae, ‘irawiruy ) lNirrae
Loc.: Warrnambool to about Princetown on coast: inland to Lake
Boloke, Darlington, east to beyond Camperdown; eastern boundaries un-
certain; several hordes speaking slight dialects.
Alt.: Kirraewuurong.
Ref.: Smyth 1878, Dawson 1881, IIowitt 1904.

(Kolakyat ) JNolakngat
Loc.: Vicinity of Lake Colac and Lake Corangamite. Data concerning
this tribe very uncertain,
Alt.: Kolac-gnat, Coligan.
Ref.: Smyth 1878, Dawson 1881.

*Krauetuya‘luy Krauatungalung
Loc.: Cape Everard to Lakes Entrance; Buchan and Snowy Rivers;
inland to about Mount Cobberas.
Alt.: Kroatungolung, Krow-ithun-koolo.
Ref.: Smith 1878, Howitt 1904, ‘T.

198

VICTORIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED
(7Kuruy) Kurung

Loc.: West side of Port Phillip Bay between Werribee River and
Geelong; inland to Dividing Range; westwards towards Ballarat, but
boundary not defined; at Ballan.

Alt.: Kurung-jang-baluk.

Ref.: Howitt 1904,

‘Latje‘latji Latjilatyi

Loc.: Chalka Creek to Mildura on western bank of Murray River,
ranging about twenty miles back from river. (On Smyth’s map the name
of this tribe is apparently transposed with that of his “Darty Darty.’’)

Att.: Laitchi-Laitchi, Litchy-Litchy, Leitchi-Leitchi, Latjoo-Latjoo,
Lutchye-Lutchye, Latyoo-Latyoo, Litchoo-Litchoo, Laci-Laci, Laitu-Laitu,
Laitu.

Ref.: Smyth 1878, Corney in Curr 1887, Mathews 1898 (2), Howitt 1904,
Brown 1918, T.

*Marditjali Marditjalt
Loc.: Between Naracoorte and Mount Arapiles; south to Struan, north
to Bangham, Kaniva and Servicetown; at Edenhope; a small tribe but distinct
from Jardwa; [ba: ng] = man.
Alt.: “Lake Wallace Tribe,” Keribial-barap.
Ref.: Hartmann in Smyth 1878, Curr 1887, T.

"yintait Ngintait
Loc.: Ned Corner, Vict., to Salt Creek, N.S.W., chiefly on southern
bank of Murray River; west to about Paringa, S. Aust., southwards about
fifty miles.
Alt.: Inteck.
Ref.: Mathews 1898 (2), Brown 1918, T.

’Pangeray Pangerang

Loc.: Between Lower Goulburn and Murray Rivers, east of Shepparton;

at Tocumwal and Albury; north towards Narrandera; south to Violet Town

and Mansfeld; in Wangaratta and Benalla districts. (Howitt’s localization

was probably too far west. There were well defined hordes, names of which

terminate in [-pan].)
Alt.: Pangorang, Pangurang, Pine-sorine, Bangerang.
Ref.: Eyre 1845, Smyth 1878, Curr and Le Souef in Curr 1887, Howitt

1904, T.

‘Tati’tati, "Tuggut Tati-tati
Loc.: From eight miles below Euston to fifteen miles above Murrum-
bidgee junction; chiefly on southern bank of Murray. Smyth has, on his map,
apparently transposed this name with “Litchy-Litchy.”
Alt.: Tataty, Tatatha, Tata(h)i, Ta-ta-thi, Taa-tatty, Darty-Darty,
Nimp-mam-wern (lit., light lip).
Ref.: Smyth 1878, Cameron 1885, Threlkeld 1892, Mathews 1898 (2), T.

199

VICTORIAN TRIBES—CONTINUED
‘Tatuyaluy Tatungalung
Loc.: Coast along Ninety Mile Beach and about Lakes Victoria and
Wellington from Lakes Entrance west to mouth of Merriman Creek.
Alt.: Tatungolung, Tatoongolong, Tatunga, Boulboul (? horde name).
Ref.: Smyth 1878, Howitt 1904, T.

(‘Taunguroy ) ‘Taungurong

Loc.: Goulburn River Valley upstream from Murchison; at Violet Town,
Mansfeld, Kilmore and Alexandra; west to Heathcote.

Alt.: VThagunworung, Thaguwurru, Taguniourung, ? Dhauhurtwurru,
Ngooraialum, Nguralung-bula, Mouralung-bula, Gnurellean, Oorallim,
Butherabaluk, Yawang-illam, Yauung-illam, Yowang-illam.

Ref.: Ridley 1875, Smyth 1878, Curr 1887, Howitt 1904, Mathews
1904 (3).

(Tjapwuron ) Tjapwurong
Loc.: At Mount Rouse; west to Hamilton, east to Hopkins River and
Wickliffe; north to near Mount William, Stawell, Ararat, and Dividing
Range; several hordes speaking slight dialects.
Alt.: Tyapwurru, Chaapwurru, Pirt-kopan-noot (a dialect), Purteet-
chally, Punoinjon, Kolor (place name of Mount Rouse).
Ref.; Smyth 1878, Dawson 1881, Mathews 1904 (3).

’Warke’warke ‘Werke’werke, Warkawarka
Loc.: Tyrrell Creek and Lake Tyrrell south to Warracknabeal and
Birchip; west to Hopetoun; on Morton Plains.
Alt.: Waikywaiky, Weki-weki, Mirdiragoort, Boorong.
Ref.: Smyth 1878, Curr 1887, Howitt 1904, T.
(Watauruy ) Wathaurung
Loc.: South of Geetong to Cape Otway; west to about Princetown and
Upper Barwon River; also north-east of Geelong (relationship to Kurung
not defined).
Alt.: Wadthaurung, Waitowrung, Wudthaurung, Wudjawurung,

Witowurung, Witowur(r)ong, Witowroa, Witoura, Wuddyawurru,
Wiityawhuurong,
Ref.: Parker 1843, Smyth 1878, Dawson 1881, Howitt, 1904, Mathews
1904 (3).
(’Wati’ wati) Wathiwathi

Loec.: Murray River between a point fifteen miles above Murrumbidgee
Junction and Swan Hill, extending northwards to about Moolpa, N.S.W.

Alt.: Wathiwathi, Watthiwatthi, Watty-watty, Wotti-wotti.

Ref.: Smyth 1878, Howitt 1883, Threlkeld 1892, Mathews 1898 (2),
Howitt 1904.

"Wembawemba Wembawemba
See New South Wales List.
“Wotjobalek W otjobaluk

Loc.: Wimmera River, Lakes Hindmarsh and Albacutya; Outlet Creek;
south to Dimboola, Kaniva and Servicetown; west to about Yanac; east to
Warracknabeal and Lake Korong.

Ref.: Mathews 1903 (1), Howittt 1904, Mathews 1904 (3), T.

200

VICTORIAN TRIBES--CONTINUED
(Wurundjeri, Woiwurung) Wurundyjeri

Loc.: Yarra and Saltwater Rivers; at Melbourne; north-west to Macedon,
Woodend and Lancefield, cast to Mount Bawbaw; at Healesville.

Alt.: Wurunjeri, Wurrunjeri, Woiwurru, Wotworung, Woeworung,
Wocewoorong, Wawurong, Wawoorong, Oorongir, Gunung-willam, Ngaruk-
willam, Kurunjang.

Ref.: Smyth 1878, Curr 1887, Howitt 1904.

‘Ja: dwe, ’Mukja:dwen, ‘Ja: rewe Jardwa

Loc.: Horsham and Upper Wimmera River; south to Grampians, west
to Mount Arapiles: east to beyond Glenorchy and Stawell. (Tribal move-
ments were towards the south, reaching almost to Casterton and Hamilton
at time of first white contacts.)

Alt.: Yardwa-tya!lli, Knindowurrong, Djappuminyou (? horde).

Ref.: Parker 1843, Smyth 1878, Howitt 1904, Mathews 1904 (3), T.

(’Jaitmathang } Jaitmathang

Loc.: Head-waters of Mitta-mitta and Tambo Rivers; some of sources
of the Ovens River; the Indi River to “Tom Groggin Run” (Howitt).

Alt.: Ya-itma-thang, Theddora-mittung (Mitta-mitta horde), Thar-a-
mirttong, Theddora, Dhudhuroa, Jandangara, Gundanora.

Ref.: Smyth 1878, Mitchell in Curr 1887, Howitt 1904.

“Ja: re jJaara

Loc.: Upper Loddon, Avoca and Campaspe Rivers, east to Seymour,
west to St. Arnaud and Lake Buloke, north to about Boort; south to Dayles-
ford and Dividing Range. (Not to be confused with Jardwa.)

Alt.: Yaura, Yayaurung, Jajaurung, Jajowurrong, Jajowrung,
Jajow(e)rong, Jajoworrong, Ja-jow-er-ong, Djadjawurung, Jurobaluk,
Nira-baluk, Niraba-baluk, Panyool?, Knenknenwurro.

Ref.: Parker 1843, 1954, Smyth 1878, Curr 1887, Howitt 1904, T.

(‘Jari’jari) Jari-jari

Loc.: Western bank of Murray River from above Chalka Creek to
Annuello; south to Lake Korong (Hopetoun).

Alt.: Yari-yari, Yarre-yarre, Yerri-yerri, Yerre-verre, Yairy-yairy,
Yariki-luk (Wotjobaluk term).

Ref.: Smyth 1878, Mathews 1898 (2), Howitt 1904.

‘Jo: tio: ta Joti-jota

See New South Wales List.

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES

A’manu, E’mayu, “Jin Amangtt
Loc.: From southern vicinity of Geraldton to Hill River; at Champion
Bay; inland to Mullewa.
Alt.: Ying (= no}, “Geraldton Tribe.”
Ref.: Goldsworthy in Curr, 1886, T.
(Andedja) Andedja
Loc.: Upper Forrest River, chicfly on the southern tributaries.
Alt.: Kular (kular = west).
Ref.: Elkin 1933, Kaberry 1935.

201

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES-——CONTINUED
(Arawart) Arawari
Loc.: King River.
Alt.: Arawodi.
Ref.: Elkin 1933, Kaberry 1935,

(Arnga) Arnga
Loc.: South side of lower reaches of Forrest River. N.B.—Not marked
on map.
Ret.: Elkin 1933, Kaherry 1935.

‘Ba: de, “Ba: d Bard
Loc.: Cape Leveque Peninsula, Cape Borda and Cygnet River. This
is the tribe first encountered by Dampier, 14 January 1688. His is probably
the first reference to Australian aborigines.
Alt.: Barda, Bardi.
Ref.: Bates 1914, Elkin 1933, Lavis ms., Capell 1940, T.

loc.: Lower Drysdale River.
Ref.: Elkin 1933, Capell 1940,
‘Railko Bailko
loc.: Head of the De Grey and Oakover Rivers; north-east of Upper
Fortescue River,
Alt.: Bailgu, Balgu, Balgoo, Pulgoe, Boolgoo.
Ref.: Yabaroo 1899, Withnell 1901, Clement 1903, Brown 1912, Bates
1914, Connelly 1932, T.

( Baton) Baiong
Loc.: Lower Lyndon and Minilya Rivers.
Alt.: Baiong, Baiung, Biong.
Ref.: Yabaroo 1899, Brown 1912, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932, Fowler 1940.

(Balardoy ) Balardong
Loc.: York district and east of it (to the cast of them are circumcising
peoples) at Beverley and along Avon River; north to Wongan Hills.
Alt.: Ballardong, Ballerdokking, Waljuk, Toode-nunjer ( [’Tu: de] =
place name = Toodyay, [njuya | = men; a name applied by coastal people).
Ref.: Hackett in Curr 1886, Bates 1906.

(’Bedeno) Bedengo
Loc.: Godfrey Tank and dry country to the west; boundaries uncertain
(Worms); “desert east of Marble Bar” (Connelly). N.B. -Probably shown
too far south on map.
Alt.: Pedong, Peedong, Pidunga, Pecdona, Pardoo.
Ref.: Harper in Curr 1886, Connelly 1932, Worms (ms.).

(’Bemba) Bemba

Loc.: Near Mount Casuarina, Joseph Bonaparte Gulf. N.B—Omitted
from map.
Ref.: Elkin 1933.

202

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES--CONTINUED
( Binigura ) Binigura
Loc.: Duck Creek; south to Ashburton River; north-east to Hamersley
Range; head-waters of Robe and Cane Rivers.
Alt.: Binnigoora, Biniguru, Binnigora.
Ref.: Yabaroo 1899, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932.

‘Buluguda Buluguda
Loc.: Hamelin Pool and Peron Peninsula.
Ref.: Sheard (ms.), (T).

(’Bunaba) Bunaba
Loc.: Hann River, Warton Range, Bamumbah Downs, Eastern King
Leopold Ranges; more recently at Fitzroy Crossing and Gogo Station (fide
Worms).
Alt.: Bunapa, Punaba.
Ref.: Kaberry 1932, Elkin 1933, Capell 1940, Worms (ms.).

(’Bu: duna) Buduna
Loc.: Henry River and Upper Lyndon River.
Alt.: Burduna, Budoona, Poordoona.
Nef.: Yabaroo 1899, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932.

(Buna: ra) Bunara
Loc.: Sturt Creek south to Gregory Salt Sea.
Alt.: Boonarra.
Ref.: Terry 1926 and ms., Capell 1940.

(Djaberadjaber ) Djaberadjaber
Loc.; Cape Boileau north nearly to Beagle Bay.
Ref.: Bischofs 1908, Elkin 1933, Worms ms.

(Djaru, Djaro) Djaru
Loc.: Hall Creek and southern vicinity. The “Ruby Creek Tribe,”
fide Worms.
Alt.: Jaruru, Jaroo.
Ref.: Mathews 1901, Bates 1914, Efkin 1933, Kaberry 1937, Worms (ms.),
Capell 1940.
(Djati) Djaui
Loc.: Sunday Island and Buccaneer Archipelago.
Alt.: Tohawi, Tohau-i, Ewenu (name for Buccaneer Islands), Fwenyoon.

Ref.: Bird 1909, Bates 1914, Elkin 1933, Capell 1940.

(Djerag) Djerag
Loc.: Durack Range.
Alt.: Durackra (? confusion with map label for Durack Range).
Ref.: Elkin 1933, Capell 1939, 1940.

(Djiwali) Djiwali
Loc.: Capricorn Range; Ashburton River south and east of junction
with Hardey River.
Alt.: Jiwali, Jivali.
Ref.: Brown 1912, Connelly 1932,

(’Djugun)
Loc.
Alt.
Ref.

(Gadjeron)

Loc.

203

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—CONTINUED

Djugun
: At Broome; northern shores of Roebuck Bay.
Djukan, Jukan.
: Bischofs 1908, Connelly 1932, Elkin 1933, Capell 1940.
Gadjerong

: East of Cambridge Gulf; west of mouth of Victoria River (see

also Kadjerawang in North Australian List),

Alt.:

Ref.

(Galumburu )

Loc,:
Ref.:

(Gambre )

Loc.:
Ref.:

(Gidja)

Loc.:
Ref.:

(Gogoda)

Loc.:
Ref.:

(Guidj)

Loc.:
Ref.:

(Guluwarin)

Loc.:
Ref.:

(Gunan)

Loc.:
Ref.:

(Gwini, Gwi

Loc.:
Ret:

(lbarga)

Loc.:
Alt.:
Ref.:

(Inawonga)
Loc.
River Ju
Ref.
(Indjibandi)
Loc.

Kadjerong, Kadjeroen.
Spencer 1914, Kaberry 1935, Capeli 1940.

Galumburu
Drysdale River.
Capell 1940.
Gambre
Admiralty Gulf.
Capell 1940.
Gidja
Near Turkey Creek.
Capell 1940,
Gogoda

Delta of Sturt Creek in Gregory Salt Sea and country to the east.
Worms (ms.).

Guidj
East of Mount Barnett.
Capell 1940,
Guluwarin
Lower Ord River.
Capell 1940.
Gunan
No locality given. N.B.~-Not marked on map.
Capell 1940, p. 244.
ni) Gwini
North of Forrest River.
Kaberry 1935, Capell 1940.
Ibarga
Throssell and Gregory Ranges: upper Oakover River.
Ibarrga, Ibargo.
Brown 1912, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932,
Inawonga

: Ashburton River between about Seven Mile Creek and Angelo
uction; on Turee Creek.
: Brown 1912.

Indjibandi

: Fortescue River inland from about Mount Pyrton; north to upper

Yule River; east to Mungaroona Range. The westerly (not casterly) part of
tribe is called Karama, which see.

Alt.:

Ref,

Injibandi, Ingibandi, Yingiebandie.

: Withnell 1901, Clement 1903, Brown 1912, Connelly 1932.

204

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIRES—CONTINUED
"Inga: da Ingarda
Loc.: Coast at Shark Bay between Gascoyne and Wooramel Rivers;
inland to Red Hill.
Alt.: Ingarda, Ingara, Ingarrah, Inparra (“p” is probably misprint),
Kakarakala (general term applied to several tribes).
Ref.: Barlee in Curr 1886, Gribble 1903, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932,
Fowler 1940, T.
‘Kala: ko Kalarko
Loc.: Grass Patch to north of Widgemooltha; Golden Ridge and Bur-
banks; east to the red ochre deposit approximately fifteen miles west of
Frasec Range; west to Bremer Range, Barker Lake and Koongorin; a
boundary camp about three miles south of Coolgardie; at Norseman and
Salmon Gums.

Alt.: Malba (lit. circumcised ones; name applied by Wudjari).
Ref.: Tindale.

Ke’la: mai, ’Njindayo, Takala: ko Kalamat
Loc.: At Boorabbin and Southern Cross; east to Bulla Bulling, north
to Youanmi, Lake Barlee and Pigeon Rocks: west to Burracoppin, Mukin-
budin, Kalannie and Lake Moore; south to about Parker Range. A term
Jawan is applied to north-western portion of tribe from north ot Mukinbudin.
N.B.--On map stress mark is wrongly placed in name of this tribe.
Alt.: Takalako (Nijakinjaki term), Njindango, Natingero.
Ref.: Adam in Curr 1886, T.

‘Kanean Kaneang
Loc.: West of a line joining Katanning, Tambellup, Cranbrook and
Tenterden: at Kojonup, Collie, Donnybrook, Greenbushes, Bridgetown; head-
waters of Warren and Frankland Rivers; south bank of Collie River to Collie,
thence to coast; north to Harvey. Northern limit of tribe corresponds with
change from place names with “cup” termination to ones with “ing.”
Alt.: Kunyung, Jabururu (Minang term; lit., north-westerns), Yobberore.
“duc, Harvey tribe.”
Ref.: Nind 1831, Small in Curr 1886, T.
‘KKaradjeri, “Karedja: ri Karadjeri
Loc.: From south point of Roebuck Bay south-west to a place ten
miles north of Anna Plains Station; inland about seventy miles.
Alt.: Garadjeri, Karadhari.

Ref.: Bates 1914, Connelly 1932, Elkin 1933, Capel! 1939, 1940, Worms
ms., T.

‘KRerama Karama
T.oc.: Valley of Fortescue River east of Millstream. This is also
regarded as a westerly (not easterly) subtribe of the Indjibandi, which see.
Alt.: Karama, Korama.
Ref.: Brown 1912, 1914, T.
(Kariera) Kariera
Loc.; Yule River; Port Hedland; Turner River. (Barlee (.c., p. 291)

transposed the relative positions of this and the Widagari with respect to
Nearla tribe.)

205

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED

Alt.: Karriara, Karriarra, Kyreara, Kaierra.
Ref.: Barlee in Curr 1886, Yabaroo 1899, Withnell 1901, Clement 1903,
Brown 1912, 1914, Bates 1914.

‘Ko:ara Koara
Loc.: Between Lawlers and Leonora; west to Mount Ida and Lake
Rarlee; east to Mount Sir Samuel, Woaodarra, Mount Zephyr and Morgans;
north-western boundary probably near Sandstone.
Ref.: Tindale.

‘Konejandi Konejandi
Loc.: On Margaret River; west to about Fitzroy.
Alt.: Kunian, Kunan, Gunian.
Ref.: Elkin 1933, Kaberry 1937, Capell 1940, T.

‘\sonin Konin
Loc.: At Lake Nabberoo, east of Gascoyne River head-waters; on
Negrara Creek; at Windich Spring.
Ref.: Tindale.

‘Ko: ren, "Ko: reni, “Kalcep Koreng
Loc.: From Gairdner River to Pallinup (Salt) River; inland to Jera-

mungup, Pingrup, Nampup (= Nvabing), Badgebup and Kibbleup near
Broome Hill; south to Stirling Range; at Gnowangerup and Ongerup; not
originally at Kojonup. Northern limit marked by change of terminations

“up” to “-ing.”’

Alt.: Kuriny, Corine, Qualup, “Kojonup and Stirling Tribe.”

Rei.: Nind 1831, Hassell 1936, T.

of place names from

(Kurduwonga) Kurduwonga
Loc.: West of Robinson Range; at Mount Gould, Macadam Plains;
country between Gascoyne and Murchison Rivers.
Alt.: Kurduwonga.
Ref.: Bates 1914.

(Lunga) Lungga
Loc.: North of Hall Creek; head-waters of Ord River.
Alt.: Lunga, Loonga.
Ref.: Terry 1926, Elkin 1933, Kaberry 1937, Capell 1940,

‘Ma: dot: tja Madoitja
Loc.: West of Carnarvon Range; north of Lakes King and Nabberoo
(boundaries only approximately defined). Not to be confused with Mardo.
Alt.: ? Wainawonga.
Ref.: Connelly 1932, T.

*Madu’wonga, ‘Jindi Maduwonga
Loe.: From Pingin west to Mulline; from just south of Menzies to Kal-
goorhe, Coolgardie, Kanowna, Kurnalpi, Siberia (statements suggest proto-
historic movement from east).
Ref.: Findale.

206

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED
(’Maia) Maia
Loc.: Cape Cuvier; Salt Lake; from Minilya River south to Gascoyne
River.
Alt.: Maia, Miah.
Ref.: Yabaroo 1899, Barlee in Curr 1886, Brown 1912, Bates 1914,
Connelly 1932.
(Maialya) Maialinga
Loc.: Glenelg River. (According to other statements, this area is part
of Worora territory, which see.)
Alt.: Maialnga.
Ref.: Bates 1914.

(’Maldjana) Maldjana
Loc.: Shark Bay, south of Wooramel River; southern boundary near
Hamelin Pool.
Alt.: Majanna, Malgana (Ingarda terms).
Ref.: Barlee in Curr 1886, Brown 1912, Connelly 1932.
Malyin Malngin
See South Australian List.
*Mandjindja, ’Mandjindjara Mandjindja
Loc.: Sandhil! country south of Warburton Range (not extending to
this range), west to Lake Gillen and Throssell, south to Amy Rocks and
Saunders Range; cast to point south of Livesey Range (recorded as from
Laverton district, where they are recent visitors only).
Alt.: Mandjindjara, Manjinjiwonga.
Ref.: Bates 1914, Elkin 1940, T.
(Manala) Mangala
Loc.: Jurgurra Creek; Edgar Range.
Alt.: Mangala, Manala, Minala.
Ref.: Elkin 1933, Kaberry 1937, Capell 1940, Worms (ms.).
(Ma: nungu) Manungu
Loc.: Berkeley River.
Alt.: Mande, Manda (? a horde name).
Ref.: Elkin 1933, Kaberry 1937, Capell 1940.
’Mardo Mardo
Loc.: North of Brassey Range; along Canning Stock Route (boundaries
not defined and few particulars known).
Ref.: Tindale,

(Mardudunera) Mardudunera
Loc.: Mouth of Fortescue River; Robe and Cane Rivers.
Alt.: Mardudhconera, Mardatunera, Mardathoni, Mardatuna, Maratunia.
Ref.: Yabaroo 1899, Clement 1903, Brown 1912, 1914, Bates 1914.
‘Min: ey Minang
Loc.: King George Sound; north to Stirling Range, Tenterden, Lake
Muir, Cowerup and Shannon River. On coast from West Cliff Point to Boat
Harbour at Pallinup (Salt) River; at Mount Barker, Nornalup, Wilson Inlet
and Porongurup Range. ({'Minay] = south. Nind’s identification of Mecarn-
anger as mearne anger not confirmed.)
Alt.: Minung, Meenung, Mearn-anger.
Ref.: Nind 1831, Graham in Curr 1886, Spencer and others in Curr
1886, T.

207

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED

Mirnin. ‘Mi: nin, ’nandadSa, Wanbiri Mirning
Loc.: From east of Port Culver to White Well, S. Aust., at head of
Great Australian Bight; inland normally only to southern edge of treeless
karst plateau of Nullarbor Plain; two or more hordes named after localities;
including Wonunda- and Jirkla-mirning (mirning = man, Wonunda = Eyre
Sand Patch, Jirkla = Eucla).
Alt.: Mining, Meening, Wanbiri, Warnabirrie, Warnabinnie, Wan-
maraing (ms.), Yirkla, Ikala, Ikula.
Ref.: Graham in Curr 1886, Mathews 1900, Howitt 1904, Elkin 1931,
1940, T.

(Miriwun) Miriwun
Loc.: Central Ord River.
Alt.: Mirung.
Ref.: Elkin, 1933, Kaberry 1937, Capell, 1940.

‘((Muliar: a) Muliarra
Loc.: North of Sanford (sometimes Sandford) River; on Roderick River.
Alt.: Malleyearra (given as word for “east’),
Ref.: Perks in Curr 1886, Gifford in Curr 1886.

(Munumburu) Munumburu
Loc.: Upper Drysdale River.
Ref.: Capel! 1940.

’Murunitja Murunitja
Loc.: Northern margin of Nullarbor Plain from Naretha to about north
of Loongana; northwards for about 150 miles; at Rawlinna and Walawuluna
Rockhole.
Alt.: Mooroon.
Ref.: Williams in Curr 1886, T.

’Nan:a, ‘yan: adjara Nana
Loc.: North-east of Lakes Carnegie and Wells; west of Lake Gillen,
probably to about Timperley Range; southwards to Ernest Giles Range;
northward boundary unknown.
Alt.: Nganadjara (Ngadadjara term).
Ref.: Tindale.

‘Nanda, ’Jau Nanda
Loc.: South of Murchison River; at Tjinbarda near Northampton and
Wilugabi near Geraldton.
Alt.: Yau, Eaw (J. Forrest, note in British Museum).
Ref.: Goldsworthy and Barlee in Curr 1886, Brown 1912, Radcliffe-
Brown 1931, Connelly 1932, T.

(Nayamada) Njangamada
Loc.: Eighty Mile Beach north of Cape Keraudren to Anna Plains;
inland about eighty miles.
Alt.: Njangamada, Nyangamada, Nangamada, Nangamurda,
Ref.: Bates 1914, Piddington 1932, Connelly 1932, Capell 1940.

208

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES——-CONTINUED

‘Nayatadjara, ‘ygalapita Nangatadjara
Loc.: East of Lake Carey and Burtville to about Piumridge Lakes;
north-east to Bailey, Virginia and Newland Ranges. At Lakes Yeo and
Rason and Bartlett Soak. Moved westwards, between 1890 and 1900 to Burt-
ville and Laverton.
Alt.: Nangandjara, Nganandjara, Dituwonga, Ditu.
Ref.: Bates 1914, Elkin 1940, T.

(ygadawoyga ) Ngadawongga
Loc.: Meekatharra north to Gascoyne River; at Mount Maitland and
Robinson Ranges; east to about Lake King; at Peak Hill and Murchison
West. (Not to be confused with Ngadadjara of Warburton Range.)
Ait.: Negadhawonga, Ngargawonga.
Ref.: Bates 1914, Connelly 1932.
‘na: dadjara Ngadadjara
Loc.: At Warburton Range; south-east to Livesey Range and Mount
Blyth; eastward to just west of Cavanagh Range; Barrow Range, north-
eastwards to Bedford Range; north-western boundary unknown.
Rei.: Tindale 1936, T.

‘yadjunma, ‘gadunma, ‘nadju:, “gadjun’pekara Negadjunma
Loc.: Goddard Creek south to Israclite Bay and Port Malcolm; west to
Fraser Range; east to Naretha and west of Point Culver; at Mount Andrew,
Russel Range and Balladonia.
Alt.: Ba:donjunga (lit, subincised men: Wudjari term), Fraser Range
Tribe.
Ref.: Helms 1896, T.

( Ngalawonga ) Ngalawonga

Loc.: Ophthalmia Range west of lFortescue River; west to Ashburton

River.
Rei.: Brown 1912, Connelly 1932.
*yalea Negalea
See South Australian List.
‘yaluma Ngaluma

T.oc.: Roebourne and vicinity; at Sherlock River; inland for about
seventy miles; islands off Nickol Bay but not those off Hampton Harbour;
west almost to Maitland River.

Alt: Ngaluma, Gnalooma, Gnalouma, Gnalluma, “Nickol Bay Tribe.”

Ref... Richardson in Curr 1886, Yabaroo 1899, Withnell 1901, Clement
1903, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932, T.

yena Negarla

Loc.: Mouth of De Grey River, chiefly on the south side, but extending
northwards towards Cape Keraudren (were contracting westward in early
historic period).

Alt.: Neurla, Ngirla, Ngala, Gnalla.

Ref.: Harper in Curr 1886, Yabaroo 1899, Brown 1912, Bates 1914,
Connelly 1932, T.

209

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES-—CONTINUED
(jormbal ) Ngormbal
Loc.: Vicinity of Barred Creek; south from Cape Boileau nearly to
Broome.
Ref.: Bischofs 1908, Elkin 1933, Worms ms., Capell 1940.
*gurlu Negurlu
Loe.:

Menzies to Malcolm; west to Mount Ida; east to Lake Raeside
and Edjudina. After 1890 overwhelmed by westward movement of Waljen
and Nangatadjara tribes.

Ret.: Tindale.

(’Nimanboro ) Nimanboro
Loc.: West side of King Sound from Disaster Bay, south of Cygnet.
Bay, to Fraser River.
Ref.: Worms ms.
(Noala)
Loc.: Mouth of Ashburton River and south-westward to Giralia; east
to Cane River: inland to Parry Range; at Onslow.
Alt.: Noella, Noanamaronga (Mardudunera term), Nooanamaronga.
Ref.: Yabaroo 1899, Brown 1912, 1914, Connelly 1932.
’Njaki’njaki, “INoka:r Njakinjaki
Loc.: East of Lake Grace; at Newdegate, Mount Stirling, Bruce Rock,
Kellerberrin; west to Jitarning, south to Kangaroo Soak, Lake Magenta and
Mount Madden; east to Lake Hope and Mount Holland.

Alt.:: Nokar (koka:r= east), Karkar, Kikkar, “Eastward Tribe.”
Ref.: Graham in Curr 1886, Goldsworthy in Curr 1886, T.

(Njamal) Njamal
Loc.:

Upper Shaw and Coongan Rivers; Marble Bar, Nullagine, Hill-
side; Bamboo and Warrawoona.
Alt.:

Nyamal, Nvamel, Namel, Gnamo (Leiden Museum ms.).
Rel.:

Withnell 1901, Clement 1903, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932.
*"Niikena, ‘Njigena Nyikena
Loc.: Lower Fitzroy River; west of Jurgurra (native name ‘Tjirka: li)
Creek; at Roebuck Downs.
Alt.: Njigina, Nyigina, Nyi-gini.
Ref.: Bates 1914, Kabderry 1937, Capell 1940, T.
Njiniy Njining
See North Australian List.
"Njulnjul, ’Njol’njol
Loc.: Beagle Bay, Pender Bay.
Alt.: Nvyul-nyul, Niol-niol, Nyolnyol.

Ref.: Bischois 1908, Bates 1914, Elkin 1933, Kaberry 1937, Nekes 1939,
Worms ims., T.

Njul-njul

( Pandjima )

Pandjima
T.oc.: Eastern portion of Hamersley Range about Mulga Downs.

Alt.: Panjima.
Ref.: Brown 1912, Connelly 1932.

‘Pi: belmen

210

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED

Piblemen

Toc.: Lower Blackwood River; chiefly on the hills in country between
the Blackwood and Warren Rivers; inland to Manjimup and Bridgetown.
Alt.: Peopleman, Bibu:lmoun, Bebleman (ms.), Meeraman (of
Ko:reng), Murram (of Minang).
Ref.: Nind 1831, Gifford in Curr 1886, Graham in Curr 1886, T.
‘Pindjarep Pindjarup
T.oc.: Pinjarra to Harvey: lower reaches of Murray River. The real
name of this tribe has evidently been lost; its members are extinct. Data
from Kaneang sources.
Alt.: Pinjarra (place name), “Murray Tribe.”
Ref.: Grey 1839, (T).
‘Pim, Birni Pini
Loc.: West of Lakes Carnegie and Wells to Barlow and Woodarra; at
Erlistoun Creek and Lake Darlot.
Ref.: Tindale.
‘Pitjandjara Pitjandjara
See South Australian List.
(Talaindji) Talaindji
TLoc.: Head of Exmouth Gulf; North-west Cape; inland to Ashburton
River about Nanutarra.
Alt.: Tallainji, Talainji, Talanji, Valanjec, Tallainga (?% misprint)
Taloinga.
Ref.: Yabaroo 1899, Brown 1912, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932, Fowler
1940.
Ta: mela Tamala
Loe.: Edel Land Peninsula; Tahmahlee Well (named after tribe),
southern boundary not known.
Ref.: Sheard ms., (T.).
(’Targari) ‘Targari
Loc.: Kennedy Range, Upper Minilya River and lower Lyons River.
Alt.: Dargari, Tarkarri,
Ref.: Yabaroo 1899, Brown 1912, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932.
(Vargudi) Vargudi
Loc.: North-west of Robertson Range: headwaters of Oakover River.
Alt.: Targoodi.
Ref.: Brown 1912, Connelly 1932.
(Tenma ) Tenma
Loc.: Head of Henry River; Kenneth Range; Frederick River.
Ref.: Brown 1912, Connelly 1932,
‘Tjalkadjara, ’Tjalkakari, “Talkumara Tjalkadjara

Loc.:
to Lake Wells.

north
pressure

Alt:

Ref,

North-east of Morgans to Lake Throssell; west nearly to Darlot:
Driven Darlot after 1900) by -
from Nangatadjara,

? Barduwonga,
; Bates 1914, T,

north-westward to

211

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES-—-CONTINUED
‘Tyeraridja: | Tjeraridjal
Loc.: At Queen Victoria Spring: west to about Kurnalpi, Pingin and
Karonie; on Ponton and Goddard Creeks; east to Naretha.
Ref.: Tindale.

‘Tyitijamba Tyitijamba
Loc.: North of Lake Carnegie and west of Timperley Range; at Charles
Wells Creek; northern boundaries uncertain.
Ref.: Tindale.

(’Tjurero) ‘Tjuroro
Loc.: Hardey River, north of Ashburton River,
Alt.: Churoro, Choororo, Chooraroo.
Ref.: Yaharoo 1899, Brown 1912, Connelly 1932.

(7Unarinjin} Ungarinjin
Loc.: Isdell and Charniey Rivers east of Walcott Inlet; north to about
Prince Regent River, east to Mount Barnett: south to King Leopold Ranges
(about 40 hordes listed).
Alt.: Ungarinyin, Narrinyind.
Ref.: Elkin 1933, Capell 1940.

(Wadjeri) Wadjeri
Loc.: Head of Lyons River, Teano Range, Mount Isabclla, Waldburg
Range; Upper Gascoyne River; at Erivilla; (probably not Wajari of Bates
= Wardal).
Alt.: Wajeri, Waianwonga,.
Ref.: Brown 1912, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932.

‘Waiayara, “Waiayadi Walangara
Loc.: About Lake Hazlett: north towards Musgrave Ranges,
North W. Aust. (Not to be confused with Musgrave Ranges, S. Aust., as
is dane in Roheim’s map.)
Alt.: Ngadi.
Ref.: Strehlow 1910, Kabarry 1937, Capell 1940, T.

( Waladjayari) Waladjangari
loc.: About Durack Range, probably on western side.
Rei.: Capell 1940,

(Wa: lar) Walar
Loc.: Between Drysdale and Forrest Rivers.
Alt.: 2 Wulu.
Ref.: Teikin 1933, Kaberry 1935, Capell 1940.

(Walki) Walki
Loc.: Between Upper Margaret and Ord Rivers,
Ref.: Davidson 1938.

(Wandjira) Wandjira
Loc.: Between Upper Baines River and Ord River.
Ref.: Capell 1940,

212

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES--CONTINUED
Wa: ljen Waljen
Loc.: East of Lake Raeside from Malcolm and Morgans south-east to
Edjudina and Lake Lightfoot; at Lake Carey.
Refi.: Tindale.
’Wardal Wardal
Loc.: At Cue, Nannine, Mount Magnet: south-west almost to Yalgoo.
West to Sanford (Sandford) River.
Alt.: Wajari (wa: dji’= no).
Ref.: Bates 1914, T.

(Warienga, Wariwoyga ) Warienga
Loc.: Upper Lyans River; about Bangemall.
Alt.: Warianga, Woorienga, Woorenga, Wari-wonga, Warriwonga.
Ref.: Yabaroo 1899, Brown 1912, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932.

(‘Watjandi) Watjandi
Loe.: Mouth of Murchison River and northward. N.B.—Name accidentally
omitted fram map.

Alt.: Watchandi (watju = west).
Ref.: Oldfield in Curr 1886,

‘Wa: dandi Wardandi
Loc.: From Bunbury to Cape Leeuwin, chiefly along the coast; at Geo-
graphe Bay, Nannup, and Busselton.
Alt.: Wardandi (wa:da=no), Wadarndee, Wardandie, “Geographe
Bay and Vasse Tribe,” “Bunbury Tribe,” Kardagur (lit. “between,” ic,
“between the two scas.”
Ref.: Barlee in Curr 1886, Bates 1906, T.
(Warwa) Warwa
Loc.: Derby District.
Alt.: Warwai, Warrwai.
Rel.: Bates 1914, Capelli 1940.
’Waula Waula
Loc.: At Wiluna and Sandstone; west to about Mount Magnet and
Meekatharra: south to Mount Sir Samuel, east to Lake Maitland.
Alt.: Ngaiuwonga (Bates).
Ref.: Bates 1914, T.

(’Wembria) Wembria
Loc.: Northern side of the upper Forrest River.
Ref.: Elkin 1933.
Whadjuk, Juadjek, “Minalnjuya : Whadjuk
Loc.: Swan River and northern and eastern tributaries inland to beyond
Wongan Hills; at Northam, Newcastle, Victoria Plains, Toodyay, York,
Perth; south along coast to Pinjarra (extinct; some new indirect data only).
Alt.: Whajook (['whad] = [’wade]), = [’juad] = no), Yooard, Yoo-
adda, Minainjunga (Juat term: |’minan| = south, [/njuya:] = man),
Minnal Yungar.
Ref.: Grey 1839, Parker, Scott, Whitfheld, Knight, Morgan and others
in Curr 1886, (T.).

213

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—CONTINUED
(‘Widagari) Wridagari
Loc.: Upper De Grey River, about Muccanoo and Warrawagine, and
eastward to an unknown extent. (Barlee, ic, 1886, p. 291, seems to have
transposed the relative positions of Kariera and Widagari with respect to
the Ngarla.)
Alt: Widagari, Widagaree, Weedokarry, Weedookarry.
Ref.: Barlee in Curr 1886, Mathews 1900 (6), Brown 1912, Bates 1914,
Connelly 1932.
Widi, Wiri Widi
Loc.: From between Lakes Monger and Moore north to Billybillong;
west to Mullewa and Morawa: east to about Mount Magnet: at Yalgoo,
upper Greenough River and Cheangwa.
Alt.: Cheangwa (a place name).
Ref.: Perks in Curr 1886, T.

(Wilawila ) Wilawila
Loc.: Upper Drysdale River,
Rei.: Capell 1940.

‘Wi: lmen Wiilman
on Collie, Hotham and Williams
Rivers west to Collie, Wuraming north to Gnowing, Dattenning, Pingelly;
east to Wickepin, Dudinin and Lake Grace; south to Nyabing (= Nampup),
Katanning, Woodanilling, Duranilling.

Loc.: At Wagin and Narrogin;

(Southern and western boundary
corresponds with change in place name terminations from [-in] to [-ep].

Alt.: Wheelman, Weel, Weal, Weil, Will,

Jaburu (Ko:reng term;
lit, “north-westerners’), “Williams Tribe.”

Ref.: Nind 1831, Browne 1856, Curr 1886, Bates 1923, Hassell 1936, T.
(‘Wirdinja) Wirdinja
Loc.: Robertson Range west to Ophthalmia Range: south to heads of
Ashburton and Ethel Rivers,
Alt.: Wirdinya, Woordinya.
Ref.: Brown 1912, Bates 1914, Connelly 1932.
(Wirngir) Wirngir
Loe.: Northern side of Lower Lyne River (also called subtribe and
horde; possibly valid inclusive name for about nine hordes in Lyne River
area). N.B.—Name not marked on map.
Ref.: Elkin 1933, Kaberry 1935.
(Woljamidi)
Loc.: King and Pentecost Rivers; west towards Durack River,
Alt.: Wolyamiri, Molvamidi, ? Yamandil,
Ref: Roheim 1925, Elkin 1933, Kaerry 1935, Capeli 1940.
Wonga :

Wonggai
Loc.: Northern margin of Nullarbor Plain from north of Hughes,

S. Aust, to north of Loongana; northward from plain margin for about
150 imiles.

Alt.: Wongaii.
Ret.: Tindale.

Woljamidi

214

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—~-CONTINUED
‘Wonkomi:, “Unguni Wengkomi
Tooc.: North of Fitzroy River; west of litzroy Crossing; not extending
to coast. N.B—Name accidentally omitted from map.
Alt.: Unggumi, Ungami.
Refi.: Flkin 1933, Capell 1940, T.

(Worora ) Worora
Loc.: At Walcott Inlet; Collier Bay to Prince Regent River (but see
Maialnga who are stated to occupy area about Glenelg River).
Alt.: Wororra, Wurara.
Ref.: Love 1915, Elkin 1933, Capell 1940.

‘Wudjari, ‘Widjere, Waranu, “Njoya:, “Nuya: Wudjari
Loc.: From Gairdner River east to Point Malcolm; infand to edge of
coastal slope (approximately 50 miles); at Kent, Ravensthorpe, Fanny Cove,
Esperance and Cape Arid.
Alt.: Wudjari, Widjara, Warrangoo. Warranger, Warrangle, Ngok-
wurring, Ngokgurring, Nonga:, Nunga, Yunga (njonga = njunga = man),
> Daran (name applied at Perth to eastern men who sce sun rise from the
sea. Moore, 1884).
Ref.: Nind 1831, Moore 1884, Chester in Curr 1886, Taylor in Curr
1886, Helms 1896, Tindale 1939, T.

’Wulumari Wulumari
TLoc.: South of Fitzroy Crossing (at “Tjandu’ Billabong, not located);
desert region south-west of Christmas Creek.
Alt.: Wolmeri, Wolmera, Walmaharri, Wolmaharry.
Rei: Mathews 1900 (5), 1901 (2), Elkin 1933, Kaberry 1937, Capell
1940, Worms ms., T.

(Wunambal ) Wunambal
Loc.: York Sound; coast north of Brunswick Bay.
Alt.: Unambal, WummnabaJ (7 typographical error), Wunambullu.
Ref.: Bates 1914, Elkin 1933, Capell 1940.

(Jauor) Jauor
Loc.: Roebuck Bay, east of Broome: a small tribe.
Alt.: Yauor, Yauera, Djauor.
Ref.: Bates 1914, Elkin 1933, Capell 1940.
(Jeidji, Jeithi) Jeidji
Loc.: Northern bank of Forrest River in its tidal reaches and on both
sides, above these.
Alt.: Yeidji, Yeithi.
Ref.: Elkin 1933, Kaberry 1935.
‘Juet Juat
Loc.: At Gingin, Moora, New Norcia, Moore River and Cape
Leschenault; north to about Hill River; inland to Wubin (juat = no).
Alt.: “New Norcia’ Tribe.
Ref.: Tindale.
(Julbre) Julbre
Loc.: West of Sturt Creek, probably near Black Rocks,
Ref.: Capell 1940

215

NORTH AUSTRALIAN TRIBES
(Agikwala) Agikwala
Loc.: Pine Creek district and southwards (sometimes regarded as a
horde of Wulwulam, which see).
Alt.: Agiqwolla.
Rei.: Eylmann 1908.

( Airiman ) Airiman
Loc.: Head of Fitzmaurice River (Spencer), but Davidson equates with
Negarinman, which see.
Ref.: Spencer 1914, Davidson 1935.
“Al: awa Allawa
Loe.: Southern tributaries of Roeper River from mouth of the Hodgson
west to Roper Valley; south to Mount Mueller and Hodgson Downs; at
Mountain Creek. N.B—Written as Alawa on map.
Alt.: Allaua, Allua, Allowa, Alowa, Lecalowa, Kallaua, Allowiri,
Allaura,
Ref.: Stretton 1893, Spencer and Gillen 1904, Power in Basedow 1907,
Eyvlmann 1908, Spencer 1914, Tindale 1925, T.

(Al ura) Alura
Loc.: Northern bank of Lower Victoria River from mouth eastwards
nearly to Bradshaw.
Alt.: Allura, Hallurra, Nallura.
Ref.: Spencer 1914, Basedow 1925.

(:\’war: ai) Awarai
Loc.: From ten miles north of Rum Jungle southwards to Brock Creek
(also regarded as subtribe of Wulwulam, which see).
Alt.: Warral, Awarrai, Awarra.
Ref.: Parkhouse 1895, Mathews 1901, Eylmann 1908, Spencer 1914,

(Awinmel) Awinniul
Loc: From Brock Creek to south of Pine Creek; recently have
amalgamated with Wulwulam, which see.
Alt.: Awinmul, Awinnmull.
Ref.: Parkhouse 1895, Evlmann 1908,

(’Barera ) Barera
Loc.: Blyth River, Cape Stewart and cuast east to Wallamungo, western-
most of the Crocodile Islands. Also called Djikai, according to Jennison,
who indicates their extension to all but two northernmost of the Crocodile
Islands.
Alt.: Barera, Baurera, Burera, Jikai, Tchikai.
Ret.: Warner 1937, Shepherdson (ins.), Jennison (ms.), Capell 1940,

*Balamumn Balamumu
loc.: At Caledon Bay, Cape Shield and Wyonga River, from Point
Mexander west to centre of Peninsula, thence south-west to Koolatong
River (see qualifying remarks in discussion, auftea, p. 152).
Alt.: Barlamomo, Barlamumu, Marlark.
Ref.: ‘Pindale 1925, Warner 1932, Webb 1933, Warner 1937, Jennison
amus.), T,

216

NORTH AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED

(Be’rinken, Marithiel) 3rinken
Loc.: Port Keats and adjacent western coast of Arnhem Land.
(Marithiel and Brinken are separate tribes according to Stanner, 1933.)
Alt.: Berinken, Berringin, Brinken, Brinkan, Marithiel,
Ref.: Basedow 1907, Stanner 1933, 1936, Davidson 1935, Capell 1940.

‘Binbin’ga Binbinga
Loc.: South from Bauhinia Downs; McArthur River Station; Campbell
Camp; head-waters of McArthur River (placed too far north by Tindale
1925).
Alt.: Binbingha, Binbinka, Leepitbinga.
Ref: Mathews 1900 (3), 1904, 1908, Basedow 1907, Eylmann 1908,
Spencer 1914, Tindale 1925, T.

(’Bin’gongena ) Bingongina
Loc.: West of Lake Woods; cast of Upper Victoria River; boundaries
not yet defined.
Ref.: Spencer and Gillen 1904, Mathews 1908, Spencer 1914.

(’Boun ) Boun
Loc.: Vicinity of head-waters of Phelp, Rose and Hart Rivers.
Ref.: Warner 1937.

(’Bulinara ) Bulinara
Loe.: Moray Range, Gregory and Aroona Creeks; Delamere.
Alt.: Bilinurra, Bilvanarra, Bilyanurra, Plinara, Billianera.
Ref.: Mathews 1901, Exylmann 1908, Spencer 1914, Terry 1926, David-
son, 1935.
"Da: Dai
Loc.: Shores of Blue Mud Bay and in the country immediately to the
north-west (see qualifying remarks in discussion),
Alt.: Dat, Tail.
Ref.: Tindale 1925, Warner 1937, T.

(Djalakuru) PDjalakuru
Loc.: Coast from west of Goulburn Island to about Mount Norris Bay;
also inland.
Alt.: Jalakuru.
Ref.: Earl 1846.

(‘Djamindjuy ) Djamindjung
Loc.: Upper Fitzmaurice River.
Alt.: Jaminiang, Tjaminjun, Djamundon, Murinyuwen,
Rei.: Stanner 1933, 1936, Capel 1940.
‘Djauen Djauan
Loc.: Katherine River and head-waters; south to Maranboy, west to
about Katherine.
Alt.: Tjauen, Djauun, Jawin, Chau-an. Adowen, Charmong.
Ref.: Parkhouse 1895, Mathews 1900 (4), 1906, Eylmann 1908, Spencer
1914, Davidson 1935, Jennison (ims.), T.

217

NORTIT AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—CONTINUED
"Djerait Djerait
Loc.: Northern shores of Anson Bay; northwards along coast to Port
Patterson.
Alt.: Cherait, Cherite, Sherait, Scherits, Tjiras.
Ref.: Mackillop 1893, Basedow 1907, Eylmann 1908, Stanner 1933.

(’Djerimaya) Djerimanga
T.oc.: Coast at mouth of Adelaide River; east to Woolner; possibly
related to Puneitja, which see.
Alt.: Jermangel, Woolna (place name), Woolner.
Ref.: Evimann 1908.
’Djinba Djinba
Loc.: Upper Goyder River (west, not east, of the Ritarngo).
Alt.: Jinba, Djimba (typographical error), Outjanbah.
Ref.: Tindale 1925, Warner 1937, Davidson 1938, Jennison (ms.).
(‘Djowei) Djowei
Loc.: East of Adelaide River (Spencer); probably an inland tribe,
between Awarai and Djerimanga and extending to South Alligator River.
Alt.: _Kumertuo.
Ref.: Spencer 1914, 1928,

(Geimbio ) Geimbio
Loc.: Upper reaches of East Alligator River and the mountainous
country to the east.

Alt.: * Gimbarlang = Warlang (Jennison, ms.); but compare Gunbalang.
Ref.: Spencer 1914, 1928.

(Gunavidji)} Gunavidji
Loc.: Valley of Liverpool River; east to Cadell River.
Alt.: Gunabidji.
Ref.: Jennison (ms.), Capelli 1940.

(Gunba: lang) Gunbalang
Loc.: Mouth of Liverpool River; not marked on map.
Ref.: Capefl 1940.

‘Gunwiggu Gunwinggu
Loc.: Coast west of Liverpool River to King River, and inland.
(Recent historic movements have carried them west to the Alligator River,
where they have replaced the declining Kakadu.)
Alt.: Gunwingu, Gunwingo, Gunawitji, Witji, Kulunglutji, Kulunglutchi,
Koorungo.
Ref.: Spencer 1914, 1928, Warner 1937, Capell 1940, T.
(‘Indji’lindji) Indjilindji
Loc.: Barkly Tableland about Buchanan and Twelve Mile Creeks.
Alt.: Indkilindji, Inchalachee, Inchalanchee.
Ref.: Mathews 1899, 1904, Sharp 1935.
“Igura Ingura
Loc.: Groote Eylandt, Bickerton and Woodah Islands.
Ref.: Tindale 1925, Warner 1937, T.

218

NORTH AUSTRALIAN TRIBES——-CONTINUED
’Twaidji Iwaidji
Loc.: Eastern portion of Cobourg Peninsula.
Alt.: Iwaiji, Iwaidja, Eiwaja, Eaewardja, Eaewarga (in ms.), Uwaidja,
Eaec-warge-ga, Unalla, Limbakaraja, Limba Karadjee.
Ref.: Earl 1846, 1853, Foelsche in Curr 1886, Spencer 1914, Jennison
1927, Hart 1930, Capell 1940, T.

(‘Kadjerawan) Kadjerawang
Loc.: Fitzmaurice River. (See also Gadjerong in Western Australian
List.)

Alt.: Kujera.
Ref.: Basedow 1907, Stanner 1933.

"Kakadu Kakadu
Loc.: Between East and South Alligator Rivers, inland from shores of
Van Diemen Gulf; east to mountain ranges.
Alt.: Kakata, Karkardoo; Gagadu, ? Abedal.
Ref.: Eylmann 1908, Spencer 1914, Capell 1940, T.

(Kamor ) Kamor
Loc.: North of Central Daly River (the status of this and of some other
Daly River tribes is doubtful).
Alt.: ? Murra-Kamangee.
Ref.: Stanner 1933, Davidson 1938.

(’Karaman ) Karaman
Loc.: South-west of Katherine, on the Daly River.
Ref.: Davidson 1938.

‘Karawa, ’Garewa: Karawa
Loc.: From Upper Nicholson River northwards; at Westmoreland and
Wollogorang, Qld.; on head-waters of Calvert River; at Robinson River,
Walabunji, and Calvert Hills, N.A.
Alt.: Karrawar, Kurrawar, Korrawa, Leearrawa.
Ref.: Stretton 1893, Spencer and Gillen 1899, Mathews 1901, Power in
Basedow 1907, Spencer 1914, Sharp 1935, T.

‘ISotandji, “gandji Kotandji
Loc.: Head of coastal slope from Tanumbirini south-east to about head
of McArthur River, Kilgour River, Walhallow; west to head of Newcastle
Creck; south to Anthony Lagoon.
Alt.: Koodanjee, Godangee, Koodangie, Kudenji, Gnanji, Nganji,
Ngangi, Nandi, Angee, Anga.
Rel.: Mathews 1901 (1), 1902 (3), Power in Basedow 1907, Spencer
1914, T.

( IKuyarakan ) Kungarakan
Loc.: North of Mount Litchfield, south of Finnis River; an inland tribe
on western side of the Divide.
Alt.: Gunerakan, Kangarraga.
Ref.: Basedow 1907, Mathews 1901 (1), Stanner 1933,

219

NORTIT AUSTRALIAN TRIBES-~—CONTINUED
{ Kunindiri) Kunindiri
Loe.: Barkly Tableland along head-waters of Calvert, Robinson and
Nicholson Rivers; south to Anthony Lagoon.
Alt.: Goonanderry, Leecundundeerie,
Ref.: Stretton 1893, Power in Basedow 1907.

Kwarandji Kwarandyji
Loc.: Daly Waters district; west to about Ilawarra Springs and Mount
Wollaston; south to about Lake Woods. (‘“Stationmaster’s” account pro-
bably contains an error of transposition since Kakaringa means “easterners.”’)
Alt.: Kwaranjee, Koorangie, Kooringee, Coorinji, Goarango.
Ref.: Stationmaster 1895, Mathews 1900 (3), 1901, Eylmann 1908, Terry
1926.
Larakia
Loc.: From Finnis River north-east to mouth of Adelaide River; inland
to a point ten miles north of Rum Jungle; at Darwin, Southport, Bynoe
Harbour, Howard River.
Alt.: Larrakia, Larrakeah, Larrakeeyah, Larrakiha, Laragia, Larragea,
Larrekiya, Larreekeeyah, Larikia, Larrikia, Larrikiya, Larriquia.
Ref.: Foelsche 1881, Coppinger 1883, Mackillop 1893, Parkhouse 1894,
Basedow 1907, Eylmann 1908, Spencer 1914, Capel! 1940, T.

‘Larakia

(‘Madngela) Madngela
Loc.: Hermit Hill and country west of Daly River, south of the Pongo-
pongo.

Alt.: Madngella, Muttangulla, Matngelli. “Hermit Hill Tribe.”
Ref.: Mackillop 1893, Dah! 1895, Mathews 1901 (1), Eylmann 1908,
Stanner 1933, Capell 1940.

(’Malnin) Malngin
Loc.: South-west of mouth of Victoria River; probably extending to Ord
River, W. Aust.
Alt.: Malgin.
Ref.: Elkin 1933, Davidson 1935, Kaberry 1937, Capell 1940,

’Manarai Mangarai
Loc.: Middle and upper courses of Roper River east of Mataranka and
Maranboy; at Elsey; north to Mount Elsey; not further downstream than
about Mount Lindsay.
Alt.: Mungarai, Mungerry.
Ref.: Mathews 1900 (4), Spencer 1914, Tindale 1925, Capell 1940.

(Manu) Manu
Loc.: Inverway; head of Victoria River.
Alt.: Manoo.
Ref.: Terry 1926,
"Mara Mara
Loc.: Tidal reaches of Roper River nearly to mouth of Hodgson River,
south to Spillen Creek, eastward to coast and Maria Island, north to Edward
Island.

220

NORTIL AUSTRALIAN TRIBES-——-CONTINUED
Ait.: Marra, Leelalwarra (after Jalwara, a place name, an important
lagoon south of Roper River).
Ref.: Spencer and Gillen 1904, 1912, Power in Basedow 1907, Spencer
1914, Tindale 1925, Sharp 1935, T.

(’Maranuygo ) Maranunggo
Loc.: Vicinity of Hermit Hill and eastward towards Daly River.
Alt.: Marranunga.
Ref.: Basedow 1907, Stanner 1933.

(’Marimanindji) Marimanindji
Loc.: South of Hermit Hill, Central Daly River, N.B—Wrongty written

as Marimanindu on map.

Alt.: Murinmanindji, Maramanindj1.
Ref.: Stanner 1933, Capell 1940.

(’Maringar ) Maringar
Loc.: Timor coast near the Murinbata tribe.
Alt.: Murrinnga, Muringa, Yaghanin.
Ref.: Stanner 1933, 1936.

Marithiel Marithiel
See Brinkin.

(’Mariu) Mariu
Loc.: South of Victoria River, near mouth.
Alt.: Mayu, Mayoo.
Ref.: Mathews 1902 (5), Davidson 1935, 1938.

Maun Maung
Loc.: Goulburn Islands and coast opposite; east to King River; North

Goulburn people are called Manangari.

Alt.: Maung, Mau, Manangari.
Ref.: Jennison 1927 and ms., Warner 1937, Capell 1940.

*Moi:l Moil
Loc.: South-east of Port Keats; inland.
Alt.: Moyl.
Ref.: Stanner 1933, 1937, Davidson 1935.
(‘Mudbara) Mudbara
Loc.: Armstrong River and upper Victoria River east of Victoria River
Downs.

Alt.: Mudburra, Moodburra, Mootburra.
Ref.: Mathews 1901, Davidson 1935, Stanner 1936, Capell 1940,

(Mul: uk’mul: uk) Mullukmulluk
Loc.: Northern bank of Daly River inland from coastal Djerait;
boundary upstream at about sixty miles from mouth.
Alt.: Mulluk-mulluk, Malack-malack, Mullik-mullik, Mollak-mollak.
Ref.: Mackillop 1893, Dahi 1895, Eylmann 1908, Stanner 1933, Capell,
1940.

(Murinbata) Murinbata
Loc.: Port Keats, south to mouth of Fitzmaurice River; coastal tribe.
Ref.: Stanner 1936,

221

NORTH AUSTRALIAN TRIBES---CONTINUED
(’ Murngin ) Murngin
Loc.: North-eastern Arnhem Land and coastal islands east to Napier
Peninsula, south to Point Alexander and head of Buckingham River (see
discussion for further details).
Alt.: Tjambarupingu, Djambarpingu, Djambarbingo (one of several
language terms), Tchambarupi, Koparpingu, Gababingo, Jamunda.
Ret.: Tindale 1925, 1928, Webb 1933, Warner 1937, Jennison (ms.).
(Naka: ra) Nakara
Loc.: Boucaut Bay; south-west of Blyth River.
Alt.: Naga: ra.
Ref.: Warner 1933, 1937, Capell 1940.

(’Naygumiri ) Nangguniri
Loc.: South of Central Daly River; along Flora River to its junction
with Daly River.
Alt.: Nangumiri, Nangimera, Nangimeri, Mariwumiri.
Ref.: Stanner 1933, 1936, Capell 1940.
(’Nanor ) Nangor
Loc.: South of Port Keats; inland tribe.
Ref.: Stanner 1933.
‘nalakan Ngalakan
Loc.: North of Roper River; east of the Wilton River to Maiwok and
Flying Fox Creeks (Spencer displaces this tribe to the south of the Roper
River).
Alt.: Nullakun, Nullikan, Nullikin, Ngalbon, Hongalla.
Retf.: Spencer 1912, Tindale 1925, Warner 1937, T.

(yalwuru) Negaliwuru
Loc.: Victoria River, south of Bradshaw.
Ref.: Capell 1940.
‘yandi Negandi
Loc.: Upper Wilton River; Mainoru River; east to near sources of
the Rose River. (Not to be confused with Ngandji = Kotandji.)
Ref.: Tindale 1925, T.
‘nardok Negardok
Joc.: Field stand in Van Diemen Gulf and coastal belt of scrub country
from South Alligator River to within a few miles of mouth of East Alligator
River, N.B.—On map an arrow indicating this tribe runs too far to north.
Alt.:: Ngadok, Ad-dok, Gnaruk, ? Bimbirik.
Ref.: Earl 1846, Spencer 1928, T.

(‘yarinman ) Ngarinman
Loc.: Victoria River, about Jasper Creek.
Alt.: Neainman, Ngainmun, Ngrainmun (also Airiman t. Davidson),
Ref.: Spencer 1914, Davidson 1935, Capell 1940.

yqewin Ngewin
Loc.: Limmen Bight River (ie, Upper Spillen Creek); south-east to

Bauhinia Downs.

Alt.: Gnuin, ? Leeillawarrie.
Ref.: Stretton 1893, Spencer 1914, Tindale 1925.

222

NORTIT AUSTRALIAN TRIBES——-CONTINUED
‘gormbur Ngormbur
Loc.: Between West and South Alligator Rivers. N.B—On map an
arrow indicating position of this tribe runs too far to the east.
Alt.: Ngorm-bur, Gnornbur, Ngorbur, Oorm-bur, Koarnbut.
Ref.: Spencer 1914, 1928, T.

(’Nordaniman ) Nordaniman
Loc.: North of Fitzmaurice River; an inland tribe.
Alt.: Maridan.
Rei.: Stanner 1933, 1936.

(Norweilemil ) Norweilemil
Loc.: South coast of Van Diemen Gulf; west of West Affligator River.
Alt.: Lemil, ? Noalanji.
Ref.: Spencer 1914.

(Nungali) Nungali
Loc.: Between Fitzmaurice and Upper Daly Rivers.
Ref.: Capell 1940.

‘Nujubuju Nungubuju
Loc.: From Cape Barrow south to mouth of Phelp River; west towards
head-waters of Rose and Hart Rivers.
Alt.: Nungubuyu, Nungabuyu, Nungabuya, Nugubuyu (? misprint).
Ref.: Tindale 1925, 1928, Warner 1937.

"Njayga, ‘Njaykala Njangga
Loc.: Coast east of Robinson River; at Skeleton Creek; Calvert River;
extending into Queensland oniy to about Tully Inlet; inland to Wollogorang.
(Tully Inlet area is stated in literature formerly to have belonged to
Wilungwara Tribe; see note under Wilingura.)
Alt.: Iangkala, Yangkala, ? Yuggamurra, Yuckamurri.
Ref.: Mathews 1900 (5), Sharp 1939, T.
(’Nyinin) Njining
Loc.: Stirling and Upper Sturt Creeks; Negri and Baines Rivers
(extending into Western Australia).
Alt.: Njinin, Nining, Neening.
Ref.: Mathews 1901, 1904, Capell 1940.

(Oitbi) Oithi
Loc.: South coast of Cobourg Peninsula; Sir George Hope Islands.
(Schmidt’s error in placing this tribe at West Alligator River on his map is
corrected in an addendum.)
Alt.: Heutbi, Bijnalumbo.
Ref.: Earl 1846, Eylmann 1908, Schmidt 1919.

(‘Poyo’pono) Pongopongo
Loc.: South bank of Daly River, inland from coastal Wogait.
Alt.: Pongo-pongo, Ponga-ponga.
Ref.: Mackillop 1893, Eylmann 1908, Stanner 1933.

223

NORTIT AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED
(Puneitja) Puneitja
Loc.: “East of Adclaide River”; the Punaka “on western side of South
Alligator River, about fifty milcs inland’—data unsatisfactory.
Alt.: Peneitja, Minnitji, Punuurlu, ? Punaka (ms.).
Ref.: Fylmann 1908, Spencer 1914, 1928 and old ms. sources.

Rembaruya Rembarunga
Loc.: Mann River; liead-waters of Cadell and Wilton Rivers.
Alt.: Rainbarngo.
Ref.: Tindale 1925, 1928, Warner 1937, T.

“Ritar :’yo Ritartngo
Loc.: Head-waters of the Goyder and Walker Rivers.
Alt.: Rittarungo, Ritarungo, Ritaringo, Ritarngo.
Ref.: Tindale 1925, 1928, Warner 1937, Jennison (ms.), T.

(’Tagoman ) Tagoman
Loc.: Between Daly and Katherine Rivers.
Ret.: Davidson 1935.
(Tiwi) Tiwi
Loc.: Melville and Bathurst Islands.
Alt.: Wunuk (Iwaidji term).
Ref.: Spencer 1914, 1928, Hart 1930.
(Tyial) Tyial
Loc.: Probably between Lower Victoria River and Upper Baines River.
N.B.—Name omitted from map.
Alt.:: Checeai, Jeelowng, Geelowng.
Ref.: Mathews 1900 (3), 1901 (1).
‘Tyingili Tyingili
Loe.: Mount Grayling (Renner Springs) in the south to Newcastle
Waters in the north, Ashburton Range in the east (westward boundary un-

known).
Alt: Tjingilli, Tjingalli, Chingalli, Chingalee, Tjingale, Tchingalee,
Leechunguloo.

Ref.: Ravenscroft 1892, Stationmaster 1895, Mathews 1901, Spencer and
Gillen 1904, Basedow 1907, Eylmann 1908, T,

‘U :laki Wulaki
Loc.: Inland tribe; Goyder River district (area not yet defined).
Alt.: Ulaki, Wulaki.
+ Ref.: Tindale 1925, Warner 1937.

(Umoriu) : Umoriu
Loc.: Eastern shores of Van Diemen Gulf, about head-waters of Cooper
Creek and towards Fast Alligator River.
Alt.: Umoriu, Umoreo (ms.), ? Monobar.
Ret.: Earl 1846, Spencer 1914.
Wadere Wadere
Loc.: From north of Batten Creek along coast to Spillen Creek, Gulf
of Carpentaria.
Ret.: Tindale 1925

224

NORTHIL AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED
‘Wagoman Wagoman
Loc.: About Dorisvale; south-west of Daly River, above Qolloo.
Alt.: Wagaman.
Ref.: Stanner 1933, Davidson 1935.
(‘Walu) Walu
Loc.: Vanderlin Island.
Alt.: Walloo, Leewalloo.
Ref.: Stretton 1893.
’Wambaia Wambaia
J.oc.: Barkly Tableland, west to Eva Downs, Anthony Lagoon in north,
Mount Morgan in east, Alroy Downs in south; at Corella Lagoon, Brunette
Downs and Alexandria.
Alt.: Wombaia, Wom-by-a, Wombya, Yumpia, Umbaia.
Ref.: Mathews 1898, 1900 (4), Power in Basedow 1907, Spencer and
Gillen 1904, Spencer 1914.

*Wandaran Wandaran
Loc.: Phelp River, inland from coast.
Ref.: Tindale 1925, 1928.

(Wandyjira) Wandyira
See Western Australian List.

'Wainji Wanji
See Queensland List.

‘Waramana, ’Warumuygu Waramanga

Loc.: Mount Grayling (Renner Springs) in the north; south to head-
waters of Gosse River, east to Alroy and Rockhampton Downs, western
boundary unknown.

Alt.: Warramunga, Warramonga, Warrmunga, Waramunga, J.eenar-
anunga.

Ref.: Stretton 1893, Stationmaster 1895, Mathews 1901, Eylmann 1908,
Spencer 1914.

(’Wardaman ) Wardaman
Loc.: Iieads of western branches of Upper Daly River; south towards
Victoria River.
Alt.: Wartaman, Warduman, Wadderman, Wordaman, Waduman.
Rei.: Mathews 1901, Spencer 1914, Davidson 1935, Capell 1940.

(‘Wat:a) Watta
Loc.: On eastern bank of South Alligator River, inland tribe (Spencer).
Alt.: # Marigian birik (general term).
Ref.: Earl 1846, Spencer 1914.

(Wiliggura) . Wilingura
Loc.: Between Cox River and Nutwood Downs; west to Pine Creek
(Birdum), (? Same tribe as Wulungwara, which is stated to have formerly
occupied an area on coast about Tully Inlet on Queensland-North Australian
border.) Stretton’s locality reference (Lc. p. 249, appendix, line 10) is
evidently transposed with that mentioned on previous line.

225

NORTIL AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—-CONTINUED
Alt.: Wilingura, Willongera, Leewillungarra, Willangan.
Ref.: Stretton 1893, Spencer and Gillen 1904, Power in Basedow 1907,
Spencer 1914,

‘Wo: gait W ogait
Toc.: On coast at Anson Bay, from Cape Ford north to mouth of Daly
River; inland for about twenty miles.
Alt.: Wogait, Worgait, Worgite, Waggait, Waggite, Waggote, Wagegute,
Wagatsch, Wa(o)gatsch, Wagite.
Ref.: Mackillop 1893, Basedow 1907, Eylmann 1908, Stanner 1933,
Capell 1940.

Wul’wulam, Wulwayga Wulwulam
Loc.: Head of Mary River; west to Pine Creek (the western hordes,
Agikwala and Awinmil, were apparently formerly separate tribes which have
amalgamated since the decline of their numbers after contact with
Europeans).
Alt.: Wulwuliam, Agiwallem, Agrikondi, Aggrakundi, Wulwongga,
Wulwanga, Wulwonga, Woolwonga, Oolwunga, Oolawunga.
Ref.: Curr 1886, Smith 1894, Parkhouse 1895, Basedow 1907, Eylmann
1908, Spencer 1914, ‘T.

Wureno Wurango
Loc.: Western end of Cobourg Peninsula. ‘Iji and ’Ja: lo are probably
older subtribal or tribal designations, the former at western end of Cobourg
Peninsula, and the latter at Port Essington. (Earl 1846, p. 242, gives evi-
dence of early nineteenth century tribal pressure and movements from the
south.)
Alt.: Wurruga, Wurrago, Warooka, yi, Yarlo.
Ref.: Earl 1846, Jennison 1927 and ms. (T).

(Jaernurjo ) jJaernungo
Loc.: Wessel Islands; Elcho Island, Drysdale Island; Marunga and
Rabuma Islands in Crocodile Group; Banyan Island at mouth of Goyder
River.
Alt.: Yaernungo, Kokolango, Kokolango-mala (a super horde).
Ref.: Jennison 1927, Warner 1937.
(Ja: ko) Jaako
Loc.:; Croker Island and a small area of Cobourg Peninsula opposite the
island and at Raffles Bay (originally two tribes which amalgamated before
1840). Jennison gives this term as Margo.
Alt.: Yaako, Terutong, ? Ajokoot, Ma:go (native name of Croker
Island).
Ref:. Earl 1846, 1853, Jennison (ms.).

(Jandjinuy ) Jandjinung
Loc.: Western bank of Goyder River and upper part of Blyth River;
coast east of Crocodile Islands; two central islands of Crocodile Group.
Alt.: Yandjinung.
Ref.: Warner 1933, 1937.

(‘Jaynmen)

Loe.:

226

NORTiL AUSTRALIAN TRIBES—CONTINUED
Jungman

Elsey Creek and its head-waters west of Elsey Station; south of

Mataranka.

Alt:

Yungman, Yungmun, Yungmunni, Yungmanni, Yungmunee,

Yungmunnee, Jongman.

Ref.;
‘Janjula

Loc. :

Mathews 1900 (4), Eylmann 1908, Spencer 1914, Davidson 1935.
Janjula
Macarthur River from near Boroloola to the coast and on the

Sir Edward Pellew Islands (excluding Vanderlin Island).

Alt.:
Rel.:

(Jilyati )

Loc.:

Reti.:
“Jukul

Loc.:

River.
Alt:
Ret.:

(Juygor )

Loc.:

Ref.:

AnNGAS, G. F.
Anaas, G. F.
Basepow, H.
Basepow, H.
Bates, D. M.
Bares, D. M.
Bates, D. M.
Bates, D. M.

Bennett, M. M.
Bernot,. Rk. M., and Vocersana, T.

Birp, W. HH.
Biscuors, J.
snack, J. M.
Bonney, F.

Brown, A. R.
Brown, A. R.
Brown, A. R.
1856 Petermann’s Mittheilungen, 2

Browne, J.
Buty, J. W.

Yanula, Anyoola, Aniula, Anula, J.eeanuwa.
Stretton 1893, Power in Basedow 1907, Spencer 1914 Sharp 1935, T.
jilngali
West of Macadam Range.
Capell 1940.
Jukul

Vicinity of Leichhardt Bar (Urapunga) on south side of Roper

Yukul, Jokul, Yisil, Yookull, Yookala, Yookil.
Mathews 1900 (4), Evlmann 1908, Spencer 1914, T.

Junggor
Between Hermit Hill and Daly River.
Stanner 1933.

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mone we

VOL. 64 PART 2 20 DECEMBER, 1940

TRANSACTIONS OF
THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

INCORPORATED

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STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN ACARINA
TETRANYCHIDAE AND TRICHADENIDAE

By H. WOMERSLEY, South Australian Museum.

Summary

The mites belonging to these two families constitute one of the most important economic problems
with which the gardener, horticulturalist and fruitgrower have to contend, and at times some species
may become so numerous as to be really serious pests.

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN ACARINA
TETRANYCHIDAE AND TRICHADENIDAE

By Il. Womerstry, South Australian Museum
[Read 11 July 1940]

The mites belonging to these two families constitute one of the most
important economic problems with which the gardener, horticulturalist and fruit-
grower have to contend, and at times some species may become so numerous as to
be really serious pests.

Popularly they are known as “red spiders,” “fruit tree mites” and “spinning
mites,” the last name having reference to their habit of spinning silken threads
on the underside of the leaves on which they occur. It is only within recent years,
due to the researches and publications of Banks, Hirst, Oudemans, MacGregor,
Tragardh, and, more recently, Geijskes, that our systematic knowledge of the
different species has acquired an importance commensurate with their economic
status. That their taxonomy now stands on a sound basis is due to a realization
of the necessity for critical high power examination of the finer morphological
characters found in the terminal segments of the palpi, the tarsal appendages,
the shape of the tracheae, of the penis and the arrangement of the dorsal setae.

In Australia little, except occasional economic notes in various agricultural
journals, has been written upon these acarids. In his “Synopsis of the Australian
Acarina,” Records Australian Museum, vol. 6, pt. 3, p. 145, 1906, Rainbow lists
only the following species: Bryobia praetiosa Koch, Bryobia sp. Tryon,
Tetranychus telarius Linn., Tetranychus telarius var. cinnabarinus Boisd.,
Tetranychus cucumeris Boisd., and Tetranychus rosarum Boisd, Of these species
the first is recognised as a good species, but Bryobia sp. of Tryon, besides being
unnamed, is so inadequately described as to be unrecognisable and should be
ignored. At the present time all the other names are regarded as synonyms of
telarius Linn, a species now placed in the genus Eotetranychus. As examination
of a large amount of material from all States of the Commonwealth has failed to
reveal the occurrence of E, telarius and shown that our common ‘red-spider is
Tetranychus urticae Koch (altheae vy. Handstein), it seems probable that all early
records should be regarded as the latter species.

The present paper, besides being a critical examination of Australian material,
should help economic workers to recognise the precise species with which they
are called upon to deal. It would, however, have been impossible to present such
a survey as this without the very generous assistance of the Division of Economic
Entomology, Canberra, and of the various Departments of Agriculture of the
different States. To the heads of all these bodies I extend my sincere thanks.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

234

Family TETRANYCHIDAE

The following key lists the known genera of Tetranychidae and the known
Australian species.

Maxillary palpi slender, with or without tibial claw. Leg-segments usually wrinkled
and legs short to much shorter than body.

Maxillary palpi stout, with distinct tibial claw. Legs of normal length, little if at
all shorter than body, or else excessively long. Leg-segments not wrinkled.

Palpi short but slender, without tibial claw. : :
Palpi longer, with distinct tibial claw. Ornate species with fan-shaped setae.
Empodium as a pair of claw-like processes thinner than the true claws. Legs short.
Genus Tuckerella nov.
ornatius Tucker

Mouth-parts completely hidden from above under propodosoma, Palpi 2-segmented,
last segment and apex of tarsi [ and II with a stout cylindrical rod-like seta. Legs

very short. Genus Tegopalpus nov.,
conicus n. sp.
Mouth-parts not so hidden.

Palpi and hypostome fused together; palpi l-segmented (or perhaps 2-segmented).
Legs short and thick. Lives in galls. Genus Phytoptipalpus Tragardh

(not Australian)
Palpi and other mouth-parts normal.

Eyes distinct, 2 on each side. Leg-segments very much wrinkled and femora

much constricted at base, then suddenly widening. Tarsi with 2 claws, with 2 or
more tenent hairs; empodium with two series of tenent hairs.

Genus Tenuipalpus Donnadieun

phoenicis Geijskes

californicus Banlcs

vitis n. sp.
Eyes indistinct or absent. Leg-segments hormal; tarsi with 2 simple claws and a
ciliated pad-like cmpodium. Genus Tetranychoides Banks

(not Australian)

Empodium vestigial, connate at base dorsally to tarsus forming a mere protuber-
ance. Claws forming two pairs of tenent hairs and arising dorsally from tarsus,

not apically. Genus Anychus MacGregor

(not Australian)
Both empodium and claws well developed, modified or not, and attached to tarsus
apically.
Claws normal, unmodified, with or without a pair of lateral tenent hairs. Empodium
not claw-like.

Claws modified so as to form a lobe or pad ending in two tenent hairs. Empodium
more or less claw-like, with or without a double series of tenent hairs.

Front of propodosoma 4-lobed, cach lobe tipped with a scale-like seta. Dorsal
setae also scale-like. Peritreme produced as a sausage-like chamber on each side
of gnathosoma. Legs not excessively long, except J, which in female is rather
longer than body and in male quite twice as long. Claws with a pair of Jateral

tenent hairs. Genus Bryobta Koch

practiosa Koch
Front of propodesoma not as above.

Tarsi distinctly or very much shorter than tibiac. At least legs I and IV longer
than body.

Tarsi about as Jong as tibiae. Legs slightly shorter than body. Darsal setae
long, strongly ciliated and arising from strong papillae. Peritreme produced on
each side of gnathosoma as a tube- or sausage-like chamber.

Genus Tetranychopsis Canestrini
(not Australian)

Laat

7
8

232

Tarsi very much shorter than tibiae. All legs excessively long. Peritreme not
produced. Dorsal setae strong, curved, spine-like, but not arising from papillae.
Claws without lateral tenent hairs. Genus Neophyllobius Berlese

ornatus n. sp

Tarsi about three-fourths length of tibiae. Leg I longer than body, IV only slightly
so. Peritreme produced on each side of gnathosoma, Dorsal sctae normal and

relatively short. Genus Tetranobiea Banks

(not Australian)

Front and hind legs excessively long, 2-3 times as long as body. Apex of peritreme
slightly produced as a sma!l round compound chamber. Empodium with two series
of numerous tenent hairs. Dorsal setac long, stout, bhint ended, ciliated and arising

from strong papillae. Genus Tenuicrus nov.

errabundus n. sp.
No legs excessively long, only I, if any, but little longer than body.
Peritreme produced apically as a tube or a large globular swelling.
Peritreme not produced.
Peritreme produced as a large globular swelling or chamber. Empodium claw-like

with a single tenent hair on each side. Dorsal setac long, slender and ciliated, but

nat arising from papillae. Genus Schizonobia nov.

sycophanta n. sp.
Peritreme produced sausage-like.
Dorsal setae very strong and spine-like, with ciliations and arising from strong
papillae. Empodium claw-like with double series of numerous tenent hairs.
Genus Aplonobia nov.
oxalis n. sp.
Dorsal setae less strong or spine-like, not on papillae. Empodium as above.

Genus Petrobia Murray
latens O. F. Mull.

Dorsum not strongly convex. Dorsal setae thin, finely ciliated and not arising from
papillae.

Dorsum strongly convex, setae strongly ciliated and arising from warts or papillae.

Seven transverse rows of dorsal setae: 2.4.4(6).4.4.4. 2
clunales” present.

, te, “setae

Six transverse rows of dorsal setae: 2.4.4(6) .4.4.4, te, “setac clunales”
absent.

Peritreme short, straight, with swollen end-chamber. Empodium claw-like, not split
into six needles but ventrally with or without a proximal basal process.

Peritreme long, V-shaped, with 2 or more chambers.

Empodium Y-shaped, no ventral basal process.
Genus Schisotetranychus Tragardh
(not Australian)
Empodium a simple claw with ventral basal process.

Ventral basal process of empodium with 2 reflexed and haired appendages. Legs
short and thickly haired.
Genus Oligonychus Berl.
(not Australian)

Ventral basal process of empodium consisting of 6 straight downward directed needles.

Genus Eurytetranychus Oud.
(not Australian)
Empodium without basal ventral process.
Empodium claw-like, with basal ventral process of 4-6 necdies; claw of empodium
shorter than needles.
Genus Septanychus MacGregor
(not Australian)

13
15

236

21 Empodium a simple claw. Peritreme -shaped, arms of equal width, apex slightly
1 [ Sauy

swollen. Genus Anatetranychus nov.

hakea n. sp.
Empodium hent downwards and split into 4.6 needles. 22

22 Dorsal setat long and fine swith normal basal ring. Genus Lotetranychus Oud.

(not Australian)
Dorsal setae spindle-like, with roots in a spherical cavity. Genus A potetranyehus Oud.
(not Australian)
23 Apex of peritreme simple. The dorsal striations forming a rhombic field between
the inner setae of the fifth and sixth transverse rows (umbales and sacrales),

Genus Tetranyehus Dufour

urticae Koch

Apex of peritreme complex and anastomosed. Dorsal striations not showing above

rhombic field, Genus Amphitetranyehus Oud.

(not Australian)

24 Peritreme short and straight with swollen apical chamber. Empodium claw-like with

ventral basal process of needles. Genus Paratetranychus Zacker

tnunguis Jacobi

Peritreme long, V-shaped and many chambered. Empodium split into 4-6 needles,
without ventral basal process. 25

25 Seven transverse rows of dorsal sctac: 2.4 -4(6) .4.4.4.2, fe, “setae chinales”
present. 26

Six transverse raws of dorsal setac: 2.4. 4 (6) .4.4.4, fe. “setae clunales”
absent. Tarsus of palp with terminal club. Dorsal setae shorter than distance

between transverse rows. Genus Platytetranychus Oud.

(not Australian)

26 Peritreme short. straight, with swollen apical chamber. Empodium with basal ventral

process of six needles. Genus Metatetranychus Oud,
ulmi Koch = pilosus Can. et FP.

Peritreme long, V-shaped, swollen at bend and distal arm the wider, Empodium
simple, claw-like, without ventral basal process.

Genus Neoteiranyehus Tragardh

hakea n. sp.

Genus Trnuripa.pus Donnadieu 1875

Jenupalpus Donnadieu, 1875: Recherches pour servir a Vhistoire de Tetranyques. Tiss.
Lyon, p. 111.

Brevipalpus idem, thid., p. 115.

Minute reddish mites with oval or egg-shaped body or with the opisthosoma
strongly contracted behind coxae TV and rectangular. Dorsal and ventral sur-
faces often reticulated. Setae generally small, variable in form, simple to leaf-
like. Legs short and thick, femora strongly constricted at base then suddenly
widening, segments strongly wrinkled. Claws 2, with tenent hairs; empodium
not claw-like, modified, with two series of tenent hairs. End of tarsus truncate,
apex ventrally with two broadened and laterally serrate setae, dorsally with a long
hair, Tarsus T and IL with a sensory seta. Palpi long and slender, without tibial
claw, apically with 1-2 long hairs. Front inargin of propodosoma somewhat over-
lapping base of gnathosoma, mostly pointed at apex.

237

‘These mites infest a great variety of plants, both in glass-houses and out
of doors. Although generally not supposed to spin silk to any appreciable extent,
yet one species in Australia is responsible for the webbing together of grape vines.

Approximately twenty species appear to have been described but the three
following only are as yet known from Australia. The South African species
Tenuipalpus ornatus Tucker also occurs here, but as this species does not fit into
the genus Tenuipalpus s. str. it is in this paper removed to a new genus, Tuckerella.

TENUIPALPUS PHOENICIS Geijskes 1939
Meded. Landbouwhoogeschool, Wageningen, 42, (4), 1939.
This species had only recently been deserihed as infecting date-palms in
Hlolland. It was, however, regarded as an introduction, for it was stated that
the country of origin was unknown.

It may scem, therefore, somewhat dubious to relate the following Australian
material to the above species, but as will be scen from the figures given, there
is complete agreement with those given by Getjskes. In Australia the
species appears to occur on a variety of hosts, and is undoubtedly an economic
one,

Description—Colour in life, red. Female length, 250 2, width 148 (the
dimensions given by Geijskes are somewhat greater, wis, 0°284 mm. by
0-151 mm.). Body egg-shaped, the widest part on a level with the dorsal suture
between the propodosoma and the hysterosoma, thereafter tapering and rounded
apically. Dorsal suture distinct, anterior and posterior dorsal shields strongly
reticulated. Anterior margin of propodosoma as figured, overlapping base of
gnathosoma. Propodosoma with three pairs of setae arranged around the margin;
hysterosoma with 18 setae arranged in three transverse rows of four, then six
setae around the margin; all these sctae are short, narrow, leaf-like, serrated and
slightly curved as figured, none of the apical setae overreach the edge of the
hysterosoma. Mouthparts: mandibles styliform, palpi 3-segmented, without
tibial-claw, apical segment with several straight setae.

Ventral surface, as shown, strongly reticulated, coxae I with two setae,
II-1V with one seta each; anterior shield three-sided, median shield with two
pairs of setae, anterior pair short, posterior pair threc to four times length of
anterior pair, posterior part of hysterosoma with two shields, anterior quadrate
with a pair of short posterior setae, posterior shield rounded with three indeter-
minate angles, as wide as anterior shield and with four short setae. Legs
moderately long, [LV somewhat over-reaching apex of abdomen; femora of [T and
II dorsally with a stout seta which, upon high magnification, is similar to dorsal
setae. Tarsi with paired claws, each carrying two to four lateral tenent hairs,
empodium with paired pads carrying series of tenent hairs; tarsi dorsally with a
long seta. Lyes, two on each side.

238

The Australian material does not appear to differ from Geijskes’ species,
although while he figures and states that the dorsal seta of femora I and II is
stout and rod-like, high magnification shows it as somewhat serrate. This is a
common species on a wide variety of plants in Australia. ‘The members of the
genus have generally been regarded as free-living, non silk-spinning forms, but

Fig. 1
Tenutpalpus phoenicis Geijskes
A, dorsal view; B, ventral view; C, front of propodosoma;
D, dorsal seta; E, tip of tarsus

on two occasions this species has been found to cause considerable webbing of

239
Localities and Hosts:

South Australia: on sage, Adelaide, February 1940, (H. W.); webbing
grapes and vine leaves, Waikerie, 5 April 1940, (D.C. S.).

Victoria: webbing grapes, Swan Hill, 5 March 1940 (R. T. M. P.); on
citrus, Burnley, 13 August 1936 (R. T. M. P.).

Western Australia: on lemons, Spearwood, July 1935 (L. J. N.); on banana
fruit, Carnarvon, 9 January 1939 (L. J. N.).

Queensland: on passion-fruit, Rockhampton, 1939 (A. R. B.).

New South Wales: on big-leaved Privet, Sydney, 3 September 1934; on
Camelia bud, Sydney, 16 May 1939; on Vitis clematidea, Avalon,
15 July 1934; on Clematis, Parramatta, 3 September 1934; on Hibbertia
volubilis, Avalon Beach, 15 July 1934; on Privet, Mosman, 8 August
1934; on Clematis, Cabramatta, 3 September 1934.

Northern Territory: on Datura leaves from Darwin, 15 April 1940.

Probably the same species is that recorded in the “Agricultural Gazette of
New South Wales,” vol. 45, 1934, p. 386, as damaging grapes by webbing in the
Ilunter River, Liverpool and Griffiths districts.

TENUIPALPUS CALIFORNICUS Banks 1904
Journ. New York Entom. Soc., 1904, p. 55.

There scems little doubt that the material before me can be correctly
referred to the above species. The following description and the figures, how-
ever, are from Australian material.

Description—Female, length 190, width 135. Body: propodosoma ++
metapodosoma rounded, opisthosoma much narrowed by a comparatively sharp
constriction behind fourth pair of legs, then somewhat rectangular and almost
quadrate but rounded apically. Dorsal suture indistinct, but a series of irregular
lines on the level of legs 1V divides the body into two ‘distinct shields correspond-
ing to the propodosoma + metapodosoma and the hysterosoma. Neither dorsum
nor venter reticulated or patterned. Propodosoma -+ metapodosoma with three
pairs of setae (fig. 2, A) arranged around the margin and two pairs of similar
median but much shorter setae and two simple setac; opisthosoma with eight
marginal setae (fig. 2, A), one pair just posterior of leg IV and three pairs at
equidistanees around the apical margin, and one pair of anterior fine smali sctae;
there is also another pair of marginal setae between legs ITI and IV; the longer
setae are moderately broad, leaf-like and serrate as in fig. 2C and 13-5 » long,
The three pairs of apical setae overreach the body margin. Mouth parts, palpi
and mandibles as in the genus. Eyes, two on each side.

Ventral surface: coxae each with a single small fine seta; just posterior of
and between coxae I is a pair of long fine setae and there is a similar pair between
coxae IV; medially in the field between coxae II and III is a pair of fine short
setae, On each side of the anal opening are three very small fine setae, and anterior
of it, but further apart, is another pair. Legs very short, [IV not reaching apex

240

of body; claws and empodium as in the genus; femora ] and IL showing but little
contraction at base and femora II without an apophysis.

My specimens differ from Banks’ figure as given by Quayle (1912) in several
details, but one assumes that his figures were not drawn under sufficiently high
magnification. No dorsal setae, apart from the six apical marginal ones are shown
by Quayle, and he only figures a single eye on each side. More important perhaps
is his figure of the tarsus, where he shows four similar claws, instead of two
claws and a median empodium. Such a structure does not appear to have been
figured for any other species,

It was described from California as infesting lemons, but occurs in Australia
on a variety of hosts and has been taken quite frequently, but not always, along

Fig. 2
Tenutpalpus californicus Banks
A, dorsal view; B, ventral view; C, dorsal seta; D, tip of tarsus IT from above

with the preceding. It does not appear, however, from the relative numbers
examined to be as common.

Localities and Ilosts:

South Australia: on Fuchsia in grecn-house, Botanic Gardens, Adelaide,
26 February 1940 (11. W.).

New South Wales: on Big-leaved Privet, Sydney, 5 July 1934; on Camellia
bud, Sydney, 16 May 1939; on Vitis clematidea, Avalon, 15 July 1934;
on Clematis, Cabramatta, 3 September 1934; on Hibbertia volubilis,
Avalon Beach, 15 July 1934.

241
Victoria: on grapes, Swan Ihll, 5 March 1940 (R. T. M. P.); on citrus,
Burnley, 13 May 1936 (R. 'T. M. P.).

Northern ‘Territory: on Datura leaves from Darwin, 15 April 1940.

Tenuipalpus vitis n. sp.
The following species does not agree with any previous description that 1
am aware of. It is closely related to the preceding but differs in a number of
important details as well as in size,

Fig. 3
Tenuipalpus vitis n. sp.
A, dorsal view; B, ventral view; C, apical dorsal seta

Descriplion-—Female, length 248 4, width 140, shape much as in preeeding
species, but propodosoma + melapodosoma rather longer than wide and with an
indistinct suture between; posteriorly the body is constricted from leg 1V, some-
what rectangular and rounded apically; there are indistinct transverse sutures or
lines on level of leg III and just posterior of leg ITV. Neither dorsally nor

242

ventrally are there reticulations or patterning, Eyes, two on each side. Mouth
parts, palpi, etc., as in the genus.

On the propodosoma there are three pairs of marginal setae, the anterior
pair being very small, the second pair larger and the posterior pair the largest;
on the metapodosoma are two pairs of lateral setae, the anterior large, the posterior
smaller, medially are two pairs of smaller and (?) fine setae; on the opisthosoma
anteriorly are a pair of small lateral setae and a pair of median smaller (?) fine
setae; around the apical margin are four pairs of equidistant long narrow serrated,
leaf-like setae (fig. 3,C) 16°2 long. Ventrally the setae are as in the preceding
species. Legs strong and short as in the genus, but with little or no constriction
at the base of the femora I and I], femora II with a pronounced lateral triangular
apophysis. Claws and empodium as in the genus.

This species differs from the preceding in the size and shape and in the
lengths and arrangements of the dorsal sctae, as well as in the apophysis on
femora II.

Locality and Host:
Western Australia: on lemons, Perth, May 1934 (L. J. N.).

Genus Tegopalpus nov.

Description—Elongate-oval in form with the mouth-parts hidden under the
propodosoma. Palpi 2-segmented without tibial claw, tarsus with a long seta and
a stout cylindrical appendage. Legs very short, tarsi of I and II with a stout
cylindrical seta, Claws normal with a pair of lateral tenent hairs, empodium split
to form a pair of fine, somewhat slender claw-like processes.

Tegopalpus conicus n. sp.

Description — Sex ?, probably female. Shape an elongate oval, greatest
width just before the middle; length 324 », width 162 4. Eyes, two on each side.
Dorsal and ventral surfaces not reticulated, but finely striated. Indistinct sutures
present between propodosoma and metapodosoma and between metapodosoma
and opisthosoma. Mouth-parts hidden beneath propodosoma; mandibles styli-
form, palpi only 2-segmented without tibial claw, apical segment small and rounded
with a long seta and a long, stout, cylindrical seta. Legs very short, tarsi I and IT
with a similar cylindrical seta to that of palpi; claws simple but with a pair of
lateral tenent hairs, empodium divided into two fine prongs which are somewhat
claw-like. Dorsal setae: on propodosoma three pairs of lateral serrated leaf-like
setae, on metapodosoma two pairs of similar setae laterally, a median similar pair
anteriorly, and a pair of median fine and small setae posteriorly, opisthosoma
with four pairs of lateral leaf-like setae, and an anterior pair of small fine ones.
Ventral setae: coxae each with a small fine seta, between legs II and legs IV and
in held between legs II and Til a pair of long fine setae, on each side of anus are
four small fine setae.

243

This very interesting and rather aberrant species is only known from four
specimens from New South Wales collected on Casuarina at Avalon Beach on
26 August 1934 and submitted by the Department of Agriculture. In the structure
of the claws and empodium it is related to the next genus.

Fig. 4
Tegopalpus conicus g., et sp. n.
A, dorsal view; B, ventral view; C, palp; D, tip of tarsus I

244

Genus Tuckerella nov.

‘his genus is erected for the species Tenuipalpus ornatus described by Tucker
from South Africa. lt differs from Tenuwipalpus as in the key to genera and the
following generic description.

Description—Elongate-oval in shape. Eyes, two on each side. Mouth-parts
clongate, mandibles not so styliform as in Tenuipalpus. Palpi long, 4-segmented,
tibia with a strong claw, tarsus over-reaching slightly tip of claw, cylindrical
with four long pointed setae and a cylindrical rod. Claws normal and strong
with paired lateral tenent hairs and the empodium split into two fine processes
resembling claws. Dorsum divided into propodosoma, metapodosoma and
opisthosoma, reticulated and furnished with fan-like setae and apically with a
bunch of long ciliated setac. Legs short.

TUCKERELLA ORNATA (Tucker 1926)

Tenuipalpus ornatus Tucker, Dept. of Agric, S. Afr., Memoir, No. v, 1926, p. 4, pl. ii.

Deseription—Female, length to front of propodosoma 337 », gnathosoma
135 », width 216. Colour in life, red. Body roundish-oval, widest on line of
propodosomal-metapodosomal suture. Dorsum strongly reticulated with sutures
indistinctly shown between propodosoma and metapodosoma and between meta-
podosoma and opisthosoma. Mouth-parts elongate, mandible piercing, stylet-like,
palpi elongate, 4-segmented, tibia with well-developed claw, tarsus cylindrical,
slightly over-reaching tip of claw and furnished with four setac and one cylindrical
rod. Iyes, two on each side. Dorsum furnished with over 40 large, fan-shaped
setae, propodosoma with two anterior-marginal, two postero-lateral and four sub-
marginal, metapodosoma with an anterior row of eight, a subposterior row of
six and four lateral on cach side; opisthosoma with six marginal and eight smaller
dorsal setae; at the apex of the opisthosoma is a tuft of 10-12 long ciliated setae;
the largest dorsal setae are 54 4, long and the apical ciliated setae 350 long (in
the figures these setae have been abbreviated), Legs short, 1V not reaching apex
of body, furnished with similar but smaller fan-like setae; claws strong, furnished
with a pair of lateral tenent hairs; empodium divided into two processes, resernb-
ling but more slender than the claws, Ventral setae: coxae cach with one slender
fine seta, between coxae I, coxae IV and in field between coxae [I and Ll a pair
of fine setae, those between coxae I the longest.

Remarks:

In the presence of the palpal claw and the pronounced mouth-parts this
species obviously cannot fit into Tenutpalpus. The mandibles and tarsal claws
and empodium will also exclude it.

There seems little doubt that it is the same as that described by Tucker
(1926) as infesting citrus fruits in South Africa, and it was quite recognis-
ably figured by Froggatt from galls on Privet at Sydney, New South Wales, in
the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales for 2 September 1916. It was,

245

gh ts UR
f<\ Ss

Trig. 5
Tuckerella ornatus (Tucker)
A, dorsal view; B, ventral view (terminal abdomiual setae abbreviated) ;
C, palp; D, claws and empodium; E, mandibles; F, tip of palpal tarsus

246

however, mistakenly regarded by him as the gall-maker and referred to the
Oribatidae and near to Leiosoma Nicolet.

Localities and Hosts:
New South Wales: on Privet, Sydney, October 1916 (W. W. Froggatt) ;
Mosman, 7 August 1934; on Cypress Pine, Castle Hill, 23 August 1934;
on Apiomorpha gall on Eucalypt, Boomi, 16 August 1934.

Genus BryosiA Koch 1836
Bryobia Koch, 1836: Deutsch Crust. Myr. Arachn., f. I, t. 8-9.

Body flat, broad and oval in female, egg-shaped in male. Cuticle irregularly
wrinkled and with small tubercles. Front margin of propodosoma 4-lobed, each
lobe tipped with a seta, Body setae fan-like, apically over-reaching edge of body.
Front legs longer than the rest and slightly longer than body in female, much
more so in male, Tarsi about as long as tibiae. Claws normal with lateral tenent
hairs, empodium with two series of tenent hairs, Palpi stout with tibial claw.
Mandibles styliform, with distinct mandibular plate. Peritreme opening externally
in a pair of sausage-shaped processes. Eyes, two on each side, the anterior smaller
than posterior.

Bryopia PRAETIOSA Koch 1836
Bryobia praetiosa Koch 1836: Deutsch. Crust. Myr, Arachn., f. I, t. 8-9.

Description—Female, length to 700 », width 500 »; male, length 460 », width
320. Colour in life reddish with grey or greenish-grey to black body, gnatho-
soma and legs red. Front of propodosoma with four lobes, the median pair the
longer, and each tipped with a leaf-like seta. Body oval, broad and flat in female,
more elongate and egg-shaped in male, A distinct sutural line between protero-
soma and hysterosoma. Eyes, two on each side, the anterior the smaller. The
proterosoma with a pair of setae just medial to the eyes. Hysterosoma with an
anterior row of six setae, two pairs in middle and 14 setae situated around the
margins; all these dorsal setae are leaf-like. The arrangement of setae in the male
is similar, but there seems to be an additional pair of lateral setae posteriorly on
the proterosoma. Ventrally the setae are long and fine, there are two on coxae I
and one on coxae II-IV; between coxae II, coxae IV and in field between coxae I
and LII and posterior of coxae IV is a pair, and there are several small ones
around the anus. The mandibles are styliform, with a distinct mandibular plate,
slightly incised at apex. Tracheal tubes opening externally on each side of
mandibular plate as sausage-like processes. Palpi stout with distinct tibial claw.
Legs I in female about as long as body, others shorter; in male I about twice as
long as body, 665. Claws with lateral tenent hairs, empodium with two series
of tenent hairs; leg setae fine and ciliated. Penis long and slender, slightly curved.

Remarks:
This species, frequently known as the “clover mite,” is of almost cosmo-
politan distribution. It is a frequent pest of apple and other fruit trees, the

247

young stems of which are often decidedly red in colour due to the covering of eggs
of the mite,

Fig. 6
Bryobia practiosa Koch
A, dorsal view of female without posterior legs: B, female, ventral view:
C, dorsal view of male; D, ventral view of male; Ff, mandibles and peritreme ;
I, palp; G, front of propodosoma of male; H, same of female: I, lateral view
of claws and empodium of leg I; J, same of legs II-IV

248

It has gone under a number of synonyms and it seems probable that most,
if not all the different species of Bryobia described are but one and the same
species.

Localities and Hosts:
South Australia: on Loliim perenne in glasshouse, Waite Institute, Glen
Osmond, 5 October 1933 (1D. C. S.); on apple foliage, Waite Institute,
30 October 1932 (D. C. S.); on rye grass and clover, Waite Institute,
9 November 1933 (D. C. 5.); Glen Osmond, July 1934 (R. V. S.);
Brown Hill Creek, 6 August 1933 (HT. W.).
Western Australia: on almonds, Perth, 16 January 1939 (P. N. I.); on
apples, Mount Barker. 29 September 1932; Karrogullen,.9 March 1940
CC. FL IL. J.) Narrogin, 20 October 1938 (IX. R. N.); in grass, Crawley,
27 June 1935 (K. R.N.),
Victoria: Mildura, 24 February 1939; Beechworth, 23 August 1939; Frank-
ston, 23 February 1939; Wantirna, 23 February 1929; Bendigo,
23 February 1939; Geelong, 23 February 1939; Warragul, 25 February
1939; Amphitheatre, 27 February 1939; Heidelberg, 23 February 1939.
New South Wales: Bathurst, June 1932; on Amaranthus, Sydney, 14 June
1934.
Genus NreopryLtonius Berlese 1886
Neophyllobius Berlese 1886: Acari damosi alle piante coltivate, p. 19,

Description—Body roundish oval, without sutural line between proterosoma
aud hysterosoma. Dorsal setae strong, curved, often on small tubercles. Palpal
tibia without claw, with two setae and an apical stout curved rod. Legs very
long, all much longer than body, especially 1 and TV, genu of IIL and IV often
with a long whip-like seta; tarsi very much shorter than tibiae; claws normal,
without tenent hairs, empodium with two series of tencnt hairs. Eyes, two
on each side.

This genus is found in Europe (four species), in North America (two
species), and now a further species is described from Australia. They are small

reddish mites occurring under stones, in moss, etc.

Neophyllobius ornatus n. sp.

Descriplion—Female (?), body rounded, length 250 », width 175 ». Colour in
life reddish. Dorsum without suture. LEyes, two on each side. Mandibles styli-
form, palpi short but slender, 4-segmented, tibia without claw but with two setae
and a long curved stout rod, tarsus short and rounded with four setae. Dorsal
setae 544, on small papillae, ciliated, coarse, curved, and pointed, arranged in
transverse rows of 4.4.4.4.4.4. 2. ic., mid-dorsally with seven pairs.
Ventral setae long and fine, one on each coxa, one pair between coxae I and
another between coxae III and a pair on the gnathosoma; legs very long. longer
than body; genu of all legs with a long whip-like seta, finely ciliated, tarsi shorter

249

than tibiae; claws simple without tenent hairs, empodium with two series of tenent
hairs, Length of leg 1 4452, LD 391, IT] 3914, 1V 4324; of gental seta
1148p. 11 148 4, 111 175», TV 175 p; tarsi somewhat swollen.

ae OS
Bot Anas
r SN
_ “SS
a - we

Fig. 7
Neophyllobius ornatus n. sp.

A, dorsal view: B, ventral view; C. palp: D. claws and empodium

Remarks:

This new species differs from all others in the arrangement and number of
dorsal setae. It is closest to saratilis Halbert, but differs in the nature of the
dorsal setae. No species is known te be of economic importance.

230
Locality:
On Apiomorpha gall on Eucalyptus, Boomi, New South Wales, 16 August
1934.
Genus Tenuicrus nov.
Description—Roundish oval forms, Dorstm irregularly striated, furnished
with long, thick, blunt, ciliated and almost straight setae arising from strong

EK,

Fig. 8
Tenuicrus errabundus ¢., et sp. n.
A, dorsal view without legs; B, ventral view; C, mandibles and peritreme;
D, palp; I, claws and empodium

papillae. Mandibles styliform with distinct mandibular plate. Peritreme straight,
opening externally on each side of mandibular plate in a small compound globular
process. Palpi stout with distinct tibial claw. J.egs very long and_ slender,

231

[f and HI about half as long again as body, I and IV three to four times as long;
tarsi much shorter than tibiae; claws modified to pads furnished with two tenent
hairs; empodium claw-like with two series of tenent hairs.

Tenuicrus errabundus n. sp.

Description—Female, length 513 4, width 350%. Colour in life, ? Dorsum
irregularly striated, the striae forming circles around the papillae. Dorsal
setae long, 1904, stout, blunt-ended and ciliated, arising from strong papillac,
arranged 2.4.4.4.,4.4. Mandibles styliform, with distinct mandibular plate
which is entire at apex; palpi stout, 4-segmented with strong apical claw, tarsus
cylindrical, over-reaching tip of claw. Ventral setae long and fine, one on each
coxa, a pair between coxae II and between coxae 1V and a few small ones around
anus. l.egs very long and slender, all exceeding body length, I and IV three to
four times; tarsi very much shorter than tibiae, claws modified to form pads
ending in two tenent hairs, empodium claw-like with two series of tenent hairs.
IXyes, two on each side,

Remarks:

This very striking animal resembles the species of Neophvllobius in the very
long legs, but differs in the dorsal setae and generically in the structure of the
tarsal claws and empodial appendage.

Locality:

A single specimen from ground at Concord West, New South Wales,
27 March 1935 (S. L. A.).

Genus Schizonobia nov.

Description—Roundish species, dorsally strongly convex with strong dorsal
selae arising from papillae. Mandibles stylitorm with distinct mandibular plate.
Palpi stout with strong tibial claw. Peritreme almost straight but ending
externally in a very large globular chamber. Legs not excessively long, tarsi
about two-thirds length of tibiae, claws modified as two pads ending in paired
tenent hairs, empodium claw-like but only with one pair of lateral tenent hairs.

Schizonobia sycophanta n. sp.

Description—Female, colour in lifé reddish. JLength of female 870 », width
610». Body strongly convex and roundish, dorsum furnished with very strong
ciliated and pointed setae, 148» long, arranged 2.4 .4(6) .4.4. 4 in trans-
verse rows. Mandibles styliform, mandibular plate distinct, slightly incised at
apex. Peritreme short, but ending externally as a large globular chamber. Palpi
stout, as figured, with strong tibial spur, tarsus stout, cylindrical, over-reaching
tibial claw. Legs not or only slightly longer than body, tarsi about two-thirds

length of tibiae; claws modified as pads ending in two tenent hairs, empodium
claw-like, with a lateral tenent hair on each side. Ventral setae: long and fine,
81», except the shorter ones around anus, coxae T and II with three subapical

252

setae, the outer one indistinctly ciliated, ILE and LV with only one simple seta,
gnathoscma with one pair, between coxae 1] one pair, between HII one pair,
IV one pair, around anus six pairs.

Locality and Host:
Attacking couch grass, Ifobart, Tasmania, 1939 (J. W. H.). The eggs were
thickly congregated around the stems.

ro CL OT Te

Tig. 9
Schizonobia sycophanta ¢., ct. sp. n.

A, dorsal view without Ie@s; B, mandibles and peritreme; C, palp:
D, claws and empodium; FE, tibia and tarsus of leg I; I°, dorsal seta

Genus Aplonobia nov.

Description—Rounded, very convex species, dorsum furnished with strong,.
long, blunt and serrated setae arising from strong papillac, arranged im seven
rows: 2.4.4 (6) .4.4.4. 2, @e., setae clunales present. Mandibles styliform.
mandibular plate present, palpi stout with distinct tibial claw. Peritreme ending
externally in a sausage-shaped chamber. Eyes, two on each side. JTegs only
slightly, if at all. longer than body, except I which is distinctly longer. Claws
modified as pads ending in two tenent hairs, empodium claw-like with series of
tenent hairs.

253

Aplonobia oxalis n.sp. (Sour-sob Mite)
Hesertption—Female, colour in life dark reddish. Length 920 2, width 700 p;
dorsally strongly convex, furnished with seven transverse rows of strong, blunt,

slightly curved and serrate setae, 122 » long and arranged: 2.4.4 (6) .4.4.4.2,

i.¢., setac clunales present, all setae arising [rom large prominent papillac.

Tig. 10
Aplonobia oxalis g., et sp. n.
A, dorsal view without legs; B, ventral view; C, mandibles and peritreme;

D, palp; FE, claws and empodium; F, dorsal seta

two on each side, but difficult to discern,
slightly incised apically.
shortly cylindrical tarsus.

Mandibles styliform, mandibular plate
Palpi stout, tibia with strong claw reaching tip of the

legs not much if at all longer than body, except 1;
tarsi only slightly shorter than tibiae, claws pad-like with two tenent hairs,

empodium claw-like with series of tenent hairs. Ventrally the setae are long and

Ioyes,

254

fine, gnathosoma with one pair, coxae I and II with two, III and IV with one,
a pair between coxae I and coxae LV, and a pair in the field between coxae Il
and [11.

Remarks:

This very interesting species seems to be of some economic importance, In
many localities in South Australia it occurs on the Sour-sob (O.valis cernua),
a noxious weed probably introduced to Australia from the Mediterranean Region.
its attack results in the leaves turning yellow and withering. It has also been
found affecting fruit trees. The eggs are laid in clusters under bark and twigs
lying on the ground. The name of “Sour-sob mite” has been given to this species
by agricultural workers in South Australia.

Localilics and Hosts:
South Australia: on O.valis, Balaklava, 24 August 1933 (II. W.); on O-aiis,
Lockleys, September 1933 (D.C. S.); Adelaide, August 1938 (II. W.);
Glen Osmond. August 1934 (R. V.S.).
New South Wales: Bathurst, 27 April 1939, on peach (probably only for
the purpose of egglaying on the bark).

Genus Perroria Murray 1877
Petrobia Murray, 1877: Econ. Ent. Apt.. p. 118,

Description—Roundish convex animals, dorsum furnished with relatively
short, stiff, finely ciliated setae not arising from papillae, arranged in seven trans-
verse rows, Le., setae clunales present; dorsal suture distinct. Mandibles styli-
form, mandibular plate present. Peritreme ending externally in a horn- or
trumpet-like chamber. Palpi stout, tibial claw present. Claws modified to pads
ending in two tenent hairs, empodium claw-like with series of tenent hairs. Legs
not longer than body, except 1 which exceeds body length. Tarsi shorter than
tibiae.

Remarks:

Geijskes, in his recent paper, synonymises Banks’ genus Tetranobia with the
above, but a scrutiny of the description of T. longipes Banks 1912 shows that the
claws are of normal form and. therefore, Tefranobia falls into quite a different
section of the key to the genera.

Prerropia LATENS (Q. F. Mull, 1776)
Acarus latens Mill, O. F., 1776: Zool. Dan. Prodr., p. 187.
Trombidiuim lapidumt Hammer, 1804: in Hermann, Mem., p. 49.
Petrobia lapidum Murray, 1877: Econ. Ent. Apt. p. 118,
Petrobia lapidum Oudemans, 1915: Arch. ftir Naturg., 81 (5), p. 49,
Petrobia latens Oudemans, 1939: Krit. Hist. d. Acarol., II, 1759-1804, p. 285.

Oudemans, in his monumental work, has critically reviewed the synonymy
of this species, which should now stand under the above name.

255

Description—Female ; colour in life, dark reddish. Dorsum convex, furnished
with short stiff ciliated setae of 54 length; body 520 long, 300 wide. The
dorsal setae are arranged in seven transverse rows of 2.4.4 (6) .4.4.4.2, 72,
setae clunales present. Mandibles styliform, mandibular plate slightly incised at
apex. Peritreme ending externally in a horn- or trumpet-like chamber. Palpi
stout with strong tibial claw. Eyes, two on each side. Jegs II and IIL shorter
than body, IV as long as, I longer than body; tarsi about two-thirds length of

Fig. 11
Petrobia latens (O. F. Mill.)
A, Jateral view; B, venter; C, mandibles and peritreme; D, palp;
KE, claws and empodium; F, same, another view; G, dorsal seta

tibiae; claw modified to pads ending in two tenent hairs, empodium claw-hke with
series of tenent hairs. Ventral setae: on gnathosoma a pair, on all coxae one,
between coxae I, coxae TV and in field between coxae IT and ITI a pair, some
smaller ones around the anal and genital openings.
Remarks: ;

This species is well known in Europe and is undoubtedly an introduction to
Australia, where it is of economic importance.

256

Localities and Hosts:
New South Wales: on wheat, Inverell, 10 October 1929,
Western Australia: on apples along with Bryobia, Narrogin, 20 October
1938 (K, R.N.).

Genus TrerrANycius Dufour 1832
Tetranychus Dufour, 1832: Ann. Sci. Nat., 25, pp. 276-283.

LEpitetranychus Zacher, 1916: Mitt. Kais. Biol, Anst. f, Land- und Forstwirthsch., [I]. 16
p. 22.
Tetranychus Oudemans, 1931: Ent. Berl. DI8, No. 178, pp. 221-222.

This genus, in its strict sense, includes the true “red-spiders” or “spinning
mites,” all of which are of considerable economic importance as plant pests.

Description—Dorsum with only six transverse rows of setae, i.e., setae
clunales absent; the setae are long and thin, at most with fine indistinct ciliations.
Peritreme simple, bent V-shaped, with several chambers, but not broadened, In
the female the dorsal cuticular striations form a rhomboidal figure between the
last two transverse rows of dorsal setae. Empodium, except on leg I of male, split
into six downwardly and somewhat backwardly directed needles, Penis with an
end barb or hook.

Tyvpe—Tetranyvchus lintcarius Duff.

TEFRANYCHUS URTICAE Koch 1836
Tetranyehus urlicae Koch, 1836; Deutsch. Crust. Myr. Arachn., F. 1, t. 10.
Tetranychus altheac vy. Handstein, 1901: Zeitschr. f. Wissenschaftl. Zool., 70 (1), p. 74.
Tetranychus urticae Oudemans, 1930: Ent. Berl, DI.8, No. 176, pp. 163-166.

This species is the common “red-spider” in Australia, occurring on a wide
variety of cultivated plants, in gardens, fields and hot-houses, All the records
hitherto published in Australian literature can almost with certainty be referred
here, for examination of recent material has failed to show the presence of any
other species.

The true felarms Linn. is now transferred to the genus Holetranyehus, of
which neither that nor any other species can be authoritatively claimed as yet
having been found in Australia.

Deseription—In life greenish, with lateral dark spots during the summer,
but in the autunin and winter reddish. Legs and setae whitish. length of
female to 6004, width 2504, male to 4004, width 150. Body roundish-oval.
Cuticle finely striated. Dorsum with six rows of long fine and finely ciliated setae
arranged 2.4.4 (6) .4.4.4,i¢., setae clunales absent. Eyes, two on each side.
Mandibles long and styliform, distinct mandibular plate present, slightly incised at
apex. Peritreme long and slender, V-shaped, with several chambers. Palpi
stout, tibia with strong claw, tarsus short with thick terminal thumb and thinner
lateral rod; in male, femora with a stout curved spine. Claws as two pads ending
in a pair of tenent hairs, empodium split into six downwardly directed needles,
in male on I the needles are short and stumpy. In the male the penis is short,

257
eurved apically and ending in a hollow expanded collar resembling a barb or hook
from a lateral view.

Remarks:

The synonymy of this species has been very much confused, and it is only
comparatively recently that Oudemans has definitely separated it from the true

Fig. 12
Tetranyehus urticae Koch
A, dorsal view: B, yentral view; C, mandibles and peritreme; D, palp of male;
I, palp of female; F, claws and empodium of leg I of male; G, same of female,
all legs: H, dorsal seta

felarius as altheae, and still more recently synonymised the latter name with
urticue Noch,

In examining Australian material from time to time, [ have referred that
from certain localities to £. carpini Oudemans. Further study shows this deter-
mination to be in error, all the specimens being referable to 7. urticae.

258
Localities and Hosts:

South Australia: on sunflowers, Waite Institute, Glen Osmond, 16 February
1934 (D. C. 3.) 3; on melons, Heetorville, 27 February 1933; on beans,
Murray Bridge, 26 February 1938, Fullarton, March 1940; on holly-
hocks, Adelaide, 1989 (H. W.}; on lilies, Glen Osmond, September
1935 CR. V.S.).

Queensland: on dahlia, Nambour. March 1936; on cornflawer, Brisbane,
August 1939; on Cupressus, Brisbane, February 1940 (A. R. B.); on
strawberries, Nambour, 21 September 1938.

Western Australia: on marigolds, Claremont, 8 May 1935 (L. J. N.)3 on
beans, Perth, 1 November 1931 (B. A. O’C.); on Cape gooseberry,
Perth, 17 May 1931; on convolvulus, Guildford, 15 December 1931
(B. A. O’C.) ; on tobacco, Mangimtup, 23 March 1939 (A. J. L.).

Victoria: Kyabram, 25 February 1939.

New South Wales: on beans, Sydney, 18 July 1934; on grape leaves, Sydney,
14 December 1934; on Orchids from quarantine ex Java, Sydney,
3 April 1939; on rose leaves, Roseville, 9 July 1934; on dahlia, Concord
West, Sydney, 5 April 1939.

Australian Capital Territory: on tobacco, Canberra, 3 April 1939, 23 March
1940; on Datura, Canberra, 15 March 1940; on Night-shade, Canberra,
15 March 1940; on beans and mallows, Canberra, 15 March 1940; on
peach and lemons, Black Mount, Canberra, 15 March 1940; on oak,
Canberra, 29 July 1937.

Genus ParatetrAnycritus (Zacker 1913) Tragardh 1915
Paratetranychus Zacker, 1913: Mitt. Kais. Biol. Anst. f. Land- und Forstw.. FI. 14, p. 39
(pars).
Paratetranychus Tragardh, 1915: Medd., No. 109, Centralanst. 7, Férsdékyv. pa jordbruksomr ;
Int. avdeln. No. 20, pp. 18-56.
Paratetranychus OQudemans, 1931: Ent. Der., D1.8, No. 178, pp. 222-3, No. 181, p. 291.

Description—Empodium as a simple claw; on the under side basally with a
process of fine needles in two series of four and six. Claws modified to pads
ending in two tenent hairs. LPeritreme straight, apically swollen in a small
chamber. Dorsal sctac in six transverse rows of 2.4.4 (6) .4.4.4, @e., setae
clunales absent; setae long, not arising from papillae. Eyes, two on each side.
Mandibles styliform, mandibular plate distinct. Palpi stout, tibial claw present.

PARATETRANYCHUS UNUNGUIS Jacobi 1905
(The pine-tree spinning mite)
Tetranyehus wiunguis Jacobi, 1905: Naturw. Zeitschr, Land- und Forstw., Bd. 3, pp. 239-25
Paratetranychus wnoiguis Zacker, 1913: Mitt. Kais. Biol. Anst. 1. Land- und lorstw., H. 1
p. 39,
Paratetranychus ununguis Tragardh, 1915: Medd. No. 109, Centralanst. f. lGrsokw.
pa jordbruksomr. Ent. avdelu, No, 20, pp. 29-32.

7.
4,

Description—Female, body short and broad, with convex dorsum. In lite
brownish-red to dark green. Length to 3504, width to 250. Cuticle finely
striated. Eyes red, two on each side. Mandibles styliform, plate distinctly present ;

259

incised at apex. Palpi stout, tibia with strong claw, over-reaching tip of tarsus.
Peritreme slender and straight, ending in 2 small swollen chamber. Dorsal setae
in six rows, setae clunales absent. Legs not longer than body, claws pad-like,
ending in two tenent hairs; empodium a simple claw, ventrally with a process of
four to six needles in two series. Ventrally the setae are: on coxae | and II two,
on coxae LI] and IV one, on gnathosoma one pair, between coxae III, I and 1V

Fig. 13
Paratetranychus ummguis Jacobi
A, dorsal view; B, venter; C, mandibles and peritreme;
D. palp; FE, claws and empodium

one pair, in front of genital opening one pair, around genital and anal openings
five pairs.

Remarks:

This is a well known species in Europe and, as its popular name implies, is
a minor pest of pine trees. It has been found in Australia as fotlows:
Locality and Hast:

Queensland: on Pinus sp.. Passchendale, near Stanthorpe, 20 May 1938
(A. R. B.).

260

Genus MerarerraxycHus Oudemans 1931
Metatetrauychus Qudemans 1931: lint. Ber.. viti, No. 177, pp. 198-199; No. 178, p. 224.
Descriplion—-Body strongly curved dorsally, dorsal setae in seven transverse
setae clunales present, arising from papillae. Enipodium a simple claw
Peritreme straight, short,

rOWS, Lc.,
with a basal ventral process of four to six needles.
ending in a small swollen chamber.

Type: Metatetranychus ulini (Koch).

Fig. 14
Metatetranychus ulmi Koch
A, dorsum; B, lateral view; C, mandibles and peritreme; D, palp of female;
E, claws and empodium; F, dorsal seta

261

METATETRANYCIIUS ULMI Koch 1836
(The fruit-tree spinning mite)

Tetranychus ulmi Koch, 1836: Deutsche. Crust. Myr. Arachn., H. 1, No. 11.
Petranychus pilosus Canestr. e Fanzo, 1876): Atti Soc, Ven. Trent. v, pp. 133-134.
Letranychus moytilaspidis Ewing, 1912: J. Keon. Ent. v, pp. 414-415.
Paratetranychus pilosus Zacker, 1913: Berlin Mitt. Biol. Anst., H. 14, pp. 38-39.
Ohgonychus ubni Hirst, 1920: Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., pp. 58-59.
Oligonychus alut Oudemans, 1929, male: Ent. Ber., viii, No. 169, p. 19.
Metatetranychus ulini Oudemans, 1931, female: Ent. Ber., viii, No. 177, pp. 189-199,
Metatetranychus alni Oudemans, 1931, male: Ent. Ber., viii, No, 178, pp, 231-232.

Description—Strongly convex, oval species. In life, dark red. Female,
length to 700ph, width to 350,. Dorsal setae thick, pointed, and strongly
ciliated, arising from papillae and arranged in seven transverse tows:
2.4.4(6).4.4.4. 2, 7¢., setae clunales present. Mandibles styliform,
mandibular plate present, indistinctly incised at apex. Valpi stout, tibial claw
strong, not reaching tip of tarsus, tarsus with apical thumb that is slightly longer
than broad. Peritreme short, straight. ending in small swollen chamber. Legs
not longer than body; claws pad-like with two tenent hairs, empodium a simple
claw with basal ventral process split into four to six needles. Male: length to
500 », body more tapering.

Remarks:

This species is well known in Europe and America, affecting many species of
iruit trees. The red spherical eggs are laid on the twigs and branches, often
imparting a red hue to the trees. In Europe the eggs hibernate, hatching in the

spring. It also occurs in New Zealand, but has only comparatively recently been
found in Australia.

Locality:
Tasmania: Margate, 11 February 1939 (J. W. E.).

Genus Anatetranychus nov.

Description-—Allied to Neotetranychus Tragardh 1915, but differing in that
the dorsal setae do not arise from papillae and are not so thick, and that the
peritreme, while V-shaped, is (?) inversely so, with equally thin arms, and ends
apically ina small rounded swelling. Jt agrees with Neofetranychus in that the
empodium is a simple claw without ventral process and the claws are pad-like,
ending in two tenent hairs. Mandibles styliform, mandibular plate present,
rounded at apex. Palpi stout, tibia with strong claw. Eyes, two on each side.

@) Oudemans’ Zool, Anz., 1 Aug. 1939, Bd. 127, Ufft. 3/4, p. 78, states that prlosies
C. & F., 1876, is not T. pilosus of Donnadieau, 1875, and for the latter species gives a new
name of Wetatetranyehus canestrinis.

262

Anatetranychus hakea n. sp.
Description—Short, roundish or slightly tapering species, not very convex
dorsally. Colour in life, reddish. Dorsal setae fairly thick, pointed and finely
ciliated, arranged in seven transverse rows: 2.4.4(6).4.4.4. 2, 1e, setae

Fig. 15
Anatetranychus hakea g., et sp. nov.
A, dorsal view; B, venter; C, mandibles and peritreme; D, palp;
EK, claws and empodium; F, dorsal (large) and ventral (small) setae

’

clunales present. Mandibles styliform, n-andibular plate distinct, rounded at apex.
Palpi stout, tibia with strong claw, tarsus a little longer than wide, with long
terminal rod and another rod basally. Peritreme an inverted V, with equally

263

thin arms and apically slightly swoilen. Eyes, two on each side. Legs barely as
long as body, tarsi with a simple claw-like empodium and claws pad-like with
long paired tenent hairs. Ventral setae: on coxae I and II two, on coxae III and
IV one; on gnathosoma one pair; between coxae I, II] and 1V one pair ; anteriorly
and posteriorly of genital and anal opening one pair, and around these openings
four pairs. Length, female, 380 », width 310 p.

Locality and Host:
Western Australia: on Hakea sp., Claremont, 21 May 1932 (H. W.).

Family TRICHADENIDAE Oudemans 1938

Fig. 16
Raoiella australica n. sp.
A, dorsal view; B, gnathosoma; C, mandibles and peritreme;
D, claws and empodium of leg I

264

Genus RaAoreLta Hirst 1924
Raotella Hirst 1924: Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., (9) 14, p. 522, pl. xvi, figs. 1-6.
Description—Round to rectangular species, not excessively convex, with
distinct suture. Eyes, two on each side. Mandibles styliform, mandibular plate
present. Peritreme complex, as figured. Palpi small, 2-segmented, without tibial
claw. J.egs short, claws two with paired lateral tenent hairs, empodium with
two series of tenent hairs.

Genotype—Raotella indica Hirst.

Raoiella australica n. sp.

Description—Small, red, roundish to squarish or pentagonal in form, not
strongly convex dorsally. Dorsal setae mainly clavate and ciliated, on the pro-
podosoma three pairs around the margin, on hysterosoma quite marginal five
pairs equally spaced setae, and just inside margin four pairs of similar but smaller
setae, while medially are three pairs of very short non-clavate setae. Mandibles
styliform, plate present. Peritreme complex (fig. 16C). Palpi small, 2-segmented,
without tibial claw, apical segment with a terminal rod-like seta, a smaller inner
lateral rod and a fine curved pointed seta. Eyes, two on each side. Legs short,
tarsi with two claws, each with a pair of lateral tenent hairs, empodium with two
series of tenent hairs. Ventral setae not determined. Female—Length 382 p,
width 313 p.

Remarks:

This is apparently the second species to be described of this interesting genus.
{t differs from the genotype mainly in the length of the outer dorsal setae and
the different nature of the median dorsal setae.

Localities and Hosts:
New South Wales: on eucalypts, Dee Why, 28 July 1932 (A. L. A.).
Queensland: on Eucalyptus andrewsiana, Passchendale, 20 May 1938; on
E, tereticornis, Maryborough, 30 September 1938.

SPECIES INQUIRENDAE

In Redia, vol. vi, ‘fasc. 2, 1910, in a List of New Genera and Species of
Acarina, Berlese briefly described Tetranychus pantopus sp.n. from Ficus sp.,
Moreton Bay, Brisbane (Froggatt) and Tetranychus histricinus n.sp. from fruit
trees, New South Wales (Froggatt). He therein stated that the species would
be described in more detail and figured in his Manipoli vii, viii and ix, to be
published soon.

The Librarian of the Australian Museum, Mr. Rainbow, has very kindly
searched through the later volumes of Redia for me, but has been unable to find

265

any further reference to the figures, nor could he trace them in the indices to
vols. i-x and xi-xx of that journal.

It seems certain, therefore, that no further details were ever published by
Berlese. The brief descriptions given in vol. vi are too indefinite to recognise
the species and they must, therefore, for the present, be regarded as uncertain,
especially as Berlese does not appear to have returned any type or other material
to the Department of Agriculture at Sydney.

Translations of Berlese’s descriptions are as follow:

Yetranychus pantopus

Female—Triangular, with stout humeri and rather short, thick rough setae;
all legs (especially I and IT) at least twice as long as body, Length 250», width
220 » (with legs, from tip of legs I to legs ITT, 1,000» long).

Habitat: on Ficus sp., Moreton Bay, Brisbane (Froggatt).”

“Tetranychus histricina
Colour, ?. Resembles T. horridae, but not or only slightly excavate dorsally
and with dorsal setae much thinner, apically with smooth hairs arising from small
tubercles. Length 5504, width 360 xz.
Habitat: on fruit trees, Australia, New South Wales (Froggatt).”
N.B.—This latter species does to some extent suggest the species here
described as Aplonobia oxalts.

A NEW FOSSIL CRYPTOPLAX
FROM THE PLIOCENE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By EDWIN ASHBY, F.L:S.

Summary

Mr. B. C. Cotton, of the South Australian Museum, has placed this specimen in my hands for
description. It is the first fossil Cryptoplax from South Australia, and the third record of the
occurrence of a fossil Chiton valve in this State.

266

A NEW FOSSIL CRYPTOPLAX
FROM THE PLIOCENE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By Epwin Asupsy, F.L.S,
[Read 11 July 1940]

Mr. B. C. Cotton, of the South Australian Museum, has placed this specimen
in my hands for description. It is the first fossil Cryptoplay from South Aus-
tralia, and the third record of the occurrence of a fossil Chiton valve in this State.

Cryptoplax ludbrookae sp. nov.
One head valve only, in an excellent state of preservation; 1-2 mm. in length,
and 1-3 mm. in width; cream coloured, evenly arched, slope convex and shallow.
Tegmentum: the sculpture consists of granules somewhat irregularly arranged

in longitudinal rows; the beak which overhangs is almost smooth or, at most, sub-
granular, the grains on either side and immediately anterior to the apex circular
and sub-rounded, narrowly spaced and increasing in size anteriorly, in the central
anterior portion flattened, elliptical or oblong, and some particular grains are
three to four times as long as wide suggesting that, in older specimens, they may
be longer and fused into riblets. Articulamentum: insertion plate extending
well forward beyond the tegmentum for one-third of the width of the latter,
colour white, three well-defined slits.

Holotype from a bore at Holden’s Motor Body Works, Woodville, South
Australia, 335-380 feet Pliocene. (Reg. No., P.4285, S.A.M.)

The excellent preservation is astonishing when compared with the valves of
other species of Cryptoplaxy from the Pliocene of Muddy Creek, Hamilton,
Victoria, of which only one per cent. of the specimens show any sculpture at all.
I have pleasure in naming it after the finder, Mrs. Ludbrook.

Trans. Roy. Soc. §.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

NOTES ON THE SIGN-LANGUAGE OF THE JARALDE TRIBE
OF THE LOWER RIVER MURRAY, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By R. M. BERNDT, Hon. Assistant in Ethnology, South Australian Museum

Summary

While at Murray Bridge, South Australia (January-February 1940), the writer had the opportunity to
observe a demonstration of the sign-language used by the Jaralde [‘Jarildekald] natives. The
geographical situation of this tribe has been referred to in a recent paper (I) by the present writer.

On his first visit he was accompanied by Mr. James Wigley, who kindly prepared the rough
sketches illustrating this paper.

267

NOTES ON THE SIGN-LANGUAGE OF THE JARALDE TRIBE
OF THE LOWER RIVER MURRAY, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By R. M. Bernpr

Hon. Assistant in Ethnology, South Australian Museum
[Read 11 July 1940]

INTRODUCTION

While at Murray Bridge, South Australia (January-February 1940), the
writer had the opportunity to observe a demonstration of the sign-language used
by the Jaralde [’Jarildekald] natives. The geographical situation of this tribe
has been referred to in a recent paper (1) by the present writer. On his first
visit he was accompanied by Mr. James Wigley, who kindly prepared the rough
sketches illustrating this paper.

Our informant, for the matter noted here, was Karloan (Albert) who is of
the [Mananki} clan. He is seventy-five years of age, had been fully initiated as
a youth, and is now living at Murray Bridge. An extremely virile man for his age,
the excitement and gratification he derived from once more using the signs and
relating their meanings was indeed delightful to behold. The existence of such
a system among the Jaralde does not appear to have been previously recorded.
It is no longer in general use, being preserved only in the memory of old people.

Sian LANGUAGE

According to one recent writer (Mountford) (5) on this subject, the
gesture language of the Australian aborigine is of considerable complexity and,
in some form, appears to be used over the whole of the continent, This writer
has compared some clements of the gesture language of the Ngadadjara tribe of
the Warburton Ranges, Western Australia, with those of some tribes in North-
West Central Queensland, and Central Australia.

The same author states that among the Ngadadjara natives this type of
language was in gencral use, being employed extensively when hunting and during
circumcision ceremonies.

Roth (7) states that the signs used by the North-West Central Queensland
natives were of great valuc to individuals who were forced to travel over country
in which they were strangers to the spoken language. This would most probably
occur during expeditions along known “trade routes.” Spencer and Gillen (8)
state that the use of sign language was associated with periods of mourning,
during which certain women would be compelled to observe long silences.

The use of gestures is sometimes developed into a more or less systematic sign-
language (6), in which objects and ideas are represented by postures and move-
ments of the hands, arms, head and body, imitating the most conspicuous outlines

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940:

268

of an object or the most striking features of an action. These signs may be
abbreviated or conventionalized in use to make them more readily intelligible at
a distance.

Among the Jaralde, the sign-language did not appear to be highly developed,
but this is only a conjecture since the tribe is now almost extinct, and only a
little knowledge has survived.

Although used as a means of communication between visiting tribes from
Yorke Peninsula (2) and the Upper Murray (3), signs were most generally used
amongst themselves while out hunting, or between friends who were some distance
apart. They were steps or moves calculated to evoke response from another.
It may be noted that Karloan and his son often communicate between them-
selves, in this manner, when one or the other has forgotten an object and has to
be reminded of it.

Each sign is accompanied by a spoken word or phrase, which cannot, of
course, be heard by the other.

The following signs (except the last five) are in the form of a conversation
carried on between two people some distance apart.

DESCRIPTION or SIGNS
Fig. 1, A | The man stands upright, looking towards the other who is walk-
ing away. The hand is held, palm outwards, and at the same time an exclama-
tion of attraction [a] or [er] is made. The other, attracted not by sound or by
having seen the sign, but because he “feels he is being wanted,” turns and observes
his friend.

Fig. 1, B The first places his hand to his head and then extends the arm
sideways, with the palm of the hand facing outwards. The other answers, as in
Fig. 1, C, thereby asking what the first is wanting; he places the hand to the head,
and then extends the arm sideways, so that the hand is turned. At the same time
he exclaims, [‘‘’a?”?] “What?”

The first, thinking that he will not bother the other, responds by placing his
hand behind his head and then extending the arm outwards, so that the palm of
the hand is open and faces outwards as in Fig. 1, D, saying [“Ma yop:eilu”]
“Go walk on.”

The other continues his walk. However, the first-named, on further con-
sideration, realizes that he would like to know where the other is going. He again
uses the sign as in Fig. 1, A. The responses are again as in the signs iflustrated
in Fig. 1, B. Continuing the conversation the first man, placing his hand, fingers
close together and palm downwards, in front of his face, and then extending his
arm sideways with the palm of the hand facing outwards, signals as in Fig. 1, E,
and says, [“’Jalwund?”] “Where you go?”

269

be
ea

270

The other, in replying, may fully extend his left arm (Fig. 1, F) (in all the
other movements the right arm is used) and points in the direction he intends
going, saying, [“nuwi”] “Over there,” or “down there.”

Information having been received, a different sign is used to express an
ending. The first, flexing the arm, places his hand in front of his face, thumb
extended ; the arm is then fully extended, a little to the back, and the hand turned
inward. At the same time he says, [‘’Ma”] “Go on.”

Thereupon the departing one turns and walks away (Fig. 1, H). After
going a short distance the traveller may see something to which he wishes to draw
attention, He uses the sign illustrated by Fig. 1, A, transmitting at the same time
the “idea” so that the first should ‘‘feel he is wanted.” This man, when attracted,
will respond with a sign as in Fig. 1, C. The other then extends his arm upwards,
Tig. 1, J, with the index finger pointing, the others folded back, and says,
[“Na’rindjera”] “Many (people).”

The first, not quite understanding, will then use the sign in Vig. 1, C. say-
ing, [“’ar?} “What?”

Thereupon the informant again extends his arm upwards, as in the position
shown in Tig. 1, J, and brings it downwards, with the hand drawn in so that the
thumb is at the back and fingers loose as in Fig. 2, A, saying to himself,
[“Na’rindjera lari’] “Many (people) coming down (the river).”

The first holds his arm up, as in Fig, 2, B, the palm of the hand facing out-
wards, and then brings it down so that the palm now faces the ground, saying
[“Kal’lur”] “AIL right (or very well).”

This is the end of the particular conversation detailed to the writer, The
following are separate movements.

Fig. 2, C. The hand is held up a little above the head, and then loosely
dropped so that the fingers point groundwards and the roviowying question asked,
[“’EEr miman?’] “Are there (any) women?”

The query, |“ ’Munyity?” | “Whiat’s there?” is'asked and indicated by the sign
shown in lig. 2, D, the arm being flexed, the hand held in front of the face, with
the palin held downwards.

The attitude shown in Fig. 2, E, with the arm held upwards, so that the hand,
facing outwards, is a little above the head, asks the question, [“Nuygitj ’uin?’]
“Who is there?” this question being verbally expressed at the same time,

Vhe man asked answers by bending down (Fig. 2, F) and pre-
tending to pick up a net, which as in position, Fig. 2, G, he places round his
shoulders, in the manner in which women stand when they put their baby [’porli]
on their back and then throw a [’kundari] or net over the child. This net, when
worn, is tied round the shoulders and neck, so that the infant’s legs remain free.
This action would indicate to the questioner that it was a woman who was
approaching:

©) Referring to the tras Murray; Jeri, down.

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272

NOTES ON THE ABOVE SIGNS

The attraction of a person at a distance by sending one’s idea or desire, other
than by a sign or a sound, is interesting. This is a psychic experience, which is
claimed to frequently occur. These psychic powers seem to be possessed
generally, and not specifically to belong to endowed individuals such as medicine-
men. Most often the “message” is “felt” in the vicinity of the stomach, Elkin (4)
suggests that the explanation may either lie along the line of meditation and a
state of receptivity, or that it may require some explanation as mental telepathy.

Some further aspects of this subject, insofar as it concerns the Jaralde people,
may be discussed in a later paper.

REFERENCES
1 Bernor, R. M. 1940 Some Aspects of Jaralde Culture, South Australia.
Oceania, 10 (4)
2 Bernpt, R. M. 1940 A Curlew and Owl Legend from the Narunga Tribe,
South Australia, tbid.

3 Bernor, R. M. 1940 The Bark-Canoe of the Lower River Murray, South
Australia, Mankind, 2 (9)

4 Evxtn, A. P. 1937 Notes on the Psychic Life of the Australian Aborigine.
Mankind, 2 (3), 56
5 Mounrrorn, C. P. 1938 Gesture Language of the Ngada Tribe of the
Warburton Ranges, Western Australia. Oceania, 9 (2), 152-155
6 Notes and Queries on Anthropology, Fifth Edition, Roy. Anthrop. Instit.,
1929, 351
Roto, W. E. 1897 Ethnological Studies Nth.-West Central Queensl.
Aborigines, 71
8 SpENCER and GILLEN 1904 Northern Tribes of Central Australia, 525

“I

THE ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE TREMATODE,
CYCLOCOELUM JAENSCHIN. SP.

By T. HARVEY JOHHNSTON and E. R. SIMPSON, University of Adelaide.

Summary

Adults of Cyclocoelum jaenschi n. sp. were found during 1937 in the abdominal air sacs of two
species of small grebes, Podiceps poliocephalus Jardine and Selby, and P. novaehollandiae
Stephens (P. ruficollis novaehollandiae), taken by Messrs. G. and F. Jaensch at Tailem Bend, Lower
Murray River. The parasites measured from 7 to 9 mm. long by 2-3 to 3 mm. broad. The succeeding
measurements were taken from a mounted specimen which had been compressed, its dimensions
then being 11 mm. in length and 3-7 mm. in maximum width, with the anterior fourth narrower and
with both ends broadly rounded. The oral sucker was nearly as wide as the pharynx (0-5 nm.). The
narrow oesophagus was thrown into one or two curves partly above the genital apertures. The rather
narrow intestinal crura had an uneven lumen, somewhat wider in their most anterior part and in the
posterior quarter. The excretory bladder was transversely elongate, lying just behind the united
crura, its pore being dorsal and practically terminal. The well-developed lymph system consisted of
a great number of flattened anastomosing canals, some wide, others narrow, above and below the
crura, with branches extending laterally from the latter as well as into the intercrural region, and in
addition anteriorly, beside the pharynx and anterior sucker. The details were not worked out. Willey
(1935) gave an account of the system in Cyclocoelidae. The testes were subequal, the posterior 1
mm. and the anterior -9 mm. in diameter. The cirrus sac was slightly oblique, just behind and partly
below the intestine. Entering its posterior end was a very narrow, thin-walled vas deferens, which
then widened into a large elliptical seminal vesicle, -45 by -25 mm., followed by the narrow twisted
(when resting) male duct. The male pore, together with the much wider uterine aperture, was
surrounded by a mass of sphincter fibres. The genital openings were directly below the oesophagus
in the posterior half of its length

273

THE ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE TREMATODE,
CYCLOCOELUM JAENSCHI N. SP.

By T. HArvey Jounston and E. R. Simpson, University of Adelaide
[Read 11 July 1940]

Adults of Cyclocoelum jaenschi n.sp. were found during 1937 in the
abdominal air sacs of two species of small grebes, Podiceps poliocephalus Jardine
and Selby, and P. novaehollandiae Stephens (P. ruficellis novachollandiae), taken
by Messrs. G. and F. Jaensch at Tailem Bend, Lower Murray River, The para-
sites measured from 7 to 9 mm. long by 2'3 to 3 mm. broad. The succeeding
measurements were taken from a mounted specimen which had been compressed,
its dimensions then being 11 mm, in length and 3:7 mm. in maximum width, with
the anterior fourth narrower and with both ends broadly rounded. The oral
sucker was nearly as wide as the pharynx (0°5 mm.). The narrow oesophagus
was thrown into one or two curves partly above the genital apertures. The rather
narrow intestinal crura had an uneven lumen, somewhat wider in their most
anterior part and in the posterior quarter. The excretory bladder was transversely
elongate, lying just behind the united crura, its pore being dorsal and practically
terminal. The well-developed lymph system consisted of a great number of
flattened anastomosing canals, some wide, others narrow, above and below the
crura, with branches extending laterally from the latter as well as into the inter-
crural region, and in addition anteriorly, beside the pharynx and anterior sucker.
The details were not worked out. Willey (1935) gave an account of the system
in Cyclocoelidae. The testes were subequal, the posterior 1 mm. and the anterior
‘9mm. in diameter. The cirrus sac was slightly oblique, just behind and partly
below the intestine. Entering its posterior end was a very narrow, thin-walled
vas deferens, which then widened into a large elliptical seminal vesicle, 45 by
-25 mm., followed by the narrow twisted (when resting) male duct. The male
pore, together with the much wider uterine aperture, was surrounded by a mass
of sphincter fibres. The genital openings were directly below the oesophagus in
the posterior half of its length.

The small rounded ovary, about 0°4 mm. in diameter, was just in front of
the level of the anterior testis and separated from the latter by uterine coils. The
very short oviduct arose dorsally from its outer region. Lying postero-laterally
from the ovary and in contact with it was the shell gland, which was slightly
wider. The yolk follicles extended from a point just behind the level of the base
of the pharynx to the corners of the excretory bladder, and lay ventrally and
laterally from the crura, overlying part of the latter in some places. The main
duct on each side passed backwards below the intestine. The transverse yolk
duct of one side travelled inwards behind the anterior testis and then forwards

Trans. Roy. Soc. §.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

s
2.

Iigs. 1-10

Fig. 1, mature redia; 2, miracidium, showing epithelial cells, etc.; 3, miracidium
with redia; 4, egg, with miracidium; 5, cercariaeum; 6, adult; 7, anterior end;
8, 9, variations in position of genital organs and ducts; 10, female system.
Tigs. 2-5 drawn to scale beside fig. 5.
Lettering—b, birthpore; c. cercariaeum; e, eye; f, flame cell of redia; ff, flame
cell of miracidium; i, intestine; m, miracidium; o, ovary; p, papilla; r, redia;
rs, receptaculum seminis; sg, shell gland; u, uterus; vr, vitelline reservoir;
vid, vitelline duct.

275

in the intertesticular zone to meet its fellow which passed inwards in front of
the posterior testis, In front of the latter, the short common yolk duct curved
upwards and forwards to pass above the uterus and shell gland, becoming
swollen to form two vitelline reservoirs and then meeting the fertilising canal
lying at right angles to it. This latter extended inwardly above the ovary to
receive the oviduct and then continued, ending blindly as a seminal receptacle a
little distance from the midline of the worm. The ootyp travelled outwards
through the shallow shell gland, and on leaving it, widened considerably, then
curved ventrally between the shell gland and the intestine and bent inwards
below the former to reach the border of the ovary, It then curved outwardly
under the common yolk duct to become thrown into several loops in the region
between the shell gland, the posterior testis and the intestine, penetrating to a
varying distance between the two latter. The uterine coils then crossed into
the zone between the ovary and the anterior testis and usually, between
both testes, to reach the intestine. The rest of the uterus constituted a fairly
uniform tube, greatly looped and occupying all the intercrural region in front
of the testes (except the zone occupied by the ovary and shell gland). In the
posterior half of the worm, many of the loops extended laterally above the crura
into the vitelline zone. Just behind the intestinal bifurcaticn the duct dipped
downwards and forwards, rapidly narrowing to terminate at the female aperture
adjacent to the male pore. The terminal part of the uterus was well provided
with circular muscle fibres. Eggs were amber-coloured, elliptical, 195 hy 944,
with an operculum with a serrated edge. The eggs in the anterior half of the
uterus contained each a miracidium with a conspicuous eye-spot, as well as a
redia.

In specimens subjected only to cover-glass pressure the posterior testis
measured 0°5 to -6 mm., the anterior testis 45 to’52 mim., and the ovary
-2 to *3.mm. in diameter; the cirrus sac *8 to 1 mm. long and -28 to °35 mm. in
maximum width; the oral sucker *4 to -45 mm. broad; and the pharynx +5 mm.
long by °55 mm. broad.

Variations were observed in the positions of the testes, uterine loops, and
transverse yolk ducts as well as in the extent of the vitelline glands. The testes
were sometimes almost symmetrically placed. Sometimes the earlier uterine loops
extended backwardly only as far as the most anterior part of the posterior testis ;
but in other cases the extension almost surrounded the latter, the uterus extend-
ing through ihe intertesticular to meet the intestine. The uterus also invaded,
to a greater or less extent, the zone between the anterior testis and the intestine.
Sometimes the anterior limit of the yolk glands did not reach as far as the base
of the cirrus sac, and in several cases the extension was different on the two sides
of the worm. The usual disposition of the transverse yolk ducts was that
described above, but in one instance they both lay in front of the two testes;
while in another case one travelled behind the displaced anterior testis and the
other crossed the posterior testis to join its fellow above the latter.

276

The species is named in acknowledgment of the generous assistance given
us for some years past by Messrs. George and Fred. Jaensch of Tailem Bend.
The type, a mounted specimen from Podiceps novaehollandiae, has been deposited
in the South Australian Museum, Adelaide. Our investigation has been assisted
by the Commonwealth Research Grant to the University of Adelaide, The
arrangement of the testes and ovary and their relation to each other, the position
of the genital pore in relation to the pharynx and oesophagus, the disposition of
the uterine loops in relation to the testes and the intestine, as well as the dis-
position of the vitellaria, serve to differentiate C. jaenschi from all other described
species of the genus. The organisation of the region adjacent to the genital
apertures closely resembles that indicated in Harrah’s figure of the similar region
in C. elongatum.

Our species shows characters belonging to the two tribes Haematotrephea
and Cyclocoela as diagnosed by Witenberg, more particularly the former in regard
to the arrangement of the gonads. Some of our specimens would fall into his
genus Corpopyrum, but the others could not be accommodated in Cyclocoelum
in the restricted sense in which Witenberg proposed to restrict it. Those speci-
mens which would fall into Corpopyrum resemble Cyclocoelum tringae (Stossich),
C. brasilianum (Stossich), C. wilsoni Harrah, and, in some features, C. hall:
Harrah, but they differ from these species as figured by Kossack (1911), Harrah
(1922), and Witenberg (1926) in some of the features mentioned above, It
seems to us preferable, in view of our observations regarding variations in
organography, to suppress Corpopyrum as a synonym of Cyclocoelum, as Joyeux
and Baer (1927) have already suggested, and to use the older conception of the
latter. Witenberg’s subgenus Antepharyngeum must also be suppressed as it
includes C. mutabile, generally regarded as the type of Cyclocoelum.

Lire History

The eggs hatched in tap water within a few hours. The miracidium bears
long cilia, especially elongate on a collar surrounding the head lobe, but absent
from the latter and also from the boundary lines of the epithelial cells. These
cells were arranged in four rows; their number was not ascertained, but there
were probably 15 to 20. Two small glands, one on each side, open at the base of
the protrusible head lobe and pour out their secretion immediately prior to the
extension of the lobe. Just in front of the ciliate collar there are, on each side,
a large and two small papillae. The miracidium was phototropic, with a large eye-
spot situated near the junction of the first and second rows of epithelial cells.
Two large flame cells were observed near the centre of the body, but only one
excretory tube was seen continuing posteriorly. Lying free in the cavity of the
mature miracidium is a relatively large active redia with a well-developed pharynx
and two ambulatory processes, as well as four pairs of flame cells, two anterior
and two posterior. These flame cells, together with the main excretory tubule
and its two branches, were seen near the midregion of the larva.

277

Eggs obtained in December 1937 hatched next day and were placed in contact
with pond snails, Planorbis isingi, Limnaea lessoni and Ameria pyramidata.
About three weeks later several specimens of the first-named were dissected, but
larval trematodes were absent. The Limnaeca snails died within a few days, and
examination failed to reveal any stages of the parasite. One specimen of
A. pyramidata died thirty-eight days after contact and was found to contain four
large rediae near the albumen gland and numerous cercariaea lying free in the
adjacent tissues. A week later an Ameria was dissected and three large rediae
were found near the head, the largest being 1-65 mm. by 50 mm., and the smallest
*96 by ‘21mm. The largest may have been a mother redia and the others daughter
rediae, unless multiple infection had occurred and one of the larvae had become
located in a more favourable situation than the others. The latter view is the more
probable, since Szidat (1932) and Stunkard (1934) did not observe a second
generation of rediae in allied monostomes. The redia figured by us (fig. 1) was
obtained from a dead Ameria and measured 1:75 by 0°3 mm. It contained
developing germ balls and cercariaea and possessed a tail-piece and two well-
marked ambulatory processes in its posterior third. The birthpore lay near the
mouth, The pharynx measured 44 long by 40, broad. The long intestine
contained dark brown material and, when the redia was placed in water, the organ
was observed to contract and, on relaxation, might pass back into one of the foot
processes or into the tail piece. The body covering possessed an irregular net-
work of cuticular ridges or papillae. so that a spiny appearance was presented
in side view.

Tail-less cercariaea were very thin and transparent, measured (average of
five preserved specimens) *225 mm. long by ‘116 mm. broad. They lived only
a few minutes in water. The anterior sucker and the pharynx were about 404
and 20 in diameter respectively. The intestine was largely obscured by the
abundant cystogenous glands. A very weak posterior sucker lay in the posterior
half of the worm. <A number of cysts, apparently belonging to the species,
occurred in the snail’s tissues.

Our observations appear to be the first published relating to the life cycle of
a species of Cyelocoelum, Szidat (1932) indicated that Siebold in 1835 and
Wagner in 1858 had reported the occurrence of a bud (1.¢., a redia) in the mira-
cidium of Monostomum mutabile Zeder and M. flaviim Mehlis. These worms are
Cyclocoelum mutabile and Typhlococlum cucumerinum (Rud.) respectively.
Szidat (1932) gave a detailed account of the life cycle of Yvracheophilus
sisowi Skrj., a parasite of East Prussian ducks, the intermediate host being a
species of Planorbis. He drew attention to the presence of a ventral sucker in
the cercariaeum in the gastropod and in the wandering metacercaria from the lung
tissues of the duck. Stunkard (1934) gave an account of the life history of
Typhlococlum cymbium (Dies.) from a grebe, Podilymbus podiceps, the inter-
mediate host being Helisoma trivolvis in North America. Tracheophilus sisoun

278

was considered to be a synonym. Stunkard fed a few cysts to a domestic duck
but did not obtain later stages.

The life cycle seems to be similar in Cyclocoelum, Tracheophilus and
Typhlocoelum. We have observed that the egg of Hacmatotrephus adelphus
S. J. Johnston, whilst still in the uterus, contains a miracidium enclosing a well-
developed redia essentially similar to that described above. It seems to us likely
that all members of the Cyclocoelidae have a life history as follows: the egg,
before laying, contains a miracidium within which is a redia; the egg hatches soon
after access to water; some species of freshwater pulmonate gastropod acts as
intermediate host ; there is neither sporocyst nor secondary redia stage; the cercaria
is tail-less and encysts within the host in which it has developed; the final stage
is reached when the appropriate species of bird eats the infected mollusc; all the
cercariaea have ventral suckers.

REFERENCES
Harran, E, C. 1922 North American Monostomes, Illinois Biol. Monogr.,
7 (3)
Joyeux, C., and Baer, J. 1927 Note sur les Cyclocoelidae (Trématodes). Bull.
Soe. Zool., Franee, 52, 416-434
Kossack, W. 1911 Ueber Monostomiden, Zool. Jahrb. Syst., 31, 491-553
Sxryabtn, K. 1. 1913 Tracheophilus sisowi n. sp. C. Bakt. Orig,, 69, 90-94

SrunKARD, W. H. 1934 Life Cycle of Typhlocoelum cymbium. Jour. Parasit.,
20, 336

SrunKarp, W. H. 1934 The Life Iistory of Typhlocoelum cymbium, a contri-
bution to the phylogeny of the monostomes. Bull. Soc. Zool., France,
59, 447-466

Szipat, L. 1922 Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Cyclocoeliden, Der Leben-
zyklus von Tracheophilus sisowi Skrj. 1913. Zool. Anz., 100, 205-213

Witrey, C. H. 1935 The Excretory System of the Trematode, Typhlocoelum
cucumerinum, with notes on lymph-like structures in the family
Cyclocoelidae. Jour. Morph., 57, 461-471

Witenzerc, G. 1926 Dic Trematoden der Familie Cyclocoelidae Kossack. Zool,
Jahrb. Syst., 52, 103-186

ABORIGINAL STONE STRUCTURES

By C. P. MOUNTFORD, Hon. Assistant Ethnologist, South Australian Museum.

Summary

Aboriginal buildings in stone, either in the form of cairn-like structures, or piles of pebbles, have
been known in Australia for over a century (fig. 1). Sir George Grey, in 1838, found two heaps of
stones near Hanover Bay, north Western Australia: one, twenty-two feet five inches in length,
fourteen feet in width and four feet high; the other, twenty-two feet in length, sixteen feet in width
and six feet high.

279
ABORIGINAL STONE STRUCTURES

By C. P. Mountrorp, Hon. Assistant Ethnologist, South Australian Museum
[Read 11 July 1940]
Pirates XVI ann XVII

Aboriginal buildings in stone, either in the form of cairn-like structures, or
piles of pebbles, have been known in Australia for over a century (fig. 1).

Sir George Grey, in 1838, found two heaps of stones near Hanover Bay,
north Western Australia: one, twenty-two feet five inches in length, fourteen
feet in width and four feet high; the other, twenty-two feet in length, sixteen
feet in width and six feet high.

are

o
e N. TERRITORY.
e
e
QUEENSLAND,
e
‘N e
W. AUSTRALIA. bad

Ss, oY STRALIA,

e
oe [ef N.S. WALES.
eae
e
a *
EQ

Fig. 1 Locality of Stone Structures and Pebble Mounds

Crossland (1902, p. 14) saw a cairn on Mount Agnes, in the Glenelg River
district of north Western Australia. He writes: “In this gap was a low cairn

. surmounted by an upright pillar of sandstone, of which about three feet
was visible.”

Withnell, 1901, writes of cairns in the Rocburne district of Western Aus-
tralia associated with totemic beings and increase ceremonies.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

280

Mathews (1901, p. 76) gives a complete description of a hollow stone build-
ing used as a hawk trap. According to him this type of building is used
over a large area in Central and north Western Australia. No other observer
has, as yet, noted similar structures.

Love (1939) gives a detailed description of three types of stone monuments
of the Worora tribe in north Western Australia.

‘The first example (p. 139, pl. ~C) shows seven cairns ol stone near the
Sale River. They were known as “sneezing places”. Tove writes: “Should a
man, when hunting, pass this way and fail to place a stick or a spear on one of these
piles, he will be troubled with sneezing for the rest of the day.” The second
type (p. 141, pl. xiii A) is a small cairn at the foot of a bottle tree, which marks
the spot where a mythical ancestor died. The third type (p. 139, pl. xivD) is a
stone pile with a large boulder placed on the apex. This represents a mass of
cooked and pounded grape vine roots.

Knut Dahl (1926, p. 225) when travelling through Arnhem Land

. observed a mound of stones, obviously built by luman hands, a sort of
cairn where grass and stones filled the intervals between. Our guides said that
the blacks had built it... .”

Giles (1875, p. 171) observed stone structures at Gordon Springs, Rawlinson
Ranges, Western Australia. He writes: “.... saw small mounds of stones placed
at even distances apart .... There was also a large piece of rock placed in the
centre of most of these strange heaps.” The same author (1889, p. 94) found
piles of stones and a cleared path leading to them.

Dow (1939, p. 210) describes six stone piles, or pebble mounds, varying
from two to twenty-two feet in diameter, They were situated ncar Koonawarra,
in the Broken Hill District, New South Wales. In an earlicr paper (1938, p. 33)
Dow described two other groups, a single mound at Mulga Springs, and three at
The Ramparts on the Waterbag Holding.

Towle (1939, p. 200) records several cairns on the summit of Mount Foster,
on the lower Macquarie River, New South Wales. One, on the apex of the
mount, was nine feet in diameter, four feet six inches in height, and was built
of slabs of stone laid horizontally. Three other heaps of loosely piled stones
were adjacent.

In 1935 local station owners in Central Australia told the author that the
aborigines often built cairn-like structures on the hill-tops.

STONE STRUCTURES IN SouTIY AUSTRALIA
Gregory’s record (1884, p. 206) referring to the stone piles on the banks of
the Coopers Creek, is the earliest in South Australia. He writes: “.... We
found a well-beaten native track .... the loose stones had been cleared from the
tracks and piled into heaps.”
Wood Jones. (1926, p. 125) recorded an example of arranged stones and
cairns on the Gungra Clay Pan, about ten miles north-east of McDoualls Peak.

He described the cairns thus: “The central portion of this maze-like area had
been marked by a series of cairns about four feet high, and solidly compacted
—very much like the cairns erected by surveyors on prominent spots. Of these
only four are now standing, but the sites of many more can be detected by the
mass of disordered stone caused by their collapse.”

The present author (1927, p. 169) described six stone structures which were
erouped together on one of the low northern foothills of the Waroonee Range.
The structures were unusual in form, and had been constructed from the long
narrow slates that had weathered out from the adjacent hillsides. The most
complete example of this group has since been presented to the South Australian
Museum (pl. xvi, fig. 4).

When the paper was presented verbal statements were made by certain
members of the Royal Society expressing doubt that these structures had been
built by aborigines. At the suggestion of the Council of the Society, and in
order that the criticisms should be recorded, the author added a footnote suspend-
ing judgment. While then, and since, no evidence has been forthcoming that
these stone structures were other than the work of the Australian native, the
additional data here produced show that similar structures were known and
recorded by some of the first explorers, and, as shown in this paper, are definitely
the work of aborigines.

Stapleton (1931, p. 23), whilst investigating rock engravings in the Blinman
district, found four structures on the Alpana Station similar to those at
Waroonee, He also ascertained from a local aborigine that the structures were
built “for fun” by the local natives and were known by the name of juraka.

Whilst attached to the 1937 Adelaide University Anthropological Expedition
to the Northern Flinders Ranges the author observed a number of stone struc-
tures. Enquiries among the natives of the Adnyamatana tribe, who inhabited
the surrounding country, clicited the fact that these buildings were the work of
boys. or adolescent youths, and, like the Blinman examples, had been built “for
fun.” One half-caste aborigine, about thirty years of age, pointed out a structure
which he himself had built (pl. xvi, fig. 3). The old men of the tribe also admitted
that they had built similar piles when they were boys.

Campbell and Mountford (1939, p. 19) recorded groups of arranged stones
at Weelina, on the edge of the Simpson Desert in South Australia, in which
cairns similar to those of the Wood Jones examples were present. They write:
“The most obvious (cairn) of which is a fairly intact pile of large stones, about
ten feet in diameter and three feet six inches in height.”

At present there are four groups recorded in South Australia, and in this
paper fifteen new localities are described.

A Waroonee (pl. xvi, fig. 4). Six stone structures of the square, hollow type,
described by the author (1927, p. 169-172). They are situated on the low
foothills of the Waroonce Ranges.

282

Waukaringa. A single example of the square, hollow “Waroonee” type, four
feet six inches high, and one foot six inches square. This is situated on a
low rocky ridge, about four miles south of Waukaringa.
C Old Tooth Knob Station (pl. xvii, fig. 1). A single example of the “cairn”

type, situated on the ridge of a hill to the west of a gap near the deserted

Conley ae
N Oo

Beltana

| “2G 4
4 Owienagin OP ts

Arrawie

Re eaalia tee

eBlinman
mh ~ i Me
| Parachilnaq aaa T F Ps
/ a\ : Witreal
Torrens fe aA pa
rw i E
: fees Barattae

a
2 Tooth Nob
c

Waukaringa

a
; B
Pt. Augusta H Waroonee « at,
~ 1 aa

Peterborough

137 138 139

283

station. ‘he building is approximately three feet six inches high, and square
in section.

Emu Springs. A collapsed cairn on the crest of a low hill, a few hundred
yards north-east of the springs.

Wirrealpa Station. Mr. Arthur Rudall, of the above station, pointed out two
stone structures on the summit of a hill three miles south of Wirrealpa.
Ile had seen the aborigines build these examples. They were inspected by
the author through field glasses; time did not allow a fuller investigation.

Wirrealpa Station. Mr. J. Windsor, who had spent about forty-five years of
his life on this station, had seen two stone structures, slightly west of the home-
stead. He said that they were the work of aborigines, and that he
had often seen native boys build similar miniature structures whilst tending
the cattle.

Arrowie Station. The same informant also knew of two similar buildings
about a mile north of the above station, which also had been built by the local
aborigines.

Wilpena Station. Mr. H. M. Hale found this example on the side of a hill,
about a mile from the station. The building was of the cairn type, about six
feet high, and two feet square at the base. Mr. J. Hunt, the owner of the
station, informed the author that a number of similar cairns existed in various
parts of his property.

Oraparinna. ‘These are situated on the tops of hills, a few miles north of the
station, on the Blinman track. They were inspected through field glasses, and
appeared to be of the ‘Waroonee” type. The one on the east of the track was
about two feet high, and partly collapsed, while that on the west was five feet
high, and appeared to be complete.

Alpana Station (pl. xvii, fig. 2). This group of four, three of the “Waroonee”’
and one of the “cairn” type, were found by Mr. P. Stapleton (1931, p. 23).
They were situated on the sides and crests of adjacent hills in this station
property. Alpana is about two nules south of Blinman. The “Waroonee”
examples were about five feet in height, and particularly well built from long,
narrow slates. Stapleton records the aboriginal name of these buildings as
juraka,

Owienagin Pound. This structure was found by Mr. H, M. Hale, and figured
by Mountford (1927, pl. x, fig. 2). It is about four feet six inches high, and
of the “Waroonee” type.

Beltana. Situated about two miles south of Beltana, on the western
side of the road. Mr. P. Stapleton found this example in 1926, and the
author figured his photograph in 1927 (pl. x, fig. 1). The structure is about
two fect in height and built of stone slabs.

284

N Leigh Creek Station. Mr. V. G. Hurst, the owner of this property, told the
author that there were a few small cairns on his holding, which had been built
by aboriginal children.

O Four miles east of Leigh Creek Station. The author examined three struc-
tures in this locality. They were similar to the Beltana examples, about two
feet high and made of flat slates.

P Patsy Springs (pl. xvi, fig. 3). This structure is on the northern side of the
road, and about two miles west of Patsy Springs. A half-caste aborigine,
Rufus Wilton, pointed out this example to the author, and said that he had
built it when an adolescent youth, and that such buildings were common in
the neighbourhood, all the work of aboriginal boys, They had no ceremonial
significance, and were built purely for amusement. The native name was
adnya juri (adnya == stone, juri = high).

R Mount Thomas. Mr. H. Greenshields of the Surveyor-General’s Department,
examined this structure whilst on a survey. It was of the “Waroonee” type,
about two feet six inches square at the base and six feet high. It was situated
on a hill-top, about a mile south-west of Mount Thomas.

S Kennedy Springs. ‘he same informant also saw a number of low buildings
(apparently similar to the Beltana example) adjacent to the above springs.
‘They were all about two feet in height.

T. Between Wirrealpa and Blinman, These are situated on the northern side
of the track between the two stations, about thirteen miles west of Wirrealpa.
‘The largest of the group was circular, and flat-topped in form, of the “cairn”
type, about four feet three inches high, and three feet six inches in diameter
(pl. xvi, fig. 2). Two small examples (pl. xvi, fig. 1), similar to those at
Beltana, about a foot square, and the same height, were built about five feet
from the base of the structure on the northern side,

Apart from the groups of stone structures shown on fig. 2, two others were
examined by the author at Mount [lill, west of Pt. Neil. Two collapsed piles
were on the mount itself, and a complete structure of the “cairn” type was on
the ridge of a hill to the east.

PEBBLE Mounps

Hale and Tindale (1925, p. 53) quoted the following paragraph from a
letter written by Mr. E. G. Waterhouse to the South Australian Museum. He
writes: “On some parts of the Outalpa run there are large mounds of stones built
by the natives, but for what reason, up to now, I have not been able to ascertain.”

Mawson and Hossfeld (1926, p. 23) described two pebble mounds in the
Outalpa district. They are probably the same as those mentioned by Waterhouse,
and appear to be similar to the mounds recorded by Gregory (1884, p. 206),
Giles (1875, p. 171; and 1889, p. 94), and Dow (1938, p. 33; and 1939, p. 210)
in the country adjacent to Broken Hill.

285

In answer to an enquiry regarding stone structures, Mr. W. G. Conrick, of
Nappa-merrie Station, sent the author the following interesting letter and photo-
graph (fig. 4, pl. xvii).

The letter is quoted almost in full: “The enclosed photo was taken twenty-
five miles south of here. There are a number of these cairns on the run, and in
all cases they are on old native roads. When my father first came out here they
were plain beaten roads, like well-worn cattle pads. That was in 1871. ‘The old
pad is still plain in the photo enclosed.” (Marked with an X.)

“T don’t know whether these cairns have any particular meaning, I think
they are only the means of clearing the road. This one in the photo, known as
Kowah-ri (kauari), had stones as well as wood on it—although most of the wood

A B
Fig. 3
Plan and Side Elevation of “Waroonee” Type Aboriginal Stone Structures

has rotted away now—and was on the main road for the blacks coming from the
Wilson to the Kopramingie quarries.

“The wood, so the blacks told my father, was put to show the number of
blacks that had passed, as each one was supposed to place a stick on in passing.

“Thirty miles east, on the same old road, there are four or five more of these
piles of stones, although not so big. ‘They are on a rough stony hill. There is
also another of these cairns on the north side of the river, about thirty-two miles
from here. It, like the Kowah-ri has been tampered with. In each case people
have shifted the stones to see what was underneath.”

The pebble mounds and native roads described by Mr. Conrick are apparently
similar to those found by Gregory in 1858 on the banks of Coopers Creel.

Marinduna, an old aborigine of the Adnyamatana tribe, told the author that
stone piles were present on almost every saddle of the Baratta Station. He said
that the local natives attributed their origin to an ancestral lizard, iti, He knew
nothing of either their real use or origin.

286

Discussion
In the light of our present knowledge on the subject, the stone structures of
Australia can be divided into two main classes:
I Cairn-like buildings.
II Pebble mounds.
Both types occur in north Western Australia, Central and South Australia,
New South Wales and Queensland, and, in the first three places at least, they
are part of the present-day aboriginal culture.

I CAIRN-LIKE STRUCTURES

In South Australia cairn-like structures can be divided into the following
three types, the particular structure being probably determined by the material
available.

(a) The “Waroonee” type, in which the structure is square and hollow.
These have been built in the following manner: Two long, thin,
narrow stones have first been laid on the ground, parallel to each other, and
about half the length of the stones apart. Two similar stones were then
laid at right angles across the first two (A, fig. 3). The stones are then laid
on in pairs until the building is from three to five feet high (B, fig. 3, and

pl. xvi, fig. 4). A, B,J, K, L, P, and R belong to this class.

(b) Solid buildings, smaller but similar to those constructed by surveyors on
trigonometrical stations. The Tooth Nob and Mount Hill structures
(pl. xvii, figs. 1 and 3) are typical of this class. C, D, H, T, and one of
the structures at Mount Hill are similar.

(c) Low buildings, up to about two fect in height, usually constructed from
thin, flat stones. T (pl. xvi, fig. 1) is typical. M, N, O, two on Mount
Lill, and possibly S, are of the same class.

From the enquiries made among the aborigines by Stapleton and the author,
it would appear that the stone structures, particularly of the Northern Mlinders,
have been built by adolescent aboriginal boys as a form of amusement, It 1s likely,
at the same time, that the building of these structures is the survival of a custom
that has had much greater significance. Our present culture has many such
remnants.

Il Prssre Mounps

The pebble mounds on Coopers Creck (Gregory 1884) and Outalpa (tlale
and Tindale, 1925, and Mawson and Hossfeld, 1926) are the only recorded
examples in South Australia. From the description of these authors, and the

©) The resemblance of the buildings to surveyor’s trigs, and the fact that they are
usually placed on ridges or hill-tops has often led observers to attribute them to the work
of survey parties. In mast cases, however, they are neither placed on the summit of
prominent hills, nor in positions of any importance to surveyors.

dUOOIe MA “p SILT ssuridsg Asjeg ‘¢ ‘3hy

I “SY SB UOl}eOO] oUTeS ye aINJONIYS dSreyT ‘7 “BLT uewUullg pue ede AA UsdMjod dinjonijs MOT ‘T “Shy

+ Bq SdInjONIYS duos yeUIs0qy ¢ “Big

Vol. 64, Plate XVI

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940

Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 1940 Vol. 64, Plate XVII

Fig. 4

Aboriginal Stone Structures and Pebble Mounds, South Australia
lig. 1, Tooth Nob lig, 2, Alpana Fig. 3, Mount Hill
lig. 4, Pebble Mount, Nappa-merric

287

letter from Conrick (quoted in the present paper), it seems to have been the
custom to deposit a stick or stone in passing. Possibly this action is associated
with some belief, similar to that recorded by Love (1939). In the case of the
Baratta mounds, their use and origin seems to have been lost, so the latter has
been attributed to a mythical source.

SUMMARY
This paper reviews the stone structures of Australia, and describes in detail,
fifteen new groups in South Australia. The positions of the latter have been
plotted on the map, their significance and origin discussed, and the relevant litera-
ture quoted.
LITERATURE
CrossLanp, C. 1902 Report on Exploration of North-west Kimberley by I. 5.
Brockman. Appendix B. Perth.
Camrsect, T. D,, and Mounvrorp, C. P. 1939 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
63 (1)
Dau, Knur. 1926 In Savage Australia. London
Dow, Epmunp B. 1938 Oceania, 9 (1)
Dow, EpMunp B. 1939 Mankind, 2 (7)
Gites, Ernesy 1875 Geographic Travels in Central Australia, 1872-1874.
Melbourne
Gives, Ernest 1889 Australia Twice Traversed, London
Grecory, A. C. and F.C. 1884 Journals of Aust. Explorations, 1846-1858.
Brisbane.
Hare, TH. M., and Trnpace, N. B. 1925 Rec. S. Austr. Mus.. 3, (1), 53
Love, J. R. B. 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Museum, 6 (2)
Matuews, R. JI. 1901 Queensland Geog, Journ., 16
Movuntrorp, C. P. 1927 Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 51
Mawson, D., and Hossretp, P.S. 1926 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 50
STAPLETON, P. S. 1931 South Australian Naturalist, 12 (2)
Tow Le, C. C, 1939 Mankind, 2 (7)
Withtneii, J. G. 1901 Customs and Traditions of the Aboriginal Natives of
North Western Australia. Roeburne
Woop Jones, F. 1926 Journ. Roy. Anthro. Inst., 55

REPORT ON THE
CYMOTHOID ISOPODA OBTAINED BY THE F.LS. "ENDEAVOUR"
ON THE COASTS OF QUEENSLAND, NEW SOUTH WALES,
VICTORIA, TASMANIA, AND SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By HERBERT M. HALE, Director, South Australian Museum
(Contribution from the South Australian Museum)

Summary

FAMILY CYMOTHOIDAE
The material herein dealt with was originally sent to New Zealand for examination by the late Dr.
Chas. Chilton, but pressure of other work prevented him from reporting on it. When Dr. Chilton
died the specimens were returned to the Australian Museum, and the Director of that Institution has
been good enough to refer them to me for study. The "E" numbers cited refer to the registrations of
the Australian Museum, where the specimens are housed.

288

REPORT ON THE
CYMOTHOID ISOPODA OBTAINED BY THE F.LS. “ENDEAVOUR”
ON THE COASTS OF QUEENSLAND, NEW SOUTH WALES,
VICTORIA, TASMANIA, AND SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By Hersert M. Hare, Director, South Australian Museum

(Contribution from the South Australian Museum)
[Read 8 August 1940]
PLate XVIII

FAMILY CYMOTHOIDAE

The material herein dealt with was originally sent to New Zealand for
examination by the late Dr. Chas. Chilton, but pressure of other work prevented
him from reporting on it. When Dr, Chilton died the specimens were returned
to the Australian Museum, and the Director of that Institution has been good
enough to refer them to me for study. The “E” numbers cited refer to the
registrations of the Australian Museum, where the specimens are housed,

SUBFAMILY CIROLANINAE

CrroLaANna Leach
CrroLANA woopjonrsr Hale

Cirolana woodjonesi Hale, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 48, 1924, p. 71, pl. v, and text
fig. 2; and loc. cit., 49, 1925, p. 137, fig. 5.

This species superficially resembles C. rossi Miers, which attains a length
of over 30 mm. In Miers’ species, however, the eyes when viewed from the side
are narrower, the flagellum of the second antennae is longer and composed of a
greater number of segments, while the furrows of the coxal plates are more oblique
and on the last four pairs extend right to the inner (or dorsal) edge, just as in
C. tennistylis Miers (sce Hale, ut supra, 1925, fig. 4); in C. woodjonesi these
furrows terminate abruptly some distance from the edge.

Localities—A large number of individuals from Queensland: Norwest Island,
Capricorn Group, 9 July 1910, “Brought up on bait while line fishing” CE. 4843).
Tasmania: Eliott Cove, West Coast, 5 fathoms (E. 5349).

CIROLANA VIETA Hale
Cirolana vieta Hale, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49, 1925, p. 150, fig. 11,
Twenty specimens, the largest 20 mm. in length. One is wrinkled obliquely
as in the type, and others are less distinctly so marked, but in the majority the
surlace bears only fine transverse striae and punctures.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

289

The oblique grooving may be due to the action of strong alcohol soon after
an ecdysis, but the finer striae are distinctive, so that the specific name is not
inapt.

The telson, which is damaged in the single type female, has a median longi-
tudinal carina, and the apex is produced to a sharp point. In the male, the

Fig. 1
Cirolana vieta,, male: a, telson and uropod; b, second pleopod.

antennae are longer than in the female, and extend well beyond the end of the
pleon.

Localities—South Australia: Sleaford Bay, 25 fathoms, 28 August 1909
(I. 4856) ; south of St. Francis Island, 35 fathoms (E. 4838) ; Loc. ? (E. 6600).

CIROLANA CORPULENTA Hale

Cirolana corpulenta Hale, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49, 1925, p, 134, fig. 3.

A single female. Only one other specimen—the type female—has been
recorded. ‘The “Endeavour” example now examined is 5 mm. in length, but has
the flagellum of the second antennae relatively longer than in the type, composed
of 17 segments and a terminal style, and reaching back to beyond the hinder
margin of the third peraeon segment. The colour markings are much as in the type.

Locality—Tasmania: Eliott Cove, West Coast, 5 fathoms (E. 6757).

In January 1933, Mr. T. G. Roughley, Economic Zoologist at the Techno-
logical Museum in Sydney, reported that a sea-louse had appeared in great
numbers in New South Wales, and was causing deaths of sharks and rays, eating
into the coelome, and attacking the liver. The little predators temporarily held
up the shark industry. Specimens sent to me for examination proved to be
C. corpulenta.

290

Cirolana valida sp. nov.

2 Form suboval, two and one-half times longer than wide. Surface
sparsely and finely punctate, the tiny pits for the greater part arranged in irregular
transverse lines. Cephalon rather deeply immersed in first peraeon segment, less
than twice as wide as medial length; anterior margin emarginate, with an exceed-
ingly minute, downbent, median process, not separating the first antennae; dorsum
with a furrow extending along inner margins of eyes and continued across front
of head, subparallel to anterior margin. Eyes pale, elongate, occupying antero-
lateral portions of cephalon, barely visible in dorsal view, with the upper (inner )
margin concave, nearly straight. First antennae reaching to end of fourth article
of pedunele of second pair; proportions of articles of peduncle 5:3:7; flagellum
short, twelve-segmented. Second antennae reaching back to beyond hinder angles
of second peraeon segment ; first two articles of peduncle short, subequal in length,
together as long as fourth article; proportions of third to fifth segments 7:6: 10;
flagellum composed of 28 articles. Frontal lamina linear, more than three times
longer than greatest width, slightly widened near anterior apex, which is acute.
Clypeus wider and much shorter than labrum. Maxilliped rather stout, the
marginal hairs stiff. First peraeon segment longer than second; second to fith
successively increasing slightly in length; seventh shorter than any of the others.
Coxal plates of second and third free peraeon segments each with an oblique,
curved furrow (in addition to the usual “submarginal” furrow) ; plates of fourth
segment with obsolescent furrow and remainder without furrow, although some
punctures faintly outline what would appear to be the sites of obsolete grooves;
last four pairs extending beyond level of hinder margins of their respective seg-
ments, the last pair reaching to beyond the postero-lateral angles of the second
pleon segment. All segments of pleon exposed; first largely concealed beneath
last peraeon segment and with postcro-lateral angles almost hidden by last pair
of coxal plates; postero-lateral angles of second segment subacute, those of third
and fourth acute, those of fifth concealed, ‘Telsonic segment subtriangular with
apex rather angularly rounded, furnished with plumose hairs and about 20 shorl
spines; its length less than three-fourths basal width. Uropods not quite reach-
ing to end of pleon; exopod narrow, lanceolate, more than four times longer than
wide and barely more than one-half greatest width of endopod, which is two and
one-half times as long as wide, with apex rounded, outer margin fairly straight,
and inner, behind protopodal process, rounded, Peraeopods stout; third joint of
first three pairs expanded distally and armed with stiff sctae on distal and inner
margins, and with three or more spines near inner distal angle; outer distal angle
of fourth segment of first three pairs forwardly produced almost to muddle of
length of sixth segment, with the apex armed with setae and two or more strong
spines; fourth, fifth and sixth segments of anterior peraeopods with compound
spines on inner margin. (fig. 2 ¢). Second segment of posterior limbs widened
(that of the seventh one-half as wide as long), On the seventh peraeopods the

291

Fig. 2
Cirolana valida, type female: a and b, dorsal and lateral views; c, antennae,
frontal lamina, clypeus and labrum: d, maxilliped; e, first peraeopod; e’ spines
of first peraeopod: f, seventh peraeopod; g, uropod.

292

inner margin is not set with plumose natatory hairs, but the inner distal margin
has a dense plume almost equal in length to the segment; the outer margin bears
dense plumose hairs for its whole length, as does also the inferior longitudinal
ridge

Colour, in alcohol, greyish white. ‘Length, 31 mm.

Locality—East of Flinders Island, Bass Strait, 200-300 fathoms, December
1913. (Type in Australian Museum, Reg. No. E. 4814.)

This large species in some respects resembles the New Zealand C. rossi
Miers,“ but differs in that the posterior coxal plates have no distinct oblique
grooves, the form is stouter, the first antennae are relatively slightly Jonger, and
the uropoda are different. It is close to C. borealis Lilljeborg,@ but has the eyes
more elongate (although less visible in dorsal view) and even straighter on the
upper margin, while the first two pairs of coxal plates have a distinct oblique
furrow, not merely “a short rudiment of an impressed line’’“®) and the others
obsolete traces of grooves. Further, C. borealis has a fringe of dense hair on
both inner and outer margins of the second segment of the posterior peraeopods
(whereas most of the inner margin is bare in the new species) and the uropoda
are different, the endopod being more parallel-sided.

In some respects, C. valida is close to C. hirtipes M. Edwards, but the last-
named species differs in having well-marked furrows on all the coxal plates, in
the narrower endopod of the uropods, and in the number of spines on the legs.

I have to express my grateful thanks to Dr. Keppel H. Barnard who kindly
sent me a specimen of C. hirtipes from East London, South Africa, for com-
parison with C. valida,

Baraynomus A. Milne Edwards
BATHYNOMUS ? AFFINIS Richardson
(PL. xviii)

Bathynomus affinis Rich. Bur. of Fish, Doc. No. 736, Washington, 1910, p. 4, fig. 1.

‘There is before me a single specimen, 119 mm. in Jength and 45 mm. in
greatest width; unfortunately, it is abnormal insofar as the telson and uropoda
are concerned. While undoubtedly close to B. doderleini Ortmann, it differs
from that species in the following characters. ‘he body is relatively narrower,
and the eyes are not so deep in lateral view, appearing more narrowly sub-
triangular than as figured by Milne Edwards and Bouvier for B. doderleini. The
telson is proportionately narrower and apparently had nine (instead of seven)
teeth in the posterior margin (pl. xviii, fig. 2) while the exopod of the uropoda is
not subtriangular, but subrectangular. The last four pairs of coxal plates bear
conspicuous carinac, and the second antennae extend only to the hinder margin of

C) Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) 17, 1876, p. 228.
@) Lilljeborg, Ofvers. Vet. Akad. Férh., 1851, p. 23.
@) Hansen, Journ. Linn. Soc., 29, 1905, p. 342.
4 M, Edw. and Bouvier, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, 27, 1902, p. 159
pl. vii-viil.

293

the second thoracic segment (to or beyond posterior edge of fourth segment in
B. doderleini,)) and consist of less than 50 segments. In the conspicuous coxal
carinae, and shape of the exopod of the uropoda and telson, the specimen agrees
with B. afinis; the posterior margin of the endopod of the uropod, however,
is not almost straight, and the outer postero-lateral angle is not “abruptly produced
in an acute process or tooth,” although the absence of this last character may be
due to damage.
Locality—Victoria: South of Gabo Island, 200 fathoms (E. 6215),

SUBFAMITY CORALLANINAE

Argathona parca sp. nov.

¢ Form suboval, narrow, more than three times longer than greatest
width. Surface smooth. Cephalon twice as wide as medial length, with a small
process which does not separate first antennae. Eyes well separated. First
antennae reaching to end of fourth article of peduncle of second; peduncle two-
segmented, the second article three-fifths as long as the first; flagellum with eleven
articles and a tiny sub-segment at base between lash and peduncle (fig. 3c). Second
antennae slender, reaching to middle of length of fourth peracon segment;
proportions of segments of peduncle (in cleared mount, taking greatest lengths)
3:2:3:7:7; flagellum half as long again as peduncle, composed of 19 articles.
Frontal lamina narrow, almost spatulate in shape. Clypeus wide, A-shaped.
Mandibles with molar process moderately prominent (fig. 3d); palp with first
article more than one-half as long as second and a little longer than the third.
Outer lobe of first maxilla terminating in the usual strong claw, at the base of
which is a spinule; inner lobe apically subtruncate and somewhat expanded.
Second maxillae shorter, with simple apex capped with two feeble spines. Palp
of maxillipeds [our-segmented ; structure shown in fig. 3g, Coxal plates each with
the usual pair of furrows; posterior angles of only the last two pairs subacute and
reaching back beyond hinder margins of peraeon segments. First pleon segment
almost concealed beneath last thoracic segment; lateral portions of fifth segment
overlapped by fourth. Telsonic segment long, its medial length almost equal to
basal width; evenly tapering to the rounded extremity. Uropods not reaching
to end of pleon; protopod with inner process rather short and stout, extending to
middle of length of endopod, which is wide, subtriangular in shape, rounded with
posterior margins somewhat flattened. Peraeopods terminating in a single claw;
antcrior pairs armed with relatively few spines.

Colour, in alcohol, brownish-yellow. Length, 8 mm.

Locality—Queensland: off Hummocky Tsland, 30 July 1910, from eye of
Sduecnsland Gropet; CED i in Australian Museum, Reg. No. E. 6/87;

ro Rich., Pre. USS. Nat. Mins “37, “1910, p. 78.

294

The single specimen described above was taken in company with eight
examples of Aega cyclops on the eye of the abovementioned fish. The mandibles
resemble those of A. reidi Stebbing‘ but, in general, the new form is easily
separated from any of the other eight members of the genus.

Fig. 3
Argathona parca, type female: a and b, dorsal view; b, antennae, frontal
lamina and clypeus; c, peduncle and base of flagellum of first antenna;
d, mandible; ¢ and f, first and second maxillae; g, maxilliped; h, first

peraeopod; i, uropod.

(*) Stebb., Trans. Linn. Soc., 14, 1910, p. 100, pl. ix, A.

295

SUBFAMILY AEGINAE
ArGA Leach
AEGA DESHAYSIANA (H. Milne Edwards)

Rocinela deshaysiana M. Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., 3, 1840, p. 243.

éieya deshaysiana Sch. and Mein., Naturh. Vidssk., (3) 12, 1879, p. 360, pl viii,
fig. 7-9; Norman, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7) 14, 1904, p. 434, pl. xii, fig. 1-4, and pl. xtit,
fig. 10-11; Rich., Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 2 "37, 1904, p. 674.

Acya antillensis Sch. and Mein., loc. cit, p. 361, pl. villi, fig. 10-13; Rich., Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus., 23, 1901, p. 521, and Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 54, 1905, a 170, fig. 149;
Thielemanun, Munchen Abh. Akad. Wiss., 2, Suppl. 3, 1911, p. 26, pl. i, fig. 1-2: Hale,
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49, 1925, p. 176, fig. 24.

Aega excisa Rich., Wash. Bur. of Fish., Doc. No. 736, 1910, p. 11, fig, 11.

Five examples, the largest 57 mm. in length. I have also recently seen a
specimen in the Australian Museum from “Ontong”, Java, near British Solomons,
collected by H. Hogbin, 22 June 1918.

Localities—New South Wales: Byron Bay, from cloaca of Tiger Shark
(E. 4858). Victoria: off Gabo Island, 80 fathoms and 200 fathoms (EF. 4763
and 4837). Tasmania: off coast (E.5353). South Australia: off Marsden
Point, Kangaroo Island (E. 4865).

AEGA SERRIPES IT, Milne Edwards

Adega serripes M. Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., 3, 1840, p. 241; Sch. and Mein., Naturh.

Tidsskr., (3) 12, 1879, p. 355, pl. viii, fig. 1-4; Hale, Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., "49, 1925,
p. 171, fig. 2i.

Localities. Seven examples from the following—lasmania: off Falmouth,
60-70 fathoms (EK. 6596); Oyster Bay, gill-parasite of Skate (E. 4844) ; off cast
coast of Flinders Island, Bass Strait (E. 5673).

AGA ANGUSTATA Whitelegge

Aega angustaia Whitel., Mem. Aust. Mus., 4, 1901, p. 232, fig. 2la-21f; Hale, Trans.
Roy. Soc. 5. Aust, 49, 1925, p. 170, fig. 20.

This species is rather close to 4. dofleini Thielemann™ but, according to the
description, the last-named species has ihe frontal lamina subtruncate in front
(whereas in 4. angustata it is rounded anteriorly) and the first antennae are very
different.

I have recently examined further specimens of 4. angiustata taken from Saw-
sharks in New South Wales, and now in the Australian Museum. Eight examples
were secured by the “Endeavour”, the largest being 29 mm, in length. In a
specimen only 10 mm. in length, the serrations of the telson and uropoda are
relatively more pronounced than in larger representatives.

EuRM es — Nastia af Gabo Island, 80 fathoms (I.6778). Tasmania:
Oyster Bay (E.6774); “Tasmanian coast” (FE.6779); Flinders Island, Bass
Strait, from a shark (E. 4840, 2 May 1909). Great Australian Bight: 60-80
miles west from Eucla, 80-120 fathoms (E. 6763).

“) Tiilelemann, Munchen Abh. “Akad, "Wvige., il, San. 7 “1911, { p. 28, fig. 28- 34.

296

Aega fracta sp. nov.

$ Form broadly oval, little more than twice as long as wide. Cephalon
two and three-fourths times as long as medial length; anterior margin rounded,
with a tiny median triangular process extending downwards and back between
the bases of the first antennae and meeting the very small frontal lamina. Eyes
large, oblong, contiguous (four facets being in contact) occupying the greater part
of dorsum of cephalon but leaving a space anteriorly and a larger area posteriorly.
First antennae reaching well beyond end of peduncle of second antennae;
proportions of segments of peduncle 13:10:23; flagellum slightly longer
than peduncle, composed of eleven articles and a terminal style. Second antennae
reaching back to slightly beyond hinder margin of second peraeon segment; the
first and second segments of the peduncle are subequal in length; the proportions
of the second to fifth (in a cleared mount) are 2:3:4:5; flagellum one-half as

Fig. 4
Acya fracta, type male: a and b, dorsal and lateral views;
c, antennae and frontal Jamina; d, maxilliped.

long again as peduncle and composed of 19 articles. Segments of peraeon with
surface punctate, subequal in length; seventh shorter than any of the others.
Coxal plates each with two furrows, the inner (upper) of which runs from the
postero-lateral angle to a point just posterior to the inner anterior angle in the
first pair, and successively further back from this angle in remainder; postero-
lateral angles of first three pairs obtuse, of fourth pair subacutely rounded, and
of last two pairs acute. Last two peraeon segments and first five pleon segments
with hinder margins finely beaded. First pleon segment partly concealed.
Telson one-half as wide again as median length; rounded with margin serrulate
and with a small U-shaped terminal incision; surface studded with minute
tubercles. Exopod of uropod a little shorter than endopod (svhich attains to level

297

of end of telson), suboval in shape, pointed apically, and with five small spines
(set in tiny notches) on outer margin and two to three on inner ; endopod truncate,
with inner posterior angle rounded and outer subacute; hinder margin crenulate,
with several short, stout spines; outer margin with a shallow but distinct incision
at third fourth of its length; posterior to this notch the edge is crenulate and
bears two spines. The peraeopods (fig. 5, a-b), call for no special comment.

Colour, in aleoghol, white. Tength, 14-5 mm.

Locality—*Otf Tasmanian Coast” (type in Australian Museum, Reg.
No, E. 6747}.

Several other species of the genus have a small terminal incision in the
telson, but only two also have the eyes contiguous, These are 4. approximata

Fig. 5
élega fracta, type male: a and hb, first and seventh peraeopods;
c, second pleopod; d, uropod; e, apex of telson.

Richardson and A, incisa Schioedte and Meinert©?, A. fracta differs [rom
Richardson’s species in having fewer segments in the flagellum of the first antennae,
in the U-shaped incision of the telson (“V-shaped” in 4. approximata) and in
not having the “outer post-lateral angles of all the epimera acute’—indeed, in
A, jracta, only the last three pairs can be said to be at all acute. 4. incisa also
has more segments (16) in the flagellum of the first antennac, while the posterior
angies of the last three pairs of coxal plates are very acute and the body is rela-
tively narrower; further, in the new species, the carinae of the first three pairs of
coxal plates (as shown in fig. 4b) do not extend from the postero-lateral angle

298

Arca cycLors Haswell

Aega cyclops Hasw., Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 6, 1881, p. 192, and Cat. Aust. Crust.,
1882, p. 285; Hale, Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 49, 1925, p. 180, fig. 26, a-f, and Joc. cit.,
50, 1926, p. 233, fig. 20, a-d.

A series of eleven specimens of this little species shows that apparently there
is some slight variation in the relative size of the head and slenderness of the
body, although this appearance may be due, in part at least, to differences of
extension between the segments. The eyes vary in size, but the extreme condi-

tions may well be illustrated by my two figures (at supra).

Localities—Victoria: off Gabo Island, 80 fathoms (E. 6776), Eastern Slope,
Bass Strait (E.6752). ‘Tasmania: Hummocky Island, taken from eye of a
Groper, 30 July 1910 (E. 4839) ; off Maria Island, 78 fathoms (E. 6602).

Aega concinna sp. nov.

g Body oval, two and one-half times as long as greatest width, Dorsum
with evenly punctate surface; an impressed punctate, longitudinal median line on
telson. Cephalon twice as wide as medial length, with a median frontal process,
which almost separates the first antennae dorsally, and is keeled below, the keel
(not the point) meeting the frontal lamina. Eyes large, well separated, the
narrowest interocular space being equal to one-half the greatest diameter of an
eye. First antennae reaching to middle of last segment of peduncle of second pair ;
with first two segments of peduncle subequal in length, flattened and considerably
expanded, the width of the first being greater than its length; inner anterior
portion of second segment produced to level of two-thirds of length of the third,
which is slender, not expanded, slightly shorter than either the first or second
segments, and equal in length to the nine-segmented flagellum. Second antennae
reaching to a little beyond middle of length of first peraeon segment, proportions
of segments of peduncle 5:5:5:11:16; flagellum shorter than peduncle, 14-
seginented. Frontal lamina about as wide as long, broadest and roundly sub-
truncate in front; veniral face concave.

First, fourth, fifth and sixth peraeon segments subequal in length, each
longer than any of others, and about same length as cephalon. Coxal plates
slightly visible in dorsal view ; each with two furrows, the inner of which reaches
to the inner anterior angle in the first two pairs only (see fig. 6b) ; fourth to sixth
pairs successively reaching a little further back beyond level of hinder margins
of their segments; more markedly acute and produced. AIl segments of pleon
conspicuous, postero-lateral angles of first four subacute. ‘Telsonic segment a
little wider than long; margin evenly rounded, finely and rather irregularly
crenulate posteriorly. Uropods not reaching quite to level of apex of pleon;
protopod produced to end of inner edge of endopod, which is obliquely truncate
posteriorly, with outer and inner posterior angles rounded ; exopod suboval, barely
shorter, but narrower, than endopod. Second and third pairs of peracopods with
propodus produced, the process extending to niiddle of length of dactylus.

299

Colour, in alcohol, greyish-brown. Length, 30 mm.

Locality—Tasmania: Entrance to Oyster Bay, 30 July 1909. (Type in
Australian Museum, Reg. No. FE. 6740.)

In the shape of the first antennac and the propodal processes of ihe second
and third peraeopods this species approaches 1. angustata Whitelegge,“® but in

Fig. 6

Aego concinna, type male: a and b, dorsal and lateral views; c, antennae
and frontal lamina; d, first peraeopod; e, distal portion of third
peraeopod; f, seventh peraeopad; g, second pleopod; h, uropod.

(%) “Whitel: Men Aust, Mus.,.4, 1901, po 232, fs, 2ha-21 F.
@) Whitel., loc. cit., ‘:p. 229, fig. 20-a-20f,

300

other respects is entirely different. It resembles 4. australis Whitelegge@”) in
some characters, but differs in the two abovementioned characters, in the larger
eyes, shorter second antennae, shape of frontal lamina and telson, uropods, ete.

AGA Nonosa Schioedte and Meinert

Alega nodosa Sch, and Mein., Naturh. Tidsskr., (3) 12, 1879, p. 367, pl. ix, fig. 1-3;
Hale, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49, 1925, p. 178, fig. 25, a-g.

Schioedte and Meinert described a male, while previously the writer has
examined only a female. There is now before me a male, 16 mm. in length,
from the type locality, hut which differs from the type in having mere traces of
tubercles on the hinder margin of either the sixth or seventh peraeon segments;
they are more distinct, however, near the posterior edges of the first five pleon
segments, but even there, are not very conspicuous.

Larger nodes (absent in the female described by me) are present as in the
type male, but their disposition is slightly different, in that on each side of the
elevation of the sixth peraeon segment is a less conspicuous node; there is the
merest indication of a median elevation on the fourth pleon segment, but on the
fitth there is a moderately large tubercle on cach side of the hinder edge.

The uropods resemble those of the type male more than of the female pre-
viously described. The appendix masculina is five-sixths as long as the inner
branch of the second pleopods.

Locality—Tasmania: Eastern Slope, Bass Strait (E. 6751).

AEGA VIGILANS Haswell

Rocinela vigilans Hasw., Proc, Linn, Soc., N.S.W., 5, 1881, p. 472, pl. xvi, fig. 2, and
Cat. Aust. Crust., 1882, p. 285; Miers, Zool. “Alert”, 1884, p. 304; Rich., Proc. Amer.
Philos. Soc., 37, 1898, pp. 9-10.

Aega dubia Rich., Wash. Bur. Fish., Doc. No. 736, 1910, p. 12, fig, 12.

Aega vigilans Hale, Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 49, 1925, p. 174, fig. 23 a-g; Nierstrasz,
Mem. Mus. Roy. d’Hist. Nat. Belgique, 3, 1930, p. 4, fig. 2, and “Siboga” Exped., Leiden,
Mon., 2c, 1931, p. 180.

A single immature specimen, 13-5 mm. in length, was taken in Queensland
walters.
Locahty—Queensland: 20 miles N.N.E. of Double Island Point, 30 fathoms
(EE. 6317).
SUBFAMILY CYMOTHOINAE

Nerociia Leach

NEROCILA LATICAUDA Schioedte and Meinert
Nerocila blainvillei Sch, and Mein., Naturh. Tidsskr., (3) 13, 1881, p. 78, pl. vi,
fig. 11-12 (nee M. Edw.).
Nerocila laticauda Sch. and Mein., loc. cit., p. 81, pl. vi, fig. 14-15: Whitel., Mem,
Aust. Mus., 4, 1901, p. 235; Hale, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 50, 1926, p. 203, fig. 2-3.
Locality—-South Australia: 50 miles south of Cape Wiles, 75 fathoms

(E. 6758).

301

NEROCILA ORBIGNYI (Guerin)

Ichthyophilus orbignyi Guérin, in Bory de St. 5, Exp, Morée (Crust.), 1832, p. 47.

Nerocila moculuta M. Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., 3, 1840, p. 253; Sch. and Mein.,
Naturh. Tidsskr., (3) 13, 1881, p. 50, pl ili, ig. 7-8; Bonnier, Bull. scient. dip. du Nord,
(2) 10, 1887, p. 137.

Nerocila affinis M. Edw., loc. cit., p. 253. :

Cilonera imacleayi White and Doubleday, in Dieffenbach, Travels in New Zealand,
1843, p. 268.

Nerocila latiuscula Dana, Rep. Crust. U.S. Expl, Exped., 13, 1853-55, p. 758, pl. 1,
fig. 7 a-b; Sch. and Mein., loc. cit., p. 76, pl. vi, fig. 9-10.

Nerocila brasiliensis Dana, loc. cit., p. 759, pl. 1, fig. 8 a-e.

Nerocila aculeata Dana, loc. cit., p. 760, pl. 1, fig, 9a-c Gree H. M. Edw.).

Nerocila falclandica Cunningham, Trans. Linn. Soc., 27, 1871, p. 500, pl. lix, fig. 2.

Nerocila imbricata Miers, Cat. Crust. N. Zeal, 1876, p. 107.

Nerocila neopolitana Sch. and Mein., /oc. cit,, p. 41, pl. ti, fig. 9-16; Norman and Scott,
Crust. Devon and Cornwall, 1906, p. 39.

Nerocila adriatica Sch. and Mein., loc. cit., p. 45, pl. iti, fig, 1-4.

Nerocila orbignyi Sch. and Mein., loc. cit, p. 55, pl. v, fig. 1-2; Monod, Rev. Zool.
and Bot. Africanes, 21, 1931, p. 10, fig. 5-11; Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus., 32, 1940, p. 403.

Nerocila cephalotes Sch. and Mein., loc. cit., p. 60, pl. iv, fig. 16-18; Van Name,
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 43, 1920, p. 53, Gigs. 6-9; Monod, Bull. Com. Etud. Hist. Sci.
Afr. Occident. Franc., 9, 1924, p. 436.

Nerocila novae-selandiae Sch. and Mein., loc. cit., p. 70, pl. v, fig. 10-11.

Nerocila trailli Filhol, Rec. Mem. passage de Venus, 3, 1882, p. 451.

Nerocila macleayi Miers, Rep. Zool. “Alert”, 1884, p. 301; Chilton, Trans. N. Zeal.
Inst. (6) 23, 1891, p. 68, pl. xi, fig. 1 a-c, 2 a-b; Hale, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 50, 1926,
p. 206, fig. 4-5.

Nerocila laticeps Bovallius, Bih. K. Svenska Vet-Akad. Hand., 12, 1887, p. 10, pl. ii,
fig. 23-26, and pl. iti, fig. 27-28.

Nerocila rhabdota Monod, Ioc. cit., 1924, p. 437 (nec Koelbel).

Nerocila armata Barn, Ann. S. Afr, Mus., 20, 1925, p. 390.

Locality—Tasmania: off Storm Bay, 17 July 1909 (E.5677) and on
Elephant Shark—Callorhynchus milii (E.4848) and “off Tasmanian coast”
(EF. 6745).

Nerocila monodi sp. nov.

Nerocila serra Hale, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 50, 1926, p. 208, fig. 6 (ec Sch. and
Mein.).
Dr, T. Monod has very kindly communicated to me the following facts and

comments, supplementary to a note sent by him to Dr. Nierstrasz.0?) Schioedte
and Meinert, when describing N. serra,“ overlooked the fact that Bleeker
had previously described the same species under the name of N., trivittata.

Dr. Monod has examined specimens of N. ¢rivittata from Malaysia and
India, and finds that these agree with N. serra of Schioedte and Meinert, and
differ from the examples described by me as NV. serra, in having the epimerae of
the posterior thoracic segments narrower and the endopod of the uropoda serrated
on the outer edge only. He further states that in the British Museum there are
three specimens similar to the Australian examples; two of these, respectively,
22 mm. and 28 mm. in length, are from Dume Island, New Guinea, and the third
is from the mouth of a fish taken in the Louisiade Archipelago. Comparing the

©) Nierstrasz, Sihowa. Exped., Mon., 32, p: 124 (footnote).
(3) Sch. and Mein., Naturh. Tidsskr., (3) 13, 1881, p. 17, pl. i, fig. 12-14.
() Bleeker, Verh. Naturk, Ver. Nederlandsch Indié, 2, 1857, No. 5, p. 24.

Fig. 7
Nerocila trivittata: a and b, dorsal and lateral views of
20 mm. ovigerous female from Malaysia: c and d, lateral
view and uropod of 24 mm. non-ovigerous female from India
(British Museum, del T. Monod).

Fig. 8
Nerocila monodi: a and b, dorsal and lateral views of 28 mm.
ovigerous female from New Guinea; c, transverse section of
caudal fan of same; d and e, endopoda of uropoda of 22 mm.
ovigerous female from New Guinea; f, dorsal view of 23 mm.
female from T.ouisiade Archipelago; g and h, side plates and
uropod of same (British Museum, def T. Monod).

303

28 mm. female with a female of NV. trivittata, he found also that in the former
the telson is concave, whereas in N. trivitlata it is flat. Dr. Monod was good
enough to send me a number of figures (here reproduced) of the specimens he
discusses, and these leave no doubt as to the correctness of his diagnosis.

There are now before me three adult females, 22 nim. to 26 mm. in length.
In these, the hinder angles of the posterior peraeon segments are more produced
than in the specimen figured by me in 1926, and in one example they extend back
to the level of the postero-lateral angles of the fifth pleon somite. As in the
other Australian cxamples examined by me, the telsonic somite is very slightly
convex or flat dorsally, with a low but distinct median carina and with the sides
a little upturned, producing the effect of slight lateral gutters.

Locality—Qucensland : 27° south-east of Pine Peak, 1 Aug. 1910 (1°. 4861).

Range-—~Queensland: Great Palm Island, from Lutianus sp. (type oviger-
ous female, in South Australian Museum, Reg. No, C. 290; see Ilale ut supra,
p. 208); Brisbane; Cairns. New Guinea: Dume Island (British Museum, fide
Monod). Louisiade Archipelago (British Museum, fide Monod).

Coponoruitus Haswell

CopoNnopHiLus iMpricatus (Fabricius)

Codonophilus imbricatus Hale, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 50, 1926, p. 223, fig, 15 a-k
and lO a-f (syn).

Localities—New South Wales: Shoalhaven Bight, 15-45 fathoms (1. 6599).
South Australia: South-east of Flinders Island, 37 fathoms (1.6744) and
15 miles north-west of Cape Jervis, 16 March 1909 (E. 4841).

LivonecA Leach
LivoNeca RAYNAUbID H. M. Edwards

Livoneca raynaudii Hale, Trans. Roy Soc. S. Aust., 50, 1926, p. 215, fig. 10: (sy).

‘Twenty-eight examples of this common form. ‘The largest is 50 mm, in
length.

Localities—New South Wales: Shoalhaven Bight, 14-45 fathoms, 16 March
1909, one from opercle of Zeus australis (E.288, E. 4854, and FE. 6598).
Victoria: off Gabo Island, about 200 fathoms (E.4762 and E. 4836); Gabo
Island to Cape Everard Ground, 20-250 fathoms (E.6319); 40 miles south to
south-west of Mount Cann, 70-100 fathoms (12.6318 and F. 5433). South Aus-
tralia: 50 miles south of Cape Wiles, 75 fathoms (E. 4864); south-cast of
Flinders Island, 37 fathoms, 30 August 1909 (E.6743). Tasmania: off Tasman
Head. Bruni Island, 80-100 fathoms, 21 March 1914 (E.6597); Entrance to
Oyster Bay 30 August 1909 (FE. 5684) ; off Tasmanian coast (I. 6746) ; off west
coast, 77 fathoms, on Banded Perch (E. 5354) ; off east coast of Flinders Island.
Bass Strait (If. 6737); Eastern Slope, Bass Strait (E. 6750).

JU4

OurozeEuKTEs H. Milne Edwards

OQuROZEUKTES BOPYROIDES (Lesueur)

Cymothoa bopyrotdes Lesueur, Bull. Sci. Soc. ‘Philom. Paris, 1814, p. 46, pl. ii,
fig. 12 a-l.

Ouroseuktes owenit M. Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust. 3, 1840, p. 276, pl. xxxiii, fig. 8;
Hale, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 50, 1926, p. 227, fig. 17-19 (sy).

Lesueur’s paper ‘Sur une nouvelle espece d’insecte du genre Cymothoa de
Fabricius” is not available in Australia, but Dr. T. Monod informs me that the
figures of Cymothoa bopyroides leave no doubt whatever as to the identity of
the species. It was found in a “Balistopode de la terre de Whit (Nouvelle
Hollande)”’.

Three specimens are included in the “Endeavour” collection. One is larger
than any previously examined by me, being 60 mm. in length and 40 mm. in width.

Localities—Victoria: Gabo Island to Cape Everard Ground, 20-250 fathoms
(E. 6780). Great Australian Bight: 127° east, 80-120 fathoms (E. 3743), and
60-80 miles west from Eucla (E. 6759).

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 1940 Vol. 64, Plate XVIII

Fig. 1 Dorsal view of Bathynomus ? affinis.
Fig. 2. Telson and uropoda of Bathynomus ? affinis, enlarged.

AUSTRALITES, PART IV - THE JOHN KENNETT COLLECTION
WITH NOTES ON DARWIN GLASS, BEDIASITES, ETC.

By CHARLES FENNER, University of Adelaide.

Summary

Pressures of other duties has prevented me from completing this paper as early as I should have
done, and has made it impossible for me to elaborate all of the interesting points that have arisen in
my enquiries. I accordingly present a succinct description of the John Kennett Collection and I take
the opportunity to add skeleton notes concerning austalites and other tektite groups in a way that I
trust may be of value, but which does not do them full justice.

305

AUSTRALITES, PART IV — THE JOHN KENNETT COLLECTION
WITH NOTES ON DARWIN GLASS, BEDIASITES, ETC.

By Cuartes FEnNeER, University of Adelaide

[Read 8 August 1940]

Pirate XIX
CONTENTS Page
1 Introductory Notes sd wer dite Bas Hc shen 305
I] Chemical and Physical Facts: ae . ska et dee 305
III Description of the John Kennett Caliectibn: xe sath Sy 306
IV. Notes on Darwin Glass .... ba mae a i ca ary, 318
V Straw Silica Glass me . . thy ; we ast 320
VI Miscellaneous Notes a a _ so lle a 5 Re 321
VII Texas Tektites (Bediasites) _. wr nid alts roe ae 321

Lo INTRODUCTORY
Pressure of other duties has prevented me from completing this paper as
early as I should have done, and has made it impossible for me to elaborate all
of the interesting points that have arisen in my enquiries. I accordingly present
a succinet description of the John Kennett Collection, and I take the opportunity
to add skeleton notes concerning australites and other tektite groups in a way
that I trust may be of value, but which does not do them full justice.

The increasing body of information that has now become available concern-
ing tektites confirms the conclusion that we are as yet far from knowing the story
of their origin. That is all the more reason why we should continue to accumulate
facts, and to correlate them where possible. Nor is it any reason why we should
suppress speculation and theory regarding their origin. Theories might well
progress, step by step, with the accumulation of information.

It CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL FACTORS

Dr. L. J. Spencer (Min. Mag., 25, 167, 1939, pp. 425-440) has published a
record of certain specific characters of “Tektites and Silica Glass,” particularly
of their chemical analyses, specific gravity, and refractive indices, with the inter-
relations of these factors where material is available. In this paper Dr. Spencer
mentions the lack of data concerning chemical composition, specific gravity, and
refractive index from the same sample of australite material. There is an
abundance of reliable chemical analyses of australites, almost all of which have
been published; there is also a great number of determinations of specific gravity,
of which only a relatively small proportion has been published. Spencer can find
only seven cases where both refractive index and specific gravity have been
determined for the same australite samples, three by Tilley, three by Lacroix, and

Trans. Roy. Soc. §.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

306

one other. There appears to be no case where all three factors have been deter-
mined for one australite.

Perhaps it is that Australian workers feel that sufficient is known of the
chemical compositions and specific gravities of australites to serve the purpose
of enquiry into their origin. Those who have studied the internal structure of
australites, with their tiny bubbles and cavities, may not be disposed to spend their
time determining specific gravities to two or three places of decimals. It is to be
hoped that Australian workers will fill up the gaps in our knowledge concerning
the specific gravity, chemical composition, refractive index, and other correlated
facts concerning the same individual specimens of australites.

Accepting the australites as a series of objects, composed of black glass, of
approximately similar chemical composition, specific gravity, and refractive index,
sptead over an area of some two million square miles, the writer would stress
the importance of [further studying their distribution (with possible variations
from place to place}, numbers, forms, and relative proportions of form types.
It is to the latter enquiry that the author has particularly devoted his attention
in a series of papers of which this is the fourth.

JIE DESCRIPTION OF THE JOMN KENNETT COLLECTION

Some four years ago | came in touch with Mr. John \W. Kennett, then in
charge of the Police Station at Charlotte Waters, Central Australia. Ile had for
some time been collecting australites in the area surrounding Charlotte Waters,
aided by the aborigines there. He continued collecting until he was transferred
to Alice Springs, Central Australia. Alice Springs is beyond the boundary of the
strewnfield, and, although there are many potential aboriginal collectors at Alice
Springs, the collecting by Sergeant Kennett came to an end, except for one
specimen found in the street at Alice Springs, obviously carried and dropped.

In February 1939 Mr. Kennett brought to my home in Adelaide, in a large
number of boxes, his remarkable collection. For over twelve months I have been
engaged upon the classification and measurement of the specimens. It transpired
that the total number of pieces was 7,184, nearly twice as many as the Shaw
Collection (3,920). What is more significant is that while the average weight
of the Shaw Collection was just under one gram per piece, ihe average weight of
the Kennett Collection was over six grams per piece. The possible significance

62-79, 6 pl.

2 Part IT]—Number, forms, distribution. Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
59, 1935, pp. 125-140.
” Part LlI—Probtent of Origin, ete, Proc. Rov. Soc. S. Aust., 62 (2),

1938, pp. 192-216, 2 pl.
FError—In Part III of this series the bibliography contained a serious error
which was kindly pointed out to me by Dr. L. J. Spencer. I gave the date of

Dufrénoy’s “Treatise on Mineralogy” as 1787, whereas it was published in 1844-47,
second edition in 1856-59.

307

Sergeant Kennett gives the following account of his collection:

“T was transferred from Katherine, Northern Territory, to Charlotte Waters at the
beginning of September 1932. I had not been at the Station very long when an aboriginal
brought to me about a dozen curious black stones, different from anything which I had
seen before. Among them was a damaged stone of the flanged button type. 1 enquired
by what name he called that one, and he replied, ‘Emu Eye.’ I became very interested
and, aller further questioning my black-tracker, Mick Doolan, who is an aboriginal above
average intelligence, I was told that these glassy stones were meteorites. I scoffed at the
idea, but later more were brought in of all sizes and shapes. I became more interested
and eventually decided to make a collection. Very often 1 would accompany two or three
aborigines, secking over the gibber plains for tektites. It was exasperating when the
aborigines would pick them up while I could not sight one. The small gibber stones on
these plains vary in colour from dark brown to black, and it is difficult to pick out the
tektites among them. I practised looking at tektites after they had been sighted by the
blacks, but it was weeks before I first spotted a specimen, which thrilled me as much as if
I had found a nugget of gold, and then I improved and at the end of a five-year term at
Charlotte Waters I was as keen in the eye-sight as the aborigines. One of the hints the
aborigines gave me was this: ‘Supposem you find more ‘big fella stone, alright, you look
about properly fella and you findem mob little fella’. This theory I consider to be correct.
When one located such a patch it would probably involve another quarter of a mile’s walk
before another stone would be found. After heavy rain had fallen on the gibber plains,
stones became more plentiful and easy to detect. I feel assured that stones keep coming
to the surface after every heavy rain and, in spite of the thousands that have been found
around the old Police Station, thousands still remain to be found there. My collection,
which was made over a period of five years was within a radius of sevcral miles of
Charlotte Waters—22 miles north, 30 miles west, 60 miles south, and 75 miles cast—but
by no means was the whole of that area intensively searched, The stones near Mount
Dare are somewhat larger than those around Charlotte, and ovals and dumb-bells were
more common there. Around Blood’s Creek stones seemed to be of a smaller type, and
very plentiful At Eringa Station they were larger. At Eringa a friend of mine reported
he had discovered the largest stone ever found in the country, reputedly as large as an
apple. It had, unfortunately, been pressed into the ground by a wagon wheel, and
cracked beyond value. The next largest stone I saw was found by a lubra and sold for
a minty to Mrs. Child, of Crow Point Station. When it was shawn to me I did my best
to procure it, even offering two minties for it. This specimen, I believe, ultimately came
into the hands of Professor Cleland and is in the Adelaide Museum. The stones in the
sandhills are much cleaner and less chipped, readily collected after a heavy wind, It 1s
very rare to find a perfect, flanged button specimen, and most of those in my collection
T found around Charlotte Waters itself.”

The general classification followed in this paper is that adopted in the Shaw
Collection, itself a development from the general practice of those who have
attacked this problem in earlier papers. Following upon the theory of genesis of
these forms put forward in No. III of this series of papers, it was thought
desirable to bridge over the passage from the round forms (buttons and lenses)
to the long forms (boats, canoes, and dumbbells) by separating the “ovals” into
two series, narrow ovals and broad ovals.

The following table shows the comparison in numbers of forms and average
weights of the Shaw and Kennett Collections:

A Complete Specimens— SHAW KENNETT
No.of Av. wt. No.of Av. wt.
Class Specs. in grms. % Specs. in grms. %
Al Buttons - - 275 1°31 14 686 2°20 13°3
A2~ Lenses - - 1094 80 55 3249 6°93 63°2
A3x Narrow Ovals - 168 “94 8 375 7°64 7°3

A3y Broad Ovals - — — — 365 9-17 7-1

308
SHAW KENNETT
No.of Av. wt. No.of Av. wt.

Class Specs. in grms. %o Specs. in grms. %
A4 Boats - - - 171 1:12 8 323 5-79 6:2
AS Canoes - - 81 1:10 4 10 1-27 0-2
AG Dumbbells - - 70 1:22 4 67 8-61 1°3
A7 Teardrops - - 134 “90 7 62 8°93 1:2

Total - 1993 av. °93 100% 5137 av. 6°47 100%

B Broken Pieces—

Bl Round fragnients - 980 — 51 284 —_ 16
B2 Elongate fragments 603 —- 31 484 — 24
B3 Unclassified frag-
ments - - 344 — 18 1175 — 60
Total - 1927 100% 1943 100%

C Aberrant Forms—
Ci Aberrant forms - (not separately classified) 104 — 100%

3920 7184 100%

The outstanding difference is the larger average size of the Kennett Collec-
tion specimens. Piece for piece they are almost seven times as large as the Shaw
specimens. Although the weights of the broken pieces are not given in this
table, they also averaged about seven times as large as the Shaw specimens.
There were some aberrant forms in the Shaw Collection, which were described
and figured, but these were not so great in number as the “aberrants” of the
Kennett Collection, where there are 104 specimens.

Both Shaw and Kennett utilised the aborigines in their collecting. It cannot
be doubted that these collectors thus secured a fair average of the material that
fell in each of the two vast areas over which they collected. These areas were
some hundreds of miles apart. The conclusion is acceptable that though the whole
of the australite fall was one vast “shower,” there were distinct differences, at
least in size, from place to place.

In the foregoing tables the numbers given for the Shaw Collection are those
published in the paper already cited. In the following tables there are some
differences, due to adjustments made in the light of further knowledge, particularly
in the relation of “cores” to lens types and button types. The millimeter figures
refer to the major diameters of the specimens in each group.

309

Crass Al—Butrons
SHAW KENNETT

Ala with complete flanges (4) unchipped - - - 7 7
(ii) slightly chipped - - O 6
Alb with imperfect flanges (i) 4 or more left - - 22 22
(ii) 4+ to 4 left - - - 7 23

(iit) less than $—
(a) 14 mm. - - 27 126
(b) 10-14 mm. - 43 354
(c) < 10 mm. - 17 66
Ale : 4 = E (i) large interior bubbles - 0 0
(ii) burst, centre back - 15 0
(111) burst, various — - - 36 3
Ald with saw cuts - a a + - : : - 7¢ =
Ale (pine seed forms) - (1) with flattops > 14mm. — 10
<14mm. 67 39
Gi) with high tops - - — 30
Total - 258 686

‘The proportion of flanged buttons was about the same in both collections,
about one-seventh of the total complete specimens. Those with burst bubbles were
commoner in the Shaw collection, perhaps an unimportant point. It is curious
that so few of the ‘‘saw-cuts” were found in the Kennett Collection, none among
the buttons; if these are contraction cracks it would suggest that the physical
conditions of the fall at Charlotte Waters were different from those at Nullarbor
Plains.

Crass A2—LENSES

SHAW KENNETT
A2a (i): 16-18 mm. - - - - - "a - O 15
Gi) 14-16 mm. - - - - - - - 69 a7
A2b 12-14 mm. - - - - - - ~ 177 169
A2c 10-12 mm. - - - - - - - 350 96
A2d 8-10 mm. - - - - - ~ 341 25
A2e 6-8 mm. (i) larger - - ~ - 77 0
(ii) int. - - 5 - - 12 0
(iii) smaller - - - - 6 1
A2t Pitted discs (i) larger - - - - 6 0
(ii) int. - - - - 44 0
(iii) smaller - - 7 - 6 0

A2g Crinkly tops a 2 7 i 7 inte .

310
SHAW KENNETY
AZh (1) 36-40 mm. - - - - - 7 - 1 8
Gi) 32-36 mm. - - - - - - - 0 30
(iii) 28-32 mm. - 2 - - - 4 - OG 118
(iv) 26-28 mm. - - - 7 4 - - Q 138
(v) 24-26 mm. - - - - - 4 - 0 200
(vi) 22-24 mm. - - - 5 - = - O 401
(vii) 20-22 mm. - - - - - : - 0 518
(viii) 18-20 mm. - - 7 : - = 16 f ols
(ix) 16-18 mm. - - - - - “ i , { 494
(x) 14-16 mm. - - - - ni = - 140
(xi) 12-14 mm. - - - - x 7 =o WY 54
(xii) heavily flaked (a) larger - - | 152 ( 40
(b) smaller - - i 87
(xiif) balls - - - - : - = » 6
A2i Baker's special pitted disc - 7 ~ - OO )
Totals - 1263

3249

Just as lenses formed the greatcr part, more than half, of the complete
specimens of the Shaw Collection, so is this true of the Kennett Collection. But
the 55°% of the Shaw Collection is to be compared with 633% in the Kennett
Collection. It may be that the author’s experience in handling many thousands
of these objects, and considering their forms from the genetic point of view, has
enabled him to more truly classify specimens as lenses when he might otherwise
have been doubtful owing to their chipped equatorial areas. That factor would
not materially affect the final percentages. The outstanding fact is that whereas
the 1,263 lenses of the Shaw Collection averaged less than one gram in weight,
the 3,249 lenses of the Kennett Collection were giants by comparison, 6°93 grams.
The foregoing table shows the enormous preponderance of large lenses in the
Kennett Collection. The original Shaw classification showed only 1,094 lenses;
the addition of specimens there classified as cores, eic., brought the total lenses up
to 1,263, the figure quoted in the foregoing table.

The group A2h xii, called “balls,” consisted of six heavily abraded and almost
spherical specimens of large size. The possibility that they contained large bubbles,
similar to the unique specimen in the Melbourne National Museum, led to their
specific gravities being determined. ‘Chey proved to be quite solid glass, the figures
being: 1-2°48; 2-2-43; 3-2:51; 4-2:45; 5-2:47; 6-2°45. These figures were
determined by W. G. Fenner; the determinations are above the average for
australites, but they serve the purpose of proving that the spherical forms con-

tained no large bubble,

311

This graph is published in support of the theory of the genesis of australite
forms as put forward in my previous papers. From the point of view of size
and abundance the group of Ienses called AZh in this paper is the most important
in the Kennett Collection. The graph shows sizes and weights of the specimens
in the group. The important fact is that these correspond with a natural dis-
tribution curve, rising from a minimum of 8 at the greatest weight (39 grams),
toa maximum number of specimens of 5-3 grams weight (613), and then decreas-
ing to a minimum of 54 specimens at the lowest weight of 2 grams.

Nos.
600
GRAPH OF LENSES
GROUP A2h.

Weight f ’

eights ; ——+500
400
300

iS
may _ 7 =
3, Ye 7h he he te Hn ho Ye Yea

Sizes in Millimetres.

Ciass A3x—-NArrow OVALS
SHAW KENNETT

A3xa with perfect flange ‘ - - - - Q 0
A3xb with imperfect or (1) 40-52 mm. - - - 0 19
no flange or rim (141) 34-40 mm. - - - 0 39
(ii) 28-34 mm. - - - 0 94
(iv) 22-28 mm. - - - O 115
(v) 18-22 mm. - - - 0 75

A3xe with imperfect or
no flange or rim 14-18 mm. - - - 0 27
A3xd __,, 8 10-14 mm. - - - QO 6
A3xe 45 ‘ 8-10 mm. - - - 0 0
0 375

312

Ciass A3y—Broap Ovats

SHAW KENNETT
Aya with perfect flange - : 7 - : - 2 0
A3yb with imperfect or (i) 40-52 mm. - a - 0 10
no flange or rim = (41) 34-40 mm. - - - 0 30
(iii) 28-34 mm. - - - 0 65
(iv) 22-28 mm. - - - O 101
(v) 18-22 mm. - - - 18 73

A3ye with imperfect or

no flange or rim 14-18 mm. - - - 50 58
A3yd " 10-14 mm. - - - &l 24
A3ye ¥ s 8-10 mm. - - - 7 4
168 365

For reasons already given the ovals were separated into two groups:
(a) broad, having a short diameter equal to three-quarters or more of the long
diameter; (b) narrow, having a short diameter half to three-quarters of the long
diameter. ‘(he proportion of ovals in the two collections is somewhat similar:
Kennett, 14% (740); Shaw, 8% (168). The characters were quite similar
except that, as the table shows, the Kennett specimens were larger, again more
than seven times as large. No distinction was made between broad and narrow
ovals in the Shaw Collection, and they are all included here as broad ovals.

Crass A4—Boats

SHAW KENNETT
A4a long axis (4) 48-56 mm, - 7 - 0 3
(ii) 40-48 mm. - - - O 24
(it) 34-40 mm. - - - 0 53
(iv) 28-34 mm. - - - 0 90
(v) 22-28 mm. - - - 15 117
A4b tong axis 18-22 mm. - - - 75 19
Adc long axis 14-18 mm. - - - 52 4
A4d long axis 12-14 mm. - - - 14 3
A4e thin, flat, translucent 2 - - - - 8 0
AAL elongate crinkly tops - : . : - 7 8
171 323

“Boats” are ovals in which the short diameter is Iess than half the Jong
diameter. These constituted 8% of the Shaw and 6% of the Nemnett Collection.
A few had the “crinkly tops,” figured in previous papers. suggesting a flow of

313

material to the rear side of the specimen during flight, in place of the formation
of a flange.

Ciass A5—CANOES
SHAW KENNETT

Ada long axis 22-30 mm. - - - 22 4
A5b long axis 18-22 wim, - - - 18 3
A5c long axis 14-18 mm. - - - 28 3
A5Sd long axis 12-14 mm. - - - 7 0
ASe aberrant elongates = - - - - - - 2 0

a7 10

There was a very small number of canoes (boats with pointed ends) in the
Kennett Collection. Their absence, with the other differences noted, suggests
that the fall at Charlotte Waters was more viscous or fell under different condi-
tions. The average weights of canoes were about the same in both cases.

Crass A6—DUMBBELLS SHAW KENNETT

Aoa long axis (1) 65 imi. plus - - 0 1
(ii) 55-65 mm. - - - O 1

(iii) 45-55 mm. - - - 0 10

(iv) 35-45 mm. - - - 0 22

(v) 30-35 mm. - - - 6 14

A6b long axis 25 30 mm. - : - 23 5
A6c long axis 20-25 mm. - - - 25 4
A6d long axis 15-20 mm. - - - 7 0
A6oe long axis, ladles : 7 : : : - 3 0
AGF long axis, beans or kidneys - _ - 5 0
70 57

Crass AZ—TEARDROPS Srey. bo aan

A7a long axis, 12-15 mm. (1) 35 mm. plus - - 0 8
(ii) 25-35 mm. - - - O 18

(ii) 15-25 mm. - - - QO 3l

(iv) 12-15 mm. - - - 6 2

Afb long axis 10-12 mm. - - - 21 1
A7c long axis 8-10 mm. - - - 45 1
A7/d long axis 6-8 nim. ~ - - 39 0
AZe air bombs, ete. - 7 7 7 - - 23 0

314

Dumbbells and their ultimate separate halves (teardrops) were fewer in the
Kennett Collection, but bigger. Here, again, the size ratio was about 7:1 (see
Table 1). Yhe comparative rarity of dumbbells, canoes, and teardrops was one
of the peculiaritics of the Kennett Collection, compared with the Shaw Collec-
tion. Those who personally examine the Kennett Collection will find little
difference to the cye between some boats and some dumbbells. In cases of doubt,
reliance was placed almost wholly on the sense of touch. If a constriction or
“waist” could be detected by the fingers the specimens were classified as
dumbbells.

Crass B—PFRAGMENTS

Crass Bl—Rounnp FormMs—FRAGMENTS
SHAW KENNETT

Bia buttons (with saw cuts), fragments greater than half - 18 0
Blb buttons (with saw cuts), fragments less than half - - 66 0
Ble buttons with concentric fractures, large - - 2 232 2
Bld buttons with concentric fractures, small - - - 187 10
Ble central conical portions of buttons - - - - & 0
Bif button cores, larger (now lens cores, AZh xii (a) ) - 20 0
Blg button cores, smaller (now lens cores, AZh xii (b) ) - 106 0
Bilh “lumps”, weathered and abraded (i) large - - - 72
Gi) medium — - - 26 107
(iii) small - - 43
Bli fragments with bubble cavities — - bi - - - 28 11
Blj button fragments, with flanges, larger (4 or more) - 23 14
Blk button fragments with flanges, smaller (less than 4) - 181 25
Bll button fragments without flanges, possibly lenses - - 206 0
980 284

Ciass B2—ELoncatre LorMS—I‘RAGMENTS SHAW KENNETT
32a (4) clongates with saw cuts - - - - 39 0
(11) elongates with saw cuts (trilobites) — - - - 20 0
B2b varied elongates with concentric fractures - * - Sl 0
B2c elongate fragments, with unusual flow ridges, ete. - 10 0
B2d elongate forms, with bubble cavities - - - - 42 20
B2e elongate forms, mostly cores, some very irregular - 36 0
B2{ (1) fragments, larger - - - - - - 130 102
(ii) fragments, smaller - - - - - - 172 231
B2g (i) dumbbell fragments, larger - . = - - 27 43
(ii) dumbbell fragments, smaller - - - - 52 72
B2h teardrop fragments = - ~ - - - - ~ 24 16

603 484

315

Ciass B3—UNCLASSIFIED FRAGMENTS
SHAW KENNETT

B3a Nondescript fragments (1) very large - - - 0 96
(ii) large - 5 e ee. 155

(iit) medium - - - 340 332

(iv) small - - - - 0 490

B3b Flakes, accidental or aboriginal - S - 4 102
B3c Foreign bodies — - ~ - - - - - (10) (17)
344 L175

There is little need for comment on the figures concerning fragments.
Round forms are more common, as already shown, than elongate forms, but round
fragments are in a smaller ratio to elongate fragments than might be expected,
unless we accept the idea that the elongate forms are more readily broken.
Possibly the very great proportion of unclassified fragments (B3) in the Kennett
Collection was due to more thorough collecting. The greater number of these
fragments showed relatively fresh fractures.

Ciass C—‘InprcatTors”, ABERRANTS, AND OTHER CURIOUS SPECIMENS
(included in aberrant elongates, etc., in Shaw Collection)

Class Cl, Round “Indicators” - - - - - 30

Class C2, Elongate “Indicators” - Fi 7 = 22
Class C3, Curious Specimens—

(1) unusual flow ridges, ete. - - - 18

(11) curious buttons - - - - - 4

Gii) helmet forms - - - - - 2

(iv) flat trays - - - - - - 10

(v) “spoon” forms - - - - - 2

(vi) with bubble about to burst - - - 1

(vii) teardrop becoming button? - - 1

(viii) specimen (?) touched in flight - - 1

(ix) red inclusions - - - - - 4d

(x) unusual colour and structure = - - 2

(xi) an inexplicable fragment - - - 1

(xit) detached two-thirds flange - - - il

(xiii) parts of “aerial bombs” = - - - 4

(xiv) (?) pine-seed forms - - - - 4

104

It is necessary that some notes should be added concerning the aberrant or
“irregular” forms which are set oul in the foregoing table. When these are

316

adequately described and figured, they should throw some light on the problem
of the formation of australites. These notes give the simplest facts concern-

ing

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

them.

“Indicators”. These are forms in which most of the important equatorial
portion has been chipped or flaked off, in the manner characteristic of thou-
sands of specimens, with the exception that the flaking process has not been
complete. There is thus a portion of the margin Ieft, and this remaining
margin “indicates”, in almost every case, that the original form was of lens
shape without flanges (“flanges” are characteristic of those types called
buttons). This fact has already been published, with figures (Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Aust., lix, 1935, p. 131), but the Kennett Collection contains a number
of corroborative examples, 52 in number. Baker (Min. Mag., London,
xxv, No. 168, p. 493) refers to the flaking off of these unstable equatorial
portions “during atmospheric flight’. The writer believes this flaking to
have slowly taken place in the years since the australites fell to the surface
(vide Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62 (2), 1938). The point stressed here is
that these particular specimens tell us something of the original shape of the
flaked specimens. Ina very few “indicators” there is evidence of an original
flange. ‘The writer agrees with Baker’s definition of a “core” (loc. cit.)
except that he finds it difficult to imagine the flaking to have taken place to
any extent, if at all, during flight (see pl. xix, Nos. 11, 12, 13).

Specinicns with unusual flow ridges, ‘‘Flow ridges” are external formations,
usually on the front portion of the partly molten moving australite, and
although they show remarkable uniformity in the majority of specimens,
where preserved, there is in some specimens a very interesting series of
irregularities. These call for physical and mathematical enquiry (see pl. xix,
Nos. 14, 15, 17).

Curious Buttons. Buttons are, as a rule, more than usually uniform, though
no two are alike; they are between 14 and 24 cm. in diameter, and from
1 to 1°75 cm. deep. Among the curious forms of the Kennett Collection is
a large button that is most irregular in form and outline, yet having a
perfectly good flange, almost complete (see pl. xix, No. 16), Another is the
smallest button | have seen, flange incomplete (pl. xix, No. 19); another is
like a Cornish pasty, with a flange on one side only (sce pl. xix, No. 15).
Helmet forms. These appear to be blobs of glass that once were buttons,
but which have advanced far beyond the usual button form owing to melting
and flowage during flight.) “Flat trays” are small objects, of varied type,
approaching helmet forms at one extreme and flat discs at the other (see
pl. xix, Nos. 22 to 27). “Spoon forms” are large, and are chiefly interesting
because they are so unlike the usual australites (except in composition and
colour), and so like the characteristic spoon forms of the moldavites.

@) These forms, although somewhat deeper in the “crown”, appear to be similar to
Pp , ap

those described by George Baker in the Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 52, ns., pt. ii 1940, p. 312,

317

(e) Other unusual forms include one teardrop that appears to have been flatten-
ing out to form a button, but there is no flange, There are many better
examples in muscum collections of this tendency for the flying teardrop to
develop a flange. Another shows on its posterior surface a bubble that was
just about to burst—not a very interesting specimen. Another suggests waat
the writer has looked for during the handling of many thousands of specimens
—evidence of a specimen being touched during flight. Another specimen
shows reddish surface inclusions; there are many such in the Melbourne
University Collection, but apart from this dubious one, none in the Kennett
Collection; Darwin’s Australite, now in the Geological Museum, London,
has a considerable amount of this red material in it; it has never been analysed.

(4) There are two fragments with unusual colour and structure, but not
important, and one “inexplicable” fragment, which does not appear to be a
part of any known australite form. ‘here is a piece that is two-thirds of a
button flange, separated from its parent button; four that are parts of some
relatively large aerial bombs, broken, and with remarkably complex flow
ridges, and four that I have called “pine-seed” forms, for lack of a better
place to classify them.

Foreign Bodies. The group B3c includes 17 “foreign bodies”, It is remark~
able that the aborigines, with their exceptional acuity of vision, and their equally
remarkable powers of observation, should have collected many specimens that
are not australites. The writer’s training in mineralogical and petrological
observation, together with the experience of handling critically many thousands
of australite and other tektite specimens, has not made him immune from error.
Of the 17 mistakes in the Kennett Collection some are limonite, sand-blasted, and
with good patina; others and more deceptive ones are waterworn cherts and other
fine-grained homogeneous rocks. There are at least three definite aboriginal
artefacts of chert, cic., and there are also two oval waterworn pebbles. Dr. Keith
Ward, who collected from the aborigines in the tektite-sprinkled area of Kal-
goorlie, Western Australia, many years ago, told me that if the native collector
had any doubts of his specimen, he deftly struck a chip from the dull surface
to reveal the reassuring glassy material within.

The Keunctt Collection. The general facts of the John Kennett Collec-
tion support the knowledge already in our possession, and at the same time bring
forward definite evidence of a feature long suspected but not substantiated. All
the forms were lying on the surface, in the Central Australian desert and semi-
desert areas; this supports the idea of their geological recency (“geologically
recent but historically remote”). The forms are the same as those found else-
where, and the relative abundance of the various types of forms is closely similar
to what has been found in other areas. The number of aberrant forms, though
not large, may be due to the assiduity with which Sergeant Kennett, aided by his
aboriginal friends, so closely combed this area.

318

There is one minor point about collecting that might be recorded here. As
one who has sought for australites among the abundant black and purple frag-
ments with which the desert areas are strewn, I know the difficulty of discovery;
Sergeant Kennett has learnt that one should search with his back to the sun, and
look well ahead; thus the eye becomes “tuned in” to the glassy objects and they
are more readily found.

The important evidence given us by the Kennett Collection is that, not
only were the falls more numerous in some places than in others, but also that in
the more densely sprinkled areas (e.g., Charlotte Waters and Nullarbor areas)
there were some general and striking differences between the characteristics of
the australites themselves; those at Charlotte Waters were on the average seven
times as large as those on the more southern field. The John Kennett Australite
Collection is a unique and fascinating one, and in the interests of scientific enquiry
it is to be hoped that it may be acquired intact by some institution, for there is
still much desirable research to be done on this collection,

IV. NOTES ON DARWIN GLASS

Darwin Glass (Queenstownite), found in north-western ‘Tasmania, is
generally considered one of the more doubtful tektites. In published tables and
graphs of chemical composition and physical characters it stands somewhat apart
from the accepted tektite groups. A careful comparison of external and internal
characters, as revealed by the microscope, shows that in these features also the
Darwin Glass specimens are distinct from such tektites as moldavites, australites,
rizalites, billitonites, indo-chinites, or the more recently found bediasites,

Published accounts speak of “thousands of tons” of this material, but it is not
easy to get specimens at present. I found there was none available at Queens-
town itself, nor in the Museum at Hobart. Three pieces were kindly made avail-
able to me from the Launceston (Tasmania) Museum. Professor Cotton, of the
University of Sydney, and Professor Richards, of the University of Queensland,
gencrously lent me for inspection the whole of their material, and this is listed
in the following pages; the total weight of the material was about 257 grams.
In a subsequent paper the results of comparative examination will be made avail-
able detailing the external sculpture and internal flowlines, etc., of the various
tektites, including Darwin Glass. In this section we shall deal only with numbers,
forms, and weights.

Loftus Ilills stresses the “twists, the tubercles, and the slaggy appearance.”
Suess noted the predominance of “stretched and distorted forms.’”? David men-
tioned that they were rarely unbroken, many stalactitic with spiral twist, disc-
shaped, and “striated, like pulled-out and twisted toffee.”

These descriptions are excellent, but they do not give account of size and
weight. The striking point of the specimens is their slightness and their ‘‘frothi-
ness”, Each specimen contains a mass of bubbles, and each bubble has the usual

319

internal “hot polish” common to silica-glass bubbles, as I have investigated them
experimentally in a glass-work furnace, by courtesy of the management of Aus-
tralian Glass Manufactures, Ltd., Kilkenny, South Australia. The colour of
Darwin Glass varies from almost clear, through a pale-green translucence similar
to that of Libyan-glass, to green-grey, white, and black. There are no “perfect
forms”, with the exception of one boot-shaped piece, a tiny double-dumbbell, bent
at right angles.

The striated or fasciated appearance is common. ‘lubercles are abundant.
“Straight-cut” broken ends are not uncommon. Some of the pieces have a
tendency towards the teardrop or spoon type; the smallest pieces are as shapcless
as cinders, and not unlike them.

Whatever their origin, it is clear that at the time of their appearance, and
just prior to their consolidation, they were “flung” in an irregular way, and under
conditions that involved the incorporation of much gas. There is no evidence that
any piece was soft when it reached the ground. The shapes of the bubbles give
a suggestion of such rapid cooling that one may speculate whether they fell on
the one-time glacial cap of their parent mountain,

‘The collection made by Sir Edgeworth David, lent by Professor Cotton, was
collected at 13 localitics. The accompanying particles of sand, etc., were the
white and pink quartzite of that area. The following classification is the best that
can be done to systematize the forms of this irregular group, and it is hoped that
the terms may convey some meaning in the absence of plates:

(a) large clongated lumps;

(b) boot (the one complete form in the collection) ;

(d) teardrop forms ;

(e) volcanic bomb type;

(f) fasciated pieces ;

(g) Jacework picces ;

(h) straight cuts (short pieces with sharp breaks at right angles to the axis,
common in moldavites and called “partitions” in Czech collections).

(i) twisted and tubercled pieces ;

(j) formless fragments; more than two-thirds of the total are in this group.

The localities mentioned in the lists are those written on the various envelopes by

Professor David.
No. of

Locality Specimens @ 6 c¢ d e f g h 14 j
Mount Darwin - - - 16 Tose ee Da ee Fe EG
Darwin Glass - - - 76 eo ee ft PT Ff 10 — 63
Darwin Glass - - - 19 wei Br eget Be ke BY 2 2
Crotty - - - - 3 1 —- — —~ — — — -- 1 1
Ten-mile Railway Station - 77 2 4 4 4 59

320

Locality Pee ie a@ bo ¢ de fF g h 2a j
Darwin Glass - - - 8 I 2 1 4
West of Mount Sorrell - 19 - 1 3 4 11
10-1nile Special - - - 15 5 o—- — — — 1 1 2 2 4
Darwin Glass - = - 72 nee 2 2 8 2 58

Darwin Glass (important) - 2 | ~ i
Gap at 10-mile - . =) 15 cae 1 1 1 4 8
Li. Side N. Lyell Railway - 2 —-— — — — 2
10-mile - - - - 7 “ - — 7
331 8 1 5 8 2 WF 4 39 23 224

‘The total weight of these 331 specimens was 191-05 grams, an average weight
of °57 grams. The three largest averaged 8°40 grams, and the three smallest
‘06 grams.

The collection from the University of Queensland had a larger average size.
ii consisted of 41 specimens, classed as 2 broken phallics, 3 fasciated pieces,
3 lacework pieces, 1 stem-like specimen, 8 straight-cuts, 10 twisted and tubercled
pieces, and 14 formless fragments. ‘he total weight of these pieces was 66:1
grams, giving an average weight of 1°61 grams, These descriptive records are
set down with no comment beyond an expression of opinion that quite different
conditions prevailed at the time of origin of the various forms of Darwin Glass
from those that prevailed when other accepted tcktites were developed.

Vo STRAW SILICA GLASS

Not the least interesting of naturally occurring silica glasses are those found
from time to time in the country, usually fairly scoriaceous but sometimes massive.
This material varies from green to black and smoky-grey, and at times is found
in large lumps up to 20-30 pounds in weight. Enquiry usually shows that the
material has been found on or near the site where a straw-stack has been burnt.
With the exercise of imagination one could have believed that this mode of forma-
tion might have entered into the story of the more obscure silica glasses, such as
Libyan Glass and Darwin Glass.

Some pains were therefore taken to secure some of this material from various
parts of South Australia, By the courtesy of the late Mr. T.. J. Winton, acting
head of the Mines Department, two analyses were made by Mr. F. L. Dalwood,
and these are here placed on record. Mr. Dalwood records that owing to the
presence of carbonaceous matter the ferrous iron could not be satisfactorily
determined, and the whole of the iron is therefore set down as ferric oxide. The
very high percentages of potash and soda put these glasses out of any possibility
of relationship to tcktite glasses, but they are, nevertheless, worthy of record:

321

Sample No.1 No. 19189, Silica Glass trom O.B. Flat, South Australia.
Sample No, 2. No. 19190, Silica Glass from Compton Downs, South Australia.

19189 19190
Silica (SiO,,) - - - 66°04 57-40
Alumina (AL,O,) - - - 1°55 1°81
Ferric Oxide (Fe,O,) - - 0°59 0:59
Lime (Cao) - - - - 6:00 8°56
Magnesia (MgO) - - - 3°80 5°56
Potash (K,O) - - = 1198 13°58
Soda (Na,O) - - - 6°88 8:98
Carbonaccous matter - - 2:69 3°16

99°53 99-64

VI MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Smoke Bombs and Sea-borne Bombs, rom time to time descriptions have
been given of the slag-bombs or smoke-bombs of impure silica-glass that are shot
forth from the funnels of railway engines. These forms, in many ways, resemble
the forms of australites, and contain many gas bubbles. ‘

Following up this idea, Mr. W. Baragwanath, Government Geologist of
Victoria, drew under my notice the fact that seekers of foraminifera in sea sands
frequently found tiny siliceous spherules. Mr. W. J. Parr, an expert in
foraminifera collecting, has kindly sent me a number of these sphcrules, tiny
things, some of them much smaller than a pin-head, and exactly comparable with
the spherules of silica-glass cast out from railway engines. Doubtless these come
from the funnels of coal-burning steam-boats, and doubtless also they are to be
found for the seeking where they have floated ashore on sea-coasts all over the
world.

Vil TEXAS TEKTITES

Tektites have been found in the United States of America in such goodly
numbers as to suggest a fairly extensive shower, spread over an elliptical area
east of the Brazos River, Texas. The discoverer, Professor Virgil E. Barnes, of
the University of Texas, has sent me samples of this material, which I have com-
pared microscopically with the other known tektites. A section of one of these
specimens was kindly cut for me by Sir Douglas Mawson. These inspections and
comparisons of external and internal structures show such definite similarities as
to leave no doubt of the character of the material; the chemical analyses supplied
by Professor Barnes confirm this.

The two analyses of Texan tektites, of which details were kindly forwarded
to me by Professor Barnes, are as follows (F. A. Gonyer, analyst). {It will be

322

noted that the refractive indices and the specific gravities of the same specimens
have also been determined. The results are as follows: Specimen A—SiO,
73°52, Al,O, 15°88, Fe,O, 0°45, FeO 4°64, CaO 0°06, MgO 1°38, TiO, 0°87,
MnO 0°01, Na,0 1°30, K,O, 1°73, H,O 0°08. Total, 99-92. Nd. 1°052, S.G.
2°397, Specimen B—SiO, 77°76, Al,O, 13°30, FeO, 0°37, FeO 3°36, CaO 0-04,
MgO 1:19, TiO, 0°76, MnO 0-01, Na,O 1°41, K,O 1°97, H,O 0:02. Total,
100-19. Nd. 1:492, S.G,. 2°357,

A full description of the Texas tektites has now been published by the
University of Texas in their Contributions to Geology, 1939. The article is
entitled “North American Tektites” and runs from page 477 to page 582, with
five plates, a very complete bibliography, and many text figures. It is fortunate
indeed that the first tektites to be found on the continent of North America
should have come into the hands of one so interested and so able as Professor
Virgil E, Barnes. The account he gives of the whole tektite question, with
analyses, physical characters, distribution, ete., is the most comprehensive yet
published in English. He calls the North American tektites ‘“Rediasites,” from
the locality named after the Bedias tribe of Indians. One of his most interest-
ing discoveries is the occurrence in tektites of remarkable lechatelierite inclusions.

The long history of the theories of the origins of tektites, as set out by
Barnes, is a remarkably interesting comment upon the cautious resistance of the
minds of men towards new theories regarding natural phenomena, Barnes’s
conclusion is that the tektites are fused shales or other sedimentary rocks. As
the Bediasite area is an ellipse of not more than ten miles by five, it is possible
to conceive of this explanation as being a reasonable one in that case.

The question of the australite distribution is, however, completely against the
possibility of accepting such a theory, Australites, with their characteristic type
forms, chemical composition, and physical characters, are spread over an area two
thousand miles long by one thousand miles wide, and are found also on the off-
shore islands, so that the actual strewnfield must have been far greater.

Within the past few years numerous cases have come under my notice of
men in various Australian localities becoming interested in australites, finding
first one, then half-a-dozen, and ultimately scores or hundreds. Australites are
scattered over the southern two-thirds of Australia, in the denscly-wooded and
well-watered mountain areas, in the wide grasslands and in the vast desert areas.
They are distributed over gneisses, schists, basalts, limestones, sands, clays, and
every other variety of bed-rock which occurs throughout the southern two-thirds
of Australia, including Tasmania. There must have been several million pieces in
the original fall.

In the writer’s opinion these facts of distribution, combined with the unique
and regular form-types of australites, compel us to include them as extra-
terrestrial objects without waiting for the more convincing evidence of an actual
shower. The meteorite craters of Henbury, though within the australite area,

325

are relatively trivial and quite unrelated to the occurrence or distribution of
australites. Fulgurite tubes are occasionally found in Australia, but without
relation to the occurrence and distribution of australites.

Barnes’s concluding paragraph opens: “If, as practically all the evidence now
indicates, tektites actually are proven to be fulgurites....” This statement ignores
the facts of form and distribution of the various tektite groups. It is difficult to
imagine that lightning, which has no known regional characteristics, should pro-
duce only one kind of tektite over Australia, with its many scores of rock types,
and quite other but equally distinct forms over ]ndo-China or Moldavia, with
their relatively similar variety of rock types.

Barnes’s chief argument against meteoritic origin appears to be that tektites
are so much more siliceous than even the most siliceous stony meteorite. When
one recalls the stubborn antagonism of scientific men to the acceptance of siderites
as having fallen from heaven, the opposition to glass meteorites loses some of its
force. In considering the occurrence of glass meteorites we should not forget
the Schonite of Hof Kalna, Sweden, nor the so-called “glass meteorites” recorded
by Brezina as having fallen in Halle, Saxony, in 1904, and at Igast, Livonia, in
1855. The Igast and Halle specimens are frequently quoted in tektile biblio-
graphics, and the evidence on record has never, so far as | know, been refuted.

Barnes says it is safe to predict that the analysis of any tektite yet analysed
may be duplicated by an analysis of a sedimentary rock. It is easy to believe this
interesting statement, but there is no evidence that the prediction would have any
important significance upon the problem of tektite origins. Barnes raises the
question of tektites of past geological ages. The known ones range from Miocene
to Recent. Speculations as to their existence in past geological epochs led me
to discuss the matter with Dr. L. J. Spencer, who mentioned the possibility of
destruction by devitrification. Barnes speaks of the truncation of external flow
structure as revealing the amount of material removed (? by terrestrial erosion),
and therefore the “age” of the specimen. The known facts concerning australites
show that the case is not so simple as this. There is evidence of two periods
involving the loss of material in australites during flight, or in some other pre-
terrestrial phase, with, in most cases, subsequent terrestrial erosion. ‘The results
of all three may be detected in thin sections by their truncating or bending effects
on the internal flow lines.

In concluding this section it is urged that, once the chemical and physical
characteristics of tektite groups have been determined by competent authorities,
showing that for any one regional group they are uniform within fairly narrow
limits, then we should direct our enquiries to the evidence presented by their
forms, sizes, external sculptures, internal structures, and distribution. So far as
forms are concerned, one is impressed by the recurrence of type-forms in the
larger collections of Moldavites at Prague and of Indo-Chinites at Paris in a way
that is not possible from seeing a few specimens only.

324

The present job before students, it seems to me, is tentatively to accept
tektites on the evidence of form, distribution, uniformity of composition, etc., as
being glass meteorites, and to devote attention to a study of the details of their
possible derivation and fall, so far as these may be revealed by physical examina-
tion and facts of. distribution. If, meantime, someone observes a tektite shower,
so much the better, but it surely requires more than normal scientific imertia to
assume that the only possible method of proof of meteoritic origin is to await the
observation of a fall.

li, on the other hand, evidence is brought forward against the meteoric
theory, it will be properly considered and evaluated. Of the multitude of theories
put up during more than a century of enquiry, the meteoric one stands alone in
the support it has received; the present evidence is, indecd, so much in favour of
the extra-terrestrial origin of tektites that in the opinion of many workers it just
falls short of proof.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIX

lam indebted for the photograph to the authorities of the South Australian Museum.
In this plate the specimens are shown natural size. They consist of a selection of:
(a) ten of the most typical specimens of the collection, (b) seventeen exceptional or
aberrant specimens, and (c) one Texan tektite from Professor Barnes’s collection. The
numbering is as follows:

1, flanged button; 2, lens; 3, broad oval; 4, narrow oval; 5, boat; 6, canoe. (Numbers
1-6 are average-sized specimens.)

7, lens core; 8, teadrop; 9, broad oval core; 10, dumbbell. (€7, 8, 9, and 10 are
larger than the average specimens.)

11, round indicator; 12 and 13, elongate indicators. (The three foregoing specimens
are cores in which portion of the original form remains, sufficient to indicate the original
shape and size.)

: 14, seed type; 15, pastv type; 16, exceptional, irregular, flanged button; 17, the end
of a curiously flow-ridged teardrop; 18 and 21, helmet forms: 19, exceptional small flanged
button, broken; 20, two-thirds of a button flange, detached; 22 and 27, small, scoop-like
forms, unbroken; 23, 24, 25, and 26, flat, tray-like forms; 28, Bediasite from Virgil Barnes.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1940 Vol. 64, Plate XIX

Typical Australite forms, Kennett Collection. Natural size.

THREE NEW SPECIES OF ISOCHAETOTHRIPS FROM AUSTRALIA

By H. VEVERS STEELE “’

Summary

Family THRIPIDAE Uzel
Subfamily THRIPINAE Karny
Genus ISOCHAETOTHRIPS Moulton

This genus, [sochactothrips, was erected by Moulton in 1928. He separated it from Taeniothrips
Uzel by the fully developed wings, in which both veins of the forewing have regularly spaced
spines. Physothrips seticollis Bagnall, 1915, is the type of the genus.

325
THREE NEW SPECIES OF ISOCHAETOTHRIPS FROM AUSTRALIA
By H. Vevers STeeve
[Read 8 August 1940]

Family THRIPIDAE Uzel
Subfamily THRIPINAE Warny

Genus IsocHarrorHrirs Moulton
This genus, /sachaetothrips, was erected by Moulton in 1928. He separated
it from Tueniothrips Uzel by the fully developed wings, in which both veins of
the forewing have regularly spaced spines. Phvsothrips seticollis Bagnall, 1915,
is the type of the genus.

Isochaetothrips frankstoni sp. n.

@ Length, 1160; width of mesothorax, 265. Colour—Yellow with
slight reddish subcuticlar colouration. The end of the mouth-cone, two longi-
tudinal bands on the mesoscutum, a spot on each side of abdominal segments III-
VII are tinged faintly with grey-brown. Abdominal segment X also tinged with
grey-brown. Spines on the head, pale yellow. Other spines and fringes, pale
greyish-brown. Fore-wings, pale yellowish-grey. [lind-wings, clear. Antennal
segments: 1, pale yellow; IIT and III, pale yellowish-grey; IV-VIII, grey;
III to VI, paler at the base. Ocellar crescents, red. Eyes, black. Legs, pale
yellow with tinge of brown on tarsi. Head—Length, 90 2; width, 150. Dorsal
surface (fig. | A): cuticle crossed by a few faint confluent transverse striac;
eyes, 51» long and 44, wide, not projecting; interocellar bristles, 5 long, are
between posterior ocelli; other bristles short and only visible under high power.
Ventral surface: the distance from the most anterior part of head to tip of
mouth cone, 206 »; two bristles posterior to each anteuna, inner 19% and outer
4: a bristle on each side anterior to the mouth cone, 22», Antennae (fig. 1B)
&-segmented; respective lengths of antennal segments, 23, 31, 39, 34, 27, 36,
7. 12. A forked sense cone is present on the dorsal surface of ITT and the
ventral surface of LV. Prothorar (fig. 1 A)—Dorsal surface: 110, long and
197 » wide; two bristles on each post-lateral angle of pronotum, outer 35 » and
inner 40 2; the posterior margin bears four short, fine bristles between the post-
lateral bristles and the median line, the median, 27 p. is the stoutest; short, fine
bristles scattered over pronotum as in fig. 1B. Pterethorar-—Three pairs of
short, fine bristles on posterior margin of mesoscutum; two pairs on mcta-
seutum [ (fig. 2A) placed about 12, posterior to anterior margin, a fine outer
pair 17, and a stout inner pair 394. Tegs with a few scattered fine bristles;
distal half of hind tibiae with a row of short spines on their inner margins. Fore-
tarsus without claw. Wings (fig. 2 B)—Fore-wing, 558 p long; anterior margin
bears 22-28 short spines 29 » long interspersed with longer, finer bristles ; anterior
vein bears 15-19 bristles 27 » long: posterior vein bears 14 bristles in all but one
specimen, in this there are 11 bristles; alula bears six bristles. A long fringe,
zbout 335. on the posterior margin. Abdamen (fig. 1C)—Dorsal surface:
tergite VIIT bears a comb containing about 16 tecth on posterior margin. Pass-
ing antero-posteriorly on segment LX, bristle | measures 26», IL 88 4, IT 80 p,
[V, 72 #3; segment X, bristle V 70 p, VI 66 p.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

326

é (specimen damaged). Length, 920 »; width of mesothorax, 118 ». Colour
—Paler than in female; antennal segments I and IT pale yellow, III and IV pale
grey-brown but paler at the base, V-VIII grey-brown. Mouth cone and tip of
tarsi tinged with grey-brown, Head—90, long and 136y wide; respective

Yow ra

fF *

Fig, 1
A-C, Isochaetothrips frankstoni n.sp—A, ¢, head and prothorax, dorsal; B, 9, antenna,
dorsal; C, @, abdomen, right dorsal and left ventral. D-E, I. pallidus n.sp—D, 9, head
and prothorax, dorsal; E, 9, abdomen, right dorsal and left ventral. F-G, I. melanurus,
n.sp.—F, 9, head and prothorax, dorsal; G, 9, abdomen, right dorsal and left ventral.

lengths of antennal segments, 19, 31, 36, 31, 29, 34, 7, 7p. Eyes 53 long and
48» wide. Prothorax-—-122 y» long and 180, wide. Wings—Fore-wing, 500
long; anterior margin bears 24 short bristles 12» long interspersed with longer,
finer bristles; anterior vein bears 16 bristles and posterior vein 13 bristles; alula

327

6 bristles. JIlind-wing normal. Pterethorax—Spines cn metascutum I placed
about 36 posterior to anterior margin. Abdemen—Dorsal surface (fig. 2D):
tergite IX bears some fine bristles and three pairs of long, strong bristles, I is
49 » long, 11 19 long, and IlT 22 long. ‘lergite X bears one pair of long,
strong curved bristles, VI 62 long, and some fine bristles. Ventral surface
(fig. 2C) has a faint transverse sole-shaped area on sterniles III to VI; posterior
margin of segment IX bears a strong curved bristle about 45» on each side of
NaN NY re om
QOQQaAMssSEs=" Ley +

_— aie

004
y

Ht i

i
\

Fig. 2
A-D, Isochaetothrips frankstoni n.sp-—A, 9, metascutum I; B, 9, forewing; C, ¢,
third abdominal segment, ventral; D, ¢, end of abdomen, dorsal, E-F, I. pallidus, n. sp.
—E, 9, forewing; fF, 29, metascutum. G-H, I. melanurus, u.sp.—G, ¢@, forewing; H,
g, end of abdomen, dorsal.

median line and two near cach lateral margin, outer 32 and inner 41 yp. Seg-
ment X bears a strong bristle, 62 » long, on post-lateral angle.

ffabitat—The specimens were collectedl from Acacia sp. at Frankston, Vie-
toria, by Mr. FI. G. Andrewartha on 16 May 1935.

The description was made from eight ¢@ and one @, the latter damaged.
The @ syutypes and the ¢ allotype have been deposited in the South Australian
Muscum.

328

Isochaetothrips pallidus sp. n.

@ Length, 800%; width of mesothorax, 195. Colour—Pale yellow.
Head yellow, tinged with grey. Mouth cone tipped with brown. Antennal seg-
ments I and II almost colourless to pale greyish-yellow, Il clouded with brownish-
grey at distal end, IIJ-VIII brownish-grey. Eyes reddish-black; ocellar crescents
same colour as head and scarcely visible. Fore-wings pale yellow, hind-wings
colourless, fringes yellow. Legs yellow, tarsi tinged with brown at distal end;
spines greyish. Head—Length, 86; width, 132. Dorsal surface (fig. 1D):
cheeks straight; eyes 49 » long and 44, wide, not projecting; cuticle crossed by
faint confluent transverse striae; ocellar crescents scarcely visible; inter-ocellar
bristles 9 » at the posterior median border of each posterior ocellus; sce fig. 1 D
for placing of small bristles. Ventral surface: two pairs of bristles between the
eyes, anterior median pair 19 and posterior lateral pair 13 y, the latter placed
about 39 posterior to anterior-median corner of eye. Two pairs of bristles
posterior to the mouth cone. Length from anterior part of head to tip of mouth
cone 1/0». Antennae 8-segmented; respective lengths of antennal segments, 21,
29, 33, 25, 27, 37, 5, 9». A curved sense cone is present on the dorsal surface
of IlT and the ventral surface of 1V, Prothorax—Dorsal surface (fig. 1D):
Length, 112”; width, 1544. Two strong bristles on each post-lateral angle.
outer 26» and inner 31. A small fine bristle between these two, three strong
short bristles between post-lateral bristles and median line on posterior margin.
Pierothorax—Four pairs of short fine bristles on posterior border of meso-
sculum ; two pairs on metascutum I (fig. 2F) 12 from the anterior margin, fine
outer bristle 17 p, strong inner bristle 27 ». Legs with scattered fine hairs. Lateral
border of hind tarsi I bears a short spine at the base. Tarsi II bears a hook.
Wings (fig. 2E)—Fore-wing 430, long; anterior margin bears 16-20 bristles
27 » long, interspersed with about 12 longer finer bristles; anterior vein bears
13-16 bristles; posterior vein bears 7-9 bristles, alula 35. Hind-wing normal.
Abdomen (fig. 1 E, dorsal and ventral). —Dorsal; tergite VIII bears a sparse
comb containing about 13 teeth 11% long. Tergite IX bears two strong bristles
on posterior margin. Outer 74 long and inner 70» long. Segment X on each
side bears two strong bristles, outer 45 » and inner 54 p.

Habitat—This description was made from three females collected from
Cassinia longifolia by H. V. Steele at Kalorama, Victoria, 28 September 1932.
The syntypes are deposited in the South Australian Museum,

Isochaetothrips melanurus sp. n.

@ Length, 1039; width of mesothorax, 242. Colour—llead yellow,
tinged with pink; thorax and abdomen bright yellow; posterior half of tenth
abdominal segment brown. legs yellow, tip of tarsi tinged with brown. Fore-
wings pale greyish-yellow, and hind-wings yellowish. Eyes black: ocellar
crescents red, Antennal segments: | pale greyish-yellow, II-VIII yellowish-
brown, II-V pale at base, IL sometimes darker than IIT and 1V. Spines and
fringes brownish-yellow. Spines on abdominal segment JX and X_ brown.
Head—Length 95», width 153. Dorsal surface (fig. 1): checks straight ;
cuticle crossed by faint confluent transverse striae, a well-marked ocellar area;
eyes 54 long and 41 » wide, not projecting, inner angle rounded. Minute inter-
ocellar bristles on median edge of each posterior acellar crescent, Small bristles
as in fig. 1 F. Ventral surface: distance from anterior part of head to tip of
mouth cone 179. Two bristles posterior to base of each antenna, inner 27 p
and outer 27. A long bristle at post-median corner of eye, 31 pw. There

329

are two bristles on each side anterior to mouth cone. Antennae 8-seg-
mented; respective lengths of antennal segments, 24, 34, 41, 36, 28, 36, 7, 10 p.
A forked sense cone is present on dorsal surface of III and ventral surface of 1V.
Prothorax —Length, 109»; width, 180). Dorsal surface (fig. 1 T°), two strong
bristles on each post-lateral angle, inner 39 p, outer 29»; four short bristles on the
posterior margin on each side of median line, the median is the longest, 14 yp;
short fine bristles scattered over the pronotum, as in figure. Pterothorax—Threc
pairs of fine bristles on mesoscutum; two pairs just posterior to the anterior
margin on metascutum I, outer 22 and inner 39. Legs with scattered short,
fine hairs. Tarsi of hind leg bear spines stronger than in /sochaelothrips frankstont
and pallidus, Distal half of hind tibia with a row of short spines on its inner
margin, Fore-tarsi without claws. Wings (fig. 2G)—Fore-wing 640» long;
anterior margin bears 26 short bristles interspersed with longer finer bristles,
anterior vein with 20-22 bristles 244 long and posterior vein 13-14 bristles,
alula 6 bristles. Ilind-wing normal. Abdomen (dorsal and ventral surfaces,
fig. 1 G)—-Last segments of abdomen and the ovipositor elongated and, theretore,
the posterior part of the abdomen is more pointed than in Isochaetothrips
frankstoni and pallidus. Tergite VIII bears a sparse comb; two strong bristles
on posterior border of tergite IX, outer 70 » and inner 61 » long; a strong bristle
on tergite X, 56 long.

é Length—826 » long, width of mesothorax 218 ~. Colour—Same as in
the female, except that the posterior part of the abdomen is yellow and antennac
paler in colour. Head—Length 87 p, width 142 », respective lengths of antennal
segments, 19, 32, 39, 34, 27, 36, 5, 10,2 Prothorax—Length 107 p, width 161 p.
length of posterior lateral bristles, outer 29 » and inner 354, median 18 p. Wings
—Anterior border bears 24-27 short bristles interspersed by longer finer bristles ;
anterior vein bears 19-20 bristles and posterior vein 14 bristles, alula 6 bristles.
Hind-wing normal. Abdomen (dorsal surface, fig. 2 H)—-Tergite VIII bears a
sparse comb; tergite IX bears two short, strong bristles near the median line,
inner 24 » and outer 12», also a strong bristle on post-lateral angle 54 »; tergite X
bears short bristles near median line 17 », and long, strong bristles on post-lateral
angles 73». Ventral surface: sternite [X bears two long curved bristles on each
side near posterior margin, one near median line 44 4 and one near lateral margin
39 pw: sternite X bears one strong bristle on post-lateral margin 63 p long.

Habitat—This species was collected from Acacia dealbata by IH, V. Steele
13 September 1933, at Kalorama Victoria.

The description was made from four @ and three ¢. The syniypes were
deposited in the South Australian Museum.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author desires to thank the Director and Mr. If. Womersley, of the
South Australian Museum, for facilities to do this work, as well as advice

throughout the work; also the Director of the Melbourne Museum for the loan
of the Kelly collection.

A NEW TERMITOPHILOUS COLLEMBOLAN FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By H. WOMERSLEY, South Australian Museum

Summary

In 1934 1 described a new genus and species of Collembola, /sotobrya wheeleri found in the nests
of termites under tones at Mullewa, Western Australia. It has not since been seen, but recently my
elder son has collected the following second species of the genus, again from the nests of termites,
on Mount Sugarloaf at Burra, South Australia.

380
A NEW TERMITOPHILOUS COLLEMBOLAN FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By H. Womerstey, South Australian Museum
{Read 8 August 1940]

In 1934 I described a new genus and species of Collembola, /setebrya
qheeleri found in the nests of termites under stones at Mullewa, Western Aus-
tralia. It has not since been seen, but recently my elder son has collected the
following second species of the genus, again fron: the nests of termites, on Mount
Sugarloaf at Burra, South Australia.

The genus seems, therefore, to he definitely associated with termites, but in
both cases the specimens are rare. From Mullewa, although about four or five
specimens were secn, only two were captured. At Burra, in spite of examining
many hundreds of nests, about a dozen specimens only are available for study.

Tsotobrya burraensis n. sp.

Description—Length, to 3mm. Colour entirely deep blue-black, antennae
and eye-patches black, legs blue except tibiotarsi which are white, furca blue

Tig. a-b

except mucrodens which are white. Ocelli, eight on each side. Antennae nearly
four times as long as head diagonal; ratio of segments: 15:20: 20:30, 1V with
apical exsertile knob. Ratio of dorsal lengths .of thoracic and abdominal seg-

ments: th. Il: lll:abd 1:17:11: 1V: V: VI = 24: 17:12:17:15:45:11:4. Legs
normal, tibiotarsi (fig. a) with only a single very stout twisted spathulate tenent
hair; claws with a pair of inner basal teeth to one-third and a pair of outer lateral
basal teeth; empodium as figured, short, almost stump-like. Furea normal, reach-
ing middle of abdomen II; mucro short (fig. b), faleiform with inner basal
lamella, without spine.

Clothing of short setae, with longer ciliated setae, somewhat clavate on the
head and thoracic segments; these latter setae up to 300 » long.

Habitat—Rare, in nests of termites, Mount Sugarloaf, Burra, South Aus-
tralia, May to August 1940 (J. S. W.).

Remarks—This species is closely related to the genotype, J. wheeleri, the
essential difference being in the dentition of the claws and in there being only a
single thick spathulate tibiotarsal tenent hair, as compared with four slenderer
ones in the genotype.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER
MOLLUSCS PART VII

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and L. MADELINE ANGEL, University of Adelaide.

Summary

Cercaria (Furcocercaria) trichofurcata n. sp.

Though several hundreds of the bivalve Corbiculina angasi (Prime) from the lower Murray River at
Tailem Bend had been under observation prior to 7 February 1940, cercarial infection had not been
detected. On that date, one specimen of the 243 collected was found to be giving off a large fork-
tailed cercaria of a type quite new to us. It was seen subsequently in one of 840 on 26 February
1940, one of 289 on 8 March 1940, and in one of 70 on 1 May 1940. Even to the naked eye it
appeared distinct from other furcocercariae observed by us. For a second or two the cercaria swims
upwards rapidly, and then comes to rest with the body spherical and suspended by the furcae which
form an angle of about 140° with each other, while the tail stem is vertical. In this resting state the
spherical form of the body is more obvious than is usual with furcocercariae. From this position it
sinks slowly until it is nearly at the bottom of the tube, when it swims upwards again. Examined
under a cover-slip, the cercaria may draw up one of the furcae into a position more or less parallel
with the main tail stem; both the furcae may become curved upwards and inwards so that the
organism has somewhat the appearance of an anchor (fig. 5); or the body may be bent over to lie on
the tail stem.

331

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS
PART VII

By T. Harvey Jonnston and 1. MApELINE Ance, University of Adelaide
[Read 8 August 1940]

Cercaria (Furcocercaria) trichofurcata n. sp.

‘Though several hundreds of the bivalve Corbiculina angasi (Prime) trom
the lower Murray River at ‘Tailem Bend had been under observation prior to
7 February 1940, cercarial infection had not been detected. On that date, one
specimen of the 243 collected was found to be giving off a large fork-tailed
cercaria of a type quite new to us. It was seen subsequently in one of 840 on
26 February 1940, one of 289 on 8 March 1940, and in one of 70 on 1 May 1940,
Even to the naked eye it appeared distinct from other furcocercariac observed
by us. lor a second or two the cercaria swims upwards rapidly, and then comes
to rest with the body spherical and suspended by the furcae which form an angle
of about 140° with:each other, while the tail stem 1s vertical, In this resting state
the spherical form of the body is more obvious than is usual with furcocercariae.
From this position it sinks slowly until it is nearly at the bottom of the tube, when
it swims upwards again. Examined under a cover-slip, the cercaria may draw
up one of the fureae into a position more or less parallel with the main tail stem;
both the furcae may become curved upwards and inwards so that the organism
has somewhat the appearance of an anchor (fig. 5); or the body may be bent over
to lie on the tail stem.

In formalinised material the body was slightly curved, but was casily flat-
tened with the slight pressure of a cover-slip. The measurements of such
specimens are: body, 276-384 » long by 175-192 » wide (average, 314 by 1844);
tail stem, 267-301 « by 63-71 » (average, 284 by 67 2); furcae, 234-284» by
33-42 p. (average, 250 by 384); sucker ratio, oral:ventral = 6:7.

Of the stains used intravitam, orange G was the best. Neutral red, and the
use of nile blue sulphate after neutral red, were also satisfactory. For permanent
preparations, alum carmine gave the best results.

The tail stem is long, with furcae of approximately the same length as the
main stem. ‘Che most noticeable iecature of the cercaria is the presence of many
long stout hairs or bristles on the tail, arranged on either side of the main stem.
These are longest near the body of the animal (where the greatest length was
125 »), and gradually diminish in size as they approach the junction of the furcae.
Towards the distal end of the tail stem, on cither side of the midline on the dorsal
surface, is a collection of nine or ten finer, shorter hairs. On vhe furcae therm-
selves, the setae are finer, shorter, anc. more hair-like, and are arranged differently ;
there are two rows which, instead of being placed laterally, take a somewhat
oblique course on the dorsal and ventral surfaces respectively, the rows terminat-
ing near the tip of the corresponding furca. The two rows euding together give
the appearance of a bunch of longer setae arising from the tip of the furca—the
other setae being necessarily less obvious because of their dorsal and ventral
positions. A third row, shorter in length, and composed of still smaller setac,
commences on the inner side near the junction of the two furcae; it is not quite
lateral, and the hairs are directed slightly backwards. In mounted specimens the
edges of the tail stem are nearly always folded over, dorsally and ventrally respec-
tively, so that the setae appear at first sight to arise near the midline. This may

Trans. Roy. Soc. §.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

332

indicate that, in swimming, the tail is twisted slightly. T.ongitudinal and trans-
verse muscle fibres are present in the tail, and from the base of each “bristle” a
small number of fibres radiate out te terminate around the main excretory canal
(fig. 2). No caudal bodies were seen.

The body of the cercaria is beset with very small spines, regularly arranged.
Near the posterior end of the body are two locomotor processes, situated dorsally

i Od Oe mm

Figs. 1-7
Cercaria trichofurcala, Fig. 1, sporacyst with escaping cercaria; 2, 3, cercaria,
anatomy; 4, cercaria, resting position; 5, 6, cercaria at rest, under coverslip;
7, genital system. Figs, 4, 5, 6, to same scale.

a, ventral sucker; act, anterior collecting tubule; b, brain; cg, cutaneous glands;

eb, excretory bladder; ep, excretory pore; gp, genital pore; gr, genital rudiment;

Ip, locomotor process; 0, ovary; pct, posterior collecting tubule; sdr, sex duct
rudiment; t, testis; u, uterus; vd, vas deferens; vs, vesicula seminalis.

333

and projecting slightly, They have a definite cellular structure whicli stains
deeply with neutral red, as well as with haematoxylin and other permanent stains.
The stirface is roughened.

There is a pronounced acetabulum which is slightly larger than the oral
sucker, and is beset with tiny papilla-hke elevations.

Eye-spots and prepharynx are absent. The pronounced muscular pharynx
is succeeded by a very short oesophagus. The intestinal crura extend well back
towards the posterior end of the body. Muscle fibres pass from the lower end
of cach crus to the base of the body, on either side of the origin of the tail.

The gland cells seem to be arranged in two groups on each side, and lie at
the hinder level of the pharynx, the inner group reaching the point of bifurca-
tion of the intestinal crura, while the onter group does not extend so far. The
inner group is perhaps composed of an anterior dorsal and a posterior ventral
group. The cells themselves are small, and number eight, or probably more, to
each group. They stain with neutral red used intravitam, but in formalinised
specimens do not take up chlorazol black, showing that they have no glycogen.
The ducts of the cells pass laterally to the anterior border of the oral sucker.

The excretory bladder is relatively very large, the hinder part occupying the
greater portion of the posterior end of the body. It is bifurcated, and the two
arms narrow as they pass laterally to the acetabulum, and then broaden out again
towards their termination near the posterior level of the pharynx. On cach side
there are five flame cells in the posterior, and five in the anterior, half of the
body. At the junction of the posterior and anterior collecting tubules is a small
dilatation. Ciltary patches were seen only where each main collecting tube joined
the bladder. The bladder continues into the tail as a wide channel occupying
about half the diameter, and terminating close to the tip of each [furea, In
mounted specimens the portion of the bladder in the tail may appear only as a
natrow tube. There are no flame cells in the tail.

Staining with orange G, as well as with nile blue sulphate following neutral
red, showed a band of nervous tissue just behind the pharynx and a nerve cord
extending from it down each side of the body near the corresponding crus almost
to the posterior end.

The reproductive rudiments of C. trichofurcata have attained considerable
differentiation. Near the anterior border of the acetabulum are iwo small rounded
masses of cells lying at approximately the same level. These apparently are the
testes, Anterior to the acetabulum, and median, ts a thickened mass of cells,
the future cirrus sac, which communicates with the ventral surface by an obvious
genital pore. From this region a thick cord of cells, the uterus, twists postcriorly
and becomes no longer recognisable just behind the testes. The ovary is repre-
sented by one or more small compact masses lying near the coils of the uterus
immediately posterior to the cirrus sac. From each testis a faintly discernible
cord of cells passes across ventrally to the uterus, and the anlagen of the common
duct can be seen, anterior to the ovary, passing to the cirrus sac. On each side
a very fine structure, presumably the rudiment of the vitelline duct, has its origin
in the region of the intestinal crus, then crosses just in front of the correspond-
ing testis, and becomes unrecognisable in the ovarian region.

‘The numerous, branching, dark grey sporocysts are scattered throughout
the body of the mollusc, occurring in the gills, liver and reproductive gland. They
vary a good deal in size, fig. 1 being taken from one of medium size. Because
of opacity due to abundance of tiny globules, the contained cercariae can be seen
only when pressure is put on the cover-slip, Even then the suckers were the only
feature seen clearly.

334

In the search for the secondary intermediate host of C. lvichofurcata, nega-
tive results were obtained after subjecting the following animals to infection:
tadpole, Lymnodynastes sp.; leech, Glossiphonia sp.; yabby, Cherax destructor
Clark; freshwater umphipods, Chiltonia subtenuis (Sayee); mosquito larvac;
chironomid larvae; larvae of the fly, Lristalis tenaxr; water bugs, Agraptocortra
curyneme (Kirkaldy); gastropods, Plotiopsiy tate: and Ameria pyramidata,;
Jamellibranchs, Hyridella australis and Corbiculina angast; Tubifex sp.3
as well as the fish, Gambusia affinis and Carassius auratus. We observed
cercariae bemg eaten by Gambusia and Cheraxy. After a number ol
Corbiculine and some Hyridella had been left over-night in a dish containing oue
of the former infected with C. lrichofurcala, five of the Corbiculina and one
Hvyridella appeared to be giving off cercariae. That is to say, when these molluses
were isolated in tubes containing fresh water, several cercariac appeared in each
tube. Since these particular molluscs were subsequently found (by dissection)
to be uninfected, it appears that they must have been harbouring the cercariac,
probably in the mantle cavities, This also affords additional evidence that
Hyridella and Corbiculina do not act as secondary intermediate hosts.

Cercaria trichofurcata does not belong to the Strigeoidea, as at present
defined. It is not a Schistosome, because of the well-developed pharynx, and it
is not a Strigeid because of the position of the genital pore anteriorly to the
acetabulum. Miller (1926, 69) states that it ts only the apharyngeal brevifurcata
monostome group of furcocercariae in which flame cells are absent in the tail,
but C. trichofurcata, which also has no flame cells in the tail, obviously does not
belong to that group. A number of furcocercariae have been described as
possessing “tactile hairs” or “scattered spines,” or as having a “spiny tail,’ but
none of them is suggestive of C. trichofurcala with its long, stout, densely placed
tail spines. The possession of locomotor processes in this cercaria is also an
outstanding character.

‘The general anatomy of C. trichofurcata resembles that of Tandanicolu
bancrofti Johnston, 1927, from the swim-bladder of the freshwater catfish
Tandanus tandanus Mitchell, in the relative sizes of the suckers, the form of the
excretory bladder, the absence of a prepharynx, the general form of the
alimentary system, the bilateral arrangement of the testes with the ovary median
and in advance of the former, the position of the testes in relation to the anterior
border af the acetabulum, and in the position of the genital pore anteriorly to
the acetabulum. The resemblance is so close that we think it likely that Tandani-
cola is the adult stage of the cercaria,

The fact that all endeavours to trace the secondary intermediate host of the
cerearia have been unsuccessful, combined with the relatively advanced develop-
ment of the reproductive system in the cerearia, may suggest that the cyst stage
is omitted in the life cycle, and that infection of the fish occurs by direct penetra-
tion of the cerearia, possibly through the gills or even by the alimentary canal,

Cercaria (Furcocercaria) tatei n. sp.

Cercaria tatei, a parasite of Plotiopsis tater (Brazier). at Tailem Bend.
Lower Murray River, was first discovered in April 1939, when one of 287
specimens of the gastropod was infected with it. This molluscan species was not
examined again until last February, when two of 535 specimens were observed
to be infected, Of these, one continued to give off cercariae for a little more than
two months, On 1 May 1940, one of 132 specimens collected was parasitised hy
it. ‘his snail exhibited double infection, C, plotiopsis Johnston and Simpson 1939,
a Heterophyid, also being present.

Figs, 8-15
Cercaria tatei, Fig. 8, sporocyst; 9, metacercaria, stained and somewhat flattened;
10, cyst, partly under pressure; 11, cercaria in resting position: 12, cercaria,
living, compressed; 13, cercaria formalinised with boiling 10% formalin (note
difference in size from fig. 12, which is of living cercaria); 14, gland cells of
cercaria: 15, anterior portion of excretory system of cercaria showing modifica-
tion seen in two specimens, Fig: 8, 10, to same scale; fig. 12, 13, 15,

336

The cercaria swims tail first for a few seconds and then hangs suspended
by the furcae with the body bent to form an angle with the tail stem, and the
furcae with an angle of less than 90° between ther. The resting stage is long
(up to 27 seconds, though often only from three to eight seconds), and during
this period the cerearia gradually sinks towards the bottom, It swims upwardly,
and at times laterally also, ‘There was no evidence of either positive or negative
reaction to light. Specimens were observed to remain alive for at least 72 hours,
Looss recorded that C. vivax Sonsino lived more than two days (Wesenberg-
lund, 1934, 159).

For the measurements, an average of ten formalinised specimens was taken:
body length, 200» (range, 184-242 »); breadth, 117 « (range, 108-125 ») ; length
of tail stem, 401 » (range, 384-417 p) ; breadth of tail stem, 50 » (range, 46-54 «) ;
length of fureae, 301» (range, 284-317); breadth of furcae, 27 (range,
25-33 w). A great disparity of size was noticeable between extended living and
formalinised specimens (fig. 12, 13). On the body are rather widely separated
rows of extremely minute spinules, giving the surface, especially in the region
around the base of the tail, a punctate appearance,

The tail does not arise from the posterior border of the body, but at some
distance from it on the dorsal surface, in this respect differing from Miller’s
classification of longifurcate larvae (Miller, 1925, 63), The long tail stem is
about twice the length of the body, and the ratio of stem to furca is 4:3, The
stem is simple, but the furcae each bear a fin-fold arising below the junction of
the two furcae and continuous around the tip to a corresponding level on the
outer side, Tine striations traverse the fin-fold obliquely and directed towards
the tip. The furcae arise separately from the main stem,

There are numerous small pale green cells in the tail—about twelve across
the diameter—some of them being apparently stalked These cells stain deeply
with methylene blue (intravitam), and are probably myoblasts, Several of
these cells, situated near the central canal, were seen to be swinging
like pendulums, each from a narrow’ transparent © stalk. Wesenberg-
Lund (1934, 132) states that in Cercaria No. 4 of Petersen “the excretory
tube has an irregular coating of parenchymatous cells.” and that he “often
saw this string, the excretory tube with its coating of cells, lifted up towards the
anterior part of the tail by means of the oblique longitudinal muscles, and again
lowered to the posterior part.”

The musculature of the tail is complex. There is a series of comparatively
mussive oblique fibrils arising from the lateral borders and apparently terminating
around the central canal of the tail. The transverse fibres are very fine, and the
longitudinal series can be seen only in the central part of the tail, though these
fibres are probably present throughout.

‘The anterior organ measures about 42x 3ly. ‘The anterior half is beset
with about 14 rows of small spines. The mouth opens terminally through the
anterior organ into the pharynx immediately below the latter, there being no
prepharynx. The narrow oesophagus soon bifureates into broad intestinal crura
which have a somewhat spiral course, forming, typically, four more or less regular
bends, and extending almost to the posterior end of the body. The intestine
stains vividly with neutral red. Its walls are formed of large epithelial cells, as
described by Faust (1922, 257) for C. leptoderma, but in C. tatei the outlines of
the cells are distinct, and, in addition, the nuclei are large.

The ventral sucker is apparently represented by a small rounded
parenchymatous mass of cells situated medially in the posterior half of the body.

337

The gland cells are not at all obvious, and can be seen only with careful
study. Intravitam stains were used, but were not taken up by them. After
treatment with neutral red, however, the cells became visible, although they were
not coloured. The nuclei were not seen except in one or two of the cells of the
most anterior group, and the shape of the cells could not be determined, since
the margins were indefinite. In fact, the only indications of their presence were
the finely granular nature of the protoplasm, and the ducts opening anteriorly.
On either side of the midline and extending to the posterior border of the anterior
organ is a group of four gland cells, the ducts of which pass laterally and
terminate near the midline anteriorly. Behind the anterior organ is a mass of
cells which appears to have no very regular arrangement, They extend down the
sides of the pharynx and are then scattered across to the sides of the body, where
they extend posteriorly as far as the level of the end of the oesophagus. They
are too many, or too indefinite, to be counted, Intravitam staining also showed,
distributed throughout the body, a number of cells in which there was a coarser
granulation than in the gland cells. It was considered that they were probably
not themselves gland cells.

Around the lateral borders of the body are a number of cttancous glands,
of comparatively uniform diameter throughout, These lie just below the ventral
surface, and take a slightly curved course before they terminate on the latter by
a narrow opening. There are 50 or 60 of these around the margin of the body,
and a few throughout the ventral surtace. These cutaneous glands can some-
times be seen in living specimens, but show up most clearly in those stained with
chlorazol black, the glands appearing dark grey. Structures similar to these were
recorded by Lutz (1933, 366-7) for Dicranocercaria utriculata, Wesenberg-
Lund (1934, 132; pl. xxix, fig. 2) recorded for Cercarta No, 4 of Petersen
“a series of 12-15 bright, clear bodies with a dark point along the borders of the
body,” and stated that he was “quite ignorant of their function.”

In describing the encystment of C. vivax Sonsino, Azim (1933, 433) men-
tioned “cystogenic glands, previously described as cutancous glands by Looss.”
We have not had access to this paper of Looss’, but it seems probable that the
structures mentioned by these four authors are similar to those which we have
called cutaneous glands in C. fatei, and that these are, in reality, cystogenous
glands.

The small body of the excretory bladder lies immediately anterior to the
origin of the tail, the pore opening dorsally in this position, ‘The comparatively
narrow inner arms of the bladder pass upwards in the intercrural region. Just
above the ventral sucker they unite into a single tube which passes forwards to a
point immediately posterior to the origin of the intestinal caeca, where it
bifurcates. Each tube so formed takes a wide swing laterally, and passes back
along the outside of the crus to open into the bladder again. Where each tube
lies above the corresponding crus, it gives off, anteriorly, an extremely short
branch which soon divides into two short widely separated blindly ending arms.
‘The intercrural parts of the excretory system, together with these arms, contain
small refracting granules which are absent from the extracrural arms of the
bladder. The main collecting tube joins the lateral arm at the level of the first
intestinal bend, and passes back to the level of the mid-intestinal length where it
bifurcates into an anterior arid a posterior collecting tubule. There are 15 flame
cells on cach side of the body, nine to each anterior, and six to each posterior
tubule. These are arranged in groups of three. A branch of the bladder extends
into the tail. terminating near the tip of cach furca, An island of Cort is present.
Two collecting tubes in the tail extend far back inte the main stem, and each

338

receives the ducts of three flame cells. The connection of these tubes with the
main system was not definitely determined, but it is thought that they connect
with the posterior collecting tubes of the body, and, if this is the case, the flame
cell formula would be 2 (9+ 9) rather than 2 (9+ 6-+ 3).

Sporocysts occur in the mantle cavity of the mollusc. They are long and
narrow, and at regular intervals there are pronounced muscle bands which give
rise to projections on the surface, so that the structure has the general appear-
ance of a tapeworm. Between the muscle bands the wall contains a number of
finer circular muscular fibres and very minute fat globules. Each sporocyst con-
tains cercariae as well as germ balls which may be oval or round, exhibiting early
segmenting and later stages. All of these move freely in the sporocyst as it ‘under
goes muscular contraction and expansion. At one end (? anterior) of the
sporocyst is a pointed cap of cells, the nuclei of which are a prominent icature in
stained preparations.

The genital rudiment lies just above the origin of the tail and near the
posterior border of the body. It is more ventral anteriorly, and then curves
posteriorly and dorsally to terminate near the excretory pore,

Negative restlts were obtained when experimental infections with the
cercariae were attempted using the molluscs Ameria pyrantidata and pectorosa,
Planorbis isingi, Plotiopsis tatet, Corbiculina angast, the tadpole, Limnodynastes
sp., the leech, Glossiphonia sp., and the yabby, Cherax destructor. Flowever, the
cercariae were found to encyst in the muscles and body cavity of the fish Gam-
busia affints. These cysts conformed to the descriptions given by other workers
for related cercariae (Azim, 1933, for C. wiwasxr Sonsino; Szidat, 1933, for
C. moanostomi viviparae) in that the enclosed metacercaria was an apparently
structurcless mass containing numerous small fatty globules with some larger ones
(fig. 10). The fish had been subjected to infection for nearly six w ceks (from
March to May), and the cysts were consequently at different stages. Of these,
the smallest were from 250 to 280 » in diameter; the cyst wall was quite thin, and
the cercaria occupied almost the whole of the cy ‘st. The next group ranged from
300 to 330 », and in these the cyst wall was thicker, and the metacercaria occupied
only about halt the cyst. In what was apparently the most mature group rhe cyst
wall was thick and the metacercaria very dark. Similar pigmentation was noted by
Azim (1933, 433) who stated that in the metacerearia of C. vivax Sonsino black
pigment began to be deposited about ten days after encystment, and that this con-
tmued until “a deep black figure” was formed inside the cyst, These mature
cysts of C. tatet ranged from 384 to 418%. Some of the metacercariae were
released from these cysts, but it was impossible to distinguish any structure in them
until after staining, which showed that there was some differentiation. Another
Gambusia subjected to infection for about 25 days yielded over 50 unpigmented
cysts about 267 x 284 uw, the apparently structureless metacercaria occupying the
whole or part of the cyst. Careful examination revealed the presence of an
anterior organ, pharynx, and intestinal crura, and at least one flame cell'was secn.
When these metacercariae were stained a large depression on one surface was
revealed. At the posterior end of this depression was a rounded structure with
thick muscular edges; this is probably the developing tribocytic organ. A ventral
sucker and genital rudiments were present but did not exhibit any advance on
their state of development as secn in the cercaria, The oesophagus was rather
long and narrow, and the crura wide.

A Gambusia affnis containing a number of cysts of C. tated was fed to a rat
on 23 May 1940. The faeces of the latter were examined several times, with
negative results, It was killed on 19 June, but no trematodes were found.

339

The specific name is given as a tribute to Professor Ralph Tate.

Of the cercariae described by Sewell (1922), Wesenberg-Lund (1934),
Szidat (1933), Tubangui (1928), Lutz (1933), Faust (1922, 1926, 1930), and
others, as being related to C. vivax, C. leptederma Faust (1922) is the only one
possessing the same number of flame cells as C. fatei, but in other respects the
two forms show marked differences, In C, leptoderma each group of three flame
cells is described as having its own collecting tube, so that there are six pairs of
sccondary tubules, while in C. fafet the groups of three open (as far as we were
able to observe) into the anterior or posterior collecting tubules as the case may
be. The “secondary tubules” open into the “main collecting tubules” midway
along the course of the latter in C. leptoderma, whereas in C. talei the junction
is more anterior. There is no X-shaped extension of the “main collecting tubules”
anteriorly in C. leptedermea, The latter is brevifurcate, has gland cells differen-
tiated into two kinds, has differently-shaped intestinal caeca, and is devoid of a
ventral sucker, while the presence of a fin-fold is not mentioned. Its sporocysts
occur in the liver; of C. tafei in the mantle cavity of the host.

C, tatet appears to be closely related to C. vivax (Looss, 1896), but un-
fortunately the number of flame cells in the body is not recorded for the latter.
‘The two forms agree in the presence of a ventral sucker and of three pairs of
flame cells in the tail. The cercariae are found in closely related gastropods
(C. vivax in Cleopatra bulimoides Jick and Melanopsis praemorsa Linn., and
C. tatei in Plotiopsis tatet), and the metacercariae occur in fish (Gambusia affinis).

Azim (1933, 433) has shown that C. vivax is the larval form of Pro-
hemistomum spinulosum (= P, vivax) and other related cercariac have also been
shown to belong to the Cyathocotylidae. The metacercaria of C, fatet appears
to us to be closely related to the genera Cyathocotyle and Cyathocotyloides. We
expect that the adult of C. tatei will be found in a fish- -eating bird that frequents
the River Murray region.

‘This series of investigations has been made possible by the Commonwealth
Government’s research grant to the Adelaide Universtty; and by assistance,
generously given, by Messrs. G. and I. Jaensch, of Tailem Bend.

LATERATURE

Azim, M. A. 1933 Z. £. Parasitenk., 5, 432-436

Dunois, G. 1938 Mem. Soc. Neuchat. Sci, Nat., 6, 535 pp.

Faust, E. C. 1922 Parasitol., 14, 255-257

Faust, E, C. 1926 Parasitol., 18, 105

Faust, E. C. 1930 Parasitol., 22, 122-3

Jounsron, T. H, 1927 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 51, 133-136

ILooss, A. 1896 Mem. Inst., Egypt, 3, 1-252

Lurz, A. 1933 Mem. Insti., Osw. Cruz., 27, 349-402

Mitrer, H. M. 1926 Ill. Biol. Monogr., 10, 112 pp.

Sewett, R. B.S. 1922 Ind. Journ. Med. Res., 10, Suppl., 370 pp.

Szipat, L. 1933 Z. {. Parasitenk., 5, 443-459

Tupancur, M. A. 1928 Dhilipp. Journ, Sei, 36, 37-54

SOME NEMATODES PARASITIC IN AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER FISH

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and PATRICIA M. MAWSON, University of Adelaide.

Summary

The present investigation was undertaken as part of a study of the parasitology of the fauna of the
lower River Murray swamps, especially at Tailem Bend, where we have been most generously
assisted for several years past by Messrs. G and F. Jaensch. Some of our material has been obtained
at Murray Bridge and Swan Reach; part of it was collected many years ago at Eidvold, Upper
Burnett River, Queensland, by the late Dr. T. L. Bancroft and his daughter, Dr. M. J. Bancroft (Mrs
Mackerras). We have also examined a small collection belonging to the Australian Museum,
Sydney, and placed in our hand by its Director, Dr. C. Anderson, who collected some of it. We also
acknowledge gratefully the assistance rendered through the Commonwealth Research Grant to the
University of Adelaide

340

SOME NEMATODES PARASITIC IN AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER FISH
By T. Harvey Jounston and Parricis Mawson, University of Adelaide

[Read 12 September 1940]

The present investigation was undertaken as part of a study of the para-
sitology of the fauna of the Lower River Murray swamps, especially at Tailem
Bend, where we have been most generously assisted for several years past by
Messrs. G. and F. Jaensch. Some of our material has been obtained at Murray
Bridge and Swan Reach; part of it was collected many years ago at Eidsvold,
Upper Burnett River, Queensland, by the late Dr. T. L. Bancroft and his
daughter, Dr. M. J. Bancroft (Mrs. Mackerras). We have also examined a
small collection belonging to the Australian Museum, Sydney, and placed in our
hands by its Director, Dr. C. Anderson, who collected some of it. We also
acknowledge gratefully the assistance rendered through the Commonwealth
Research Grant to the University of Adelaide.

Our work has included the examination of a large number of individual fish
from the lower Murray, as well as parasites obtained elsewhere in Australia.
Nematodes from 17 species of fish have been studied, most of them being food
fishes, some of them very important, e.g., Murray cod, callop, Murray perch and
Murray bream.

Only three species of nematodes had been recorded previously from Aus-
tralian freshwater fish. The first record was made by Baird in 1861 when he
reported the occurrence of a brightly-coloured worm, regarded by him as Filaria
sanguinea Rudolphi, in a minnow, Galaxias scriba, from the Murray River (but
not further localised), the first member of the species to arrive in London in a
living condition, though dying soon after. Linstow, in 1898, gave an account
of Amblyonema terdentatum collected by Semon from Ceratodus forsteri from
the Upper Burnett River. Next year Linstow (1899) described a brightly-
coloured worm from Galawvias atlenuatus, the parasite having been sent to Berlin
Museum by Dr. Schomburck, of Adelaide. This nematode was regarded as
identical with Spiroptera bicolor, which Linstow had described previously from
European freshwater fish. Galavxias scriba is a synonym of G. attenuatus, and we
indicate that the Australian worms identified as [ilaria sanguinea by Baird and
Spiroptera bicolor by Linstow may safely be considered as larval stages of a
species of Eustrongylides, to which we have given the name , gadopsts.

In this paper we deal with 18 species of nematodes, 17 of them being con-
sidered new, two of these being larval stages of Eustrongylides., A new genus,
Paraseuratum, is proposed. A number of other larval forms also reccive atten-
tion, and we hope to be able to associate some of them with adult stages later.
Most of the genera to which species are allotted had not previously been recorded
as occurring in Australia,

Types of all new species, unless stated otherwise, have been deposited in the
South Australian Museum.

List or PARASITES ARRANGED UNDER THEIR Ilosts

McCullochella macquariensis (C. & V.), Murray Cod:—Capillaria murrayensis
n.sp.; Contracaccum murrayense n.sp.; Contracaccum sp. (larvae); Goezta
fluviatilis n. sp.; Spimitectus sp. (larvae).

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

341

Plectroplites ambiguus Rich., callop, golden perch, yellow belly :—Contracaecum
murrayense n.sp.; Contracaecum sp, (larvae); Goezia fluviatilis N. SP. ;
Spinitectus plectroplites n.sp.; Procamallanus murrayensis n. sp.; Capularia
plectroplites n.sp.; Philometra plectroplites n.sp.; Eustrongylides gadopsis
n. sp.

Percalates colonorum Gnthr., Murray perch :—Contracaecum murrayense Nl. Sp. ;
Contracaecum sp. (larvae); Capillaria plectroplites n.sp.; Goezia fluviatilis
n.sp.; Spinitectus percalates n.sp.; Spinitectus sp. (encysted larvae); Pro-
camallanus murrayensts n.sp.; Philometra percalates n.sp.; Agamonema sp.

Macquaria australasica C. & V., Macquarie perch:—Centracaccum macquariae
n. sp.; Spinitectus sp.; Philometra sp.

Therapon bidyana Mitchell, Murray bream:—Capillaria plectroplites n. sp.;
Contracaecum sp. (larvae).

Therapon sp., black bream from North Queensland rivers :—Philometra sp.

Pseudaphritis urvillet C. & V., congolli:—Contracaecum sp. (larvae) ; Spinitectus
sp. (larvae) ; Procamallanus murrayensis n. sp.; Rhabdochona jaenschi n. sp.

Nannoperca australis Gnthr., pigmy perch :—Contracaecum sp. (larvae); Goegta
fluviatilis n. sp. (larvae).

Mogurnda adspersus Castln., gudgeon (Burnett River) :—Contracaecum sp.
(larvae) ; Goezia fluviatilis n. sp. (larvae) ; Spinitectus bancrofti n. sp.
Carassiops klunzingeri Ogilby, carp gudgeon (Burnett River) :—Contracaccum

sp. (larvae).

Gadopsis marmoratus Rich., black fish, “slippery” :—Eustrongylides gadopsis n. sp.

Nematalosa erebi Gnthr., bony bream:—Contracaecum sp. (larvae).

Galaxias attenuatus Jenyns, native trout, minnow :—Eustrongylides gadopsis n. sp.

Galaxias olidus Gnthr., minnow :—Eustrongylides galaxias n. sp.

Anguilla reinhardtii: Strd., long-finned eel ;—Anguillicola australiensis n. sp.

Tandanus tandanus Mitchell, catfish:—Capillaria tandani n.sp.; Contracaecum
sp. (larvae); Goezia fluviatilis n.sp. (larvae); Paraseuratum tandani
n. gen., 1. sp.

Ceratodus forsteri Krefft, lungfish (Burnett River) :—Amblyonema terdentatum
Linstow.

Capillaria plectroplites n. sp.
Figs. 1-2

Numerous females from mucus on gills of a callop, Plectroplites ambiguus ;
and another from the Murray bream, Therapon bidyana; both hosts from Swan
Reach. Length, 6-3-7-7 mm. ; maximum breadth (near posterior end), 0-09 mm.;
width at head -01 mm., at base of oesophagus :06 mm., and at anus ‘015 mm. ; Tatio
betwen oesophageal and intestinal regions of body, 4:5. Vulva on projection just
behind posterior end of oesophagus; anus subterminal; tail blunt; eggs, 50-53 »
by 23-25 p.

Male worms from the Murray perch, Percalates colonorum, at Swan Reach,
resemble the females in general appearance. Length, 3:9-4-5 mm.; width at head
‘O01 mm., at posterior end of oesophagus -04 mm., at widest part of body -05 mm.,
and just in front of bursa 012 mm. End of oesophagus 2°26 mm. from head in
specimen 4°49 mm. long. Spicule, ‘24 mm.; sheath slightly longer; sheath or
spicule with transverse striations; exact line between the two structures difficult
to determine but striations continue somewhat in front of proximal part of
spicule. At end of body two cuticular flaps opening ventrally and extending
nearly to tip of tail. Greatest amount of extrusion of sheath observed was
"12mm. Ratio of length of oesophageal region to posterior part of body about
1:1; but in female 4:5, 3:4, 7:9.

342

Capillaria murrayensis n. sp.

Single female specimen from intestine of Murray cod, M cCullochella mac-
quariensis, from Tailem Bend. Length, 12 mm.; width at head ‘009, at vulva
-04, at widest part -06, and at tail 025 mm. Vulva at mid-length and just behind
end of oesophagus. Eggs, 50-52 by 22 p.

The species differs from C. plectroplites in its greater length, more attenuated
form, and different ratio of the body regions (1:1).

Capillaria tandani n. sp.

Four females from intestine of catfish, Tandanus tandanus, Tailem Bend.
Length, 7°1-8-6 mm. Anterior region of body shorter than posterior part, ratio
1:1:7-2:1. In specimen 8-6 mm. long, breadth at head ‘O01 mm., at end of
oesophagus 0-06 mm., in widest region (near tip of tail) -1 mm. Vulva just
behind end of oesophagus, not salient. Eggs, 45 by 20. Body apparently with
numerous minute tubercles scarcely projecting through cuticle. The species
differs from the two preceding in the ratio of its body regions and in the size of
the eggs.

Figs. 1-2, Capillaria pectroplites: 1, posterior end of male; 2, bursa, Figs, 3-7,
Goezia fluviatilis: 3, young female; 4, head of female; 5, tail of male; 6, tail of
female; 7, part of cuticle in region of posterior oesophagus, showing spines.
Figs. 8-9, Conlracaecum macquariac: 8, head of young male; 9, tail of young male.
Figs. 10-13, Contracaecum murrayense: 10, head of male; 1], posterior end of
male; 12, dorsal, and 13, ventral views of head of very young female.
Figs. 1, 4, and 6, to same scale; figs. 2 and 7. Figs. 8 and 9 to same scale;
figs. 10, 12, and 13.

REFERENCES TO LETTERING—a, anus; ep, excretory pore; g, gubernaculum;
n, nerve ring; 0, Ovarian tube; u, uterus; v, vulva.

Goezia fluviatilis n. sp.
Figs. 3-7

Females from gill mucus, Plectroplites ambiguus and McCullochella mac-
quariensis ; males from Percalates colonorum, Tailem Bend.

Female adult 4-4-6 mm. long, young specimens 2-2-4 mm.; males 3-4-4 mm.
long. Lips three, marked off from body by deep constriction, outer edge with
cuticular expansion, inner border prolonged into two short rounded cuticular
structures (possibly serving as teeth) ; dorsal lip with two papillae; ventral lips
each with at least one papilla. Body widening rapidly behind head, then con-

343

tinuing at same breadth nearly to posterior end, then narrowing to tail, terminat-
ing in cylindrical tip. Rows of spines approximating towards posterior end of
body, spines becoming smaller and more closely set; spines no longer arranged
in definite rows in vicinity of anus; spines absent from distal half of cylindrical
part of female tail.

In male 4-4 mm. long, width at head -2 mm., at mid-length of body -65 mm.
Oesophagus “6 mm. long, club-shaped; oesophageal appendix 1-4 mm. long;
caecum conical, -15 mm. long. Spicules *65 mm. long, with wide alae extend-
ing beyond their tips like arrowheads. Tail +14 mm. long, cylindrical part
“06 mm. Tive pairs preanal and three pairs adanal papillae; also three papillae
arranged on each side laterally from the adanals.

In a young female 2-4 mm. long, breadth at head -16 mm., at mid-body
‘4 mm.; oesophagus -4 mm. long (°75 mm. in female 4-4 in length), ratio to
body length 1:6; nerve ring surrounding oesophagus just before latter widens
at -2 mm, from head end; oesophageal appendix 1:1 mm. long; caecum ‘0&8 mm.
Tail ‘11 mm. long, Uteri extending forward and uniting a short distance behind
oesophagus to form median uterus which passes back to vulva; latter 1 mm. in
front of anus in specimen 2°5 mm. long, dividing body length in ratio 3:2. Eggs,
roughly globular, some with embryo. The position of the vulva and the equality
of the spicules do not conform with the generic diagnosis for Goegia, but the
differences are too slight to prevent the inclusion of the species in that genus.

Immature stages, probably belonging to G. fluviatilis, have been found in
Nannoperca australis and Tandanus tandanus from Tailem Lend, and in
Mogurnda adspersa from the Upper Burnett River, Queensland.

The specimen from Tandanus was an encysted larva, 1°35 mm. long, ‘O05 min.
in maximum breadth, contained in a cyst *38 by “4 mm, in the omentum. A larval
tooth was present, and the rows of spines as well as the form of the anterior
end were readily recognisable.

‘The immature worm from the intestine of Mogurnda measured 2°8 mm. long,
with a maximum diameter -2 mm. The truncated anterior end possessed a pro-
minent larval tooth. ‘The rows of minute spines extended from the head to the
tip of the conical pointed tail. The laiter was *3 mm. long; the oesophagus
°36 mm., its appendix -45 mm., and the intestinal caecum *2 mm. in Jength. The
specimen from Nannoperca was a moulted skin.

Contracaecum macquariae n. sp.
Figs. 8-9

From stomach of the Macquarie perch, Macquaria australasica, Goodradighee
kkiver, New South Wales, collected by Dr. C. Anderson, Director, Australian
Museum, Sydney. (Austr. Museum Coll., W. 2820.)

Male 15 mm. long; female 20-25 mm. long. Lips large, cach with two pairs
of narrow lateral flanges; interlabia conical, less than half length of lips; iwo
papillae on dorsal lip, one on cach subventral. No collar region, but head dis-
tinctly narrower than rest of body.

Male—Oecsophagus 4:5 mm. long, straight, narrow, with club-shaped
appendix 1-5 mm. long; caecum 3 mm. long. Nerve ring. cervical papillae and
excretory pore not observed. Testis commencing just behind oesophagus. Tail
conical 2-4 mm. long. Spicules 2-8 mm,; 8-10 pairs small preanal papillae in
region extending 4°5 mm. in front of anus, five pairs postanal arranged laterally
(fig. 9), Lfemale—Tail -6 mm. long, tapering, ending in papilla. Vulva not
ohserved.

Type deposited in the Australian Museum, Sydney.

344

Contracaecum mufrayense n. sp.
Figs. 10-12

Single male from MeCullochella macquaricusis; jemales from Percalates
colonorum, both fish from Tailem Bend. Head about as wide (-15 mm. in
male) as neck, without ‘rolled collar” so commonly present in genus. Lips
about *16 mm. long, each with pair of lateral flanges; dorsal lip with two wide
papillae; subventrals each a wide papilla ventrally “and a pair of minute closely-
set papillae on their anterior dorsal side; interlabia short, conical.

Male 12:8 mm. long, -38 mim. maximum breadth. Ocesophagus 3-3 mm.
long, appendix about 1-3 mm1.; caecum 2°6 mm. long, Nerve ring at *5 mm.
from head end and just in front of excretory pore. Tail -3 mm, long, -3 mm.
wide at base, tapering to point, provided for the last -O8 mm. of length with short
spines of varying sizes. Spicules equal, ‘35 mm. long, of similar form, each with
stout head followed by cylindrical shaft with rounded distal end. Nine pairs of
lateral papillae, five postanal, four preanal; a more imedianly-placed row of eight
or nine pairs in front of the latter and spaced further apart to reach a point about
1:5 mm. in front of cloaca,

Females 16-18°3 mm. long; oesophagus about one-sixth body length;
appendix “45 mn., thin; caecum 2°1 mm. Nerve ring about -5 mm. from head end.
Tail pointed, +53 mim, long, with tip ornamented as in male. Vulva -7 mm. from
head end (1:2°6 of body length) ; uteri backwardly directed. Eggs not present.

Though this species possesses many of the characters of the subgenus
Thynnascaris Dollfus 1933—e.g., the long oesophagus with a posterior bulb, short
interlabia and equal spicules—it has been deemed preferable to place it under
Contracaecum.

Young female worms obtained from Plectroplites ambiguus, at Vailem Bend,
agreed with most of the specimens described above in most fcatures except that
they were much shorter, and in the case of very young specimens the interlabia
were relatively shorter, with a broader base, The tails were provided with
numerous spines.

CONTRACAECUM spp, (larvae)

Larvae in various stages of development were found in AfcCullochella mac-
quariensis, Plectropltes ambiguus, Percalates colonorum, Tandanus tandanus,
Therapon bidyana, Nematalosa erebi and Pscudaphritis urviller, all from the
Lower Murray, as well as Carassiops klunsingeri and Mogurnda adspersus from
the Upper Burnett River, Queensland. Some were encysted in the mesentery and
omentum, and possessed small lips, distinct alimentary canal with appendix and
caecum, as well as (usuall y) distinct genital primordia, the almost spherical cyst
measuring about 1 mm, in diameter. “Others occurred free in the intestine, some
of them with a larval tooth, but otherwise resembling the encysted forms. It is
possible that more than one specics of Centracatcum was represented and the
adult stage may be expected to be found in fish-eating water birds.

Measurements (in mm.) of specimens from the mesentery of the Murray
perch (Percalates), from the lumen of the intestine of the callop (Ple ctroplites),
and from cysts in the omentum of the catfish (Tandanus), are now tabulated.

Host Murray Perch Callop Catfish
Length - - a 3°25 3°35 3°34 2:3 3°3
Maximum diameter - “15 16 “15 * ‘14
Oesophagus - 4 36 45 “4 “3 =a
Oecsoph, appendix - “3 “35 35 “35 “5
Int. caecum - r 2 "3 2 — —
Head to genit. anlage - ? 1-1 1-3 —

Tail length - = ‘1 ‘d “1 “08 12

345

Spinitectus plectroplites n. sp.
Fig. 14

Females from gill mucus of Pleciropliles ambiguus, Tailem Bend. |-ength,
8-8-5 mm. First three rows with largest body spines, succeeding three rows
with smaller spines, remaining rows with spines diminishing in size, becoming
very small at level of posterior end of oesophagus and remaining so to end of
body. Mouth with two lateral lips; vestibule 50» long, 15% wide. Ocsophagus
with anterior narrower part, *18 mm. long, and posterior region *55 mm. long.
Nerve ring at -12 mm. from head end and just behind third row of spines.
{excretory pore -15 mm. from head end and opening at base of spine in fourth
row. Tail ‘11 mm. long, tapering, pointed. Vulva near posterior end, -3 mm.
from tip of tail. Uteri uniting very near vulva, vagina very short. Eggs oval,
smooth-shelled, 31-34 by 20-21 ». The species differs from S. gracilis Ward and
Magath 1916 in length, position of vulva, length of anterior region of ocsophagus,
and distribution of spines.

Spinitectus percalates n. sp
Figs. 15-16

From Perealates colonorum, Lower Murray River. The species differs from
the preceding in the length of the buccal capsule, position of the nerve ring, and
size of spines. The size of the female, the length of its tail and the position of
the vulva are similar to those of S. plectroplites.

Male 6°6 mm. long; vestibule 40 » long, 9» wide, not extending back as far
as first row of spines. 20-22 spines in each row. QOcsophagus, anterior region
‘17 mm., posterior region -5 mm. long. Nerve ring at level of fourth row of
spines, ‘13 mm. from head end. ‘Tail -14 mm. long, tapering to narrow tip.
Spicules simple, tapering to a point, stouter spicule +15 mm. long, the other
°09 mm. Papillae. 11 pairs arranged in two lateral rows each with four preanal,
three postanal, and a group of four smaller caudal.

SPINITECTUS sp.
ln Perealates and the Murray cod, as well as in the congolli, Pscudaphritis
urvillei, Vailem Bend, immature eneysting female worms of Spinitectus sp. were
collected, but details regarding the structure of either end were not sufhciently
recognisable to permit identification with the species described above.

Spinitectus bancrofti u. sp.
Figs, 17-18

A male and several indifferently preserved females from the intestine of
Mogurnda adspersa, Upper Burnett River. Coll, Dr. M. J. Bancroft (Mrs.
Mackerras).

Male, 7-1 min. long, ‘09 mm. maximum width. Iemale, 3-4-6°8 mm. Spines
distinetly smaller than in the two preceding species, and commencing more
posteriorly at ‘09 mm. Jrom the head end; each row with 26-28 spines, rows about
20 » apart at anterior end, becoming closer and containing smaller spines behind
Jevel of mid-oesophageal length, but rows more separated near mid-body ; spines
extremely small and rows far apart and scarcely recognisable near tail.
Vestibtle bent, 404 long, 10 wide. Nerve ring at level of second row of
spines, ‘lL mm, from head end. Ocsophagus, anterior region *15 mm, Jong
and ending at level of fifth or sixth row of spines, posterior part -45 mm. long.
Male, tail -11 mm. long, spicules unequal, -17 and -055 mm. long; four pairs

preanal and at least five pairs postanal papillae, all pedunculated and projecting
into narrow caudal alae.

346

Females, all specimens young and without eggs; tail ‘O07 imm., constricted
suddenly, then tapering behind anus to end in blunt point; vulva -2 mm. from
tip of tail.

The species is distinguished from the two preceding by the much greater
distance from the head at which the rows of spines commence, the smaller size
and greater number of the spines, the position of the nerve ring, and the spicular
lengths.

big. 14, Spinitecius pectroplites: head. Figs. 15-16, Spiuitectus percalates: 15,
head; 16, tail of male. Figs. 17-18, Spinitectus bancrofti: 17, head; 18, tail of
male. Figs. 19-20, Procamallanus murrayensis: 19, head; 20, tail of male,
Figs. 21-23, Paraseuratum tandant; 21, head; 22, tail of male: 23, one spicule and
gubernaculum. Figs. 24-26, Eustrongylides gadopsis: 24, head, lateral view;
25, head, anterior view; 26, posterior end of female. Fig. 27. Eustrongvlides
galaxias: head. Figs. 28-33, Anguillicola australiensis: 28, head, lateral view;
29, head, ventral view; 30, tailof male; 31, tail of female; 32, vulva; 33, anterior end.
Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19 to same scale. Figs. 22, 24, 25 and 27 to same scale;
figs. 23, 28 and 29; figs. 30 and 31.

SPINITECTUS sp.

A damaged female from the stomach of Macquaria ausiralasica from the
Goodradigbee River, New South Wales, collected by Dr. C. Anderson. (Austr.
Museum Coll, W. 2820.) The worm at first sight suggested a Trichuris, The
thin incomplete anterior end measured 9 mm. long and the wider posterior region,
containing abundant eggs, 7-4 mm, Anterior end with transverse rows of spines;
latter becoming smaller posteriorly and at 2 mm. almost disappearing, but
discernible again as very small structures on the tail. Oesophageal regions not
distinguishable. Body width anteriorly -06 mm., where the spines measure about
7 »tloug; at 8 mm. from anterior end width is -14 mm., at 9 mm. ‘19 mm., at level
of anus -06 mm. Maximum breadth (near vulva) +27 mm. Anus +12 mm. from
tip of tapering, bluntly pointed tail; vulva on prominence +21 mm, in front of
anus. Iggs, -04 by -02 mm., ovoid, thick-shelled, without polar plugs

‘he characters of this incomplete, poorly preserved parasite suggest a new
species of Sprnitectus, but in view of its condition we abstain from naming it.

347

Procamallanus mutrayensis n. sp.
Pigs. 19-20

From Pseudaphritis wrvillei from Swan Reach, Percalates colonorum from
Murray Bridge, and Plectroplites ambiguus from ‘Failem Bend. Male 4-5 mm.
long, -13 mm, maximum breadth; female 8-10 mm. long, *25--3 mm. maximum
breadth. Buccal capsule spirally striated, nat markedly compressed laterally,
70 p long, 70 diameter at its mid-length, base greatly thickened, anterior edge
moulded into six lobes. Qesophagus. in male with antcrior muscular region
terminating -4 mm. from head, glandular portion ending at -9 mm. from head,
both parts with more or less pronounced curve in their most anterior portions.
Nerve ring about -2 mm. from head.

Malc—Caudal alae membranous, joined ventrally as in PAysaloptera, °33 mm.
long. Papillae, three pairs preanal, two pairs pedunculated postanal, two pairs
sessile adanal. Cloaca °15 mm. from tip of tail. Spicules -29 and +2 mm. long,
simple, tapering, pointed.

Female—Tail +1 mm. long, with narrow tip 30 long and 10, wide; two
minute lateral papillac 50 » from tip of tail; vulva a transverse slit just in front of
mid-length of body; uteri opposed.

‘The species resembles P. spiralis Baylis 1923 in some features, but differs in
the form of the buceal capsule, which is more spherical.

Paraseuratum tandani n. g., n. sp.
Figs, 21-23

A nyale and a few females, some poorly preserved, from Tondanus tandanits
from ‘Tailem Bend. Male 8-7 mm., female 5*5-8°5 mm, long. Anterior end
truncated, tapering; six low lips, each with small papilla, Buccal capsule absent ;
vestibule very short. Ocsophagus ‘9 mm. long in male, commencing with dilata-
tion followed by narrow tube widening at hase ; six short conical feeth projecting
{rom anterior end into vestibule. Nerve ring at about mid- -length of oesophagus.
<xcretory pore and cervical papillae not seen.

Male ~Spicules cqual, similar, ‘11 mm. long; proximal half spoon-shaped ;
distal half simple, tapering to point. Gubernaculum 0°03 mm. long. Caudal
alae arising about 2 mm, in front of cloaca and extending each as narrow wavy
band to within -05 mm. of tip of tail. Papillac; four pairs preaual (at 35, °2,
‘06 and -02 mm. respectively in fron of cloaca); five pairs postanal, two patrs
of these near anus, behind these the tail narrowing suddenly and bearing a pair
of large dorso-lateral and two pairs of ventro-median papillae before ending in
a fine spike. Cloaca -45 mm. from tip of tail.

Female—Vail -5 mm, long, tapering, ending in short spite curving some-
what ventrally. Vulva salient, 3-2 mm. from posterior end, in worm 8-5 mm.
long, z.e., 1:1°7 of body length from head end; vagina short; uteri opposite; eggs
more or less globular, -05- -06 mm, diameter,

This species does not fall into any previously described genus of Spiruroidea,
s0 We propose a new genus, Paraseuratum, with the following characters :—
Seuratinae; mouth surrounded by six low lips each with a small papilla. No
longitudinal dark bands on cuticle. Duccal capsule absent; cesophagus long, with
six short teeth projecting anteriorly into mouth cavity. Male with short narrow
caudal alac, short spicules, and pointed tail. Female with tapering tail, vulva im
second third of body length, and cggs subglobular, Type, P. tandani n. sp.

The appearance of the anterior end and the male tail is nearest to that of
Seuratum; but from the latter our worms differ in having a longer oesophagus,

348

six lips, and no longitudinal dark bands on the cuticle. Baylis (1923) placed
Seuratum in the Cucullanidae. Seuralin and Paraseuratum differ from the other
genera of the family in the absence of a vestibular enlargement of the oesophagus
and in the absence of a preanal sucker in the male.

Rhabdochona jaenschi n. sp.
Figs, 37-38

Two specimens from a Pseudaphritis urvillei taken from the stomach of a
Murray cod at Tailem Bend. Male, 2:55 mm.; female, 4-4 mm. long; of uniform
ciameter except at both ends, tapering at head end, narrowing suddenly at
posterior end; maximum diameter of male 60 4, of female 80. Ifead rounded,
with two small papillae. Mouth succeeded by elongate cylindrical pharynx,
probably unarmed; °1 mm. long in female, Ocsophagus -8 mm. long in female,
about one-fifth body length, with narrower anterior part *16 mm. long, Nerve
ring at anterior end of oesophagus.

Male with caudal alae, about -16 nm. long, each -012 mm. wide; tail -07 mm.
long, alae meeting at its tip. About three pairs preanal and five or six pairs post-
anal papillae, all pedunculated but not all reaching edge of alae; exact number
doubtful because of position of alae in the single specimen, Spicules dissimilar,
unequal; one being 30, long, spatulate, with blunt tip; the other 95» long,
cylindrical for proximal half, tapering in distal half. Gubernaculum about 10 «
long, shield-shaped.

Female with blunt tail about -1 mm. long, ending in small round papilla.
Vulva 2°1 mm. from posterior end and just behind mid-length of body. Eggs
oval, 30 by 20 », with very thick shell.

The assigument of this species (named as an acknowledgment of the generous
assistance rendered by Messrs. G. and F. Jaensch of Tailem Bend) io
Khabdochona is provisional, since it differs from members of the genus in possess-
ing caudal alac. We were not able to observe any teeth at the anterior end of
the pharynx. :

AMBLYONEMA TERDENTATUM Linstow 1898
(Figs. 39-40)

Several specimens collected by the late Dr. T. L. Bancroft from Ceratodus
forstert from the Upper Burnett River, Linstow’s type host and locality. Male,
10°1 to 12-8 mm, long; female, 12:1 to 15-4 mm. long. Head with six rather
large papillae (not mentioned by Linstow) ; inside of buccal cavity indistinct, only
outlines of part of teeth visible. Lips conical, shorter than in Linstow’s, figure.
Ocsophagus cominencing at about 50 » from anterior end.

Male with pointed tail; spicules (in specimen 10-1 mm. long) +34 mm. in
length (Linstow, °137 mm.), gubernaculum -09 mm. long (Linstow, 11 mm.).
‘Two pairs preanal and one pair postanal papillae (as stated by Linstow); in
addition, three pairs more anteriorly situated than the preceding, a pair laterally
near tip of tail, and a pair ventro-laterally (also near tip of tail), last pair on
slight projection.

Philometra plectroplites n. sp.
Fig. 34

‘lwo mature females from body cavity of Plectroplites ambiguus from
Murray Bridge. Longer worm 10°5 cm.; cuticle with numerous minute, irregu-
larly distributed bosses. Anterior end rounded, without lips and papillae. Ocso-
phagus 1°05 mm. long, -09 mm. broad; anterior end widened to contain small,
nearly hemispherical, vestibule, 562 wide, 48» long. Nerve ring *2 mm. from

349

head end, Vulva and anus atrophied. Uterus voluminous, occupying most of
body cavity; merging into an oviduct about *5 mm, from head end, Larvae in
uterus about ‘022 mm. wide, -47 mm. long; coiled in two complete spirals;
anterior end rounded ; tail tapering to fine point.

Philometra percalates n. sp.
ligs. 35-36

A male 2:6 mm. long from Percalates colonorum, Vailem Bend, Anterior
end rounded, with eight small papillae; posterior end truncate. Ocsophagus
-25 mm. long, with swollen anterior end succeeded by narrow region to nerve
ring (°15 mm. from head end), thea terminating in wider portion. Spicules
°105 mm. long, with narrow alae; gubernaculum -04 mm. long, with barbed tip.
Tail with four lobes, ventral pair longer, dorsal pair more pronounced.

This male may belong to the preceding species, but as the two sexes were not
obtained at the same time, and the hosts belonged to different species, it has been
deemed advisable to descrihe the worms separately,

Fig. 34, Philometra peetroplites: anterior end. Figs. 35-36, Phtlometra percalates:
35, male, anterior end; 36, male, posterior end. Digs, 37-38, Rhabdochona jaenscht:
37, anterior end; 38, tail of male. Figs. 39-40, linblvonema terdentatum: 39, head;
40, tail of male. Figs. 34 and 40 to same scale; figs, 35, 36 and 38; figs. 37 and 39.

Philometroides (shii differs from Philomcetra in the absence of papillae, the
presence of cuticular bosses, and the enlargement of parietal museles in the former
gents. Bosses have been noted in several species of Philometra—nodulosa, para-
siluri, sanguinea and senticosa, the first two of which possess oral papillae (six
and cight respectively ), while the other two do not. ‘The condition of the parietal
muscles is uct usually noted in the various species of Philometra, The male of
Philometroides is unknown, The absence of essential literature has prevented
us from reviewing adequately the species recorded under Philometra, but
Furayama’s paper (1932) relating to P. fugimoloi gives much useful informa-
tion. We prefer to leave our two species under Philometra for the present.

350

PHILOMETRA spp.

A very long thin worm collected by Dr. C. Anderson fron. Macquaria aus-
lralasica, Goodradigbce River, New South Wales (Austr. Museum Coll.
W. 2820) belongs to the genus. It is broken, one fragment measuring 580 mm.
and another 50 mm., each piece possessing a smoothly rounded end, but internal
structure was not recognisable.

Another worm (Austr. Museum Coll., W. 1587), 45 mm. long, from a “black
bream” (presumably Therapon sp.), collected by Dr. Hall in a tributary of the
Mitchell River, North Queensland, probably belongs to Philometra, but its condi-
tion does not permit a study of its structure.

Eustrongylides gadopsis n. sp.
Figs. 24-26

Several long, thin, immature specimens from Gadopsis marimoratus from
Orange, New South Wales (Austr. Museum. Coll.), Length, 70-80 min.
Anterior end domed; mouth elongated dorso-ventrally ; four submedian and two
somewhat elongate lateral papillae, laterals smaller and nearer mouth; row of
long rounded papillae on each side anteriorly, becoming much smaller posterior
to oesophagus and gradually diminishing till they disappear. Vestibule slightly
cuticularized, *33 mm. long; oesophagus very long, about 15 mm., one-fifth body
length; nerve ring ‘4 mm. from head end. Body narrowing suddenly near
posterior end to terminate in small prominence bearing anus. Type deposited in
Aust. Mus. (Reg. No. W. 3235).

A similar worm, 55 mm. long, was found in the freshwater perch, presum-
ably Plectroplites ambiguus, by Dr. JIall in a tributary of the Mitchell River,
North Queensland (Austr. Museum Coll., W. 1588).

Our species is the same as that described by Linstow (1899, 17) from
Galaxias atlenuatus from Adelaide, under the name ? Spiroptera bicolor. Ie had
previously (1873, 298) described ? Filaria bicolor from European fish (sox,
Suurus), but in his later work (1899) he considered the parasite as ? Spiroptere
and, though he mentioned Silurus as one host, he based his account on the Aus-
tralian worm and gave several figures relating to it. The arrangement and form
of the lips agree essentially with those of our specimens. We think it likely that
his name was applied to larval stages of two distinct, but closely re‘ated, species
of Eustrongylides. Since the name Iiaria bicolor was already preoccupied by
f*, bicolor Creplin 1825 (also from European freshwater fish), Linstow’s namic
was not valid. Chitwood (1933) renamed it Hustrongylides linstowi, The latter
name must be attached to the parasite from Lsox and Silurus, if distinct from the
Australian parasite. Citrea (1924) recognised Linstow’s worm as a larval
Lustrongylides and published figures of larvae belonging to the gents, some of his
ilustrations showing resemblance to our parasite. Cram (1927) listed Spiroptera
bicolor Linst. as a synonym of KF. ignotus Jagersk. Baird in 1861 referred to the
presence of Fularia sanguinea Rud. (originally described as an adult worm [from
Cyprinus in Europe) m Galaxias scriba from the Murray River, and (1862 a,
207-8; 1861 b, 269-70) gave a brief account of it. Rudolph’s species has been placed
under Philometra, but Jagerskidld (1909) mentioned that larvae [rom Galarias
seriba resembled Exstrong ylides ignotus whose adult hosts are Ardeiform birds.
Gilavids seriba is a synonym of G. attenuatis according to McCulloch (Mem.
Austr. Museum, 5 (1), 1929, 47).

Tn view of the foregoing statements we apply the name EH. gadopsis to the
brightly-coloured larval parasite from Gadapsis imarmoratus from New South
Wales, Plectroplites ambiguus from Northern Queensland and Galaxias attenuatis

351

from South Australia, its synonyms being ? Spiroptera bicolor Linstow
from Galaxias and Filaria sanguinea Baird (nec Rudolphi), also from Galavias.
The name Eustrongylides linstowi should be restricted to the parasite first
described from the European catfish, Silurus glants, unless it be proved identical
specifically with the worm from Australian Ireshwater fish. We may mention
that we have studied a related species from Calaxias olidus, described below.

Eustrongylides galaxias n. sp.
Fig. 27

An immature worm from Galaxias olidus from the vicinity of Adelaide.
closely resembling the preceding specics. [Length 120 mm., breadth +74 mm.
Papillac on head and lateral lines as in FE. gadopsis but smaller. Vestibule +2 mm.
Jong, 25. external diameter, 9 internal diameter, anterior border appearing
deeply serrated with six tooth-like projections. O¢csophagus 23 mm. long.
Posterior end rounded, anus terminal.

Anguillicola australiensis n. sp.
Figs, 28-33

Several worms from swim bladder of Anguilla reinhardtii, from Prospect
Reservoir, near Sydney, New South Wales. Gravid females, 60-70 mm. long,
1°5 mm. wide; young females 25-30 mm. by +5 mm.; males 40 mm, long, 1 mm.
maximum breadth. llead end resembling the extruded bulbous proboscis of some
echinorhynehs; marked neck constriction; body tapering at posterior end to a
pointed tail. Anterior bulbous enlargement much wider dorso-ventrally than
from side to side, hence different appearance when vicwed laterally or dorso-
ventrally; in female 25 mm. long this swollen region measured +14 mm. long,
-22 mm. dorso-ventrally, and -13 mm. from side to side. Mouth with six small
lips or papillae; buccal cavity wider at base than anteriorly, with scrrated anterior
edge suggesting a leaf-crown with many clements; capsule 10 long, 28 » wide
at mid-length. O0csophagus ‘82 mm. long, about 1:30 af body length; strongly
muscular; widening regularly toward base; anterior end with six lobes project-
ing into buccal cavity. Nerve ring at +18 mm, from head end, 7.c., just behind
head swelling. Excretory pore on prominence in region cf posterior end of
oesophagus. Intestine very wide, filled with dark material, Actual position of
anus in female not observed, but at -4 mm. from tip of tail in worm 25 mm. long,
and at a corresponding distance in larger worms, there is a slight indentation
associated with a muscular band extending across the body; in front of indenta-
tion are four large glandular masses; anteriorly to the latter, at 1:1 mm. from
lip of tail, the dark intestinal material is no longer evident ; hence rectum probably
a very narrow tube.

In two specimens which showed a similar disposition of pigment and glands.
there appears to be a projection of the rectal wall through the anus, i.c., at the
point of attachment of the transverse musculature. These worms have a regular
arrangement of papillae, two pairs preanal and two pairs postanal. We regard
these specimens as males, although spicules were not seen. In a tube leading
towards the anus numerous small spherical bodies, probably sperms, were noticed.
Perhaps the projecting part of the rectal wall has replaced functionally the spicules,

In the female there is a rounded projection of the body wall, distant from
the posterior end one-sixth of the body length, this promincnee being surrounded
by obvious lips, so that in the gravid worm the vulva is visible to the unaided
eye, The ovarian tubes extend inio the oesophageal and tail regions respectively.
The thin-shelled eggs measure 12-15 p by 25-26 p.

352

Our species appears to be more closely related to Anguillicola globiceps
( Anguillicolidae) deseribed by Yamaguti (1935) from: the swim-bladder of a
Japanese eel, but differs mainly in the markedly swollen anterior end and in the
form of the tail.

AGAMONEMA Sp.

Very young nematodes, not further determinable, were taken from the eyes
cf Percalates colonorum from Vailem Bend, No organs, other than the alimentary
canal, were recognisable. Length -42 mm.; maximum breadth (at lower end ot
ocscphagus) °O2 mm.; truncated head; head structures apparently absent ;
oesophagus °15 mm. long; tail 06 mm. long, tapering to a point.

REFERENCES

Batgp, W. 1861 (a) Note on the cecurrence of [Filaria sanguinea in the body
of the Galaxias scriba, a freshwater fish from Australia. P.Z.S., 1861.
207-8; (b) Same paper in A.M.N.IL., (3), 8, 1861, 269-270

Raviis, H. A. 1923. Report on a collection of Parasitic Nematodes, mainly
from Egypt, ete. Parasitol., 15, 1-38

Bayiis, H. A. 1923) Note on Procamatlanus spiralis. Parasitol., 15, 137-138

CrurkaA, J. 1924 Die Eustrongylides-larven bei Donaufischen. Z. f. Mleisch. u.
Milchhye.. 34, 134-137 (not available).

Cram, E. B. 1927 Bird Parasites of the Nematode suborders Strongylata,
Ascaridata and Spirurata. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 140

furayama, T. 1934 On the Morphology and Life History of Philometra
fugimotoi Furayama, 1932. Keijo Jour. Med., 5, 155-177

jAcersKiéip, L. A. 1909 Zur Kenntnis der Nematoden-Gattungen [ustrongy-
lides und Hystrichis. Nova Acia reg. Soc. Sci. Upsaliensis, (4), 2,
48 pp. (not available)

Linstow, QO. 1873 Einige neue Nematoden nebst Bemerkungen tiber bekannte
Arten, Arch. f. Naturg., 1, 293-307

Jaxsrow, O. 1898 Nemathelminthen von Jlerrn Richard Semon in Austra-
hen gesammelt, (Zoologische Forschungsreisen, ete. Jena.) Denk.
Med.-Naturw. Ges., Jena, 8, 469-472

Linstow, O. 1899 Nematoden aus der Berliner Zoologischen Sammlung.
Mitt. Zool. Samm]. Mus. Naturk. Berlin, 1 (2), 5-28

Warp, H. B., and Macaru, T. B. 1916 Notes on some Nematodes from T’resh-
water Fishes. Jour. Parasit., 3, 57-64

Yamacutt, 5. 1935 Studies on the Helminth Fauna of Japan. Part 9. Nema-
todes of Fishes. Jap. Jour. Zool., 6, 338-386

A REVISION OF THE GENUS DESMOTHRIPS HOOD (THYSANOPTERA)
IN AUSTRALIA

By H. VEVERS STEELE “”
Summary

This genus was erected by Hood in 1915 for the Australian species Orothrips australis Bagnall
1914. The following species have been described from this country. 2 Desmothrips australis
Bagnall 1914 (syn. 4 Archaeolothrips fontis Bagnall 1924; Bagnall and Kelly 1928), 9 tenuicornis
Bagnall 1916, ° propinqus Bagnall 1916, 9 bagnalli Karny 1920, 9 obsolctus Bagnall 1924, 3
comparabilis Priesner 1928, ° & <4 davidsoni Morison 1930, 9 elegans Morison 1930.

353

A REVISION OF THE GENUS DESMOTHRIPS HOOD (THYSANOPTERA)
IN AUSTRALIA

By Il. Vevers Steete
[Read 12 September 1940]

This genus was erected by Hood in 1915 for the Australian species Orothrips
australis Bagnall 1914. The following species have been described from this
country. @ Desmothrips australis Bagnall 1914 (syn. 3 Archaeolothrips fontis
Bagnall 1924; Bagnall and Kelly 1928), @ ftenuicornis Bagnall 1916, @ pro-
pinguus Bagnall 1916, @ bagnalli Karny 1920, @ obsoletus Bagnall 1924,
é comparabilis Priesner 1928, 9 « ¢ davidsoni Morison 1930, 2 elegans
Morison 1930.

They have been differentiated mainly on: (a) the shading of the fore-wings ;
(b) the length of the third antennal segment; aud (c) the colouration of the distal
half of the same antennal segment.

In these and other characters Desmothrips davidsoni Morison differs from all
the rest. From the description D. tenuicornis Bagnall seems to be a valid species.

In all the other species, however, the three characters given above tend to
form a graded series (fig. A-I’), but they are not always consistent within a
particular specimen; for example. it is possible to find a specimen having the
wing pattern of D. australis (in which the distal and middle fasciae are not con-
fluent) and a yellowish third antennal segment shaded apically with light brown
as in D. elegans, Consequently, | take ). australis Bagnall to be a very variable
species embracing propinguus Bagna'l, bagnalli Karny, obsoletus Bagnall, cog-
parabilis Priesner, and elegans Morison.

RANGE OF VARIATION IN THE ABOVE CTTARACTERS
(a) Shading of fore-wing (fig. A-F). In nearly all specimens a small pateli
of brown at the base extends partly or wholly on to the alula. There are two
transverse fasciae, one in the middle, the other at the distal end of the wing,
varying in the extent to which they are confluent. The rest is clear.

In the original description of D. australis the transverse fasciae are not
joined (fig. A). In one specimen examined they were united only by the darken-
ing of the anterior and posterior veins. In the next stage (fg. B) the wing
begins to darken just anterior to the posterior vein. Then, as in fig. C-D, the
colour gradually extends forwards until the area between the posterior vein and
the posterior marginal vein becomes completely brown (fig. 2) as in D, bagnalli,
comparabilis, clegans, and obsolelus, Vinally, the brown extends partly into the
area between the anterior and posterior veins (ig. F). Intermediates: occur,

(b) In the specimens examined the length of the third antennal segment
varied in the @ from 84, to 117 2, and in the ¢ from 73, to 91 m.

(c) The pale brownish-yellow third antennal segment varied from a slight
brown area at the tip. to the distal half wholly dark brown.

Variations are also to be found in other characters, ¢.g., in the number of
segments in the maxiliary and labial palpi. In some these varied from 6-8 and 3-4
respectively, and in one there were six segments to the maxillary palp on one side
and seven on the other. The comparative length and width of the head also varied,
but mostly it was wider than long, whether the wing fasciae were confluent or not.

@) Mrs. H. G. Andrewartha.

Trams. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

354

The manner in which the above characters may be linked in different speci-
mens may be illustrated as follows:

(a) by comparing the length of the third antennal segment in those in which
the wing fasciae were joined along the posterior margin, with the length
in those in which the fasciae are quite separated.

In 11 ¢@ @ with the wing fasciae united, the lengths of the third
antennal segments were 85, 85, 87, 88, 91, 97, 99, 100, 100, 102 and
110 respectively, In 12 @ @ with the fasciae free, the lengths were
84, 84, 86, 91, 92, 93, 93, 97, 100, 104, 108 and 117». TI have only one ¢
with confluent fasciae, and in this, the length of the third antennal segment

was 73. In those males with free fasciae the lengths were 74, 85, 87,
91 and 91 pg.

(b) by comparison of the lengths of the third antennal segment in those
with the distal half of this segment brown, and those with only the apex
brown. In the first case the lengths were 84, 84, 86, 91, and 102 » in the
@ 9 and 73 pin the 8, in the second series they were 85, 85, 88, 91, 92, 93,
97, 97, 99, 100, 110 and 117 in the @ @ and 74, 87 and 91 yin the 4 4.

(c) by comparing the colouration of the third antennal segment with the
variation in shading of the fore-wing, as follows:

1 Distal half of third antennal segment brown: wing fasciae con-
fluent 2 99,1 8 ; wing fasciae free,3 99,0 4.

2 Distal half not brown, only apex: wing fasciae confluent, 7 9 °,
O 6 ; wing fasciae free, 5 92,3 @ @.

big. A-F Right fore-wing of specimens from: A, Kalorama, Vict.; B, Adelaide,
S. Aust; C, Warragul, Vict.; D-F, Adelaide, S. Aust.; IF, Montville, Qld.

it appears that there are only three valid species of Desmothrips known from
Australia, as follows: davidsont Morison, tenuicernis Bagnall and australis
Bagnall, the rest falling as synonyms of D. australis,

I again wish to extend my thanks to the authorities cited in my previous
paper (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 64 (2), 325), and, in addition. to Mr. N. FE. FH.
Caldwell for the loan of Quensland material.

REFERENCES
GaGnaty, R. S. 1914 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 13, 287
Bacnatt, R. S. 1916 /bid., (8) 17, 397
BAaGnatt, R. S. 1924 J/bid., (9) 14, 626
BaGnayi, R. S., and Keriy, R. 1928 Ent. Mon. Mag., Oxford, 64, 204
Hoop, J. D. 1915 Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, 28, 57
Karny, H. H. 1920 Acta Soc. Ent. Cech., 17, 36
Morison, G. 1930 Bull. Ent. Res., 21, 449-453
Priesner, H. 1928 Sitz. Ber. Akad. Wiss., Wien, Abt. I, Bd. 9

SOME FILARIAL PARASITES OF AUSTRALIAN BIRDS

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and PATRICIA M. MAWSON, University of Adelaide.

Summary

Much of the material dealt with in this paper was, collected by Professor J. B. Cleland the late Dr.
T. L. Bancroft and the late Dr. MacGillivray; most of the remainder by the senior author.
Acknowledgment is made of assistance received through the Commonwealth Research Grant to the
University of Adelaide. Types of new species have been deposited in the South Australian Museum.

355

SOME FILARIAL PARASITES OF AUSTRALIAN BIRDS
Ly T. Harvey Jounston and Parricta M. Mawson, University of Adelaide
[Read 12 September 1940}

Much of the material dealt with in this paper was collected by Professor
J.B. Cleland, the late Dr. T. L. Bancroft, and the late Dr. MacGillivray; most
of the remainder by the senior author. Acknowledgment is made of assistance
received through the Commonwealth Research Grant to the University of
Adelaide. Types of new species have been deposited in the South Australian
Museum,

List of parasites. arranged under their hosts:

PASSERIFORMES

Corvus coronoides Vig, and Llorst. (Lidsvold, Burnett River, Old.), Diplotriaena
beta n. sp.; (Musgrave Ranges, South Australia), Aprecta corvicola n, sp.

Sirepera graculina White (Mount Irvine, South p eretiays Diplotriaena u. sp.;
(Scone, New South Wales) Paralemdana clelandi n. g., n. sp.

Graucalus melanops Latham (Fraser Island, Queensland), Dini graucalinum
n. sp.

Malurus lamberti Vig. and Horst. (QOoldea, South Australia), Diplotriaena
delta n. sp.

Cracticus desiructor Temm. (Brisbane), Diplotriaena epsilon n. sp.

Myzantha flavigula Gould (Renmark, South Australia), Pseudaprocta myzanthae
n. sp.

Acanthogenus rufigularis Gould (Monarto, South Australia); Diplotriaena seta
n.sp.; (Eidsvold, Queensland) Filaria (s.1.) sp.

Aphelocephala migriciucta North (Musgrave Ranges, South Australia), Austro-
flaria vestibulata n. g., n. sp.

Spres superbus (Abyssinia, via Adelaide Zoological Gardens), Diplotriaena
gamma n. sp.

CoRACIIFORMES
ifateyon vagans Lesson (Lord Howe Island), Hamatospiculum howense n. sp.

PsITTACIFORMES
Calopsittucus novae-hollandiae Gmelin (New South Wales), Filaria (s.1.) sp.
Pseudopsittacus mclennant MacGillivray (North Queensland), Carimema dubia
n. sp.
CoLUMRIFORMES

Columba livia Linn. (Adelaide), Eulimdana clava (Wedl) Founikoff.

Hamatospiculum howense n. sp
(Fig. 1-2)

l'rom subcutancous tissues of head and neck of Halycon vagans, Lord Howe
island.

Males up to 20 mm. in length, 0-4 mm. diameter; females to 35 mm, in
length, 0°62 mm. diameter. Body cylindrical with rounded ends. Head with
two short lateral cuticular projections on either side of small mouth, projections
continuous with short root in hypodermis; externally from each is row of five
papillae. Anterior part of oesophagus short, 0-2 mm. long in male, 0°3 mm. long
in female; surrounded by nerve ring about mid-length; posterior part very long,
reaching a third of body length.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

256

Male—Tail rounded, cloaca 50 » from tip; very slight alae in front of cloaca ;
one pair of large postanal and five pairs small preanal papillae, latter in alae.
Spicules tapering to point, very unequal in size, 2°3 mm. and +27 mm. in length.

Female—Anus atrophied, posterior gut not seen. Vulva salient, 1-2 mm.
from head end. Eggs thick-shelled, 31» by 19 p.

This. species closely resembles H. leticiae Tubangui 1934, differing in the
number of postanal papillae, the relative position of vulva, and the size of the eggs.

_ 2B

aes
BE

Tig. 1-26

Fig. 1-2, Hamatospiculwm howense: 1, head; 2, tail of male. Fig. 3, Paralemdana eclelandi:
anterior end. Fig. 4-6, Austrofilaria uestibiulata: 4, head; 5, anterior end; 6, tail of male.
Fig. 7-9, Carinema dubia: 7, head; 8, anterior end; 9, male tail Fig. 10-11, Carinemea
araucalinum: 10, head; 11. male tail. Fig. 12-13, Aprocta carvicola: 12, anterior end:
13, male tail. Fig. 14-15, Pseudaprocta mysanthae: 14, head, sub-lateral view; 15, anterior end,
Fig. 16, Diplotriaena alpha. Fig. 17, Diplotriaena beta. Vig. 18-19, Diplotriaena ganuna:
18, anterior end; 19, trident. Fig. 20-21, Diplotriaena delta: 20, antertor end; 21, trident.
Fig, 22-23, Diplotriacna epsilon: 22, anterior end; 23 tail of male. Fig. 24, Diplotriacna seta.
Fig. 25, Filarta (s.1.) sp. from Acanthogenyvs rufigularis, male tail. Fig. 20, Milaria (s.1.) sp.

from Calopsitiacus novae-hollandiar, male tail.
Tig. 2. 4, 9, 10, 11, and 14 to same scale; fig. 3, 5, 8, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17 and 24; fig. 19, 21, 25, 26.

e, excretory pore; nr, nerve ring; v, vulva.

Paralemdana clelandi n.¢.. n. sp.
(Fig. 3)

From body cavity of Strepera graculina from Scone. New South Wales
(Coll. Professor Cleland). A single female 13 mm. long, 0:55 mm. wide. IIead
truncated, posterior end rounded; mouth small, circular, leading through small
ring of chitinous material to oesophagus; latter cylindrical, muscular, 0-5 mm.

357

long, surrounded by nerve ring at O-1L mm. from head. At least four head
papillae, Vulva about middle of oesophageal region; tteri uniting well behind
this, passing posteriorly beyond mid-body; an ovary at cither end of body; ne
ripe eggs present. Tail, 0-1 mm, long; anus distinct.

Not being assignable to any genus already erected, we suggest a new genus
of Filariinae, Paralemdana, near Temdana Seurat, characterised by a smooth
anterior end; short wide oesophagus, not divided into two parts; vulva in
oesophageal region; tail rounded and short; anus present, Type, 2. elelandi n. sp-

Austrofilaria vestibulata n. g., 0. sp.
(Pig. 4-6)

From Aphelocephala nigricincia, Musgrave Ranges, South Australia.
Males 85 to 9°5 mm. long, 0°4 mm, wide; females 20 to 25 mm, long, 0-6 min.
wide. Head with four submedian papillae and possibly two lateral papillae ; body
cylindrical, conical anteriorly, rounded posteriorly. Stout chitinous cylindrical
vestibule, anterior edge rolled outwards, forming thick ring around mouth,
projecting beyond the body proper; in male, vestibule 25» long, 21» wide at
base, inclusive of walls. Oesophagus 0°6 mm. long in male; 0°76 mm, in female;
with an anterior thinner part 0°24 mm. long. Nerve ring difficult to distinguish ;
either at base of anterior part of oesophagus or around its mid-length.

Male—Caudal papillae absent; spicules equal, tapering, 25 mm. long. No
gubernaculum. Posterior end forming spiral of one and a_ half coils; tail
Q-15 mm. long,

Female—Tail O°1 mm. long; uteri uniting near vulva; latter 0-5 mm. from
head. Eggs thick-shelled, 40» by 25 p.

The characters of the head of this worm do not agree with those of any
genus of the Filarioidea hitherto described, so far as we have heen able to deter-
mine. The presence of a well-defined chitinous support in the buccal region
indicates a member of the subfamily Sctariinae. We suggest a new genus,
Austrofilaria, with characters as follows:—Setartinae; cylindrical worms with
rounded posterior ends and conical heads; relatively large and well developed
vestibule with stout chitinous supporting walls; short oesophagus of two parts.
Male without caudal alae or papillae; with short, equal, similar spicules. Female
with vulva in region of second part of oesophagus. Type, A, vestibulata, n. sp.

Carinema dubia n. sp.
(Fig. 7-9)

From abdominal cavity of Pseudopsittacus niclennani, North Queensland,
(coll. Dr. MacGillivray). Females about 25 mm. long, 0°32 mm. wide; male
15 mm. long, 0-184 mm. wide. Head rounded with four submedian and two
lateral papillae, all very small. Mouth circular, leading by 3 y long funnel-shaped
vestibule to oesophagus; this tiny vestibule at its base surrounded by chitinous
ring. QOecsophagus very narrow, division into two parts more clearly indicated
in some specimens than others, the distinction being that of cell structure, not of
size. In male, oesophagus 0°38 mni, long, including anterior part 0-2 mm.; in
female anterior portion 0°25 mm., the whole organ 0-45 mm, Nerve ring
surrounding oesophagus at base of first part.

Male—Tail blunt, not coiled. Cloaca ‘0°7 mm, from posterior end. Perhaps a
pair of papillae immediately anterior to, anda pair immediately posterior to, cloaca.
but these (seen only in lateral view of the single male) may be the lips of the
cloacal opening; latter on a prominence. Apart from these no caudal papillae
have been observed. Spicules equal, tapering distally, 10 long.

358

Fremale—Vail rounded; anus not observed; vulva 1:7 mm. from head; uteri
uniting at about this level, median uterus passing forward nearly to ocsophagus ;
vagina coming back from this region to vulva. Uteri packed with larvae, on
which no sheaths were detected. Larvae 4 in diameter, 360 to 370» long, with
rounded anterior ends and clongate tails.

It is with some reserve that this species is assigned to Cariuema because of
the division of the oesophagus into two parts and the presence of six cephalic
papillae and a buccal ring in our specics.

Carinema graucalinum n. sp.
(Fig. 10-11)

rom Graucalus imelanops, Fraser Island, Queensland. One male and
several females obtained. Male 8 mm. long, female 15-18 mm. long with
maximum breadth of 0-15 and 0°32 mm. respectively. Anterior end somewhat
club-shaped, with four submedian papillae around mouth. Ocesophagus 0-4 mm.
long in male, 0°55 mm. in female, cylindrical, surrounded anterior to its mid-
length by nerve ring. Jateral lines marked by a double row of small refracting
bodies under cuticle.

Male-—Spicules subequal, about 604 long, spatulate, with rolled edges and
ternunating in narrow spine. Cloaca 50 from rounded tip of tail; caudal alae
absent; and caudal papillae not seen.

Female—Vulva 0-95 mm. from head (i.e., post-oesophageal). Anus probably
absent ; rectum not seen in any specimen, but in one there was an elevation resemb-
ling anal region at O-2 mm, from the tip. Larvae in uteri 270 to 290 » long,
5 to 6 in diameter, with rounded head and pointed tail; no sheath observed.

This species seems to be more closely related to Carinema than to any other
genus. It differs from the only other known species, C. carinii Pereira and Vaz
from a Brazilian bird and C. dubia, in the number of head papillae.

Aprocta corvicola n. sp.
(Fig. 12-13)

From behind the eye of Corvus coronoides, [rom the Musgrave Ranges.
Males 12 to 20 mim. long, about 0-6 mm. in diameter; females 50 to 60 mm. long,
0-8 mm. diameter. Anterior end rounded; mouth circular; oral papillae not
observed, small thistle-shaped vestibule leading to simple, narrow oesophagus;
Jatter 0-65 mm, long in male, 0-7 mm, long in female, surrounded by nerve ring
Just behind its anterior end, O'l mm. from head in male, 0-15 mm. in female.

Male—Tail 0-2 mm. long, blunt, rounded. Neither papillae nor caudal alae
present. Spicules equal, 0°28 to 0-32 mm. long.

Female—Uteri uniting very close to vulva, forming a short median uterus;
vagina O-l mm. long; vulva 0°6 mm. behind head, about the middle of oesophageal
region, Iiggs thick-shelled, 45 to 50 » by 30», containing coiled larva.

The species differs in the position of the vulva from any other member of
the genus the description of which we have been able to obtain.

Pseudaprocta myzanthae n. sp.
(Tig. 14-15)
From Mysantha flavigula (yellow-throated minah) (Coll. Dr. Cleland),
75 miles north of Renmark, South Australia, Only three females were taken.
23 to 24 mm. long.
Anterior end rounded, head with four submedian and two smaller lateral
papillae. Dorsal and ventral papillae not seen. Cuticular ornamentation of

359

anterior end characteristic of genus festooned above and between cephalic
papillae. Buccal cavity 20 « long, 23 to 25 » wide. Ocsophagus 0°6 to 0°65 mm.
long; nerve ring at 0°15 mm. and excretory pore at 0°23 mm., from head end.

Tail rounded, 0-2 to 0°23 mm. long, ending in papilla-like tip, and bearing
pair of large rounded papillae in lateral positions, 30p from tip. Anus well
marked; rectum strongly cuticularised.

Vulva not salient, 0°3 to 0-4 mm. from head. Ripest eggs in vagina 50 to
55» by 30, thick-shelled, containing larvae.

The differences between the two species of the genus previously described,
P. gubernacularia by Shikhobalova and P. decorata by Li, depend (according to
Li) on male characters. Since the present material consists only of females, it
is impossible to continue the comparison on these lines; in our specimens, how-
ever, the cephalic festoons appear to be somewhat differently arranged in ventral
and dorsal positions, and the eggs are much larger than in Li’s species, while the
femate tail 1s longer than in that described by Shikhobalova. From these distine-
tions and the difference in distribution of the hosts, we assume it to be a new
specics.

DrecorriaENA Raillict and Henry

The characters of this genus have been discussed by Li (1933, 193). As he
points out, the features of most value systematically are the tridents and the
spicules. In our material few males are present, and we have several species
represented by female worms only, so that we have been compelled to rely on
differences in lengths of body and trident and the relation of the latter to the
position of nerve ring. In many of our specimens the posterior tips of the
tridents were not clearly defined, so that it was often uncertain whether the
middle prong was shorter than the lateral ones.

To facilitate comparison of our species the following table is appended, all
measurements being in millimetres except where otherwise stated:

alpha beta gamma delta epsilon zeta
_ 2 2 é 2 é 2
Length vee ee ee ee F090 56-69 58-68 34 to 45 to 20 36
Breadth re) ee 84 “45 55 “45 8
Antr. Oesoph. 2.0 wu. © °32 “47 not 3 “4 “3 le 6
Postr. Oesoph. ris ee BSE 5-6? divided 2-8 ? 20 §
Tridents $e nthe ve OES “17 “09 “08, -095 “13 “15
Head—Nerve Ring wf 25 33 +22 “18 22 +32
Head—Vulva coh CSTR AZ +6 “4 +68 “5
Eggs, breadth wo cen B4y l4u 25n
» length o.oo... 50% 30u 40-41
Hate ke es. acy, dos Bigs
Spicule Lo. ea Broken *6—°7
5 Bo Tas) witht Het Sel Broken 1-2-1-4

Diplotriaena alpha n. sp.
(Fig. 16)

From Strepera graculia, Mount Irvine, South Australia (Coll. Professor
Cleland). Two females from the peritoneum, one 7O and the other 90 mm. long,
both about 0-96 mm. wide. Anterior end rounded, with two small lateral and two
smaller submedian papillae. Tridents 0-11 mm. long in longer worm and
0°13 mm. in shorter worm: in the latter the two tridents are not similar in shape,
the median prong being the longest on one side, but the three of equal length on
the other side. In the larger worm both tridents are alike and have three equal
prongs. Anterior narrow part of ocsophagus 0-3 to 0-35 mm. long, surrounded
by nerve ring on its second half, 0°25 to 0-26 mm, from head; posterior part of
oesophagus ending about 6 mm. from head. Vulva 0:7 mm, from head, 1.¢,

360

shortly after beginning of second part of oesophagus. Uteri uniting 1-8 mm.
behind vulva; vagina straight. Eggs, 35 by 50y. ‘Tail rounded, anus 90
from tip.
Diplotriaena beta n. sp.
(Fig. 17)

From Corzus coronoides, collected by the late Dr, T. L, Bancroft at Eids-
vold. ‘Two females present, 56 and 69 mm. long, 0°84 mm. wide. Anterior end
rounded with four low papillae in submedian positions. Tridents 0-16 and
0-19 mm. long. Anterior part of oesophagus 0-43 to 0°5 mm. long; termination
of second part not seen, owing to conditions of specimens. Nerve ring 0:32 to
0°34 mn. from head. Vulva on shoulder-like prominence of body 0:59 to 0-6 mm,
from head end, 7.¢., just posterior to beginning of second part of oesophagus.
Eggs absent.

Diplotriaena gamma n. sp
(Fig, 18-19)

From Spres superbus, the Abyssinian starling. obtained from the Adelaide
Zoological Gardens through the courtesy of the South Australian Museum, Two
females present, 58 and 68 mm, long. Head rounded, with four large sub-
median and two smaller lateral papillae. ‘lridents 90 long, middle prong
shortest, posterior tip of each prong somewhat enlarged. In specimen 58 mm.
Jong nerve ring 0°22 mm. from head. Ocsophagus apparently of the “undivided”
type, its posterior end indistinguishable because of the twisted mass of uteri
obscuring it. Vulva at 0-4 mm. from head end, lip salient. Uteri uniting about
12mm. from vulva. Eggs, 30» by 40 u.

Diplotriaena delta n. sp.
(Fig. 20-21}

From Malurius lamberti collected by Dr. J. 73. Cleland at Ooldea. One male
‘only present, 34 mm. long, 0-45 mm. wide. Anterior end with four large sub-
median papillae. Tridents bossed, of unequal length, 95 and 80» long, the three
prongs being of almost equal lengths. Oesophagus of two parts, anterior 0-3 mm.
long, posterior 2°5 mm.; nerve ring 0-18 mm. from head. Losterior end is broken
off, one broken spicule showing.

Diplotriaena epsilon n. sp.
(Fig. 22-23)

From Cracticus destructor, collected at Brisbane by Dr. F. S. Roberts.
Several males and females present, males up to 20 mm. and females up to 45 mm.
in length, breadths respectively 0°45 and 0-55 mm.

Anterior end without apparent papillae. ‘Tridents about 130 long in male;
branches more or less equal length, with bosses. Ocsophagus of two parts,
anterior Q-3 mm. long in male, 0-4 in female, the termination of posterior
obscured, in male probably 2mm. from head end. Nerve ring in male 0-22 mm.
from head end.

Tail of male rounded; two pairs of papillae before and two behind the sub-
terminal cloaca, the two post-cloacal almost terminal in position. Spicules
unequal; one 1:2 to 1-4 mm. long, tapering suddenly to end in a short spike; the
‘other 0-6 to 0-7 mm., twisted, ending in a broad tip.

Vulva in region of beginning of second part of oesophagus, lips slightly
salient. LEge¢s 40 to 41 » by 25 yw, thick-shelled, with coiled larvae,

These appear to be much slighter worms than those from Strepera or Corvus ;
the eggs are relatively wider and there was no sign of submedian papillae.

361

Diplotriaena zeta n. sp.
(Fig. 24)

Krom the body cavity of Acanthogenys rufigularis, the spiny-cheeked honey-
water, from Monarto, South Australia (coll. Professor Cleland),

One female worm present, 36 mm. long, 0-8 mm. wide. ‘Tridents 0-15 mm.
long, with anterior tip prolonged to a point, not rounded as in D. delia. Nerve
ring 0°32 mm. from head end; oesophagus of undivided type, 2-6 mm. long.
Vulva -5 mm. from head end.

EULIMDANA cLAVA (Wedl) Founikoff 1934
Several specimens of this species were found in the type host, Columba livia,
from Adelaide. The females are up to 24 mm. in length, the measurements and
structure agree exactly with Founikoff’s description.

Fivaria (s.1.) sp.
Fig. 25 :

From <dcanthogenys rufigularis, from Burnett River District, collected by
the late Dr. T. L. Bancroft. One male and parts of several females not including
the posterior end, were present, Male 7:5 mm. long, 0°13 mm. wide; longest
female part apparently more than a quarter of the body length, 10 mm. long,
0°32 mm. wide, Females so badly preserved that it is impossible to see internal
organs. Male shows a rounded head, no head papillae, a small mouth leading
to a 0°38 mm. long cesophagus surrounded just anterior to its mid-length by the
nerve-ring. Tail rounded 0-7 mm. jong, bearing no caudal alae or papillae.
Spicules tapering, almost equal in length, 50% long. Because of the incomplete
description it was considered unwise to assign the worm to any genus. Micro-
filariae were recorded from the blood of this host species in New South Wales
by the senior author, in 1912.

Viraria (8.1) sp.
(Pig. 26)

‘The posterior cnd of a male worm and the anterior end of a female were
collected from Calopsitlacus novae-hollandiae from New South Wales. Female
tragment 2-9 mm. long, *13 mm. wide; male 3:8 mm. long, -13 mm. wide. Head
smooth, rounded, showing no papillae. Vestibule supported by a narrow
chitinous ring. Length of oesophagus and positions of anterior organs not
ascertained. Male tail rounded at tip, 60, long, no papillae visible under oil
immersion; spicules unequal, G0 and 454 in length, narrowing towards tips.

This species differs from Carinema dubia from Pseudopsittacus mcelennani
in that the head bears no papillae and the spicules are unequal. It has many
features in conimon with Fiaria (s.1.) sp. from Acanthogenys rufigularis, but
since in that form the spicules are equal and no peri-buccal chitinous ring was
observed, and in view of the different hosts, it is considered wise not to identify
the worms with one another.

LiTERATURE

Ia, H.C, 1933 Report on a collection of parasitic worms, mainly from North
China. Parasitol., 25, 192-223

Founrkorr, S. 1934 Situation de Filaria clava Wed! 1855 des pigeons dans la
classification des nematodes, Ann. Parasit., 12, 61-66

Jounston, T. H. 1912 Notes on some entozoa. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 24, 63-91

SutknoraLova, N. 1930 Sur une nouvelle filaire des oiseaux: Pseudaprocta
gubernacularia n.g., n.sp. Ann. Parasit., 8, 624-627

Tupancur, M. A. 1934 Nematodes in the collection of the Philippine Bureau
of Science, 11, Pilarioidea. Philippine Journal of Science, 55, 115-123

NOTES AND EXHIBITS
TILLITE AND OTHER ROCKS FROM HALLETT COVE S.A.

Summary

Earlier this year, when Mr. Segnit presented to the Society his paper on the Geology of the Hallett
Cove Area, it was not possible to adequately discuss his findings, for, in the case of papers read
before this Society, we are not supplied with abstracts ; in any case, the paper was too long to be
read, there being time only for a general summary to be communicated.

362

NOTES AND EXHIBITS
TILLITE AND OTHER Rocks rrom Ha.vert Cove, S.A.

Tearlier this year, when Mr. Segnit presented to the Society his paper on the
Geology of the Hallett Cove Area, it was not possible to adequately discuss his
findings, for, in the case of papers read before this Society, we are not supplied
with abstracts; in any case, the paper was too long to be read, there being time
only for a general summary to be communicated.

Now that the paper has been printed, fellow geologists will be able to con-
sider and profitably discuss many novel points presented in that contribution.

It is not my purpose to enter upon any thorough discussion of the paper
tonight, though I may state that my views differ in many respects from those of
Mr. Segnit.

There is, however, one matter which is rather fundamental to any discussion
upon glacial sediments, .¢., what is tillite? In his map of Hallett Cove Area
much that has been mapped as tillite by Mr. Segnit is not what the petrographic
term “tillite’’ connotes. ‘“Till” is defined as unconsolidated, unassorted morainic
matier. ‘Tillite” is the same thing in the consolidated state.

In the map, the whole of the deposits connected with the younger glaciation
are indicated as tillite. Actually only a very small part of such beds is tillite, by
far the greater portion being of fluvio-glacial origin; much of it, too, is well-
assorted fluvial sands and clays, no doubt derived from more or less distant
morainic debris of the same age.

In the case of the older tillite, indicated on the map as occupying a consider-
able part of the northern end of the area, I have failed to find any tillite what-
ever in that locality. Where older tillite is shown, I found mainly sandstones
and shales which are gritty and arkosic in their upper limits. In one or two
places small fragments of rock, inhomogeneous with the main body, are embedded
in it, but these can be well accounted for as of intraformational origin and, in
other cases, as scattered spots in the rocks which have suffered subsequent
chemical change, the original red colour of the rock having been bleached to
yellow. I could find nothing in the nature of true tillite. Indeed, the pervading
red colour of the rock is good evidence that this is not a glacial bed.

The real Sturtian tillite, with which this has been coupled in the paper under
discussion, is developed only about three or four miles away in the Sturt Gorge.
It is there an absolutely typical tillitc, unassorted, grey in colour and packed with
characteristically shaped erratics of a wide range of igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks.

If Mr. Segnit wishes still to contend that the formation north-west of the
Hallett Cove Railway Station is tillite, then it must be considered as not
corresponding to that of the Sturt Gorge, but to be evidence of a second and later
Proterozoic Ice Age.

D. Mawson
12 September 1940

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

A KEY TO THE NEMATODE PARASITES OF AUSTRALIAN
MARSUPIALS AND MONOTREMES

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and PATRICIA M. MAWSON, University of Adelaide.

Summary

The number in parenthesis after the name of the author of a genus or species refers to the reference
(given at the end of this paper) to the original description of the parasite; where two or more
reference numbers are given, the succeeding ones relate to additional descriptions. No attempt has
been made to give all the literature referring to each species. The references are to such accounts as
will make it possible to identify each species, as well as the genus, when the latter is peculiar to
marsupials or monotremes. All distinctions, as far as possible, have been drawn from characters
common to both sexes. Where this is impossible we have tried to find points of difference in both
males and females. We have avoided as much as possible drawing distinctions from measurements
of parts of the body, as we have found great variation in size in some species.

363

A KEY TO THE NEMATODE PARASITES OF AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS
AND MONOTREMES

By T. Harvey Jonunsron and ParricrA M. Mawson, University of Adelaide
[Read 12 September 1940]

The number in parenthesis after the name of the author of a genus or species
refers to the reference (given at the end of this paper) to the original description
of the parasite; where two or more reference numbers are given, the succeeding
ones relate to additional descriptions. No attempt has been made to give all the
literature referring to each species. The references are to such accounts as will
make it possible to identify cach species, as well as the genus, when the latter is
peculiar to marsupials or monotremes. All distinctions, as far as possible, have
been drawn from characters common to both sexes. Where this is impossible
we have tried to find points of difference in both males and females. We have
avoided as much as possible drawing distinctions from measurements of parts of
the body, as we have found great variation in size in some species.

To reduce the matter in the key, some abbreviations have been used; thus
Y. & M. for Yorke and Maplestone, D. & W. for Davey and Wood, J. & M. for
Johnston and Mawson. Since in all the species of Strongylidae from marsupials
the dorsal ray divides into four branches (in nearly all species by two successive
divisions), we have referred to “first branches” and “final branches,” and to
“first bifurcation” and “second bifurcation” of this ray without further explana-
tion. The first branches are the two resulting from the first bifurcation of the
ray, and the “final branches” are the four resulting from the bifurcation (‘final
bifurcation”) of cach of these twa.

We have used the term “buccal ring” to indicate a chitinised ring around the
buccal cavity; and the terms bipartite and tripartite to indicate a transverse divi-
sion into two or three parts respectively.

KEY TO SUPER-FAMILIES

1 Oesophagus consisting of a narrow tube passing through the centre of a row of

single cells. Trichurvidea
Oesophagus nat as above. 2
2 Males with a bursa copulatrix supported by rays. Strongyloidea
Males without a bursa copulatrix. 3
3 Ocsophagus dilated posteriorly to a bulb. Oxyuroidea
Ocsophagus nat dilated posteriorly to a bulb. 4
4 Head with two lateral lips. Spiruroidca
Head without lips. Filarioidea

KEYS TO FAMILIES AND SUB-FAMILIES
Tricuuromea Raillict 1916

Male with spicule or copulatory sheath. Trichuridae
Anterior part af body longer than posterior. Trichurinac

StroncyLoiea Weinland 1858
1 Short filiform worms with buccal capsule usually small or absent. Trichostrongylidae

Female with double genitalia. Trichostrongylinae
Stout worms with buccal capsule well developed.
2 Mouth opening with teeth or cutting plates. Ancylostomatidae
Buccal capsule sub-globular with cutting plates. Neeatorinae
Mouth opening without tecth or cutting plates. Strongylidae
Buccal capsule cylindrical or ring-shaped. Trichoneminae
Buccal capsule sub-globular. Strongylinae

“Trans. Roy. Soe. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

364

OxyvroweEs Raillict and Henry 1916

Male with pre-cloacal sucker. Subuluridae
Anterior part of oesophagus much longer than bulb. Subuluritiac:

Male without pre-cloacal sucker. Oxyuridae
Male with gubernaculum. Syphactinac
Male without gubernaculum. Oxyurinac

Sprrcromea Railliet and Henry 1915

Cuticle with chitinous spines anteriorly. Rictularidae (Rictulariinae)
Cuticle smooth, cephalic collarette present. Physalopteridae (Physalopterinac)}
Cuticle smooth, cephalic collarette absent. Spiruridae
Lips large, trilobed. Spiroxymae
Firarromar Weinland 1858
Vulva atrophied in gravid female. Filartidae
Mouth surrounded by chitinous ring. Setartinac

KEYS TO GENERA AND SPECIES IN EACH SUB-FAMILY

TricHuRIXNAE Ransom 1911

With the characters of the subfamily Trichuris Roederer
From Australian marsupials (bandicoots). Trichuris peramelis Baylis (6, 21)

TRICHOSTRONGYLINAE Leiper 1908

1 With definite buccal capsule.
Without definite buccal capsule.

2 Buccal capsule containing one dorsal tooth only. Nicollina Baylis (3, 4)

a Dorsal tooth about haif length of buccal capsule. sarcophili Cameron (11)
Dorsal tooth nearly as long as buccal capsule. .

b Body with 10 to 12 longitudinal crests. tachyglossi Baylis (3)

Body without longitudinal crests. echidnae Baylis (3)

Buccal capsule containing one dorsal, and one or two ventral teeth.
Austrostrongylus Chandler (12)
a Dorsal ray dividing into three pairs of branches.
Dorsal ray dividing into two pairs of branches,
b First pair of branches arising before mid-length. thylogale J. & M. (24)
All three pairs of branches arising togcther. aggregata J. & M. (25)
c First pair branches of dorsal ray arising just proximal! to final bifurcation.
macropodis Chandler (13)
First pair of branches coming off at about mid-length of dorsal ray.
d One ventral tooth; vulva one-sixth body-length from tip of tail.
wallabiae J. & M. (20)
Two ventral teeth ; vulva one-ninth body-length from tip of tail. minutus J.& M. (18)

3 Bursa asymmetrical. Asynumetricostrongylus Nagaty (34, 35)

a Head with six lips. trichuris J. & M. (20)
Head without lips.

b Dorsal ray dividing after half length. dissimilis (Wood) (39)

Dorsal ray dividing about third length.
c Vulval flap present in female; spicules -19 to -21 mm. long. austraiis (Wood) (39)

No vulval flap; spicules -17 mm. long. asynuonetricus (Cameron) (10)
Bursa not asymmetrical. Filarinema Moénnig (33)
Dorsal ray bifurcating at mid-point. flagrifer Moénnig (33)
Dorsal ray bifurcating near tip; pair of lateral branches given off posterior to root
of externo-dorsal ray. peramelis J. & M. (18)

The following unclassified Trichostrongyle worms have been recorded:
Trichostrongylus (s.1.) spp. J. & M. (22), from Dasyurus maculatics.

NECATORINAE Lane 1917

Mouth opening antcro-ventrally. ffypodontus Monnig (32)
Males 13-15 mm. long; females 17-20 mm.; vulva -24 mm. from tip of tail.
macropt Monnig (macrapodis) (32)
Male 11 mm. long; female 14 mm.; vulva -3 mm, from tip of tail.
thetidis J. & M. (20)

be NS

365

STRONGYLINAE Ruilliet 1893
Buccal capsule cylindrical, without tooth.
Ovesophagostomoides (O. giltneri) Schwartz (36)
Buccal capsule subglobular, with large tooth, Glovocephaloides Y. & M. (40)
a Tooth about quarter length of buccal capsule, latter 130 long. afints J. & M. (19)
Tooth about third length of buccal capsule, latter 55-60 4 long.
macropodis Y, & M, (40)
Tooth about half length of buccal capsule, latter 55-60 4 long.
b Chitinous supports to buccal capsule arising just behind its base.
; wallabiae J, & M. (19)
Chitinous supports arising well behind base. thetidis J. & M. (20, 25)

TRICHONEMINAE Railliet 1916
Buccal capsule followed by vestibule. Pharyngostrongylus ¥. & M. (40)
(Yor key to species see later.)
Vestibule absent.
No lips or papillae around mouth. Spirostrongylus (S. spirostrongylus) ¥.& M. (40)
Six or eight prominent lips.
Four elongate papillae around mouth, usually bi-partite.
No definite lips but with 6 or 8 papillae around mouth,
Thin cuticular frill around neck region. Parazoniolaimus (P. collaris) J. & M, (20)

No such frill, Zonolainus Cobb (14, 19)
(For key to species see later.)
Internal feaf crown of six elements. Cloacina Linstow (28, 17)

(lor key to species sec later.)
Internal leaf crown of eight elements. Phascolosirongylus (P. turleyi) Canavan (12)
Buccal capsule elongate, anterior edge forming leaf crown of four elements.
Buccostrongylus J. & M. (19)
a Head without definite lips and bearing four long setae.
Head with definite lips.

b Buccal cavity narrower at top; 20-30 », long. buccalis J. & M. (19)
Buccal cavity wider at top; 70-80 y long. setifer J. & M. (20)
c Head with six lips. australis J. & M. (19)
Head with two circles of two lips each. labiatus J. & M. (20)

Buccal cavity of varying length, no leaf crown.
Buccal capsule shallow, around base of buccal cavity.
Worms over 3 cm. long; final branches of dorsal ray round and short.
Paramacropostrongylus (P. typicus) J. & M. (24)
Worms shorter than 3 cm.; final branches of dorsal ray tapering.
Cyclostrongylus J. & M. (20)
a Oral papillae rounded. gatlardit J. & M. (20)
Oral papillae cylindrical. clelandi J. & M. (20)
Oral papillae conical.
b Oesophagus pear-shaped; spicule: body length = 1,:5-6. — dissimilis J. & M. (20)
Oesophagus cylindrical, ending in bulb: spicule : body length = 2: 1-2.
qwallabiae J. & M. (20)
Leaf crown present.
Leaf crown absent.
Lateral oral papillae longer than submedian. Macropostrongylus ¥. & M. (40)
(For key to species sce later.)
Lateral oral papillae equal to or shorter than submedian.
Coronostrongylus (C. coronatus) J. & M. (19)
Eight oral papillae of different shapes. Papillostrongylus (P. labiatus) J. & M. (19)
Six rounded oral papillae. Maplestonema (M. typicum) J. & M. (20)

Key to Species of PHARyNGostronGLUS Y. & M. 1926
Vestibule longer than -06 mm.
Vestibule shorter than -06 mm.
Vestibule wall without striations. iota J. & M. (20)
Vestibule wall striated diagonally.
Vestibule wall with transverse striations,

Bifid bristles on submedian oral papillae. gamma J. & M. (19)
No bristles on oral papillae. ornatus D, & W (15)
Vestibule about -06 mm. long. eta J. & M. (19)
Vestibule about -2--23 mm. long. macropodis Y. & M. (40)

Vestibule with wall subdivided.
Vestibule wall not subdivided.

tutte ta

Lam ce)

366

Vestibule wall bipartite. epsilon J. & M. (19)
Vestibule wall tripartite. 8
Vestibule short, thick-walled. parma J. & M. (20)
Vestibule with straight thin walls. 9
Dorsal ray very stout; branches short. delta J. & M. (19)
Dorsal ray thin; branches long, arched. seta J. & M. (19)
Bursa not papillated, lateral lobes not separated from dorsal. theta J. & M. (20)
Bursa usually papillated, all lobes partly separated. 10
Dorsal ray divided to base, each branch bidigitate. woodwardi Wood (39)
Dorsal ray divided about mid-length. 11
Leaf crown present. 12
Leaf crown absent. 13
leaf crown of ten clements. brevis Canavan (12)
Leaf crown of forty elements. australis (Ménnig) (37)
Bristles on each oral papilla; spicule : body length = 1: 3. beta J. & M. (17)
No bristles on oral papillae; spicule : body length = 1: 5-6. alpha J. & M. (17)

Key to Species of ZoxroLarmus Cobb 1898
Spicules 1:5 mm. long. brevicaudatus Cobb (14, 20)

Spicules at least 5 mm. long. 2
With six lips. 3
With cight lps. 10
With pair of accessory structures at base of each submedian lip. eugenti J. & M. (23)
Without such structures. 4
Lateral branches of dorsal ray arising before bifurcation. 5
Lateral branches of dorsal ray arising after bifurcation. 8
Ratio of spicule to body length about 1:9. 6
Ratio of spicule to body length 1:3-2. 7
Lateral lips each with one median papilla. bancrofti J. & M. (19)
Lateral lips each with two papillae, at anterior margins, bipapillosus J. & M. (19)
Dorsal ray long and narrow; lateral lips long; bristles on submedian lips long.
clelandi J. & M. (20)
Inner branches of dorsal ray long; vagina short; submedian papillae half-way up lips.
communis J. & M. (19)
Inner branches of dorsal ray short; vagina long; submedian papillae below half-way
on lips. longispicularis (Wood) (39, 17)
Posterior half of oesophagus widened. 9
Ocsophagus cylindrical. petrogale (J. & M.) (17)
Ratio of spicules: body length = 1: 6-9. uncinatus J. & M. (19)
Ratio of spicules': body length = 1: 2-6. onychogale J. & M. (19)
Very short worms; males 7°75 mm. setifer Cobb (14, 20)
Longer worms; males over 10 mm. 11
Submedian lips shorter then others. wallabiae J. & M. (20)
Submedian lips not shorter than others. 12
Spicules short (1:8-10 body length). 13
Spicules long (122-5-3-5 body length). 14

Externo-dorsal and externo-lateral rays very short. lablostrongylus (Y. & M.) (40)
Externo-dorsal and externo-lateral rays three-quarters length of laterals.

insularis J. & M. (19)
First pair of branches of dorsal ray dividing at mid-length into fairly _long branches
with rounded ends. grandis (J. & M.) (17)
First pair of branches of dorsal ray dividing near tips into short rounded branches.

macropodis (J. & M.) (17)

Zoniolaimus spp. not identified either because of their condition or because of the absence
males have been recorded from the following hosts: Afacropus thetis, M. major,

_ ualabatus and M. ruficollis.

Key to Species of Croactna Linst, 1898

Without oral papillae. dubia J. & M. (17)
With oral papillae.
Without lateral lips. wallabiae J. & M. (20)

With six lips, or no lips.

With definitely inflated cervical cuticle.
Without definitely inflated cervical cuticle.
Qesophagus with accessory butb.
Ocsophagus without accessory bulb.

Nun Btu

367

Buccal capsule long, narrow, thin-walled. liebigt J. & M.
Buccal capsule short, wide. inflata J. & M.

Cuticular inflation extending to posterior end of oesophagus. expansa J. & M.

Cuticular inflation extending to middle of oesophagus, longispiculata J
Ocsophagus club-shaped or straight.
Ocesophagus with terminal bulb.

Buccal ring wavy.

Buccal ring straight.

Elements of leaf crown separate; no accessory lips. bancroftorian J
Each clement of leaf crown joined to accessory lip. thetidis J

Submedian oral papillae prominent.

Submedian oral papillae small.

Tips of elements of leaf crown recurved. magnipapillala J.

Tips of elements of leaf crown simple.

Distance from top of lips to oesophagus short.

Distance from top of lips to oesophagus long. robertsi J

Lateral branches of dorsal ray given off just after first branches.
burnettiana J

-& M.

/& M.
J& M.

& M.

cornutus (D. & W.)

.& M.
.&M.

(17)
(17)
(20)
(19)

(19)
(20)
(20)

(15)
(19)

(19)

Two first branches of dorsal ray cach dividing near tip into pair of equal branches,

Ocsophagus club-shaped. minor (D.
Qesophagus of more or Jess even width. curta J
Oesophagus with cardiac as well as terminal bulb.

Oesophagus with terminal bulb only.

Plump oral papillae; nerve ring around cardiac bulb. australis J.

Plump oral papillae ; cardiac bulb just anterior to terminal bulb. ernabella J
Thin oral papillae; buccal ring with narrow shelf projecting into cavity.
vestibulata J

& W.)
~& M.

& M.
.& M.

-&M.

Submedian papillae appearing spindle-shaped (proximal segment insignificant).

Submedian papillae obviously of two segments.
Buceal ring thin and deep. linstowt J

Buccal ring stout and shallow. dahli Linst.

Upper segments of submedian, papillae shorter.
Two segments of more or less equal length,
Buccal ring shallow, walls thick.

Buccal ring deep, walls thin.

Submedian oral papillae short.

Submedian oral papillae stout, large.

.& M.

Lips deep (measuring above constriction at “neck”).

Lips shallow,

Leaf crown present; anterior edge of buccal ring straight. parva J. & M.
Leaf crawn absent; anterior edge of buccal ring wavy. longelabiaia J. & M
Lips plump; tips of elements of leaf crown blunt. obtusa J. & M
Lips small; tips of elements of leaf crown pointed. gallardi J. & M
Submedian oral papillae standing away from head. hydriformis J. & M.
Submedian oral papillae bent towards mouth. frequens J. & M.

Female very Jong, with attenuate posterior end.

Female not especially attenuate.

Exeretory pore just behind nerve ring. magna }
Exerctory pore near bulb of oesophagus. communis J.

Spicules less than 172-5 body length; vagina about 1-3 mm, long.

petroyale J.

Spicules more than 1:3-5 body length; vagina about 0-5 mm, long.

similis J.

Submedian papillae short, conical. macropodis J.
Submedian papillae long.

Lips absent; spicules 1:3 body length. elegans J.
Six lips; spicules half body length . digitata J

& M.
& M.
& M.

& M.
.& M.

(15)
(7)

(17)
(17)
(24)

(25)
(28)

. (7)
. (21)
. (20)
. (25)

(17)
(17)

. (17)
. 7)

(17)

(19)
(17)

(17)
(25)

27
28

Cloacina spp. not identifiable either because of their condition or because of the absence

Externo-dorsal ray not arising as above.
Buccal cavity supported only by ring at its base.
Walls of buccal cavity more or less completely chitinised.

baylisi Wood (39)
australis Y. & M. (40)

males, have been recorded from the following hosts: Miacropus apicalis, M. welsbyi,
_ ayilis and Isoodan obesulus by J. & M. (19); and from Macropus ualabatus and M. thetis
J.&M. (20).
Key to Species of Macrorostroncy.us Y. & M. 1926
Externo-dorsal ray arising from base of dorsal.

368

3 Buccal capsule more than twice as long as broad. labiatns D. & W. (15)
Buccal capsule less than twice as long as broad. 4
4 Lateral and submedian papillae conical; laterals much larger.
macropostrongylus ¥. & M, (40)

Lateral papillae rounded; submedian conical, 5
All oral papillae rounded. o
Submedian papillae rounded with digitiform projections; laterals large, domed.
macrostoma D. & W. (15)
5 Buccal cavity about as decp as broad. yvorkei Baylis (2)
Buccal cavity half to a third as deep as broad. dissimilis J. & M. (20)
6 Lateral papillae lip-ke; much longer than submedian, lesouefi J. & M. (20)
Lateral papillae not much longer than submedian., 7
7 Shelf projecting from buccal capsule into buccal cavity; bifid bristle on each sub-
median papilla. pearsont J. & M. (24)
No such shelf present; no bristles on papillae. wallabiae J. & M. (20)

SUBULURINAE Travassos 1914
Male with two spicules and gubernaculum; preanal sucker simple. Subulura Molin 1860
With six lips and six interlabia. peramelis Baylis (5, 21)
With six lips and no interlabia. peragale J. & M. (25)
SyrHaciinag Railliet 1916

Vestibule unarmed; tail of male ending in spike. Syphacia
To this has been referred the species (male unknown). — trichosurt J. & M. (18)

Oxyurtvae Hall 1916

Vestibule unarmed; tail of male ending in spike.
Austroxyuris (A. finlaysont) J. & M. (18)
Vestibule with three teeth, male tail ending in spike. Passalurus Duj. 1845
To this has been referred the species. parvus J. & M. (18)
Other oxyuroid worms recorded but not classified are: Oxyuris (s.1.) acuticaudata
J. & M. (18) from Petauroides, volans; Oryuris (s.1.) potoroo J. & M. (22) from Potorous
tridactylus.
RicruLartinak Hall 1913
Series of circles of spines on anterior part of body; spines of first three rows very
large. Echinonema CE. cinctum) Linst, (40)

PHYSALOPTERINAE Railliet 1893
Cervical papillae simple, caudal alae meeting in front of cloaca; vulva in front of

middle of body; without prepuce-like sheath over head, Physaloptera

a No trilobed inner tooth on each lip. papuensis J. & M. (25)
Outer tooth on each lip shorter than inner. peramelis J. & M. (21)
Outer tooth on each lip longer than inner. b

b Cervical collarette wide, loose; vulva one-third body length from head.
sarcophili J. & M. (25)
Cervical collarette almost absent; vulva just in front of mid-body.
parvicollaris J. & M. (25)

Cervical collar of medium size. C
¢ Vulva one-third body length from head. peragale J. & M. (24)
Vulva a quarter body length from head. thalaconuys J. & M. (25)

The following species has been recorded but not fully classified: PAysaloptera sp.
J. & M. (23) from Thylogale eugenit.

SrrroxyINar Baylis and Lane 1920

With two large trilobed lips bearing teeth. Protospirura Seurat
To this has been referred the species. marsupialis Baylis (2, 7a, 18)

SETARIINAE Y. & M. 1926
All fully described filarial worms from Australian marsupials fall in the genus
Dipetalanema Diesing 1861.
Key to Australian Species of DiperaLonemMa
1 Head so small that papillae indistinguishable. capilliforme Baylis (7)
Head papillae in two rings around head. robertst J. & M. (18)
Three pairs head papillae. 2
Two pairs head papillae. 6

369

Lateral papillae large. 3
Lateral papillae small. 4
Buccal capsule spherical. dendrolayt Solomon (37)
Buccal capsule tubular. tenuc J. & M. (16)

Male 57 cm.; female 9-5 cm. long; male with caudal papillae in ring around cloaca.

annulipapillatum J. & M.
Male 10-13 cm.; female 18-40 cm.; male with caudal papillae in two longitudinal rows.
Shorter spicule quarter length of longer. spelaca (Leidy) (26, 38, 8, 16)
Shorter spicule half length of longer. trichosurit (Breinl) (9, 1, 16)
Female relatively stout; vulva in ovsophageal region; wide caudal alae in male.

roemeri Linst. (30, 1, 16)
Temale thin; vulva just post-oesophageal; male unknown. rarum J. & M. (16)
Female thin; vulva some distance behind oesophagus; no caudal alae in male.

dasyuri J. & M. (16)

The following unclassified Dipctalonema spp. have been recorded: from Perameles nasuta

Gung); J. & M. (21, 22); Macropus ruficollis (liver) J. & M. (21); Petrogale penicillata
(voelome) J. & M. (21); Dendrolagus lumholtzid (coelome) J. & M. (16); Wallaby, probably
Wallavia bicolor (liver) J. & M. (23); Macropus thetis (liver) J. & M. (25). D. sp. J. & M.
(21) from Perameles nasuta, and “Nematode sp.” Linst. 1898 (29) from Dasyurus hallucatts,
possess heads similar to that of D. robertst, Also Filaria (sJ.) spp. from Dasyurus maculatus
(coclome); Trichosurus caninus (peritoneum); Potorous tridactylus (liver), recorded by
J. & M. (16), and from Dendrolagus bennettianus (mesentery) by J. & M. (25). Filaria
dentifera Linst. 1889 (29) from Trichosurus vulpecula is apparently a larval form with head

surmounted by a large tooth.

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Trop. Med. Parasit., 26, 457-518

Nacaty, H. F. 1938 The genera Asymetricostrongylus Nagaty 1932 and
Libyostrongylus Lane 1923, ete. Livro Jub. Prof. L. Travassos, Inst.
Osw. Cruz, 341-352

Scuwartz, B. 1928 Two new nematodes of the family Strongylidae para-
sitic in the intestine of mammals. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 73, (2), 1-5

Soromon, S. G. 1933 Notes on a new species of Beinlia. Jour. Helminth.,
11, (2), 101-104

Watton, A. C. 1927 A revision of the nematodes of the Leidy collection.
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 79, 49-163

Woop, W. A. 1929 Some parasitic nematodes from Western Australia.
Rep. Dir. Tnst. Anim. Path., Cambridge, (1929) 1930, 205-214

Yorwer, W., and Maprestone, P. A. 1926 The nematode parasites of ver-
tebrates. T.ondon

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA NO. 39

By J. M. BLACK, A.LS.
Summary

SCHEUCHZERIACEAE
Triglochin ovoidea n. sp. Herbula annua flaccida; folia fere capillaria plerumque quam scapi
longiora; scapi gracillimi 4-7 cm. longi; racemus terminalis densus 8-13 mm. longus 10-35 florus;
fructus ovoideus vel fere ellipticus 1-1'/, mm. longus */, mm. crassus; carpidiis tribus fertilibus
subcylindricis dorso rotundatis excalcaratis, tribus sterilibus carpophorum simulantibus.

371

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
No. 39

By J. M. Bracx, A.LS.
[Read 10 October 1940]

ScCHEUCHZERIACEAE

Triglochin ovoidea n.sp. Ilerbula annua flaccida; folia fere capillaria
plerumque quam scapi longiora; scapi gracillimi 4-7 cm. longi; racemus terminalis
densus 8-13 mm. longus 10-35 florus; fructus ovoideus vel fere ellipticus 1-11 mm.
longus 4 mm. crassus; carpidiis tribus fertilibus subcylindricis dorso rotundatis
excalcaratis, tribus sterilibus carpophorum simulantibus.

Beside Lake Bonney, River Murray, Dec. 1924, C. D. Andrew.

Resembles in habit 7. hexagona, from which it scarcely differs except in the
fruit. In Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49, 271 (1925) I erroneously called this
species T. Muelleri Buch., not having at that time seen an authentic specimen
of that plant.

CyPERACEAE

Schoenus brachyphyllus Fv. M. Mr. S. T. Blake, after examining the type
of the Western Australian S. laevigatus W. V. Fitzg., finds that the latter differs
from our species in the lower glumes of the spikelet glabrous and the upper ones
only minutely ciliate, the nut somewhat larger, darker and almost globular (not
obovoid), and the hypogynous bristles better developed. S. brachyphyllus has
only been collected along the Hindmarsh Valley, Myponga and Encounter Bay.

Schoenus foliatus (Hook. {.) S. T. Blake in Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 51, 48
(1940) instead of avillaris (R. Br.) Poir. Encycl. Suppl. 2, 251 (1811), non
Lam. Tlustr. 1:137 (1791). A change of name under the law of priority —
Scirpus foliatus Hook. f. in Lond. Journ. Bot., 3, 414 (1844).

Inman Valley; Millicent, S.E&—Also Eastern States, Tasmania and New
Zealand.

Schoenus deformis (R. Br.) Poir—Beachport, S.E., summer 1930-40,
R. L. Crocker. A new locality, Small specimens, with Icaves more ar less curved.

Cyperus sanguinolentus Vahl, Enum. Pl, 2, 351 (1806) instead of
C. Eragrostis, Vahl, le. 322. This change is necessary owing to C. Eragrostis
Vahl being a later homonym of C. Eragrostis Lam. Illust. 1/196 (1791).—
Mount Compass; marsh near Victor Harbour.—-Also Eastern States and southern
Asia.

Cyperus dactylotes Benth. instead of C. Clelandit J. M. Black in Proc. Roy.
Soc. S. Aust., 48, 253 (1924). An examination of my type by S. T. Blake proves
that these species are identical—Cordillo Downs-—Also in the Eastern States.

JUNCACEAE

*Juncus acutus I.. Ethelton, near Port Adelaide, “well established on tidal
flats,” June 1940, J. B. Cleland, Near J. maritimus Lamk., from which it differs
in a denser panicle, the inner perianth-segments obtuse instead of acute and the
reddish-brown capsule twice as long as the perianth—Almost world-wide, but
not hitherto found in Australia,

CHENOPODIACEAE

Salicornia Blackiana Ulbrich (1934) = S. pachystachya J. M. Black (1921)
non Bunge ex Ungern-Sternberg (1866). Cliffs at mouth of South-West River,
KI; Jan. 1940; J. B. Cleland. A new locality.

Trans. Roy. Soc, S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

Re Boe «| oan

wet

AC \I rae yo as

wil

Ga peer i

5 amici ae
ee
& “=
iN ‘

——
a

ae
4

b and ¢, two stamens.
, flower; ¢, one valve of po

hella—a, ovary and style;

Fig. 1 Correa pule

d; f, f, two leaves; g, pod and part

Fig. 2 Geococcus Fiedleri—d

of peduncle.

Fig. 3 Helipterum

two

receptacle and

i, conical

flawer ;

fertile

chlorocephahun — h,

involucral bracts.

373

UMBELLIFERAE

Hydrocotyle rugulosa Turez—Kingston, S.E.; summer 1939-40; R. L.
Crocker. A new locality.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE
*Tunica prolifera (L.) Scop. (Dianthus prolifer L.), The Bluff (Rosetta
Head), Encounter Bay. Nov, 1935, J. B. Cleland, “Abundant.”—A new locality.

RANUNCULACEAE

*Adomits aestivalis L Between Blyth and Clare, Nov. 1917, H. W. Andrew;
between Redhill and Snowtown, Oct. 1924, J, D. Somerville ; Sutherlands, Sept.
1929, E. I, Boehm, Georgetown, Aug. 1939, J. G. Wood, This South-European
plant, with showy bright-red flowers, is doubtless an escape from gardens. Pro-
fessor Wood reports its occurrence in fields near Georgetown. Known to gar-
deners as Pheasant’s Eye.

CRUCIFERAE

Geococcus Fiedlert Scheuermann in Fedde Repert., 147, 262 (1939).
According to the author this plant differs from G. pusillus J. Drumm. in having
12-14 leaf-lobes instead of only 6-8, and the pod 1 em. long, lanceolate, acute,
reticulate, instead of 23-5 mm. long and ovate-cblong, This is the only form
collected in South Australia and has hitherto passed as a form of G, pusilus.
The type of G. Fredleri was found growing in a garden at Leipzig where refuse
of Australian wool had been thrown, A specimen was sent by Scheuermann to
the Kew botanists, who reported that they had no identical material, Our
specimens have 10-14 triangular lobes (besides the large terminal one), opposite
cr alternate, and decreasing in ‘size towards the base of the leaf, The pod is
5-12 mm. long, terete down to the base, where it becomes cordate-sagittate, A
higure of the type of G. pusillus, which came from Western Australia, is. given in
Schulz’s revision of Cruciferae in the second edition of the “Nat. PHanzen-
familien,” and agrees with Scheuermann’s observations. The details of the new
species given here (fig. 2) are drawn from South Australian specimens,

LEGUMINOSAE
Glycme tabacina (Labill.) Benth—Banks of Willochra Creek near Melrose,
Dee. 1938, J, B. Cleland. Recorded by Mueller for Crystal Brook and Rocky
River, but has not been collected for many years past.
Pultenaca scabra R. Br—Deep Creek. south of Second Valley Forest
Reserve, flowering and fruiting, Dec, 1938, J. B. Cleland; Mount Gambier (no
collector or date), First mainland records in South Australia.

Rosackar
*Poterium Sanguisorba L. Sheep’s Burnet or Salad Burnet. Between
Beaumont and Waterfall Gully, Nov. 1931; on railway line near Goolwa, Nov.
1935, J. B. Cleland, “Abundant.” A new record.—Europe and temperate Asia.
Naturalised in Victoria and New South Wales,

RUTACEAE
Correa
Mr. Edwin Ashby has published in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society
of London, session 151, 214-221 (1939), a revision of the South Australian species
of Correa, with descriptions of three new species.
C. affinis Ashby, lc. 215, is distinguished by the author from C. aemula
(Lindl.) F. v. M. by thinner leaves, a more slender peduncle with the broad bracts

374

at its base instead of at the summit, and the pedicel with two linear bracteoles.
C. affinis is proposed as a new name for our South Australian specimens hitherto
placed under C. aemula, The type of the latter was collected near the Grampian
Range in Victoria, I regret that I am unable to recognise any specific differences.
A specimen from the Grampians in the Tate Herbarium, and one kindly sent
me by Mr. Ashby from his garden at Blackwood as C. aemula, agree with our
local specimens in having two ovate bracts at the summit of the peduncle and
two linear bracteoles attached to the slender pedicel at the spot where it is jointed.
It is noteworthy that neither Bentham nor Mueller, with a large collection from
both States before them, considered even a varietal distinction necessary.
C. aemila is well illustrated on plate 7 of Mueller’s “Plants Indigenous to
Victoria.”

Another new species is C. neglecta Ashby, Lc. 217, with its variety minor,
lc. 219, both of which the author was good enough to send me specimens
grown in his garden. Var. minor is evidently the same as C. pulchella Sweet,
Fl]. Australasica t. 1 (1827-28), The description and figure are from a plant
grown in England from seed collected on Kangaroo Island in 1823 by William
Baxter. I think Sweet’s name covers both neglecta and its variety, because the
leaves of the Kangaroo Island specimens are, especially the lower ones, often as
rigid and broad as those from Yorke Peninsula. I also think Ashby is right in
considering this a valid South Australian species and not a form of C. glabra
Lindl. (1939), which was found in western New South Wales and has a
green corolla. The original description of pulchella states that the leaves are
leathery, broadly ovate, obtuse, subcordate at base, stellate when young, becoming
glabrous ; flowers solitary, pendulous, of a bright salmon colour ; calyx cup-shaped,
truncate, not toothed. This graceful shrub evidently became a favourite in Eng-
land, for it is also figured in Loddige’s Botanical Cabinet, t. 1684. C. pulchella
is known by its glabrous appearance, its leaves flat or slightly concave above
owing to the upturned margins, 1-2 cm. long ‘by 5-15 mm. broad, and by its
slender curved pedicels 5-8 mm. long, with two short, linear or lanceolate caducous
bracteoles at base, the peduncle short or almost obsolete, with two leafy bracts
at base; calyx 4-5 mm. long; corolla red, 24-28 mm. long; filaments as long as
corolla or slightly exserted, alternately broader in lower part; style usually
stellate-hairy towards base; rhachis of branches and branchlets more or less
stellate-hairy (fig. 1).

Localities for C, pulchella: Rocky River, Stokes Bay, Kingscote, Cape Borda
(Kangaroo Island); Point Yorke, Cape Spencer, Corny Point, an island in
Pondalowie Bay (Yorke Peninsula); Port Lincoln, Cape Donington, Streaky
Bay (Eyre Peninsula, and there sometimes with narrower oblong leaves, chan-
nelled above). It is evidently a coastal species.

The third new species is C. Turnbullii Ashby Lc, 219, grown at Blackwood
from seedlings obtained by the author on Chauncy’s Line, Hundred of Frecling.
Mr. Ashby, who does not keep dried specimens, was only able to send me a small
branch with leaves and one calyx, but, judging from this sample and from the
author’s description, the new species is almost certainly the same as a specimen
collected at Monarto South in 1921 by Professor Cleland. “The leaves resemble
those of C. decumbens, but the calyx (5 mm. long) is truncate and toothless and
the reddish corolla is shorter (16-18 mm. long), the filaments alternately broader
towards base, but not so much exserted, the style stellate-hairy in lower part.
A specimen from Port Vincent, Yorke Peninsula, appears to be the same plant,
the chief difference being that the hairs are denser and more persistent. It is
satisfactory that this shrub, which is litthe known and seems to be rare, has
received a name,

375

We have still, however, several specimens which do not fit into even that
polymorphous species C. rubra Sm., and the genus remains in need of a Pan-
Australian revision.

Ty MELAEACEAE

Pimelea flava R. Br. Between Millicent and Robe, S.E., October 1939,
£. C. Black. Flowers yellow. A new locality.

SOLANACEAE

Solanum hoplopetalum, Bitter et Summerhayes——Coombe railway siding,
00-Mile Desert, Feb. 1940. Specimen received per E. S. Alcock, Mount Gambier.
There are thinly scattered short simple hairs on the leaves and branchlets, but
the hairs are not so dense as on the typical Western Australian specimens of
S. hoplopetalum, The specimen from Coombe is therefore intermediate between
S. hystriy R. Br. and S. hoplopetalum. Moreover, the typical specimens of the
former from Murat Bay and Ooldea are not completely glabrous (apart from
the stout bristles), but have often a few short hairs on the petioles and branches.
The question therefore arises whether S. hystrix should not be considered as a
species varying from almost glabrous to rather densely pubescent, and whether
S. hoplopetalum should not be dropped altogether, or included as a slight variety.

COMPOSITAE

Toxanthus perpusillus, Turcz, Ooldea Soak. Aug. 1939, J. B. Cleland. A
new locality.

*Matricaria inultiflora (Thunb.) Fenzl. This South African plant, reported
in 1931 as established north of Mallala, has now been found near Port Lincoln.
Nov. 1939, H. D. Adams.

Helipterum chicrocephalum (Turez.) Benth., Ooldea.—H. Troedelit, F. vy. M,
var. patens Ewart in Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict., 22 (n.s.), pt. i, 15 (1909) ; A. roseum
(Hook.) Benth. var. patens (Ewart) J. M. Black in ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.
45, 21 (1921). Has been found at Ooldea by several collectors since 1920 but
not elsewhere in our State. The first specimens found in that localitv were too
young to show the conical receptacle. The spreading rays of the inner involucral
bracts are pure white in our specimens, as well as in those from Western Aus-
tralia, with which they have been compared by the courtesy of Mr. C. A.
Gardner. The shorter outer bracts are sometimes greenish-brown. Under its
correct name this is a new record for South Australia (fig. 3).

*Achillea tomentosa |. Kingscote, K.I., Dec. 1934; Jan. 1940, J. BR.
Cleland. Flowers yellow.—Southern Europe.

THE MORPHOLOGY AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE TREMATODE,
DOLICHOPERA MACALPINI NICOLL

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and L. MADELINE ANGEL, University of Adelaide.
Summary

Dolicthopera macalpini Nicoll is a common parasite of the venomous tiger snake, Notechis
scutatus (Peters ) , found in swampy regions in South-Eastern Australia and frequently seen in the
Murray swamps in this State. The worm occurs in the trachea, the upper part of the lung and upper
six inches of the oesophagus. It has been reported from the intestine and peritoneum, but these
situations are not normal habitats for the adult, entry being due to injuries received by the snake
during capture. In the lung many flukes are to be found embedded in the alveoli, appearing as very
darkly pigmented bodies which can be squeezed out from the sacs.

376

THE MORPHOLOGY AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE TREMATODE,
DOLICHOPERA MACALPINI NICOLL

By T. Harvey JoHNstTon and L. Maperine Ancer, University of Adelaide
| Read 10 October 1940]

Dolichopera macalpini Nicoil 1s a common parasite of the venomous tiger
snake, Notechis scutatus (Peters). found in swampy regions in South-
Eastern Australia and frequentiy scen in the Murray swamps in this State.
The worm occurs in the trachea, the upper part of the lung and upper six inches
of the oesophagus. Jt has been reported from the intestine and peritoneum,
but these situaticns are not normal habitats for the adult, entry being due to
injuries reecived by the snake during capture, In the lung many flukes are to
be found embedded in the alveoli, appearing as very darkly pigmented
bodies which can be squeezed out from the sacs.

The trematode was first described (though not named) by McAlpine (1891),
whose material came from the copper head, Moplocephalits (ic., Denisonia )
superbus Gunther, from Victoria. Johnston (1910) reported it as Apoblema sp.
a distomid fluke with a small, but well marked, caudal appendage, occurring in
the oesophagus of LD. superba in the Sydney district (N.S.\V.). The same author,
in 1911, recorded it as Hemiurus sp. (syn. Apoblema sp.) from the same host
(p. 239) and from the black snake, Pscudechis porphyriacus (Shaw) (p. 238),
both from the vicinity of Sydney. These generic determinations were obviously
due to a mistaken view of the character of the caudal appendage which is quite
unlike that of [lemiurids. In 1914 Nicoll described Dolichopera parvula (1914,
342) from Python varicgalus from North Queensland, and attached the name
D. macalpini to the parasite described by McAlpine. He placed both species in
a new genus which he assigned doubtfully to the [epodermatidae, but he pointed
out that the position of the uterus was unique, other striking features bemg the
almost symmetrical arrangement of the testes, the atypical position of the ovary,
and the unustal disposition of the yolk glands. The location was stated to be
the intestine and lungs (?) of snakes. An account of D. macalpini was given
later by Nicoll (1918, 290), based on material from Nofechis seutatus and
Denisonia superba from Victoria (collected by Dr. G. Sweet) and from an un
named suake from Vlinders Island, Bass Strait (collected by Dr. J. B. Cleland).
Nicoll then considered that the normal habitat of the parasite was the lung,
trachea and oesophagus. In the same year (1918, 374) he published a figure of
PD. macalpini and mentioned that the worm was obtained from the two species of
snakes just named, the localities being given as New South Wales and Victoria.
In the same year Johnston (1918, 211-2) svnonymised his Apoblema sp. and
Hemiurus sp. with D. macalpini and stated that the snake from Flinders Island
(referred to by Nicoll) was Notechis sculatus.

Fairley and Splatt (1929, 337, 348), in referring to ophidian diseases, men-
iioned that 1). macalpini (identified by one of us) caused a most scrious malady
of Australian venomous snakes. In a letter to the senior author, dated 25 July
1928, Dr. Fairley stated that the parasite caused a high mortality amongst the
collection of poisouous snakes at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical
Research, Melbourne, consequently depreciating the venom yields.

Bradley (1926, 577) described briefly a young fluke, under the name Cercaria
nigrocystica, found in mixed bowel contents from “black snakes” in the Monaro
district of New South Wales. These small parasites were regarded as having
recently emerged from cysts. Johnston and Cleland (1937, 198) stated that

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 64 (2), 20 December 1940

377

Lradley’s trematodes represented the young stage of D. macalpini whose adult
occurred in the tiger snake and copper head, specimens of the parasite hav-
ing been obtained by them from New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia.
C. nigrocystica was therefore placed by them as a synonym of D. macalpini.

We have examined material from Notechis seutatus from New South Wales
(Sydney; Glenfield), Victoria and South Australia (South-East; Tailem Bend;
Pearson Island) ; and from Dentsonia superba from New South Wales (Sydney
district), Victoria, and Flinders Island, Tasmania.

Fig. 1, living cercaria (excretory system incomplete); 2, cercaria, formalinised,
showing genital anlagen; 3, cercaria, normal position when killed with boiling
formalin; 4, 6, metacercaria, living, showing form of excretory bladder; 5, meta-
cercaria, anatomy; 7, miracidium; 8, stylet; 9, sporocyst, 10-13, transverse sec-
tions of adult; 10, through genital pore and pharynx (somewhat oblique); 11,
through ovary and shell gland (somewhat oblique); 12, through transverse yolk
ducts; 13, through testes; 14-18, various stages of development in the snake; 14,
youngest stage (metacercaria), free in intestine; 15, stage from oesophagus
(? lung); 16, largest specimen not yet mature (from lung); 17, smallest egg-
bearing specimen; 18, young adult, showing disposition of uterine loops
Fig. 1 and 5 to same scale; 3 and 4; 7 and 8; 6 a sketch; 10 to 18 to same scale
(beside fig. 14).
Reference to lettering—ae, arm of excretory bladder; c, cirrus sac; cd, common
yolk duct; eb, excretory bladder; eg, excretory granules; gb, germ ball; gc, gland
cell; gm, germ mass; i, intestine; lc, Laurer’s canal; m, metraterm; n, nuclei;
0, ovary; oe, oesophagus; pg, primitive gut; pp, prepharynx; rs, receptaculum
seminis; sg, shell gland; t, testis; td, transverse yolk duct; u, uterus; yd, yolk
duct; yg, yolk gland.

378

‘The parasites are nearly black to the naked eye, with a colourless margin,
ihe heavy pigmentation being due to the dense mass of dark brown eggs in the
large looped uterus which occupies the greater part of the central area. The
worms, when mature, are fairly thick, usually with both ends broadly rounded,
but the posterior bears a short caudal projection arising slightly ventrally, this
prominence sometimes being somewhat lobed. The form of the parasite is
rariable, occasionally rather pointed posteriorly, and sometimes constricted behind
the acetabulum. There is a dense covering of spines, more closely set anteriorly.
They occur on all parts excepting the suckers, but including the caudal appendage.
Mature specimens vary from 2 to 4°8 mm.,, most of them being 3 to 4 mm, long,
with a maximum breadth (at the acetabulum) of from 1-3 to 1-7 mm. The ratio
of length to breadth is about 2°5:1. The oral sucker is subterminal, usually
directed ventrally, and measures 0-3 to 0°45 mm. in diameter. The acetabulum is
slightly behind the mid-body and measures 0°25 to -45 mm. in breadth, its dimeu-
sions being usually very slightly smaller than those of the anterior sucker. The
ratio of the two suckers is about 6" 5.

A broad, short prepharynx is present but is usually not obyious, ag it hes
above the posterior part of the oral sucker, The pharynx measures about +14 mm.
in diameter and is followed by a short oesophagus. The caeca extend just beyond
the testes and reach almost to the end of the worm where their tips are slightly
inturned.

The excretory bladder is very extensive, with a long wide stem lying between
the testes and passing forward to bifurcate just behind the shell gland, the wide
arms extending forward to surround the acetabulum except anteriorly. These
arms may reach some little distance in front of the ventral sucker, The main
canal arises from the corresponding arm at about the level of the middle of the
acetabulum and soon divides ito its anterior and posterior branches extending
almost, to either end of the worm. The excretory pore is at the tip of the caudal
appendage. The testes are usually elongate-elliptical, sometimes nearly circular
in outline, and lie side by side in the posterior quarter or fifth of the body, the
stem of the excretory bladder separating them. One testis is generally slightly
in advance of the other. The organs measure +33 to -4 mm. long, 15 to -18 mm.
wide, and about *2 mm. in dorso-ventral diameter. Their distance from the tip
of the body is usually about half their length. The very narrow vasa deferentia each
arise from the anterior end of the testis, the two travelling forward near Laurer’s
canal and above the shell gland, uniting just before entering the cirrus sac in, the
vicinity of the anterior half of the acetabulum. The sac extends in a curved
course from the latter to lie in the region between the two suckers. finally terminat-
ing toward one side, on a level with the posterior border or the mid-region of
the oral sucker. The organ has an even diameter of about °2--25 mm., and a
length of about 1:3 mm., thus being more than one-third of the body length, It
has a large seminal vesicle succeeded by a pars prostatica and a long ejaculatory
portion, The cirrus is unarmed. Amphitypy of the organ is common.

‘The spherical ovary, -14 to -2 mm. in diameter, lies immediately behind the
acetabulum. The oviduct arises from it on the side remote from the recepta-
culum seminis and has a well-defined spherical or pyriform oocapt with thick
walls and sphincter fibres. The duct curves downwards, close to the ovary for
a very short distance, bending inwards to join with the common yolk duct and
then entering the shell gland. The latter lies between the ovary, receptaculum
and the two arms of the excretory bladder, and below the level of the ovary and
recoptaculum. The ootyp. after passing through the gland, curves downwards
as the uterus which becomes thrown into a few coils below and behind the shell
gland, and may enter the most anterior part of the intertesticular zone. The
rounded or elliptical receptaculum seminis lies obliquely behind the ovary and

379

is of about the same size. It is connected with Laurer’s canal by a very short
duct dorso-posterior to the shell gland. Laurer’s canal passes back from the
ootyp as a long, narrow, sinuous duct above the excretory bladder, It has a
relatively thick wall and very narrow Jumen, and terminates on the dorsal surface
ncar the posterior end of the intertesticular zone.

The yolk glands are numerous, most of them being extra-caecal, lateral and
ventro-lateral from the crura but some follicles are dorsal. The series extends
from the level of the anterior border of the acetabulum to the vicinity of the ends
of the caeca. There are many ducts on cach side, these travelling inwards above
the crura and converging to form the transverse duct of each side. The duct of
one side travels just above the arm of the excretory bladder and immediately
below the antero-ventral border of the receptaculum; that: of the other side skirts
the ovary and dips downwards just outside the oviduct to meet its fellow below
the ovary but above the shell gland. A very short common yolk duct travels
ventrally to join the oviduct.

The mature ulerus is very extensive and becomes very wide in the mid-region
of the worm, After leaving the shell gland it travels forwards on one side of
the acetabulum, then backwards in a series of loops below the crus of the same
side, In the posterior region it is thrown into three or usually, four extensive
loops, two on cither side below the crura and the testes, these loops sometimes
reaching well behind the testes. In compressed specimens one of these loops may
become displaced so as to lie in the intertesticular zonc, giving an appearance like
that seen in typical Reniferine flukes. The uterus now travels forward on the
side opposite to its commencement, its folds lying below the crus and above part
of the acetabulum; it then crosses in front of the latter and below the cirrus sac
which may be largely obscured by its folds. The narrow, thick-walled metraterm
accompanies the cirrus sac and terminates between the male pore and
the oral sucker. Eggs are extremely abundant, brownish-yellow, dark brown in
the mass, and measure ‘028 to -034 mm. by “018 to: 019 mm.

Lire History

The adull trematodes, on being placed in water, rapidly pour out large
masses of eggs, just as Byrd (1935, 199) has recorded for Rentfer aniarum and
Dasymetra conferla. At different times prior to September 1939 we had tried
without result to hatch these eggs in water, and had also tried experimental infec-
tions of various molluscs from the Tailem Bend region. On 5 September 1939
eggs were placed in large petri dishes, to which were added several of each of ihe
following molluscs: Plotiopsis tatei, Ameria pyramidata, A. pectorosa, Planorbis
isingt, Corbiculina angasi, and Hyridella australis, which were known to be un-
infected. Aiter some days the molluscs were removed to aquaria, For a month
after expostire to infection they were tested far the presence of cercariae twice a
week, and subsequently, daily. On 25 October, that is, six weeks after being
subjected to infection, one Ameria pyramidata started giving off small xiphidio-
cercariae. In the following month four more Ameria pyraimidata and pectorosa
gave off cercariae. Subsequent dissection showed that none of the other molluscs
had become infected.

In May 1939 a comprehensive experiment to ascertain the intermediate host
produced only negative results. In February 1940 many Ameria were placed in
contact with eggs of Dolichopera, but none of those snails which survived pro-
duced cercariac. These experiments seem to indicate that spring is the normal
time of year for Ameria to become infected with D. macalpim. The cercaria of
this trematode belongs to a type which had been found frequently throughout the
summer when routine examinations of Ameria from Tailem Bend were made.

380

MuIRACIDIA

Though miracidia are present in the eggs when laid, we were unable to
obtain any hatching in water even after some months of immersion. Increasing
the temperature of the water also failed to bring about the result. Later a number
of Ameria were allowed to crawl over a dense mass of eggs. After one-and-a-half
hours some of the snails were crushed in half-normal saline. Miracidia could be
seen in the gut, attempting to pierce through its wall by means of the head-lobe.
Other snails which had been placed in contact with the eggs for periods of one
to four hours were killed, and serial sections were made. In those killed seventy
minutes after contact, some of the miracidia had hatched in the gut, while others
were beginning to escape from the egg shell. After three hours most of the shells
were empty, and the miracidia were free in the gut or penetrating the walls. Our
experience is thus similar to that recorded by Talbot (1933, 523) for eggs of
Lechriorchis, and by Byrd (1935, 199) and Walker (1937) for those of Kenifer
and Dasymetra.

‘The chief ieatures detected in the living miracidia were fairly long cilia, and
a number of fatty globules of varying sizes. Staining showed a number of large
nuclei in the posterior part of the miracidium; in most there were only eight of
these nuclei, but others showed as many as 19, all of them much smaller. There
are no eye spots. In the anterior part of the miracidium is a clear region, which
is evidently the primitive gut. Along each side of this is a narrow duct, which
appears to terminate in a large gland cell, the exact size of which could not be
determined. In the nucleated region are two fairly large germ masses, which
do not stain quite so deeply as the nuclei. From one to three yolk nuclei are
present within the egg shell, and these remain after the miracidium has escaped.

Sporocyst
The comparatively small sporocysts develop i the liver, which is generally
packed with them. There are a number of refractive granules which give the
sporocyst an opaque appearance. There are rarely more than two or three cer-
cariae, but a number of germ balls at various stages of development may also:
be present. The length of living sporocysts usually ranges from 184 by 100» to
470 by 167 »,. but same may be as large as 750 by 167 p.

CERCARIA

After their escape from the snail, cercariae swim for a second or two, the
body appearing spherical, and then come to rest with the body curved and elon-
gated and the tail hanging downwards. They are perhaps negatively phototropic.
Measurements of 20 formalinised specimens ranged from 220 to 340 yp, the
average length being 276». The width of the body was not taken on account of
inaccuracy due to the curved position assumed by the cercaria at death.

The body surface is covered with small spines which are more marked in the
preacetabular region, Caudal pockets are present. Small refractive excretory
granules are scattered throughout the body, but are not numerous. ‘The stylet is
24-7» long, the anterior truncated section being 8-5 »—that is, the ratio of the
anterior to the posterior section is 1 to 2, At its widest point (at the junction
of two sections) it is 3-8 wide. The oral and ventral suckers are almost equal
in size. There is a well-marked prepharynx. A short oesophagus follows the
latter, and the intestinal crura extend to about the mid-length of the post-
acetabular region. There is a group of about cight gland cells on either side, in
front of the ventral sucker.

The excretory bladder is roughly Y-shaped, the stem varying according to
the state of expansion or contraction of the cercaria. It may be simple, or may

381

consist of a posterior bulb-like portion and an anterior narrower tube from which
the wide arms of the bladder arise. When the cercaria is contracted, the arms do
not reach quite to the posterior border of the sucker, but they do so when the
body is extended. ‘Lhe main collecting tubes arise from about midway along each
arm, and the union of anterior and posterior collecting tubules is on a level with
the posterior border of the acetabulum.

The exact number and positions of the flame cells were not determined for
the cercaria. This was partly due to the fact that the experimental snails lived
only for a very short time after they commenced giving off cercariae, and partly
to the presence of ecystogenous cells throughout the body, which made the flame
cells difficult to sce. There appeared to be at least two groups of flame cells in
the most posterior region—posteriorly and laterally respectively to the main stem
vof the excretory bladder. The arrangement in the anterior half of the body was
ascertained in the metacercaria and will be mentioned later.

In the vicinity of the anterior border of the acetabulum is the anlage of the
-cirrus sac, and from this region the uterine strand of cells extends backwardly.
Near the posterior border of the acetabulum is the ovarian rudiment, and a cord
cof cells (anlage of Laurer’s canal) extends back from the latter almost to the
posterior end of the body. The testes are placed postero-laterally and on the
same level, and from each a fine vas deferens passes inwards and forwards.

Cyst STAGE

In experiments to determine the secondary intermediate host of D. macalpini,
infected Ameria were placed in aquaria with a number of different animals, The
wercariae were found to encyst in tadpoles, Lymnodynastes sp.: but not in the
fish, Gambusia affinis; the leech, Glossiphonia sp.; or in the gastropods, Plotiapsis
tatci and Ameria spp. The round cysts measure from 250 to 325 » in diameter,
the most usual size being 300. The cyst wall is brown, and recognition of the
outline of the metacercaria is rendered more difficult by reason of the distended
excretory bladder which is now packed full of refractive granules and appears
vas a large dark mass which may be bluntly Y-shaped, and forms a characteristic
feature of the encysted stage.

The cysts, when dissected out from the muscles and other tissues of the
tadpole, were kept in half-normal saline. After eight days some of the meta-
wercariae were still active.

METACERCARIA

‘The body spines of the metacercaria, though not very conspicuous, cover the
whole surface. The sucker ratio (anterior : ventral), measured for ten specimens,
is 4:3. he prepharynx is obvious. The intestinal crura bifurcate from the
short oesophagus some distance anteriorly to the acetabulum. In the living meta-
cercaria the crura appear to contain a number of granules, not so refractive and
not quite so large as those in the bladder. Staining with neutral red following
orange G shows a number of fusiform bodies in the caeca.

The excretory bladder is very large; it extends from the posterior border of
the body to the posterior level of the acetabulum, and the broad arms extend
laterally. In some specimens (depending on the state of expansion of the body)
they reach beyond the anterior border of the acctabulum, while in others, with
the body contracted, they appear to extend only half-way up the sides of that
organ. The bladder is packed with highly refractive granules which render the
body in this region quite opaque. The flame cells of the anterior half of the body
could be traced, but those of the posterior end were obscured by the granules in
the bladder. The main collecting tubes arise a short distance behind the anterior
end of each arm, and their bifurcation into the anterior and posterior collecting

tubes is on a level with the front border of the acetabulum, ‘Vhree accessory
tubules join the anterior collecting tubule, and each is formed by a group of three
flame cclls. As mentioned previously, there appeared to be at least two groups
of three flame cells in the posterior halt of the body of the cercaria, and the
arrangement in the anterior end of the body suggests that there may be another
group connected with the posterior collecting tube, making the flame cell formula
2[(3+3+3) +343+3) 1.

‘The geniial system in the metacercaria has ust reached very much greater
differentiation than that shown by the cercaria,

DEVELOPMENT IN TILE TIGER SNAKE

The tiger snake feeds largely on frogs. We have recovered cysts ot
i), macalpini either in, or amongst, digesting material belonging to Limnodynastes
tasmaniensis (platycephalus), L. dorsalis (dumerili) and Hyla aurea ranifornis,
at Tailem Bend. Cysts and escaping metacercariae have been found on several
oceasions in the intestine, and a complete series indicating growth and develop-
ment have been obtained from the intestine and the ling. Very young stages
have been found to be more or less abundant in the intestine of tiger snakes
collected from mid-August to October, as well as from carly February to early
May. It seems likely that infection by metacercarial cysts may occur at any time
from early spring until carly autumn, f.c., during the whole of the non-hibernat-
ing period of the reptiles.

In the smallest specimen studied, 42 by -28 mm., evidently an escaped meta-
cercaria, the excretory arms reached the level of the anterior border of the
acetabulum, the testes were very small, the two vasa deferentia were recognisable.
and the cirrus sac was a rounded, nearly median, structure behind the intestinal
bifurcations. The uterine cord was quite obvious, sinuous and extending from the
front of the cirrus sac backwards above the acetabulum to become continuous
with a thickened curved mass which showed some differentiation, indicating the
future ovary. The rest of the female anlage extended back as a sinuous cord of
cells representing Laurer’s canal. The young fluke docs not seem to advance
much beyond the stage just described while in the intestine.

Washings from the lung and oesophagus showed stages measuring from
"5 mm. upwards in length, Many of these (even one -5 mm, long) already had
developed the caudal appendage. The testes were very much larger, *15-'17 mm.
long, and more or less symmetrical. The cirrus sac was elongate and extended
forwards below one crus, reaching the level of the posterior border of the
pharynx. The uterine cord showed a well-marked loop between the ovary,
acetabulum and one testis, as well as one in front of the sucker. The ovary was
more distinct and rounded than in the earlier stage.

With further growth the female complex becomes more completely differen-
tiated. The largest worm which had not yet produced eggs measured 1°3 by
"5mm. It had testes -15--17 mm. long by -1 mm. wide, the uterus had a long loop
laterally from the acetabulum, while the uterus on the opposite side of the latter
was thrown into a number of short undulations. ‘The cirrus sac had the adult
form, was "5 mm, long, ‘O05 mm. wide, and opened in the adult position. The
yolk glands were extremely small but occupied the adult positions.

The smallest specimen seen with eggs measured 1-4 by -5 mm. The testes
were °35--4 mm. long; cirrus sac ‘5 mm. long by -1 mm. wide, and its posterior
end was adjacent to the well-developed spherical ovary, The yolk glands had
increased considerably in size, though still relatively smaller than in the adult.
The uterus resembled that of the stage just described above except that three or
four loops just indicated as appearing in the region between the testes and the

383

acetabulum in that stage were more pronounced in this specimen. In still later
stages these loops become much larger and may come to lie below the crura and
part af the testes, but there is little or no extension into the intertesticular zone.
With the increase in the number of eggs in the uterus the latter becomes more and
more swollen, until it may obscure most of the other organs.

The relationships of Delichopera are obscure. Nicoll (1914, 343) placed
it in Lepodermatidae, but stated (p. 344) that its inclusion there was somewhat
doubtful because of the arrangement of the testes and the position of the uterus.

Baer (1924, 26) considered Reniferinae Pratt 1902 to be worthy of family
rank, and in his Reniferidae he included Renifer, Lechriorchis and five ather
yenera, four of these seven (including the two named) being placed in Reni-
ferinae as restricted by him. ‘The family Lepodermatidae was considered to be
quite distinct from the Reniferidae, though the character of the uterus is similar
in both. Because of lack of information regarding the excretory system, Baer
was unable to assign Dolichopera to cither of the families (p. 30), but stated
that it was extremely doubtful whether Nicoll was correct in placing it in the
l.epodermatidae. Baer listed it (p. 31) amongst the ‘‘genera incerta” ot Reniferi-
cae. Travassos (1928) included Dolichopera without comment in Reniferinae.

Perkins (1928), in a review of the ‘Velorchiinae, p!aced Dolichopera under it,
remarking that the genus possessed a diagonal arrangement of the testes, as well
ws a uterus which, though overlapping the testes, did not penetrate the inter-
testicular zone. Perkins stated that it differed from elorchis Lithe only in ihe
more transverse arrangement of the testes, the more asymmetrical position of the
genital aperture, and the more extensive uterus; and that Dolichopera was the
Australian equivalent of that genus. A key to the genus was given (1928, 353).

Mehra (1931) gave an emended diagnosis of Remiferinae (Lepodermatidae )
and included Dolichopera under it (p. 173) as a very aberrant genus because of
the following characters—position of the genital pore near the right margin of
the hody on a level with the oral sucker; more or less symmetrically placed testes;
position of the ventral sucker behind the middle of the body; and the testes
situated in the last quarter of the worm,

Though Mchra (1937, 462) still places Delichopera in the Reniferinae, all
other recent workers dealing with the group (Ingles, 1933; Talbot, 1934;
McMullen, 1937; Byrd, 1935; Byrd and Denton, 1938) have restricted the sub-
family and also the Reniferidae to include those species possessing certain
characters (including the presence of a uterus passing between the testes and
extending to the posterior end of the body) which prevent the inclusion of the
Australian fluke.

The tendency recently is to regard the Reniferidae as a well-defined family
allied to the Plagiorchidae and some others, all of them being placed under the
Plagiorchioidea because of the general similarity in the adult and larval stages.
The subfamily Reniferinae is now restricted by McMullen (1937) and by Byrd
and Denton (1938) to a small group of allied genera (Dolichopera being definitely
excluded by the latter authors |p. 381] ), others being allotted to the Telorchiinae,
whose close relationship with the Reniferinae was stressed by McMullen (1935;
1937). The latter author (1934; 1935), as a result of his study of the life history
of Cercorchis conciuded that Telorchids were related to Plagiorchids. The various
genera now assigned to Reniferinae have been discussed by the authors mentioned
above, as well as by Price (1935; 1936). Byrd and Denton (1938) have published
generic diagnoses as well as keys for the genera and species,

Krom the foregoing it will be seen that the systematic position of Dolichopera,
based on the study of the adult stage, has not heen determined satisfactorily. We
will now consider the relationships of its larval stage, comparing it with similar
stages of several Reniferine species.

384

Cercaria brevicacca Cort (1914, 83; 1915, 62) is a typical Reniferine larva:
Amongs others there may be mentioned that of Zeugorchis syntomentera Sum-
walt, described by Ingles (1933) ; Caudorchis and Lechriorchis by Talbot (1933) :
Renifer, Dasymetra and Pneumatophilus (as well as Cercaria ramonae) hy
McCoy (1928) ; Renifer and Dasymeira by Byrd (1935); while the larval stages
of Cercorchis and Telorchis (Telorchiinae) have been studied by McMullen
(1935) and Krull (1935) respectively; and of Plagitura parva by Stunkard
(1936). An excellent attempt to correlate the various types of cercariac and
adults amongst the Plagiorchioidea was made by McMullen (1937).

The cercaria of Dolichopera macalpini is essentially of the same type as those
described above for Renilerines, and so also are the other early stages. All of
them ultilize tadpoles as the second intermediate host.

C. Dolichoperae macalpini differs from C. brevicaeca in the greater length of
caeca, shorter arms of the excretory bladder, larger stylet, fewer gland cells, and
slightly different ratio of the diameters of the two suckers of the former, from,
C. ramonae in the size of the body and in the size and form of the stylet; from
Zeugorchis synlomentera (cercaria) in the sizes of the caeca and excretory arms.
and in the sucker ratio; from Dasymetra conferta (cerearia) in the form of ihe
stylet, but most of the other features resemb:e those of the Australian species,
and these remarks hold also for Dasymetra villicaeca; from Rentfer aviarum in
the size of the caeca, excretory arms, and stylet, as well as in the sucker ratio ;
from Lechriorchis primus in the size of the caeca, excretory arms and stylet, the
number of gland cells and the sucker ratio; and from Candorchis ewrinus in the
sucker ratio and the number of gland cells.

Some of the species whose life cycles have been referred to have recent
been assigned to other genera by Byrd and Denton (1938), ¢.g., Caudorchis eirinis
io Zeugorchis, Renifer aniarum to Neorenifer; and Zeugorchis syntomentera to
Paralechriorchis,

The cerearia of Dolichopera inacalpini differs from most Reniferine cercariac
(except Caudorchis and Dasymefra) in possessing longer caeca, rather shorter
arms of the bladder, ic, they do not encircle the acetabulum to the same extent
as in others; and in the sucker ratio, the anterior sucker being shghtly larger
than the posterior. All have the same excretory pattern, Corresponding
differences also occur in the metacercariae of the forms mentioned. We may,
then, state that Dolichopera macalpini has a Reniferine type of larva and lite
history and that its cercaria resembles that of Dasyimetra more nearly than that of
any other, but the adult stages are quite different.

As pointed out by certain authors mentioned above, Dolichopera differs from
all genera included in the Reniferinae in the character of its female system,
especially the relation between the uterus and testes. Perkins included it in the
Telorchiinae but had to qualify its inclusion. Tf it were not for the characters
just mentioned, Dolichopera would be very close to Renifer, and especially
Neorenifer Byrd and Denton. It seems to us that our species shows a definite
relationship with both subfamilies, but rather more closely with the Reniferinae.

Byrd and Denton (1938, 397) have attempted to indicate the derivation of
the Telorchiinae, as well as the definitely Reniferine genera, from primitive:
Reniferidac. rom the Reniferine ancestor they postulate a Dasymetrid-hke
stock from which arose Natriodera and Zeugorchis on the one hand and Dasy-
mcetra on the other. From the last-named the remaining genera have arisen.
We have already noted that the cercaria of Dolichopera very closely resembles
that of Dasymetra and Caudorchis (ie., Zeugorchis), especially the former,
rather than those of any other Reniferine gencra. This seems to indicate some
close ancestral relationship. If so, then Dolichopera must have arisen, in common

385

with Dasymetra, from an ancestral Reniferine. Since the characters of the
adults are so different, the two genera must have diverged long ago, Dolichopera,
as already mentioned, possesses uterine characters somewhat similar to those of
Telorchiinae. We therefore suggest that it arose from the Reniferid stem near
the point of origin of the Telorchiinae and that its position is best expressed by
erecting a subfamily to receive it. Perkins (1928, 343) has given reasons for
assuming that a form like Lecithopyge from European frogs is a primitive
member of the Telorchiinae, more typical of the subfamily than is Telerchis.

The type species of Dolichepera is D. parvula Nicoll from an Australian
python, D. macalpini occurs in certain of our Elapine snakes. Nicoll (1918,
293) referred to the differences between the two trematodes in regard to the
position of the ventral sucker, testes and yolk glands, the relative sizes of the
cirrus sac, and the distribution of the uterns. He went on to state that in some
respects these differences appeared to be of much more than specific value, but
that from various considerations it appeared inadvisable at the time to separate
the two forms generically. Nicoll’s figure of D. parvula indicates the uterus pass-
ing back between the testes to a poimt well behind them, whereas his account and
his generic diagnosis state that it extends back between the testes only for a short
distance. Siuce he mentioned that his specimens were compressed, it seems to us
possible that the uterine loop may have become displaced by pressure from its
normal position below the testis, just as we have sect in some specimens of
D. macapini, Wis figure of the latter shows a uterine loop lying in the anterior
part of the intertesticular region. In view of the similarity of the two species and
their differences from other trematodes, we suggest that they be allocated to a new
subfamily. Since the two do not appear to be congeneric, we propose a new
genus, Dolichoperoides, for D. macalpini, this genus to be the type of the Dolicho-
peroidinae n. subfam. We have selected the latter genus because of the more
complete knowledge of its anatomy and life cycle.

Dolichoperoidinae n. subfam,

Reniferidae: cuticle spiny; acetabulum in posterior half of body, smaller
than anterior sucker; ocsophagus short; caeca extending almost to end of body;
genital pore nearly marginal, near oral sucker, on one or other side of body;
cirrus sac ¢longaic, sinuous; testes nearly symmetrical, lying in posterior part
of body; ovary on one side just behind acctabulum; receptaculum seminis and
lLaurer’s canal present; uterus extensive, occupying most of the region between
the testes and the oral sticker, not extending between the testes into the posterior
end of the body, but may underlie the testes; metraterm feebly developed ;
vitellaria numerous, follicular, mainly extracaecal, in posterior half of body;
larval stage a xiphidiocercaria with long cacca and Y-shaped excretory bladder
whose arms do not surround the acetabulum. Adult in lung, trachea and oeso-
phagus of snakes; metacerearia in frogs. Includes Dolichoperoides and
Dolichopera,

Dolichoperoides n. gen.

Dolichoperoidinae: acetabulum near midbody; testes near posterior end of
body ; cirrus sac very large; uterus with very numerous coils between the testes
and acctabulum, as well as in front of the latter. Type D, macalpini (Nicoll 1914),

Doricnoprra Nicoll 1914, emend. Johnston and Angel
Dolichoperoidinae: acetabulum well behind mid-body; testes just behind
acetabulum ; cirrus sac relatively small; uterus with coils mainly preacetabular.
Type D, parvula Nicoll. Because of the similarity in regard to structures which

386

are known, we assume that there will be found both receptaculum seminis and
T.aurer’s canal, and that the life history will be similar to that of D. macalpint,

SUMMARY
1 An account of the anatomy of PD. macalpini from Australian venomous
snakes is given.
2 A new genus (Dolichoperoides) and subfamily (Dolichoperoidinae, Reni-
{cridae) have been erected to receive it.

on)

The various stages in the life cycle are described. Miracidia hatch after eggs
have been taken into the digestive tract of the pond snails, Ameria pyramidata
and A. pectorosa, in which xiphidiocercariae are produced in from six to
ten weeks.
4 ‘The metacercaria stage occurs in frogs, Hyla and Limnodynastes.
5 Cercaria nigrocystica Bradley 1926 is an agamodistome (excysted meta-
cercarla) stage of Dolichoperotdes macalpini.

We desire to acknowledge our indebtedness to Messrs. G. and F. Jaensch
and |.. Ellis, of ‘Vailem Bend, for unselfish assistance in regard to material. This
research has been made possible by the Commonwealth Research Grant to the
University of Adelaide.

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Travassos, L. 1928 Fauna helminthologica de Matto Grosso. Mem. Inst. Osw.
Cruz, 21, 309-341, 343-372

Warker, J. II. 1937 Experimental studies on eggs and miracidia of Renifer
aniarum (Leidy 1891) and Dasymetra villicaeca (Byrd 1935). Pr. Soc.
Exp. Biol. Med., 37, 246-248

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA (INCORPORATED).

Receipts and Payments for the Year ended September 30, 1940.

388

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA (INCORPORATED)
Receipts and Payments for the Year ended 30 September 1940

£ésd £8 4

£ s. d. £é 5s ad

RECEIPTS PAYMENTS
‘ToBalanee, 1 Oct. 1939 328 15 4 | By Transactions (Vol. 63, Pt. 2, and
sy » Subscriptions 147 0 0 apt (Vol. 64, Pt. 1) —
, Life Member Composi- Printing ; 459 18 1
tion 1515 0 illustrating . 141 18 1
, Govt. Grant for Printing 281 4 4 Publishing . 7 6 7 bate
, Contribution to Cost of | ——_———— old a
Printing Papers— i ,, Librarian et 8 (
University of Adelaide 41 0 0 » Library; Fittings, etc... 3 0
Dr. R. S. Rogers 110 0 » Surdries— pode
42 10 0 Conversazione —.... 8 15 0
» Use of Room by other Cleaning and Lighting 7 0 Z
Societies 15 0 6 Printing, Post. & Stat. 16 19 3
Sale of Publications 6 17 10 Detties 4 0 0
Si tee OO PRT Typing » a ow 218 6
. Interest— Insurances... Lich 618 4
Transferred fron, En- Bank Fee & C} 1q. “Bks. 1 4 5 6
dowment Fund ea 206 14 7 | vom AT IS 8
= : Lat > | 4, Research Fund 10 0 0
(In Suspense, Remittance from Enemy Endowment Fd. Live Subs. isk 0
Occupied Country, 16/10.) i Balances, 20° Sept 1040
Savings Bank of S.A... 294 1 Il
Bk. of Aust. £332 17 6
Less Out-
stand. Chq. 318 18 9
—— 13 18 9
-——~ 308 0 8
_ Al, 043° ‘a d 043
ENDOWMENT FUND as at 30 September 1940
(Capital —Stocks at Cast Price £5,798 6s. Id.)
1939—October 1 1940—September 30
To Balance— By Revenue Account 206 14 7
Aust.Consolidated Stock 5,7 0 0 » Balance—
Savings Bank of S.A. a 11 1 ! Australian Consolidated
7 — 5,782 11 1 Stock .... ; 5,762 0 0
. Life Members’ Subs. ... 15.15 | Savings Bank of S.A. 36 6 1
, Interest— _ ———+ 5,798 6 1
Inscribed Stocks 198 16 6
Savings Bank of S.A. 718 1 |
aa 206 14 7 |
ee eee PP. eS
Se Bhewss diel £6,005 _0 8 Peers 1 £6,005 08
RE SES ARCH FUND as at 30 September 1940
1939—October 1 1940—September 30
‘To Balance 16 0 0 | By Grant--C. P. Mountford... .... 10 0 0
» General Fund 10 0 Q » Balance—Savings Bank of S.A. 16 0 06
£26 0 0 Pe

Audited and found correct.

We have verified the Government Stocks at the Registries of

Inscribed Stock, Adelaide, and the respective Bank Balances.

O. GLASTONBURY, F.A.LS., APF.LA. ?

FL M. ANGEL
Adelaide, 10 October 1940

§ Auditors

’ Hon. HERBERT M. HALE,

Hon, Treasurer

AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.
AS ON 30 SEPTEMBER 1940

Those marked with an asterisk (*) have contributed papers published in the Society's Transactions.
Those marked with a dagger (+) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should be notified to the Secretary.

Note - The publications of the Society are not sent to those members whose subscriptions are in
arrear.

389

AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL

1929 Prov, Water Tlowcuin, F.G.S.

1930 Joun McC. Brack, A.LS.

1931 Pror. Sir Dovenas Mawsov, O.BLE, D.Sc. BE. ERS.
1933 Pror. J. Burton CLerann, M.D.

1935) Pror. fb. Harvey Jounston, M.A. D.Se.

1938 Prov. James A. Presecorr, DS2., ALC.

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.
AS ON 30 SEPTEMBER 1940

Those marked with an asterisk (*) have contributed papers published in the Society's
Transactions. ‘Ihose marked with a dagger (7) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should he notified to the Secretary.

Note—The publications of the Society arc uot sent to those members whose subser-puens
are im arrear,
Date of p
Election Honorary FELLOWS.
1910. *Brace, Sie W. EL, O.ML, K.B-E, M.A, D.C, LED. FIRS. Director of the Royal
Institution, Albemarle Street, London (l*ellaw 1886).
1926. *Cuarman, IF. A.L.S.. “Crohamhurst.”” Threadneedic Strect, Bahyyn, Vict.
1804. *Woirses, Prof. J.T. M.D. ChM., F.RS, Cambridge University, England.

FEettows.

1935. Ava, D. B., B.Agr.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1925. Apry, W. J.. M.A. C.M.G., 32 High Street, Burnside, S.A.

1927, *AuperMAN, A. R., Ph.D., M.Sc. °.G.S., University, Adela'de—Council, 1937-.

1931. Awnprew, Rev. J. R. 5 York Street, Henley Beach.

1935. *Anprewarrpa, H. G. M.Agr.Sc. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1935. *AnprewartHa, Mrs. H, V., B.Agr.Sc., M.Se., 29 Claremont Av., Netherby, S.A.

1929, Ancer, l*. M., 34 Fullarton Road, Parkside, S.A.

1939, *ANceL, Miss L. M.. M.Se., Univers:ty, Adelaide.

1895. *+Asuny, E., F.L.S., M.B.O.U., Blackwood, S.A-—-Council, 1900-19; Vice-Pres., 1919-21.

1902, *Baker, W. H., Ningana Avenuc, King’s Park, S.A.

1936. Barrmex, Miss B. S., M.Se., Univers:ty, Adelaide.

1932. Beas, P. R., D.D.Se, 1.0.5. 219 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1939. *Beenpr, R. M., S.A. Museum, Adelaide.

1028. Best, R. J., M.Sc. A.C, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1934. Brack, H.C. M.B. B.S., Magill Road, “Vraumere, Ade‘aide.

1907. *Bracx, J. M. A.L.S., 82 Brougham Place. North Adclaide--Verco Medal, 1930;
Council, 1927-1931; President, 1933-34; Vice-President, 1931-33.

1923. Burpon, R, S., D.Se.. University, Adelaide, 5.A.

1922, *Camppen., T. D. D.Sc, D.Sc, Dental Dept. Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide—
Rep.-Governor, 1932-33; Council, 1928-32, 1935; Vice-President, 1932-34; Presi-
dent, 1934-35.

1907. *Crtapman, Srr R. W., Kt. C.M.G.. M.A. BCE. PARAS. 23 I gh Strect, Burn-
side, S.A—Council, 1914-22, 1930-.

1929, Curisme, W., M.B., B.S., Education Department, Adelaide—Treasurer, 1933-8.

1895, *Crerann, Pror, J. B., M.D., University, Adelaide — Verco Medal, 1933; Council,
1921-26, 1932-37; President, 1927-28: 1940-; Vice-Pres‘dent, 1920-27.

1929. CrLerann, W. P., M.B., B.S., M-R.C.P., Dashwood Road, Beaumont.

1930. *Corocnoun, T. T.. M.Se. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adc laide.

1907. *Cooxr, W. T., D.Se., A-A.C.L, University, Adclaide- -Ceuncil, 193%-.

1938. *Convon, H. T., S.A. Museum, Adclaide.

1929. *Corton, LB. C., S.A. Museum, Adelaide.

1924. pe Crespicny, C. T. C.,, D.S.0., M.D., F.R.C.P., 219 North Terrace. Adeace.

1937. *Crocxrr, R. L., B.Sc. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1929, *Davinsox, Pror. J., D.Sc. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Council,
1932-35: Vice-President, 1935-37, 1938-39; President, 19.37-38.

1928. Davies, J. G., B.Sc., Ph.D., Council Sci. and Ind. Research, Box 109, Canberra,

1927, *Davirs, Pror. E. H., Mus.Doc., The University, Adclaidc.

1930. Drx, E. V., Blackwood Park, Blackwood, S.A.

390

Date of

Klection.

1932. Dunsronn, If. 1, M.B, BS. JPL, 124 Payneham Road, St. Peters, Adelaide.

1921.) Durrox, G. H., Bose. 12 Halsbury Avenue, Kingswood, Adelaide.

1931. Dwyer, J. M., M.B., B.S., 25 Port Koad, Bowden.

1933, *Earptey, Miss C. M., B.Se., University, Adelaide,

1902. *Ien@ursr, A. G., 19 Farrell Street, Glenelg, S.A.

1938. *levans, J. W., M.A. D.Sc., Government [ntomologist. Hobart, Tasmania.

1917. *Fenwenr, C, A. 1, D.Sc, 42 Alexandra Av., Rose Park, Adelaide—Rep. Governor,
1929-31; Council, 1925-28; President, 1930-31; Vice-President, 1928-30; Secretary,
1924-25; Treasurer, 1932-33; Editor, 1934-7,

1935. *#Fenwer, I. J, M.B. B.S., 42 Alexandra Av., Rose Park, Adelaide.

1927. #Finutayson, H, H., University, Adelaide—Counceil, 1937-40.

1931. Frewin, O. W., M.B. B.S, 68 Woodville Road, Woodvilte.

1023. *Fry, H. WK. DwS.O., M.D., B.S., Bose, F.RA.CLP., Town Hall, Adclaide—-Council,
1933-37; Vice-President, 1937-33, 1939-40; President, 1938-1939,

1932. *Gripsox, I. S. HL, BSc, 297 Cross Roads, Clarence Gardens, Adelaide,

1933. *GLastonsury, J, O.G., BLA. M.Sc, Dip.Ed., No. 1 Service Flying Sch. Pt. Cook, Vic.

1919. ¢GLasronpury, QO. A., Adelaide Cement Co., Grenfell Street, Adelaide,

1927, Goprrey, F. K., Robert Street, Payneham, S.A.

1935. fGotnsack, H., Coromandel Valley,

1939. Goonu, J. R., BAgr.Se., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1925. +Gosse, J. H., Gilbert House, Gilbert Place, Adelaide.

1910. *Grant, Prov. Kerr, M.Sc, FL. University, Adelaide.

1933. Gray, J. H., M.D., B.S., Orrorco, $.A.

1930. Gray, J. T., Orroroo, S.A.

1933. Greaves, H., Director, Botanic Gardens, Adelaide.

1904.0 Grirvita, 1. B., Dunrobn Road, Brighton, S.A,

1934. Guwrer, Rev. H, A., Riverton, S.A.

1622. *Hare, H. M;, Director, SA. Museum, Adclaide—Council, 1931-34: Vice-
President, 1934-36, 1937-38; President, 1936-37; Treasurer, 1938-.

1439. Harvey, Miss A., B.A. Dequetteville Terr, Kent Town, Adelaide.

1927, Honpen, Tir Hox. EL W., BSc.. Dequettevilic Terrace, Kent Town, Adelaide.

1933. Hoskrna, H.C. B-A., 24 Northeote Terrace, Gilberton, Adelaide.

1930. *TTosxinec, J. 5S. B.Se., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1924. *Hossretn, P. S., M.Se., Private Bag, Alice Springs,

1939. Hutton, E. M., B.Agr.Se., Roseworthy College, SvA.

1928. Iroutp, P., Kurralta, Burnside, S.A.

118. *Ising, T& IL, efo Comptrofler’s Office, S.A. Railways, Adelaide—Council, 1934-39;
Vice-President, 1939-40.

1918, *Jenwison, Rev. J. C., 7 Frew Street, Fullarton, Adelaide.

1910. *Joussos, ELA, MLD, MRCS. “Tarni Warra,” Port Noarlunga, S.A.

1934. Joirnston, J. AS AS AL, AALC. AA.C.L, Sewage Treatment Works, Glenelg, S.A.

1921, *Jonnsron, Prop, T. TL, M.A. D.Sc, University, Adelaide—Verco Medal, 1935;
Rep. Governer, 1927-29; Council, 1926-28, 1940-; Vice-President, 1928-31;
President, 1931-32; Secretary, 1938-40; Rep. Fauna and Flora Board, 1932-39.

1939. ¢Koankuar, M. IL, PhD. M.B., Khakhar Buildings, C.P. Tank Road, Bombay, India.

1933. *Krememan, A. W.. M.Se., 46 Byron Road, Black Forest, S.A,

1939. Lyeasx, J. C.. A-M.IIE, 9 Buller Street, Prospeet.

1922. Lexpon, G. A. M.D. B.S... M.R.C.P.. North Terrace, Adelaide.

1930. *Louwyck, Rev, N. H., 85 First Avenue, St. Peters, Ade‘aide,

1038. *Love, Rev. J. R. B M.C. D.C.M., M.A., Kummunya Mission, via Broome, W.A.

1931. *Lupprook (Mrs. W. V.), N. IL, MLA., Elimatta Street, Reid, A.C.T.

1938. Manrern, C. B. B.D.S.. D.D.Sc.. Shell House, North Terrace, Adelaide.

1922, *Manican, C. T., M.A, B.E., D.Se., F.G.S., University of Adelaide—Council, 1930-33;
Vice-President, 1933-35, 1936-37; President, 1935-36,

1923. Marsnatt, J. C., Mageppa Station, Comaum, S.A.

1939. MarsuaLi, T. J. M.Agr.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adclaide.

1933. Macarry, Miss K. de B., B.A. B.Sc, 19 Ashbourne Avenue, Mitcham, S.A.

1932, Mann, KE. A., C/o Bank of Adelaide, Adelaide.

1929. Manriix, Ib. C.. MLA. Teehivcal High School, Thebarton, S.A.

1905. *Mawson, Pror, Str Dovetas, O.B.F., D.Sc. BE, F.R.S., University, Adelaide—
Verco Medal, 1931; Rep. Governor, 1933-40; President, 1924-25; Vice-President,
1923-24, 1925-26.

1938. *Mawson, Miss P. M.. M.Sc., University, Adelaide.

1920. Mayo, H., LL.B. K.C. 16 Pirie Street, Adelaide.

1934. McCrovanry, C. L. BE. A-M.LE, (Aust.), Town Hall, Adclaide.

1920.) McLauGrres, E. MB, B.S. MRCP. 2 Wakefield Street, Kent Town, Adelaide.

391

Date of
Election.

1907. Mexrosr, R. T., Mount Pleasant, S.A.

1939. Minciuam, V. IT., Beltana, S.A.

1925, +Mircuert, Pror. Sie W., K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., Fitzroy Ter., Prospect, SA.

1933, Miresnrtt, Pror. M. L., M.Sce., University, Adclaide.

1938. Moorrousr, F. W., M.Sc, Clnef Inspector of Fisheries, Flinders Street, Adelaide.

1924. Mortson, A. J. Town Clerk, Town Hall, Adelaide.

1936. *Mounvrorp, C. P., 23 First Avenue, St. Peters, Adelaide.

1925. Murray, Hon. Ste G., K.C.M.G., B.A., T..M., Magill, S.A.

1930, Ockenpen, G. P., Public School, Norton’s Sunmnit, S.A.

1913. *Qsnorx, Pror, T. G. B. D.Se., University, Oxford, England — Council, 1915-20,
1922-24; President, 1925-26; Vice-President, 1924-25, 1926-27,

1937. Parkin, L.W., M.A. B.Sc. c/o Nth. Broken Hill Ltd., Box 20C, Broken Hill, N.SAV.

1920. Pau, A. G., M.A., B.Sc., Eglinton Terrace, Mount Gambier.

1928. Puiers, 1. f., Ph.D. B.Agr.Sc. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1926, *Prper, C. S., M.Se., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1936. DPrarr, Pror, A. E, M.D, BS. DTM. D.TAL, Dip.Bact, F.R.A.C.P., Adelaide
Hospital.

1925. *Prescorr, Pror. J. A., D.Sc. A.T-C., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—
Verco Medal, 1938; Council, 1927-30, 1935-39; Vice-President, 1930-32; President,
1932-33,

1926. Price, A. G., C.M.G., M.A. Litt.D., F.R.G.S., St. Mark’s College, North Adelaide.

1937, *Rairt, W. L., M.Sc., St. Peter's College, Adelaide.

1925. Ricrarnson, A. KE. V., CM.G., M.A, D.Se., 314 Albert Strect, East Melbourne.

1905. *Rocrrs, R. S., M.A., M.D, D.Sc, F.LS., 52 Hutt Street, Adelaide—Council, 1907-14,
1919-21; President, 1921-22; Vice-President, 1914-19, 1922-24.

1933. Scunetper, M., M.B., B.S., 175 North Terr., Adelaide.

1924. *Secnit, R. W., M.A., B.Sc., Assist. Govt. Geol. Flinders St., Adelaide—Secretary,
1930-35; Council, 1937-38; Vice-President, 1938-39, 1940-; President, 1939-40.

1925. *Suearn, H., Nuriootpa, S.A

1936. *Suearp, K,, S.A. Museum, Adclaide.

1934. Surnkrietp, R, C.. Salisbury, S.A.

1938. *Simpson, Mrs. E. R., M.Se., Warland Road, Burnside.

1924. Srarpson, F. N., Pirie Street, Adelaide.

1925. +Smrru, T, E. Barr, B.A., 25 Currie Street, Adelaide.

1936. Sourmwoop, A. R.. M.D., M.S. (Adel.), M-R.C.P., Wootoona Terr., Glen Osmond, S.A,

1938. Srepuens, C. G., M.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1935. Srrick.ann, A, G. M.Agr.Sc., 11 Wootoona Terr., Glen Osmond, Adelaide.

1932. Swan, D. C., M.Sc. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Secretary, 1940-.

1934. Symons, I. G., Murray Street, Mitcham.

1929. *Tavtror, J. K., B.A. M.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Council,
1940-.

1940. ‘THomson, J. M., 302 The Terrace, Port Pirie, S.A.

1923. *TinpaLe, N. B., B.Sc., South Australian Museum, Adelaide-—Secretary, 1935-36.

1937. *TruMBLE, ET. C, D.Sc., M.Agr.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1894, *TurNer, A. J.. M.D., F-R-E.S., Dauphin Terr., Brisbane, Qld.

1925. Turner, D. C., National Chambers, King ‘William Street, Adelaide.

1933. Warxtry, A., B.A., B.Sc., Ph.D., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.
1912, *Warn, L. K, BA, BE, D.Sc., Govt. Geologist, Flinders Street, Adelaide—
Council, 1924-27, 1933-35; President, 1928-30; Vice-President, 1927-28.

1939. Warnorst, Miss B. W., B.Sc., Commonwealth Munitions Lab., Maribyrnong, Vict.

1936. WarerHouse, Miss L, M., 35 King Street, Brighton, S.A.

1939, Weeptnc, Rey. B. J., Eudunda.

1931. Wison, C. E. C., M.B., B.S., “Woodfield,” Fisher Street, Fullarton, Adelaide.

1938. *Wuitsox, J. O., Nutrition Laboratory, University, Adclaide.

1935. Wunxtrer, Rev, M. T., B.A. D.D., 20 Austral Terrace, Malvern, Adelaide.

1930. *Womerstey, H., F.R.E.S., A-L.S., Museum, Adelaide—Secretary, 1936-37; Editor,
1937-,

1923. *Woop, Pror. J. G, D.Se., Ph.D., University, Adclaide--Council, 1938-40: Vice-
President, 1940-; Rep. Fauna and Flora Board, 1940-.

ASSOCIATE

1940. Bircn, L. C., B.Agr.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adclaide.
1936. Spriac, R. C., Toddville Street, Seaton Park, Adelaide.

DECEASED

Goyner, G, A. M., B.Sc., F.G.S, SHoOwELL, H.

GENERAL INDEX.

[Generic and specific names in italics indicate that the forms described are new to science. ]

392

GENERAL INDEX

[Generic and specific names in italics indicate that the forms deserthed

are new to

Aboriginal Tribes, Distribution of Austra-
lian: Results of the Harvard-Adelaide
Universities Expedition, 1938-39, Tindale,
N. B., (1), 140

Acar.na: Studies in Australian Tetranychidae |

and Trichadenidac, Womersley, H., (2), 233
Acrocercops eupetala, eumetalia, heliopla,
atysidota, (1), 57; tricalyx, mesochaeta,

ordinatella, irrorata, pertenuis, hedymopa, |

apoblepta, autadelpha, symphyletes, anti-
wrapha, antimima, macaria, (1), 58;
chionosema, tetrachorda, zaplaca, argyro-
desma, clinozona, tricuncatella, caenotheta,
chionoplecta, leucotoma, hoplocala, calli-
cella, albimaculella, archepolis, euchlamyda,
(1), 59; isofoma, pyrigenes, nitidula,
obscurella, symploca, poliocephala, ophiodes,
axinophora, plectospila, doloploca, calli-
macha, prospera, leptalea, heteropsis,
chionochtha, (1), 60; nercis, fluorescens,
chalceopla, tristaniae, retrogressa, paral-

lela, grammataema, Jaciniella, stercomita, |

unilineata, Ieucomochla, didymella,

tila, mendosa, lithogramma, hierocosma,
clisiophora habrodes, penographa, anti-
macha, crucigera, osteopa, ennychodes,

trisigillata, (1), 62

Acutoplax cofteni, (1), 48; mayi, rufa, klemi,

(1), 49

Adon's aestivalis, (2), 373

Aega deshaysiana, sort.pes, angustata, (2),
205: fracta, (2), 296, cylops, concinna,
(2), 298: nodosa, vigilans, (2), 300

Agamonema sp.. (2), 352

Alderman, A. R., A Siderolite from Pimna-
roo, S. Aust., (1), 109

Amblyonema terdentatum, (2), 348

Anatetranyehus hakea, (2), 236, 262

Ancylostomatidae, (2), 363

Andrewartha, H, G., The Environment of the
Australian Plague Locust (Chortoicetes
terminifera Wk.) in South
(1), 76

Angel, L. M., and Johnston, T. H., Larval

Trematodes from Australian Freshwater |

Molluses, pt. vii, (2), 331

Angel, L. M., and Johnston, T. H., The Mor-
phology and Life History of the Nema-
tode Dolichopera macalpini Nicoll, (2),
376

Anguillicola australiensis, (2), 351

Aplonobia oxalis, (2), 235, 253

Aproeta corvicola, (2), 358

Archaeolothrips fontis, (2), 353

Argathoma parca, (2), 293

Aristaea periphanes, (1), 62

Ashby, E., A New Fassil Cryptoplax from
the Pliocene of S. Aust., (2), 266

Australia, |

science. |

Asymmetricostrongylus trichuris,
australis, asymmetricus, (2), 364

Australites, Pt. LV, The John Kennett Collec-
tion, with notes on Darwin Glass, Bedia-
sites, ete, Fenner, C., (2), 305

elustrofilaria vestibulaia, (2), 357

| Austrostrongylus thylogale, (1) 99, (2) 364;
agregata, macropodis, wallabiae, minutus,
(2), 364

Austroxyuris finlaysoni, (2), 368

dissimilis,

Bathylus albicincta, (1), 71, 72

Bathynomus ? affinis, (2), 292

| Berndt, R. M., Notes on the Sign-language
of the Jaralde Tribe, (2), 267

Black, J. M., Additions to the Flora of South
Australia, No. 39, (2), 371

Bryobia sp. (2), 233; praetiosa, (2), 233,
234, 246

| Buccostrongylus buccatlis,

labiatus, (2), 305

setifer, australis,

Capillaria plectroplites, (2), 342

Carinema dubia, (2), 357; graucalinum, (2),
358

Carvyophyllaceae, (2), 373

Cedonoephilus imbricata, (2), 303

Ceratrimeria, A new species of, from Tas-
mania, Womersley, H., (1), 137

' Ceratrimeria bicornis, (1), 137

Cerearia (Furcocercaria) trichofurcata, (2),
331; ftate?, (2), 334

Cercopids, Tube-building, Evans, J. W., (),
70

| Chactophyes compacta, (1), 72

| Chapman, F., On a New Genus of Sponges
from the Cambrian of the Flinders Range,
S. Aust., (1), 101

Chenopodiaceae, (2), 371

Chiton,; A New Flindersian; Weeding, B. J,
(1), 48

Chortoicetes terminifera, (1), 76

Cirolana woodjonesi, vieta, (2), 288; corpu-
lenta, (2), 289; valida, (2), 290

Cloacina australis, communis, curta, frequens,

\ longelabtata, hydriformis, parva, obtusa
vestibulata, macropodis petrogale, (1),
95, 97, (2), 367; dubia, wallabiae, (2),
366: liebigi, inflata, expansa, longispicu-
lata, bancroftorum, thetides, magnipapil
lata, commutus, robertsi, burnettiana,
minor, ernabella, linstowi. dahh, gallardi,
magna, similis, clegans, digitata, (2), 367

Collembolan: A new termitophilous; from
South Australia, Womersley, H., (2), 330

Compere, H.; A new species of Metaphycus
(Encyrtidae) from Australia, (1), 46

‘ Conopomorpha, (1), 57

393

Contracaecum wacquarie, (2), 343; murray- | Filaria (s.1.) spp. (2), 361

ense, spp., (2), 344

Coronostrongylus coronatus, (2), 365

Correa affin.s, (2), 373, 374; aemula, neglecta,
manor, pulchelia, ‘urnbullii, decumbens,
(2), 374

Cruciferae, (2), 373 ;

Cryptoplax: A New Fossil; from the Plio-
cene of S. Aust. Ashby, F., (2), 206

Cryptoplax lnbrvokae, (2), 206

Cuphodes, (1), 52; didymosticha, thysanota,
maculosa, (1), 53; holoteles, lithographa,
lechriotoma, niphadias, (1), 53; /abro-
phanes, (1), 54

Cyphosticha microta, pyrochroma, pandoxa,
panconita, albomarginata, (1), 54; dia-
leuca byonoma, ostracodes, zophonata,
(1), 55 ;

Cyelococlum jaenschi: The Anatomy and Life
History of the Trematode, (2), 273

Cyclostrongylus gallardi, clelandi, dissimihs,
wallabiae, (2), 365

Cyperaceac. (2), 371

Cyperus sanguinolentus,
lotes, (2), 371

Eragrostis, dacty-

HDesmothrips; A Revision of the Genus; in
Australia, Steele, H. Vevers, (2), 353
Desmothrips australis, tenuicornis, propmquus,
bagnalli, obsoletus, comparabilis, davidsoni,
elegans, (2), 353

Dipetalonema roemeri, (1) 100, (2) 369;
capilliforme, robertsi, (2), 368; dendro-
lagi, tenue, annulipapillatum — spelaca,
trichosuri, rarum, dasyuri, (2), 369

Diplotriaena, (2), 359; alpha (2), 359; beta,

gamma, delia, epsilon, (2), 360; zeta, (2),
361
Dolichopera macalpini; The Morphology and
Life History of the Trematode, Johnston,
T. H., and Angel, L. M., (2), 376
Dolichopera macalpini, parvula, (2), 385
Dolichopervides macalpini, (2), 385
Dolichoperoidinae, (2), 385

Echinonema cinctum, (2), 368

Epicephala, (1), 55; australis, albistriatella,
nephelodes, stephanophora, ecugonia, albi-
{rons, trigonophora, lomatographa, acro-
baphes, colymbetella, frugicola, (1), 56;
salasticha, (1), 56; epimicta, (1), 57

Eulimdana clava, (2), 361

Eustrongylides gadopsis, (2), 350; galaxias,
(2) 351

Evaporation from a Water Surface in Rela-
tion to Solar Evaporation, Prescott. J. A.,
(1), 114

Evans, J. W.. Tube-building Cercopids
(Homoptera, Machaerotidae), (1). 70

Fenner, C., Australites, pt. iv, The John
Kennett Collection, with notes on Darwin
Glass, Bediasites, etc., (2), 305

Filarial Parasites, Some; of Australian Birds,
Johnston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M., (2),
355

Filartidae, (2), 364

Filarinema flagrifer, peramelis, (2), 364

Filartoidea, (2), 363, 364

[finlayson, TY, If, On Central Australian
Mammals, pt. 1, Muridae, (1), 125

Flora of South Australia; Additions to the,
Black, J. M., (2), 371

Geococeus Tiedlert, pusillus, (2), 373

Globocephaloides affinis, macropodis, walla-
biae, thetidis, (2), 365

Glycine tabacina, (2), 373

Gracilaria tessellata, (1), 65; chalchoptera,
actopunctata, ischiastris, loxocentra, lepi-

della, athicincta, plagata, albispersa,
chlorella, auchetidella, cirrhopis, eury-
enema, crasiphila, iophanes, adelosema,

(1), 66; xylophanes, cuglypta, panchrista,
thiophylla, I paroxantha, xystophanes,
cuxesta, perixesta, megalotis, crocostola,
aeglophanes, plagiotoma, aurora, ecphanes,
peltophanes, scutigera, oenopella, leuco-
litha, pedina, (1), 67

Gracilariidae, A Jtevision of the Australian,
Turner, A. J., (1), 50

Hallett Cove and District.
Segnit, R. W., (1), 3

Hale. H. M., Report on the Cymothoid
Isopoda obtained by the F.LS. “En-
dceavour” on the coasts of Queensland,
New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania
and South Anstralia, (2), 288

Tlamatospiculum hrowense, (2), 355

Harvard-Adclaide Universities Anthropologi-
cal Expedition, 1938-39;; Results of the;
Distribution of Australian Aboriginal
Tribes, Tindale, N. B., (1), 140

Hexactinellida. (1), 101, 103

Hyalonema, (1), 102

Hyalostelia australis, smithii, (1), 102

TIyalosteliidac, (1), 101, 103

Hydrocotyle rugulosa, (2), 373

Hypodontus macropi, thetidis, (2), 364

Geology of,

Isochaetothrips from Australia; Three New
Species of, Steele, H. Vevers, (2), 325
Isochaetothrips frankstoni, (2), 325; pallidus,
melanurus, (2), 328

Tsopoda, Cymothaid, Report on the; obtained
by the F.ILS. Endeavour on the coasts of
Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria,
Tasmania and South Australia. Hale, H.
M., (2), 288

Isotobrya burracnsis, (2), 330

Johnston, T. H.. and Angel, L. M., Larval
Trematodes from Australian Freshwater
Molluscs, pt. vit, (2), 331

394

Johnston, T. H., and Angel, L. M., The Mor-
phology and Life History of the ‘Trema-
tode, Dolichopera macalpini Nicoll, (2),
376

Johnston, T. 1L, and Mawson, P. M., Nema-
tudes from South Austrahan Marsupials,
(1), 95

Johnston, T. H., and Mawson, P., Same

Nematodes parasitic in Australian Fresh-

water Tish, (2), 341

Johnston, T. EL, and Mawson, P. M., Some

Filarial Parasites of Australian Birds,

(2), 355

Johnston, ‘I. H.. and Mawson, P. M., A Key

to the Nematode Parasites of Australian

Marsupials and Monotremes, (2), 364

Johnston, T. 11, and Simpson, E. R., The
Aduit Stage of the ‘Trematode Leucoch-
loridium australiense, (1), 119

Johnston, T. H., and Simpson, EF. R., The
Anatomy and Life Tistory of the Trema-
tode Cyclococlum jaenschi, (2), 273

Juncaceac, (2), 371

Juncus acutus, maritimus, (2), 371

Legum'noseac, (2), 373

Leucochioridium australicnse, The Adult
Stage of the Trematode, Johnston, T. H.,
and Simpson, E. R., (1), 19

Lithocolletis stephanata, aglaozona, desmo-
chrysa, acares, (1), 51
Liveneca raynaudn, (2), 303

Locust, The Environment of the Australian
Plague, in South Australia, Andrewartha,
Tl. G., (1), 76

Machaerota guttigera, (1). 70, 74

Macropostrongylus baylisi, australis, (2),
367: labiatus, macropostrongylus, macro-
stoma, yorkei, dissimilis, lesouch, pearson,
wallab’ae, (2), 368

Maplestonema typicum, (2), 365

Z4tawson, P. M., and Johnston, T. H., Nema-
codes fram South Australian Marsupials,
(1), 95

Mawson, P. M., and Johnston, T. H., Some
Nematodes parasitic in Australian Fresh-
water Fish, (2), 341

Mawson, P. M!, and Johnston, T. H,, Some
Filarial Parasites of Australian Birds,
(2), 355

Mawson, P. M., and Johnston, T. H., A Key
to the Nematode Parasites of Australian
Marsupials and Monotremes, (2), 363

Metaphyeus, A new species of, from Aus-
tralia, Compere, H., (1), 46

Metaphycus memmonius, (1), 46

Metatetranychus ulmi, (2), 236, 260; pilosus,
mytilaspidis, alni, (2), 261

Mountford, C. P., Aboriginal Stone Strue-
tures, (2), 279

Muridae, On Central Australian Mammals,
pt. i, Finlayson, H. H., (1), 125

Necatorinac, (2), 363, 364

Nematodes from South Australian Marsu-
pials, Johnston T. H., and Mawson, P.
M., (1), 95

Nematode Parasites of Australian Marsu-
pials and Monotremes, A Key to the,
Johnston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M.,
(2), 363

Nematodes, Some: parasitic im Australian
Freshwater Fish, Johnston, T. H., and
Mawson, P. M., (2), 341

Neophylobius ornatus, (2), 235, 248

Nepticula nigricansella, (1), 51

Nerocila laticatida, (2), 300; orbignyi imonodi,
(2), 301; trivittata, (2), 302

Nicollina sarcophili, tachyglossi, echidnac,
(2), 364

Notumys alexis, (1), 125; everardensis, (1),
133; mitchcelli var., longicaudatus.

alutacea, macropus, aistoni, (1), 135

Ocsophagostomoides giltneri, (2), 365

Otigonychus ulmi, alni, (2), 260

Orchidaccous Flora of Australia, Contribu-
tion to the, Rogers, -R. S., (1), 139

QOurozeuktes bopyroides, (2), 304

Oxyuridae, (2), 364

Oxyurinae, (2), 364, 368

Oxyuroidea, (2), 263, 364

Pallakidae, (1), 101, 103

Papillostrongylus labiatus, (2), 365

Paralemdana clelandi, (2), 356

Paramacropostrongylus — typicus,
(1), 98

Paramacrostrongylus typicus, (2), 365

Parectopa machacrophora, muesicala, lygi-
nella, amalopa, (1), 63; clethrata, thalas-
sias, toxomacha, leucographa, cupho-
morpha, ophidias, trapezoides, actinosema,
thiosema, ecurythiota, tyriancha, (1), 64;
rosacea, (1), 64; ageta, miltopepla, for-
mosa, polyplaca, ida, (1), 65

Paraseuratum tandant, (2), 347

Paratetranychus ununguis, (2), 236, 258

Parazoniolaimus collaris, (2), 365

Passalurus parvus, (2), 368

Pectinariophyes pectinaria, (1), 70, 72

Petrobia latens, lapidum, (2), 235, 254

Pharyngostrongylus alpha, heta, (1) 97, (2)
366; iota, gamma, ornatus, eta, macro-
pod's, (2), 365; epsilon, parma, delta,
zela, theta, woodwardi, brevis, australis,
(2), 366

Phascolostrongylus turleyi, (2), 365

Philometra plectroplites, (2), 348; percalates,
(2), 349; spp., (2), 350

Phyllocnistis, (1), 51; leptomianta, atractias,
diplomochia, diaugella, acmias, pyschina,
eurymochla, iodocella, hapalodes, triortha,
citrella, minutella, citricola, ephimera,
atranota, enchalca, (1), 52

Physaloptera, (1), 99; peragale, (1) 100, (2)

papuensis, peramelis, sarcophili,
parvicollaris, thalacomys, (2), 368

Physalopteridae, (2), 364

pearsont,

368 ;

395

Physalopterinae, (2), 364, 368

Polychaetophyes serpulida, (1), 70

Poterium Sanguisorba, (2), 373

Preseott, J. A. Evaporation from a Water
Surface in Relation to Solar Radiation,
(1), 14

Procamallanus nurrayense, (2), 347

Protohyalosteclia, (1), 101, 103: marsoni,
(1), 104

Protospirura marsupialis, (2), 368

Protospongia hicksi, (1), 101, 102

Pscudaprocta niyveanthac, (2), 358

Pterostylis alluntoidea, concinua, pedunculata, |
nana, (1), 139

Pultenaea scabra, (2), 373

Pyritonema, (1), 102; fasciculus, (1), 103

Ranunculaceae, (2), 373

Raoiella australica, (2), 236, 264

Rhabdochona gacnschi, (2), 348

Rictulariidae, (2), 364

Rictulariinae, (2), 364, 368

Rogers, R. S., Contributions ta the Orchi-
daceous Flora of Australia, (1), 139

Rosaceae, (2), 373

Rutaceae, (2), 373

Salicornia Blackiana, pachystachya, (2), 371

Scheuchzeriaceac, (2), 371

Sehisonobia sycophanta, (2), 235, 251

Schoenus brachyphyllus, lacvigatus,
deformis, (2), 371

Segnit, R. W., Geology of Hallett Cove and
District, (1), 3

Setariinac, (2), 364, 368

Siderolite. A, from Pinnaroo, South Aus-
tralia, Alderman, A. R., (1), 109

Sign-language of the Jaralde Tribe; Notes
on, Berndt, R. M., (2), 267

Simpson, EK. Ro and Johnston, T. H., The
Adult Stage of the Trematode Leucoch-
loridium australiense, (1), 119

Simpson, E. R., and Johnston, T. H. The
Anatomy and Life History of the Trema-
tode Cycloceelum jaenschi, (2), 273

Solar Radiation, Evaporation from a Water
Surface in Relation to, Prescott, J. A.
(1), 114

Spinitectus plectroplites, percalates, stv.
erofti, (2), 345, sp. (2), 346

Spirostrongyluts spirostrongylus, (2), 365

Spiroxyinac, (2), 364, 368

Spiruridae, (2), 364

Spirurvidea, (2), 363, 364

Sponges. On a new genus of, Chapman, F., i
(1), 101

Steele, H. Vevers, Three new species
Isochaetothrips from Australia, (2), 325

Steele, TH. Vevers, A Revision of the genus
Desmothrips in Australia, (2), 353

Stone Structures, Aboriginal, Mountford, C.
—P., (2). 279

Strongylidae, (2), 363

foliatus,

hban- |

Strongylinae, (2), 363, 365

. Strongyloidea, (2), 363
| Subulura peramelis, peragale, (2). 368

Subuluridae, (2), 364
Subulurinac, (2), 364, 368
Syphacia trichosuri, (2), 368
Syphaciinac, (2), 364, 368

Tegopalpus conicus, (2), 234, 242

; Penuterus crrabundus, (2), 235, 250

Tenutpalpus phoenicis, (2), 234, 237; cali-
fornicus, (2), 234, 239; witis, (2), 234, 241

Tetranychidae and Trichadenidae, Studies in
Australian Acarina, Womersley, H., (2),
233

' Tetranychus telarius, cinnabarinus, cucumeris,

rosarum, (2), 233, urticeae, altheae, (2),
2 256; pantopus, histricina, (2), 264,

265
Timodora cyanoxantha, (1). 63 ;
Tindale, N. B., Distribution of Australian
Tribes, Results of the Harvard-Adelaide
Universities Expedition 1938-39, (1), 140
Trematodes. Larval; from Australian Fresh-

water Molluses, pt. vii, Johnston, T. H.,
and Angell, L. M., (2), 331 ;
Trichadenidae: Tetranychidae and; Studies

in Australian Acarina. Womersley, F.,

(2), 233
Trichadenidae, (2), 268
Trichoneminae, (2), 363, 365
Trichostrongylinae, (2), 363,
Trichuridae, (2), 363
Trichurinac, (2), 363, 364
Trichuris peramelis, (2). 364
Trichuroidea, (2), 363
Triglochin ovoidea, hexagona,
371
Tuckerella ornata, (2), 234, 244
Tunica prolifera, (2), 573 ,
Turner, A. T.. A Revision af the Australian
Gracilariidae (Lep.) (1), 50

304

Muelleri, (2),

Umbelliferae, ¢2), 373

Weeding, B. J., A new Flindersian Chiton,

(1), 48

Womersley, FH. A new species of Cera-
trimeria (Collembola) from Tasmania,
(1), 137

Womersley, H. Studies in Australian
Acarina, Tetranychidae and Trichadeni-
dae, (2), 233

| Womersley, H., A new Termitophilus Col-

lembolan from South Australia, (2), 330

Zoniolaimus longispicularis, cugenii, (1) 97,
(2), 366: brevicaudatus, bancrofti, bipapil-
losus, clelandi. communis, petrogale, un-
cinatus, onychogale. setifer, wallabiae,
labiostrongvlus, insularis, grandis, macro-
podis, (2), 366

CONTENTS
PART I

Secnit, RatpH W.: Geology of Hallett Cove and District, with special reference to
the distribution and age of the Younger Glacial Till ..

Comrere, Harotp: A New Species of Metaphycus CHissienop tera, Encyrtida) fetta

Australia: Parasitic in Eriococcus coriaceus Maskell .. s4
Werpine, B. J.: A New Flindersian Chiton = 7 3 “
Turner, A. Jerrerts: A Revision of the Australian Gracilariidae (Lepidontetay: Aa
Fvans, J. W.: Tube-building Cercopids (Homoptera, Machaerotidae) . a

AnprewarTHa, H. G.: The Environment of the Australian rece Recnat (Chor-
toicetes terminifera Walk.) in South Australia

Jounston, T. Harvey, and Mawson, Patricia M.: Nematodes tect South Aus
tralian Marsupials 6 Ae a8 fa

CHAPMAN, FREDERICK: On a New oud of Sponges ‘fcand the Canbriak of the
Flinders Range, South Australia 4 Ae ae

AtnerMAN, A. R.: A Siderolite from Pinnaroo, South Austratis’ Se ee
Prescott, J. A.: Eyaporation from a Water Surface in Relation to Solar Radiation

Jounstron, T. Harvey, and Simpson, E. R.: The cn uae of the Eg
Leucochloridium australiense .. : am

Frntayson, H. H.: On Central A eects Miswiaiale Part Th The Asreidas:
Womenrstry, H.: A New Species of Ceratrimeria (Collembola) from Tasmania
Rocers, R. S.: Contributions to the Orchidaceous Flora of Australia .

TinpaLE, Norman B.: Results of the Harvard-Adelaide Universities PORES
logical Expedition, 1938-1939. Distribution of Australian Aberiaing! sack aed
A Field Survey i 3 Ass ae S = aS . as

PART II
Womerstey, H.: Studies in Australian Acarina. Tetranychidae and Trichadenidae ..
Asupy, E.: A New Fossil Cryptoplax from the Pliocene of South Australia

3ERNDT, R. M.: Notes on the Sign- laueuete of the serene Tribe, of the Lower River
Murray, South Australia

Jounsron, T. H.,and Simpson, E. R.: The Anatomy and Life hiatry of the ecnigtsta
Cyclocoelum jacnschi n. sp. oF is a

Movuntrorn, C. P.: Aboriginal Stone Sienna

Hate, H. M.: Report on the Cymothoid Isopoda obtained by the F. L S. “Endeavour” on
the Coasts of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia

Fenner, C.: Australites Pt. IV The sos. Kennett Collection with Notes on Darwin
Glass, Bediasites, etc. .. . aH

Steere, H. V.: Three new Saseine: of Re poreres ri FRET oe
Womerstey, H.: A new Termitophilous Collemboian from South Australha .. 50

Jounston, T. H., and Ancet, L. M.: Larval Trematodes from Anstralian Eeodisaies
Molluscs Ft. VII cs ea

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M.: aoe eae Parasitic i in Australian Fresh-
water Fish ‘

Steetz, H, V.: A Revision of tha Eau: Heetiohtnns Hood CT iveandpiara} in Austratia

Jounston, T. H. and Mawson, P. M.: Some Filarial Parasites of Australian Birds .

Mawson, D.: Notes and Exhibits. Tillite and other Rocks from Hallett Cove, S. Aust.

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M.: A Key to the Nematode Parasite of Australian

Marsupials and Monotremes
Buiack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South ae No. 30. no a4
Jounston, T. H., and AnceL, L. M.: The Moreholpey and Life-history of the Trema-
tode Dolichopera macalpini Nicoll .. 36 Me
BALANCE-SHEETS is oe on 3 a3 a ne nO ee oe oA
Verco MEDALISTS 3 Ag: oe mo ae oe os am Ae a A

List or FELLows
INDEX Bo eS ae Be a's te me os oF

Page

101
109
114

119
125
137
139

140

267

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