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THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

AMATEUR CINEMA LEAGUE, INC.

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

FOUNDED in 1926, the Ama-
ur Cinema League has advised and
ded more than 100,000 home movie
akers in over two decades of consult-
g activity.

Out of this rich experience, the staff
the League has written the most
•mplete, most balanced and most
anted book ever published on movie
aking for the amateur . . .

ke table of contents tells the story:

HAT IS A MOVIE7-A fundamental discus-
>n of films and filming.
HAT MAKES A MOVIE?-The basic prin
)les of the motion picture; scene, sequence
d camera viewpoint.

MOVIE'S CHIEF TOOLS-Essentials of your
mera, film and projector.
iSIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE-The practical
oblems of exposure, focus, scene length and
mera handling.

.M PLANS AND SCRIPTS-How. to develop
y film theme in easy and entertaining con-
luity.

IOUND THE YARD MOVIES-Family films
me first from the camera of every home
>vie maker.

E NEED MORE MOVIE TOOLS-How to use
cessory lenses, filters, tripod, exposure meter
d the advanced camera.
IE CAMERA STEPS OUT-Pictures of picnics,
lidays, games and outdoor sports.
IE CAMERA SEES THE WORLD-Planning
d producing the travel film, by auto, train,
me or ship.

.MING PUBLIC EVENTS-What makes a
(Continued on back flap)

jclcef design by Victor Ancona, ACL

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Blacksrone Studios

HIRAM PERCY MAXIM, ACL
1869—1936

FOUNDER OF THE AMATEUR CINEMA LEAGUE

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

A GUIDE TO MAKING
BETTER MOVIES

SECOND
REVISED EDITION

ILLUSTRATED

AMATEUR CINEMA LEAGUE, INC.

New York, New York, 17, U. S. A.
1949

CONTENTS

I WHAT IS A MOVIE? 1

H WHAT MAKES A MOVIE? 6

IH A MOVIE'S CHIEF TOOLS 17

IV BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE 38

V FILM PLANS 66

VI AROUND THE YARD MOVIES 76
VH WE NEED MORE MOVIE TOOLS 92

VIII THE CAMERA STEPS OUT 108

IX THE CAMERA SEES THE WORLD 124

X FILMING PUBLIC EVENTS 140

XI MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 147
XH PROJECTION 176
XHI FILMING INDOORS 189

XIV THE CAMERA DECEIVES 209

XV THINGS FAR AND NEAR 223

XVI BETTER METHODS OF EXPRESSION 235

XVII MOVIES IN COLOR 247

XVIII SOUND ON FILMS 266

XIX SPECIAL PURPOSE FILMS 273

XX PROFITS FROM YOUR MOVIES 292

XXI THE MOVIE SHOPPER 298
INDEX 305

FOREWORD

THIS book is offered as an aid to personal filmers who
want to make better movies and who are willing to read,
study and learn, as a means to that end.
Since this volume is given to every member of the Amateur
Cinema League, it is a statement of the fundamental practices
of movie making that he will employ. It will aid those who
use eight millimeter or sixteen millimeter film. It does not
discuss theatrical motion pictures. The information that will
be found in the instruction books that accompany cameras
and other equipment is not repeated here. While beginners are
well served by this book, it is not planned — as other books
have been — to take a new movie maker forward by degrees.
It is intended to give a sufficiently full statement of funda-
mentals, to serve new and old filmers alike.

The ACL Movie Book is, we believe, unique in its author-
ship. The product of more than twenty years of experience
with amateur movie makers and their interests, the volume
combines the trained advisory skills of the League's consult-
ing staff with the first hand know-how of practicing filmers.
As such, The ACL Movie Book has already aided tens of
thousands of amateur filmers in making better movies. We
sincerely believe that it will also aid you.

vii

CHAPTER I
WHAT IS A MOVIE?

A" IOVIE is the most faithful record of the living world
that man's genius has yet devised. It lets us look at,
and listen to, the past with fewer obstacles than we
should have met if we had tried to observe that past when
it was the present, because a movie can recreate an event,
in actual motion and sound, just as it really happened, and
can then present a similar record of what occurred five thou-
sand miles away, without losing time. This is a feat beyond
the present capacity of any other human mechanism.

Yet the visual record is made by the movie with no recently
discovered magic. The accomplishment consists in uniting
two facts with which we have been familiar for a long time.
Photography has used light to record images on sensitive sur-
faces since the days of Daguerre, more than a hundred years
ago; human beings have, since the dawn of their experience,
had what scientists call persistence of vision. If we look at
something bright and if it is quickly removed from view, it
will seem to hold over for a brief flash of time. This flash
is enough to give us motion pictures, which are only still pic-
tures projected on a screen fast enough, one after another,
to create what appears to be continuous motion.

Although movies are built up from photography and per-
sistence of vision, they constitute something new, so the art
of making and showing them has been given the new name
of cinematography. This is, putting it very simply, the act of
recording on a ribbon of film a series of still photographs that

* THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

will, when they are projected serially on a screen, create the il-
lusion of a world in actual life. Moreover, since it is possible
to convert sound waves to light waves, and these, in turn,
back again into sound waves, cinematography can record
sounds, on these film ribbons, which add to the reality of the
illusion, and, by a chemical extension of the photographic
process, the entire movie can be made in natural colors. It
is about the practice of cinematography that this book is
written.

New methods and tools

The principles of the movie are old, but its special tools
and methods are new. Borrowed from photography, the pic-
torial recording instrument is called a camera. The camera's
essentials are a lens, to direct light, in order to make a picture
on the sensitive surface of the film; a shutter, to cut off light
when the film moves, and to permit light to reach the film
when the latter is motionless; special machinery, to move the
film ribbon past the lens in a series of accurate stops and
starts; spindles upon which the film ribbon is wound. All these
are, with the exception of the lens, placed inside a housing
or case which is impervious to light, to prevent the film's
being acted upon by unwanted and undirected light.

Movie film is similar to photographic film in nearly every-
thing but its dimensions. It is a long ribbon, spooled in various
lengths to fit various cameras and other mechanisms; the
commonly used widths are thirty five millimeters — the
theatrical type — sixteen millimeters and eight millimeters —
the non theatrical types — and nine and a half millimeters — a
European type. Many of these widths are available in color
film and in sound film.

The sound recording instrument is known, variously, as a
sound camera or a sound recorder, depending upon whether
the sound is initially recorded on the same film as are the
pictures. It has a more complicated mechanism for transform-
ing sound waves into light waves.

WHAT IS A MOVIE? 5

The instrument that is used to show the movie is called
a projector. Its basic essentials are a projection lamp, giving
a strong light, whose beam can be focused upon the film by
means of an optical system; a mechanism for moving the film
past the light, in a series of accurate stops and starts, as in
the camera; a shutter, serving the same purpose as does that of
the camera; a lens, to magnify the film image and to throw it
upon the projection surface; reel arms upon which the por-
tion of the film to be projected and that which has been
projected are wound. The lamp and the optical system only
need be enclosed in a housing, because the film that is pro-
jected is no longer sensitive to light. For protection, a part of
the film advancing mechanism is also enclosed. Sound projec-
tors have additional means of transforming the light waves of
the sound record back again into the original sound waves.

Although movies may be shown on any fairly light colored,
smooth surface, they will be seen better if they are projected
on a screen. This consists of an appropriate area which has
been covered with a scientifically determined reflecting
surface.

All these special tools and methods will be discussed in
greater detail later in this book. Many additional facilities
and procedures will be given fuller treatment.

Kinds of movies

Although the movies with which most of us were first
acquainted are of the theatrical kind and although more
people see theatrical movies, at present, than other varieties,
yet theatrical motion pictures are only one clan of the movie
tribe. They are, as their name suggests, films shown in
theatres, the prime purpose of which is to attract paying
audiences; it follows, therefore, that most theatres find it
easier to secure paying customers for what we generally call
entertainment pictures than for other types whose chief func"
tion is to instruct or persuade.

Personal movies are made by individuals for whatever

4 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

purpose those individuals may have in mind. They vary from
family records, through vacation and travel stories, scenic
presentations and films of special events to records of particu-
lar kinds that are more conveniently grouped into a further
category, that is referred to in the next paragraph. Personal
movies represent the true "freedom of the screen" concerning
which so much public discussion has occurred, as related to
theatrical motion pictures. Since movie making is available,
at very reasonable cost, to everybody in the world, people
everywhere can, and do, put on film the record of their
personal interests and the presentation of their personal
viewpoints.

The term, special purpose movies, is somewhat of a catch
all classification to include films, not of the theatrical or
personal types. Among these we find the human record, a
study of some particular phase of man's activity, such as the
ways of Eskimo fishers, life in an Andean village, an urban
art colony and other ethnological and social manifestations.
There is the business film in which are recorded the various
processes of business and industry. The surgical, dental or
medical film serves the purpose of a clinic, for a wider group.
Teaching films are used for instruction as a normal part of
modern pedagogy. Religious films are employed in religious
activities, and they include movies illustrating the work of
missions, historical records of churches and parishes, exposi-
tions of ritual, tales from the Bible or other sacred books
and pictures that set forth moral lessons. The scientific movie
is a statement of scientific performances and methods. Per-
suasive movies try to bring those who see them to accept
a particular point of view, for or against something. Photo-
plays are acted stories that are presented in cinematographic
form.

These special purpose films are made by individuals, by
groups of persons acting cooperatively and non commercially
or by professional producing units, for profit. They are some-

WHAT IS A MOVIE? 5

times called practical, as distinguished from hobby movies.
They are frequently more elaborately conceived and executed
than are personal movies.

Of these three general categories of movie making and
showing, none is more important than the others. Each has
its own reason for being and each may, and does, develop
its special technique. Who would get the best from his movie
equipment should understand the difference between these
three general types of filming and should not make the mis-
take of assuming that methods, applicable to one are equally
successful with all.

This book will offer no further discussion of theatrical
movies. It will not help anybody who wishes to acquire
proficiency in theatrical movie making, except as a state-
ment of some obvious fundamentals. It is intended to serve
those who wish to make personal or special purpose movies
that are not primarily designed for theatrical entertainment.
The number of personal and special purpose filmers is so
large that their particular needs deserve definite response,
which this book tries to give.

CHAPTER H
WHAT MAKES A MOVIE?

WHEN somebody invites you to look at his movies,
you expect to see people and things in motion, for
it is motion that makes the movie. The capacity to
record action is the peculiar magic of the movie camera.

On the other hand, nobody is interested in a picture that
offers nothing but haphazard action — a film in which unrelated
people, trees, cars and buildings go whizzing past on the screen.
This is but the raw material of a movie. The use of this raw
material must be intelligently controlled by the filmer, for a
movie, like anything else a man says, must make sense.

When we first have a movie camera in our hands, we are
eager to use it — to press the button and shoot something.
We rush hurriedly to the instruction booklet to learn how
to put film in the camera and how to set the lens. This seems
to be the logical thing to do. Here is the new camera; we
shall learn how to operate it.

Suppose that we approach our first picture in an entirely
different way, a way which, on the surface, may seem to be
completely illogical. Let us think of the movies that we
should like to make — even before we learn how to use the
camera! We shall consider what we want to film, before we
film it.

This brings us to the first guide post on the road to good

WHAT MAKES A MOVIE? 7

movie making. It reads, What shall our movie be about? In
this simple query, we find the first step toward the kind of
filming that will delight our audiences and give us a sense
of real accomplishment.

We have all seen those amateur movies that are not "about
anything."

One scene follows another on the screen without connection.
First, we see a shot of Mother getting out of the car; then
comes a scene of Brother Bill on the front porch; a view of
some rose bushes flashes on the screen, and Mike, the
Irish terrier, bounces into the scene to capture the camera's
uncertain attention, as he races over the lawn. Then, un-
expectedly, there is a shot of Main Street and a view of four
or five persons waving their hands, as they walk toward the
camera.

That is the method of exposing film in a snapshot camera,
and, at first glance, there would seem to be no reason why
we should not follow the same haphazard procedure with
movies. But there is an all important difference between the
movie and the still photograph. The movie is made up of
a series of scenes, projected in succession on a screen in a
darkened room, while each still photograph is a unit in itself,
and it may be viewed, entirely disassociated from other shots
that you exposed on the same roll of film.

Movie scenes, following, one after another, on the screen,
are inevitably connected in the mind of the viewer. If the
scenes have no relationship, the result is chaos. If the movie
were simply an animated snapshot, the proper technique
would be to screen each scene separately, a procedure that
at once would eliminate the movie's chief advantage, its story
telling capacity, and which would be very difficult mechani-
cally.

Movie scenes are presented in succession on the screen, and
they must bear relationship to one another, just as do suc-
cessive sentences in our speech when we are talking to some-

8 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

body. Like a speaker, the movie commands the attention
of its audience for a given period of time, and, if each scene
in the film is unrelated to what precedes or follows it, the
net effect is the same as it would be if the speaker were to
present a different topic with every sentence that he uttered

We need a subject

So, a good movie must be made about something. It can be
filmed about anything that interests you; it can be as brief as
you like, or as long as you like. You can even make two movies
on one roll of film. You can devote the first half of the reel to
showing Baby who gets his bath out of doors on a summer
morning and the second half to Fred or Mary, who runs an
errand for Mother, plays croquet or rakes leaves off the drive-
way.

"But why use all that film on one subject, when one shot
would do?" asks the economically minded movie maker.

Film costs money, it is true. But you want to get your
money's value from it. If you film Baby at his bath or in the
play pen, you want to see something of him — something
that will recall, in the years to come, his personality, his own,
individual mannerisms and how he smiles. You really want to
see the baby and you want to make the whole incident live
again on your screen.

Then, if you do not use the footage for a real movie, you
will use it for pot shots, and that is real waste, for, after
you have grown accustomed to the miracle of motion pictures
on your own screen, these heterogeneous shots will be
meaningless to you. They will be meaningless to others, the
first time that they see them.

Suppose that the first movie is to be a story of Baby's
bath, staged out of doors so that we can film it easily. We
could make it something like this:

Scene 1. Mother comes out of the front door, carrying

WHAT MAKES A MOVIE? 8

tub, soap and towels. (We stop the camera when
Mother has left the camera field.)

Scene 2. Mother places the tub on the lawn. She stands
back and surveys the arrangement, then leaves
the scene. (The camera, which has been held
steady, so that Mother and the tub are centered
in the finder, is stopped when Mother leaves.)

Scene 3. The same view as in the preceding shot, but
taken closer to the tub. Junior or Dad enters the
scene, with warm water in buckets, and fills the
tub. While this takes place, Mother enters the
scene again, this time with Baby in her arms.

Scene 4. Come closer yet, to show Mother seated on the
grass beside the tub, undressing Baby.

Scene 5. Mother puts Baby into the tub, or he tries to
climb in, himself. (For this shot, step nearer to
the action, but include all of Baby and the tub
and most of Mother. Take this scene from the
side opposite that of the preceding views — just
for the sake of variety.)

Scene 6. Baby in the tub, fishing for the soap which he
finds and squeezes in his hands with delight.
(For this scene, come so close that Baby and his
tub almost fill the finder of your camera. Now
you can see Baby very clearly. You might sit
down to make this shot.)

Scene 7. Now stand, step backward a pace or two and
point the camera downward toward Baby.
Maybe he has lost the soap, and is fishing for it

10 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Call to him and get him to look up at the camera.
(His attention will soon return to the mystery of
the soap.) Now, Mother's hands come into the
scene, as she begins the bath.

Scene 8. Get back far enough to include most of Mother
in the scene, as she bathes Baby, while Baby tries
to help her by splashing.

Scene 9. Here, we get very close, to show Baby crowing
and gurgling as he enjoys his bath. (Mother's
hands may come into the picture as she applies
the wash cloth, but Baby's head and shoulders,
and part of the tub, almost fill the view, as we
see it in the finder.)

Scene 10. Now we film the action again from about the
same position that we used for Scene 8. Mother
is bathing Baby — maybe Baby has the soap and
Mother takes it from him. Baby regards her
with an injured look.

Scene 11. We go back farther, to show all of Mother finish-
ing the job. Junior or Dad is now in the scene,
watching. The bath is over; Mother takes Baby
from the tub.

Scene 12. Come very close again, so that only Baby is
seen in Mother's lap, with Mother's hands
drying him.

Scene 13. At a point almost as close, lie down on the
ground and turn the camera upward to catch
the faces of both Baby and Mother, as she dries
him with the towel. Mother and Baby will be

WHAT MAKES A MOVIE? 11

shown against the sky as background, and per-
haps there will be clouds to beautify the scene.

Scene 14. Include all of Mother and Baby, as Mother
dresses Baby.

Scene 15. (From a different viewpoint, here, and a little
farther away, to show all the action of the fol-
lowing scene.) Mother has finished dressing
Baby, and she puts him on the ground. Baby
crawls or toddles toward the tub; perhaps he
wants the soap. But the bath is over, and Mother
rushes to pick him up.

Scene 16. A different part of the yard, with the play pen
centered in the finder. (Stand so close that the
play pen almost fills the lens field.) Mother
comes into the scene, with Baby in her arms, and
puts him into the play pen.

Scene 17. Come quite close, so that Baby almost fills the
finder. Call to Baby, to get him to look at you.
(The last scene is this close view of Baby, freshly
bathed and dressed, smiling at you behind the
camera. Perhaps he is trying to climb out of
the play pen, to reach the soap.)

This is a complete and unified movie, for these scenes are
all related to each other; they are linked together in con-
tinuous succession, so this movie is said to have a "continuity,"
to distinguish it from a "hit or miss" series of snapshots in
motion. This quality of continuity is as important in good
film making as is exposure or focus.

This movie could be used as a block, in building a longer,
composite picture of Baby. The next section could show, in

12 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

fewer scenes, how Baby is weighed; the third could present
Baby's outing, when Mary takes him for a ride in his carriage.
In these short movies, all scenes are connected, and the action
is normal and natural, because both youngsters and adults
are doing something that takes their attention from the cam-
era. Mother is busy with Baby's bath; Mary puts Baby into
the carriage and wheels it. Here is the secret of avoiding self
conscious camera shyness, for people look and act their best
when they are doing something that occupies their attention.
Don't worry about Baby; he is never self conscious, which is
one of the reasons why he is such a delightful camera subject.

Scenes are made from different viewpoints

It would have been possible to film Baby's bath from one
camera position — one could stand away far enough to include
the front door of the house and the bath tub on the lawn. But
that would be ridiculous, because one would not get a close
view of Baby. The movie was broken up into separate indi-
vidual "scenes," and, for each of these, the camera was placed
close enough to exclude anything that was not important to
the story.

That procedure enabled the audience to see Baby and
Mother better — to observe what they were doing and why
they were doing it. Further, there was the advantage of variety,
for one long scene would have been very monotonous.

The camera can parallel the procedure that we follow in
real life. We step backward for a general view and we walk
nearer for a closer look. When we want to see the whole garden,
we stand on the porch or on the street; when we want to look
at a rose, we walk up to the bush and single out one flower
from the others. The only difference is that we continue to
look "between scenes," so to speak, while the camera must
not. It is a waste of film and of screen time to show interven-
ing movements between the longer view and the closer. Each
scene must be steady, complete in itself.

WHAT MAKES A MOVIE?

The scene is the basic unit

The scene is the basic unit that makes up a movie, so,
before we press the button, we must think exactly of what
action or subject matter we want to have in a given scene,
and we must also consider from what point of view we shall
film it. Then we stand still, hold the camera steady and press
the button. When the action that we want to film is com-
pleted, we stop the camera. Before we begin a second shot,
we must make sure that the action for the new scene is ready.

Suppose that Dorothy, has been pressed by Mother to help
her by shelling peas, for dinner. There is a good movie subject,
for Dorothy, who is at an age when she might be self conscious,
will have her attention taken by the task. We might film her
as follows:

Scene 1. Medium shot.

Dorothy in a chair, in the garden, reading a book.
Mother comes into the scene with a pan of peas
and an empty pan for the shelled peas.

This shot introduces the subject; it is
taken from a point that is sufficiently dis-
tant that the audience can see where Dor-
othy is seated. The view must include
Mother, when she enters the scene.

Scene 2. Semi closeup.

Mother gives Dorothy the two pans, and,
luctantly, Dorothy begins work on the peas.

re-

This shot is made from a closer position,
because we want to show that Mother is
talking to Dorothy and we want to see
what Mother carries.

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Scene 3. Closeup.

Dorothy's face, while her attention is fixed on the
peas.

This is made from a position still nearer

^ &^ — ^\| \.\ to the subject; Mother is out of the scene

x T^v^A A now, and we can get closer to Dorothy, to

•* f » give the audience a chance to see her

clearly. Hold the camera low and shoot
upward to catch Dorothy's face against
the background of sky, framed by tree
tops.

Scene 4. Closeup.

Dorothy's hands at work in the large pan of peas.

Now we have a chance to see the details of
what Dorothy is doing.

Scene 5. Medium shot.

Dorothy shelling peas. She picks up her book
and arranges it, to read while she is at work.

We come back, once more, to a general
view, to close the episode. (We should
make this shot from a different angle, to
avoid a repetition of the first view. It
might be filmed from a porch or a balcony,
so that we could point the camera down-
ward to catch a pleasantly composed scene
of Dorothy and the shadows on the
ground, cast by the leaves of trees, over-
head.)

In these five shots, as they are shown in the illustration, the
variation in camera viewpoint tells the story. So that the audi-
ence can follow every detail and can also get a pleasant view of

WHAT MAKES A MOVIE? 15

Dorothy, the camera was moved from a general view of the
scene, showing the background, to a nearer view, showing
Mother and Dorothy. Then the camera was moved yet closer
to register the expression on Dorothy's face. To satisfy the
audience's curiosity about what Dorothy was doing, we took
another close view — this one, of her hands.

These various camera positions have been given general
names — medium shot, semi closeup and closeup — to identify
them among movie makers. The terms are not exact and they
refer to no definite distances from camera to subject, but what
they do indicate, as it is seen through the viewfinder or on the
screen, is clearly shown in the illustration. Camera positions
are discussed in greater detail in Chapter V.

Notice that, in scenes of Dorothy, we not only used a
variety of distances from camera to subject, but also employed
different camera viewpoints, to tell the story.

For Scene 3, we pointed the camera upward, to get the full
closeup of Dorothy, for she was looking downward while she
was shelling the peas. By changing the angle from the hori-
zontal, we got a much better view of Dorothy and we also
obtained an attractive background from the sky, framed
with branches of the trees.

When we wanted to show in detail what Dorothy was doing,
we pointed the camera downward at her hands, and the last
shot was made with a downward angle, to avoid similarity to
the first and to take advantage of the added decoration of the
shadows of the leaves.

Again the camera follows our procedure in real life; for we
look upward and downward, as well as straight ahead. We
look at a thing from the angle that gives the best view of it,
and, in selecting camera positions, the movie maker proceeds
in the same way.

Sequences

In movie terminology, a series of scenes of one subject, all
the shots of which are related to each other and are made
from different viewpoints, is called a "sequence." The series of

1C THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

shots of Dorothy shelling the peas is a typical sequence.
Movies are made up of a number of such sequences or sections.
For example, in a film of A Day in the Life of the Smith
Family, after the sequence of Dorothy shelling the peas might
come one of Tom washing the car, while this could be followed
by a sequence of Junior at work on his model boat.

A sequence is the next unit after the individual scene. Just
as the scene can be compared to the sentence in writing, the
sequence can be considered as the paragraph. When you have
completed the sequence, you have shown all that you want
to present about a particular subject or activity.

Sequences need not commence with long or medium shots.
There is no definite formula. In fact, a sequence could begin
with a closeup. For example, we might open a sequence of
Jim washing the car, by a closeup of a hand turning an out-
door faucet. Then, the next shot — a semi closeup — would
reveal Jim as the owner of the hand, while the following
scene, a medium shot, would show him, clad in boots, holding
a sponge in one hand and a hose in the other, with the car
in the background.

As a rule, a sequence presents a general view of the subject
in its background, after which the camera comes closer, to give
a clearer view. It may come still closer, to show more detail.
A last look at the subject from a different angle can conclude
the sequence. This procedure is designed to satisfy natural
human curiosity, because everybody wants a general view of
anything and also wishes a closer inspection of interesting
details.

Sequences may be made of any subject. We can have a
sequence of a church, a brook, a monument, as well as of a
boy fishing or of Dorothy shelling peas. In fact, it is a truism
of movie making that any subject, worth one shot is worth
at least three — from different camera positions. These make
a sequence automatically.

Experienced movie makers have come to recognize this so
fully that they speak of "filming a sequence" rather than of
"filming a scene."

CHAPTER III
A MOVIE'S CHIEF TOOLS

BOTH a movie camera and a still camera produce pic-
tures by the action of light on sensitive film, but there
is a marked difference between the two mechanisms.
This difference follows from the fact that, while a still camera
is designed to make individual still pictures, a movie camera
is built to record numerous small pictures on a long ribbon
of film, which, when they are projected with the proper equip-
ment, will produce the illusion of motion on the screen.

It is in creating this illusion of continuous motion that the
important difference between the two cameras lies. When one
understands what makes a movie appear to move, the prin-
ciples of the mechanism of his movie camera will become
very clear to him.

Look at the strips of movie film that are shown on page
27, and you will see that they consist of a number of individ-
ual pictures, each of which is quite motionless in itself. But
each picture, or "frame," as it is called, following the illustra-
tion from the top downward, represents a successive stage in
the motion of the subject. When these pictures are flashed
on the screen in quick succession, the subject will appear to
move.

If these flashes occur at a speed of sixteen a second, the
eye will not detect that they actually are separate, individual
glimpses of still pictures, but it will see the scene as a con-
tinuous, uninterrupted flow of motion. The slowness of our
eyes and nervous systems makes possible the illusion of the
motion picture.

[17]

18 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

So, the movie camera really records a series of still pictures
on a long ribbon of film, which runs through the camera at
a speed that will permit us to take sixteen successive pictures
in each second in which the camera is in operation. The motion
of the film through the camera must be precise, and the rate
of speed must be exactly uniform, to produce the illusion of
the movie. Therefore, a motor, usually of the spring variety,
is required; one must wind this, before using the camera.

The camera's essentials

The essential parts of the camera's interior mechanism,
illustrated in the diagram on the opposite page, are as follows:

A. The aperture the area in which is cast the image of

the scene, as it was formed by the lens.

B. The gate the channel plate which guides the film

past the aperture, and there holds it
flat.

C. The claw which pulls the film down, past the

aperture, frame by frame, and which al-
lows it to remain stationary in the gate
for the fraction of a second that is re-
quired for exposure.

(Note: the film is not moved steadily past the gate, for
all the images would be blurred, if that were done. It is
pulled down by the claw in a series of jerks, or intermittently.
A frame is pulled down, and is allowed to rest in the gate for
a fraction of a second and, then, the next frame is pulled
down. This happens at a rate of sixteen frames a second,
when the camera is operated at normal speed.)

D. The shutter this intercepts the light coming from

the lens, during the time in which the
claw is pulling down a frame of film.
When the frame is in position, the open
sector of the shutter comes in front of

LENS AXIS

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A MOVIE CAMERA

*0 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

the film and allows the light to strike
the frame. Then the shutter rotates,
and cuts off the light, while the claw
pulls the next frame down into position.

E. The sprocket this draws the film from the supply

spool and feeds it, in a loop, to the claw.
The loop provides the slack that insures
the intermittent flow of the film. This
slack, on either side of the gate, allows
the film to flow continuously from the
supply reel and continuously to the
takeup reel, when the camera is run-
ning. (Some cameras operate without
sprockets or loops.)

F. The supply reel — this is the roll of fresh film that has

been loaded in the camera.

G. The takeup reel — on this reel, the film winds, after it has

been exposed. When all the film has
been exposed, this reel, now full, is re-
moved from the camera, placed in its
pasteboard container and is then re-
turned to its manufacturer's processing
station.

Placing the film properly in the camera, as it is illustrated
in this diagram, is called threading. The construction of differ-
ent cameras varies, but each is supplied with an instruction
booklet which will show, by diagrams and text, how to thread
it.

Threading is simplified in the magazine loading camera,
because the film is automatically engaged with the camera's
driving mechanism when the magazine is put in place and
the camera case is closed.

Outside the camera, conveniently located on its case, is the
button or lever, by which the camera mechanism may be

A MOVIE'S CHIEF TOOLS *1

started and stopped. There, also, will be found the key, by
which the spring motor is wound, and a footage meter which
tells you how much unexposed film remains in the camera.
In addition, there may be a means of controlling the camera's
speed. There are several standard camera speeds, although
that of sixteen frames a second is generally employed in
silent filming. The other speeds that are used in creating the
effect of slow or fast motion, will be discussed later.

Every camera has a viewfinder through which one looks, to
determine the scene that he is filming. This viewfinder may be
one of several types, but, by peering through it, one can see
exactly the scene that he will capture, except when the camera
is very close to the subject. Then there is a slight divergence
of a few inches, because the viewfinder, although it is very
close to the camera's lens, does not occupy exactly the same
position as the lens, whence the fields of the two are not
identical. This slight divergence is called "parallax."

8mm,. and 16mm.

The wide use of movies for non theatrical purposes was
brought about by the introduction of more economical and
more convenient cameras and film. These relatively recent
additions to cinematographic equipment are commonly re-
ferred to by the millimetric width of the film employed. There
are 8mm. cameras and 16mm. cameras; there is 8mm. film
and 16mm. film.

The 8mm. camera produces for projection a film that is
eight millimeters wide; the 16mm. camera is designed to be
used with film of twice that width, or sixteen millimeters.
Pictures made with 8mm. cameras are less expensive than
those obtained with 16mm. cameras; any unit of time, in the
screening, costs less, if 8mm. film is used, than if 16mm. film
is employed. (See the illustration on page 27.)

The 16mm. movie film that is used in making silent movies
bears a row of perforations near each of its edges, in which

S3 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

the camera's sprockets engage. It is offered, in the various
types of black and white and color emulsions soon to be dis-
cussed, in daylight loading spools of fifty, one hundred and
two hundred foot capacity and in magazine loads of fifty feet
each.

Despite the name of the system being used (8mm. movies) ,
film offered for 8mm. cameras is actually 16mm. in width. As
such, it is known as "Double-Eight" film, and it has now com-
pletely replaced the Single-Eight film (only 8mm. wide) which
also was offered in the early days of the 8mm. system. With
the double-eight film, the spool or magazine is run through
the camera once, exposing a row of pictures 8mm. wide; it is
then turned over, re-inserted in the camera, and a second
row of pictures is then exposed down the opposite edge back
to the starting point. After processing by the film manufac-
turer, this 16mm. strip of film is slit lengthwise and the two
lengths are joined together to create one length of 8mm. film
for projection.

Double-eight film, in black and white and color types, is
offered in twenty five foot daylight loading spools and in
twenty five foot magazines.

Loading the camera

When you thread the camera, do not hesitate to unwind
enough film for the operation; this extra footage will be
trimmed off at the processing station, and you will gain noth-
ing by trying to use it for a scene. However, watch the roll
carefully while you thread the camera, lest it slip in your
hands and the coils loosen.

The film is sensitive to light, and it will certainly be spoiled
if it is exposed to light, when the camera is open. The rolls
of film are designed for daylight loading, and the flange
on the spool will protect the film from ordinary daylight. But
one must not load the camera in the bright rays of direct
sunlight, because, in that event, a little light may seep under-

A MOVIE'S CHIEF TOOLS 33

neath the flange of the reel and produce "edge fog," a waver-
ing area of white glare on the projected picture.

If you are loading the camera in the open, it is best to look
for a shady spot or, if it is necessary to thread a new roll of
film when you are in bright sunlight, to shade the camera
with your body.

After the camera has been loaded with a new roll of film,
and before you replace the camera cover, push the button
or lever and operate the mechanism for one or two seconds,
to make sure that the film is running through it properly.
If the loops of film (your camera may operate without loops)
collapse during this operation, rethread the camera, by dis-
connecting the film and starting again. These loops are all im-
portant in cameras that employ them, because, without them,
film may run through the machine, but indistinguishable
blurs, instead of pictures, will result.

Follow carefully the instruction book that comes with your
camera, and you will not err in the threading operation. The
diagrams in your instruction book will make the whole process
clear.

Practice threading your camera with an old roll of film or
with the short strip that most manufacturers supply with the
camera. Familiarity with the operation, thus gained, will save
good film later.

In threading the camera, be sure that you do not hurry.
Take all the time, necessary to make sure that you have cov-
ered the essential motions; doing this will prevent camera
jams and delays when you are filming.

With a magazine camera, of course, the problem of loading
is simplified. You have only to put the magazine in place
and to close the cover. But, even so, remember that the
magazine fits in only one position; if it does not immediately
drop or push into place, don't use brute force. Take time,
to be sure that it is properly seated.

£4 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Care of the camera

Caring for the camera is important, and it may be summed
up in two words — protection and cleanliness. It is foolish to
deal roughly with an expensive mechanism that performs
such precise functions as does the movie camera. Don't leave
the loaded instrument in hot sunlight or in dusty places.

Care in threading the film and in cleaning within the case
is well advised. After every two or three spools of film have
been exposed, clean the gate and aperture according to the
manufacturer's instructions.

If you neglect your camera, your pictures will suffer. Film
scratches that are acquired in the camera are almost invari-
ably caused by failure to clean the gate. Particles of the soft
coating may become separated from the film at this point;
if these are left to harden, they will build up a sharp edge
which causes an annoying scratch in the film. This cannot
be remedied afterward; you must prevent it, by cleaning the
gate.

Some cameras require oiling, while others do not; naturally,
one will follow the instructions that apply to his individual
instrument. If oil is needed, never use more than a drop or
two, carefully placed. This amount is sufficient, if the manu-
facturer's instructions for frequency of oiling are followed.

The lens

A primary link, of greatest importance, in the chain of
operations that produce a successful picture is the camera
lens. This is a collection of small glass units (known as ele-
ments) which are held in a tubular mount, that is called the
lens barrel. These elements, all working together, bend light
rays to form a tiny picture, or image, which is arranged to
fall on the surface of the film through the camera aperture.

Since it is the function of the lens to collect the light rays
which emanate from any subject that is placed in front of
the camera, we point the lens at the subject, and some of

A MOVIE'S CHIEF TOOLS

these rays reach the curved surface of the front element of the
lens. The curvature of the glass elements in the lens acts to
bend these light rays, to form a minute image or reproduction
of the scene, on the surface of the film.

The lens that is most generally used on movie cameras forms
a picture that has a comparable perspective to that which is
seen by the human eye. If you want to include a greater area,
without moving the camera farther from the subject, a "wide
angle lens" is used. If one wishes to magnify the appearance
of subjects on the screen, but with the result that less is in-
cluded in the picture, the answer is found in lenses with bar-
rels, longer than normal or in "telephoto lenses." They may be
compared to opera glasses that are used to extend ordinary
vision.

The geometrical diagram will demonstrate that the nearer
the lens is placed to the film, the wider is the resultant angle
of view. Hence, the lens that includes greater scene area
makes objects look smaller, although the area included in the
picture is larger; the reverse is true of longer barreled and tele-
photo lenses.

Lenses placed nearer to the film will give wider
angles of view. The size of the aperture is fixed.

26 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Lenses which collect a great amount of light are called "fast
lenses." They give brighter images at the aperture and, hence,
they are convenient, when the subject is poorly lighted. Fast
lenses are more expensive than slower lenses, by reason of
the greatly increased technical difficulties which must be
overcome in their manufacture.

An important part of the lens assembly is the "diaphragm,"
which will be discussed in detail later. Its major function is
to control the amount of light that passes through the lens.

The physical care of the lens, your camera's eye, is impor-
tant. If one carelessly exposes its front surface to dust and
finger marks, he runs the risk of spoiling the performance of
this essential instrument. Keep dust out of your lens as you
would keep it out of your own eyes, if you expect your camera
to see clearly. It is prudent to protect the lens with a lens cap,
at all times, when pictures are not being taken — only don't
forget to remove the cap when you shoot! Inspect the surface
of the lens before you begin to film, to see that it is clean.
Lens tissue may be used, to remove dust or finger prints.

If strong light should fall directly on the front surface of a
lens, it may cause "lens flare." The result of this, on the screen,
will be a "fuzzy," washed out, bright area, usually near the
edge of the picture. Look through the finder, to see that no
bright source of light is included in the scene. This might be a
lighting unit, in the case of interior filming, or the sun, itself,
when you are shooting out of doors. All lenses are fitted with
a hood which helps to obviate lens flare.

Film

The movie film, which records and preserves the images
formed by the lens, is a long, transparent ribbon, on which
is coated a thin layer of gelatin, impregnated with certain
chemicals and dyes which make it sensitive to light. The trans-
parent support is called the "base," while the light sensitive
gelatin coating is called the "emulsion."

Earl L. Clark, ACL

16mm. frame enlarged

Leo Caloia

16mm.

Straight

8mm.

1 6mm. 8mm.

Note the progression of motion in
the successive frames of the 16mm.
strip at the left.

OVER- 4//f

EXPOSURE

' **;$?* «

ft-

CORRECT
EXPOSURE

UNDER-
EXPOSURE

Loss of detail in the
high lights marks an
overexposed shot,
while underexposure
eliminates details in
the shadows and ac-
centuates the high
lights.

A MOVIE'S CHIEF TOOLS 29

The film is arranged to pass through the camera gate, so
that the emulsion faces the lens. On most modern reversal
films, one side has a dark coating, while the other side is of
a light gray or yellow green color. This latter bears the emul-
sion, which is thus easily identified. The dark, "anti halation"
coating, as it is called, also helps to protect the film from
stray light, while it is wound on the spool. This coating is re-
moved in processing.

Amateur movies were popularized by the perfection of "re-
versal film," because of the saving in cost that this introduced.
Today, most personal and special purpose pictures are made
on reversal film.

To understand the reversal process, consider, for a moment,
the film that you use in a still camera. After your roll is devel-
oped, you have "negatives" in which values are reversed —
black things are white and white things are black. From this
negative, a "print," or "positive," is made, in which values are
normal. For the procedure, two films are required — a positive
and a negative. This method is employed, to provide the films
projected in movie theatres today. A negative reel is produced
and, from this, positive prints are made.

The reversal process introduced a new principle, because,
by means of it, the film that was exposed in the camera and
that was developed as a negative is "reversed," that is, it is
chemically changed into a positive print. Thus, only one strip
of film is required for the process, which obviously effects
real economy. Both black and white and color movie systems
use reversal film, with excellent results, in 8mm. and 16mm.
widths. Perfect duplicates can be made, if extra copies of a
particular movie are wanted.

The positive and negative film system is also available to
amateur movie makers who use 16mm. cameras. Its most
important service is to facilitate the production of a large
number of prints, if they are required. Although the negative
and positive film system is more expensive than the reversal

30 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

method, if only one copy of the movie is desired, it is less
expensive, if many prints are to be used. This is true, because
each positive print is cheaper than a duplicate of a reversal
film.

Various types of black and white movie film, regardless of
width — 8mm. or 16mm. — differ in their sensitivity to light.
Some emulsions are more sensitive to light and will produce
pictures under conditions of relatively dim illumination, while
less sensitive film would not. The more sensitive emulsion is
called "fast." Since it requires greater complexity in manu-
facture, it is more expensive than the less sensitive emulsion,
which is called "slow."

Black and white films differ also in their rendition of colors,
a fact that requires some explanation, especially since there
is no color in the black and white movie. However, everything
in nature is colored, and black and white film translates these
colors into various shades of gray — ranging from white to
deep black.

Your film will translate the green of trees into a certain
shade of gray, the pink flush of skin into another and the red
petals of a flower into their appropriate, monochromatic tone.
Different emulsions vary in their black and white rendition
of the colors of objects that we film.

These two qualities — sensitivity to light and rendition of
color — are the most important attributes of film, and it is in
relation to them that films may be divided into a number of
basic types.

POSITIVE FILM, or "color blind film," is the first of these.
This film, that is manufactured primarily for use in making
positive prints of negatives and for title work, may be exposed
in the camera for general movie purposes. It is then reversed,
just as is regular reversal film.

This film is very slow; it also has the most limited range
of color rendition. It responds largely to blue, and not at all
to red, which it renders as black.

A MOVIE'S CHIEF TOOLS SI

This basic type is offered as a slow, color blind film by
some distributors, who reverse it after the user has exposed
it. A satisfactory picture may be obtained with it, if plenty
of light is available and if the subject is such that color
differentiation is not important. By present standards, the
resultant image is harsh, while bright, white subjects may
produce glare on the screen.

ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM is the next basic type. It may be
more sensitive to light than is the positive kind and it is also
responsive to a larger range of colors. For example, it will rec-
ord the greens of landscape shots in pleasant shades of gray.
However, it will not do full justice to the yellow, orange or
red elements in a scene.

PANCHROMATIC FILM was developed to record, in relative
shades of gray, all colors in their correct degrees of brightness,
as they appear to the eye. This emulsion incorporates certain
dyes which cause it to translate the various colors of subjects
into black and white effects, producing substantially the same
reaction that the eye gets from real life — but this is all in
monochrome, of course.

Panchromatic film has a larger range of color rendition than
has orthochromatic film, but it is not necessarily faster.

EXTRA FAST FILM is available in panchromatic emulsions,
generally at additional cost. Films of this type are variously
known as "supersensitive," "double X" and "triple S," which
are trade names that are used to indicate the speed of the film
in relation to its manufacturer's other emulsions.

The four basic black and white film types — positive or "color
blind," orthochromatic, panchromatic and extra fast — are sold
under specialized trade names.

These are the basic groups of black and white movie film,
but there remains the latest and most versatile movie record-
ing medium — natural color film.

Modern color film requires no camera or projector at-
tachments, to provide movie scenes in their natural colors

32 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

This film is loaded in the camera and is exposed in the same
way as is black and white film; it is projected just as are
other types, for the color is inherent in the film itself, be-
coming visible after processing.

When this film is exposed, images are formed on three
overlapped layers of emulsion; during processing, each of these
automatically selects its own color complement, to produce
a composite color image. All this is accomplished by a very
complicated chemical and mechanical process, but the result
is a beautiful rendition of natural color, light and shade and
form.

Such film is a miracle of modern science, for it places
in the hands of the movie maker an amazingly beautiful
medium that may be exposed and projected as easily as we
can employ the cheapest black and white film. So far, the
amateur movie maker has an enormous advantage over the
cameraman of Hollywood, for, at present, no theatrical color
film is so simple to use or so inexpensive.

Color film is available for both 8mm. and 16mm. cameras.
A special color film is made in both widths, for indoor use
with incandescent light, which will be discussed later.

When you have exposed a roll of precious movie film and
you send it away to be processed, you want to be sure to get
it back. Do not forget to write your name and return address
legibly in the space on the film carton that is intended for
that purpose. This will be the only record of your ownership
of the film, when it reaches the processing station.

Make sure, too, that you are not returning an unexposed
roll of film for processing. At the end of every unprocessed
roll, a perforated or stamped "EXPOSED" has been placed
by the manufacturer; so, if you are in doubt as to whether
a particular roll has gone through the camera or not, you
have only to look for this indication at the end.

Be careful in handling film after it has been exposed, be-
cause it is still sensitive to light; you can destroy the latent

A MOVIE'S CHIEF TOOLS 33

image and ruin the film, if it is unrolled from the camera
spool before it is sent to a processing station.

When the roll of film is returned to you, it is spooled on
a projection reel of much less sturdy construction than that
of the camera spool. Light will no longer damage the film,
since it has been processed; hence, this reel may have open
or slotted sides. It must not be used as a camera takeup spool,
however, because the undeveloped film that would be wound
upon it would be ruined immediately, if the reel were removed
from the camera and if light were to strike it through the
openings in the spools.

The projector

The motion picture projector is essentially similar to the
movie camera, because, just as the camera must expose, for
normal action, a series of still pictures at the rate of sixteen
a second, the projector must flash these on the screen at the
same rate, to produce the illusion of motion.

The actual mechanism that is used in the projector, to ac-
complish the film movement, is much the same as that of the
camera, but larger and heavier, because the projector is
required to operate continuously over a longer period of time
and because larger film units must be handled, to give an
uninterrupted show.

In the projector, we find, as in the camera, both supply
and takeup reels. There are feed and takeup sprockets, placed
above and below the film gate; there is a guide channel for
the film and an aperture, while a claw operates intermittently
to pull the film down through the gate.

Behind the aperture of the projector is placed the lamp
house which contains the light source that is needed to
illuminate the film picture. This light is concentrated on the
aperture, by means of a reflector and lens system, the lens
arrangement being a light collecting medium, known as the
condenser. Most projectors have accessible reflector and con-
denser systems, which may need infrequent cleaning.

54 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

In front of the gate is the projection lens, which magnifies
the image and focuses it on the screen. Clearest projection
can be had only by keeping this lens clean.

The film channel of the projector's gate frequently picks
up dust and other foreign material from films that are not
kept scrupulously clean. If it is allowed to accumulate, this
foreign matter may harden and scratch the film. So, before
every projection, it is advisable to open the gate and to clean it
with a soft, lintless cloth.

If any foreign material has collected on the film track
runners, it usually may be removed by scraping them with
a hardwood toothpick. Do not use a sharp metal scraper of
any kind, as this will scratch the gate's polish and will make
matters worse.

Projectors have electrical controls, which provide switches
for turning the motor and the lamp on and off. There is also
a very essential speed control, for adjusting the rate of film
travel, to give a suitable effect on the screen. Most projectors
have some form of tilting mechanism, to center the image on
the screen vertically. There will be found a framing device,
the adjustment of which will center the film picture with
respect to the projector aperture. Also, there will be a
mechanism, to rewind film from the lower to the upper reel,
after it has been shown.

The motive power of movie projectors is almost invariably
electrical, and motors are available for use with both alternat-
ing and direct electrical current.

Some projectors are provided with still picture attachments,
so that the motion of the film can be arrested, and a single
frame can be shown on the screen. When one of these is used, a
shutter that provides protection against heat usually drops
down, automatically, between lamp and film. However, in
using projectors with powerful light sources, one should not
keep the film in the "still" position too long.

Many machines also have a reverse motion control, which
enables the film to be run backward or forward at will. This

A MOVIE'S CHIEF TOOLS 35

feature is especially valuable, in editing. Projectors are avail-
able in many sizes; some of them offer interchangeable lamps
as well as a choice of lenses. Flexibility is desirable when a
single machine must serve small and large audiences. The
more powerful the lamp, the larger the image it can project.
If only a small image is needed, a powerful light source is
neither necessary nor desirable. Projection lenses of different
focal lengths (a term that is discussed in Chapter XV) enable
us to produce an image of the right size, to fit the screen that
is used, at any distance.

Good results in projection are to be had by following care-
fully the manufacturer's instructions, as to operation and
care. So that no annoying interruptions may occur in the
screen presentation, pay particular attention to threading
the projector carefully, making sure that film perforations
are meshed correctly with the teeth of the feed and takeup
sprockets. See that the film is correctly seated in the film
channel at the gate. Pay particular attention to a careful
focus of the projection lens, and check this focus frequently
during the course of the film showing.

Most projectors have a protruding knob, by means of which
the mechanism may be moved slowly by hand. Turning this
will show whether the film is engaged properly with the
various parts of the mechanism. Watch the takeup spool
especially, to see whether it is receiving the film properly; this
care will obviate a tangled coil on the floor.

Screens

The projector produces a picture by focusing an imagt
sharply on some kind of reflecting surface. The more effi-
ciently this surface reflects, the more brilliant will be the pic-
ture. It is, of course, possible to project pictures on a cream
colored window shade or on a smooth, painted wall, but such
surfaces are inefficient reflectors of light, and, therefore, they
produce dim pictures. Wrinkles in these surfaces distort the

86 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

motion picture image. A picture that is projected on a sheet
or on an ordinary cloth will suffer in brilliancy, because light
is lost through the translucent textile.

Special, opaque projection surfaces are offered, to enable
the user to get the most from his projector. These are found
in three basic types: (1) the matte, white surface; (2) the
silver surface and (3) the glass bead surface. All these are
efficient reflectors, and they give good results, but the glass
bead surface offers probably the greatest direct reflection. The
silver surface and the matte, white surface follow in order.

Screens of much direct reflecting power usually provide a
less brilliant image, as one views this from an angle. Such
screens are at their best when they are seen from a position
that is nearer to the projector lens. If the audience can be
arranged in a narrow group, extending in the direction of
the projector's light beam, surfaces that give much direct re-
flection are excellent. If the audience must be spread out on
each side of the screen, a matte, white surface may be prefer-
able, because of its diffusive qualities, which reflect the image
at an angle. The physical forms in which screens may be ob-
tained will be discussed in a later chapter.

It is not good projection practice to try to produce a huge
image for a small group of persons seated near the screen.
Not only does this image impose a greater strain on the eyes
of the audience, but also it magnifies any defects in the footage.
The effect of natural perspective in a projected picture, for such
an audience, is obtained from a smaller screen image, rather
than from a large one. The use of high powered lamps, to pro-
duce small projected images, is not advisable, as many of the
delicate, high lighted details will be "washed out." High powered
lamps are best used to show large pictures to large audiences.

Essential things to remember in using camera, film and projector

CAMERA

1. Clean the camera gate before threading.

A MOVIE'S CHIEF TOOLS 37

2. Run the camera a second or two with the cover off,
to see that it is properly threaded.

3. Make sure that the cover is locked.

4. Set the footage meter, if it is not automatic.

5. Set the diaphragm for the light conditions.

6. Focus for distance, if a focusing scale is provided.

7. Hold the camera steady.

8. Keep the camera cover closed until the entire film is
exposed.

FILM

1. Don't let the film become loosened on the spool.

2. Load and remove the film in shade, wherever this is
possible.

3. Make sure that the film is exposed before inserting
it in the mailing carton.

4. Make sure that your return address is marked on the
mailing carton.

PROJECTION

1. Clean the projector gate before threading.

2. Turn the projector mechanism over by hand, to check
threading.

3. Make sure that the end of the film is attached to the
takeup reel hub.

CHAPTER IV
BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE

TO RECORD an image on movie film that will, when it
is projected on a screen, represent clearly and realisti-
cally what you saw in the viewfinder of your camera
demands early consideration of the problem of exposure.

This term, as it is used in movie making, refers to the quan-
tity and duration of the light, reflected from the subject, that
is permitted to reach the film through the lens. These must be
determined precisely, if the resultant image is to be entirely
satisfactory. Therefore, the correct exposure of any film to the
light that will affect it is the first important phase of camera
technique.

To realize the importance of exposure, we have to remember
that, since light affects film, in the process of recording an
image upon it, this effect can be either too great or too little.
If it is to be neither of these, but, instead, one that will accom-
plish exactly what we want, both the quantity of light and the
time in which it is permitted to affect the film must be con-
trolled.

The sensitivity to light of the film that is threaded in your
camera remains constant, while the lens records images upon
it. Therefore, changes in exposure must be controlled by me-
chanical adjustments of the camera itself. So that these ad-
justments may be determined and made, according to a con-
venient system, not only has the design of lenses and lens
diaphragms been standardized, but, also, a uniform method of
light measurement has been devised, to facilitate an accurate

[88]

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE 89

statement of the exposure, requisite for a particular scene.

Although the failure to give a scene its correct exposure is
all too common and although some deviation from the ideal
may even be tolerated, we must never forget that good movies
call for perfect exposure.

Footage that is recorded when an insufficient amount of
light has reached the film is said to be underexposed, because
more exposure should have been given, to affect the film to its
most efficient rendition. An underexposed picture is usually
dark and is devoid of detail, when it is projected on the screen.
The scene appears to have been dimly lighted, and, from a
practical viewpoint, this is exactly what happened. (See the
illustration on page 28.)

If too much light is allowed to reach the film, a condition
known as overexposure results. This produces a picture that is
also without detail, but, in this case, the image is usually pale
and light, instead of being dark, as in underexposure. (See the
illustration on page 28.)

Severe overexposure produces a length of film that is almost
transparent, while the same degree of underexposure will
make it dense and practically opaque. In both instances, de-
tails are missing, and the result is obviously unsatisfactory.

Since it is necessary to control the amount of light by which
the image is recorded on the film, a mechanical device for in-
creasing or reducing the opening through which light passes is
needed. This opening must be related to the lens which col-
lects and directs the "stream" of light that is reflected from
the subject.

Footage showing action on the screen, that occurs at the
same speed as that of actual life, is generally filmed, in silent
movies, with the shutter of the camera revolving sixteen times
a second. This rate of revolution, with its consequent exposure
of sixteen movie frames in each second, is known as normal
camera speed. Because the great majority of the situations
that are recorded in movie making are those in which action,

40 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

on the screen, should be neither faster nor slower than that of
actual life, some movie cameras can be operated only at nor-
mal camera speed. Therefore, in these instruments, the time
of exposure for each frame is constant.

Other movie cameras offer the facility of controlling the
time of exposure, either by making it possible to change the
size of the shutter opening or, as is done in most instances, by
providing changes, at will, in the speed of revolution of the
shutter. If the time of exposure is modified by the speed of
revolution of the shutter, the action, as it is observed on the
screen, when the projector is operated at a rate of sixteen
frames a second, will appear to be slower or faster than that of
actual life.

Diaphragms and apertures

Because of the fact that most movie cameras can film ac-
tion, at rates, different from normal camera speed, only by the
sacrifice of the natural appearance of this action on the screen,
we must, in the majority of cases, control light in movie mak-
ing by changing the diaphragm, or aperture, of the lens.

The diaphragm is a mechanism in the lens, by which the
stream of light may be increased or diminished, much as a
valve controls the volume of a stream of water. In mechanical
principle, the diaphragm is not unlike a valve, for, by moving
a control ring or lever, we are able to change the size of the
opening through which light passes.

Since any type of film is designed always to have the same
speed, or sensitivity to light, and since exposure changes are
accomplished by increasing or diminishing the light that is
admitted through the lens, some universal system for measur-
ing those changes on the valve, or diaphragm, is an almost
imperative convenience. This is provided by the calibration of
the lens's control lever or ring into divisions, known as "stops"
or "stop numbers," which are definite units of measurement of
the amount of light that passes through a lens. These units

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE

are standard and are generally accepted, just as are gallons,
pounds or feet.

The letter "f is used to identify stop numbers, and most
lenses employ a system of marking stops in which the letter
"/" is used with a number, as, for example, //16. The stop
//1 6, to use it as an illustration, would always admit the same
amount of light, regardless of the size of the lens on which it
was calibrated, and //16 on the small lens of a movie camera
means the same thing that it does on that of a giant, studio
still camera that is used with film, eleven by fourteen inches in
size. The "/" system has been accepted as a universal method
of calibrating lenses.

The most usual method of marking lenses spaces the
calibration divisions, so that each indicates approximately a
one hundred percent increase in light, as the diaphragm is
opened from one / number to the next. A typical set of stop
numbers which would result, for all practical purposes, in a
one hundred percent increase, or in doubling the amount of
light, as the diaphragm was opened from one stop to the next,

A DIAPHRAGM AND ITS STOPS

4« THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

would be as follows: //16, f/11, //8, //5.6, f/4, //2.8, f/1.9. A
very important peculiarity of this traditional method of ex-
pressing stop numbers is found in the fact that the largest
number indicates the smallest diaphragm opening, and vice
versa. (See the illustration on the preceding page.)

While this system is widely followed, there sometimes will
appear certain deviations from the regular progression of the
one hundred percent increase in stop numbers. Such an ex-
ample is found in the popular lens whose largest aperture,
//3.5, falls between the familiar //4 and //2.8. For purposes
of exposure calculation, this stop is commonly said to be half
way between the other two. Further figures, which do not
match the set that we have used as an example, would be //2.7
(for practical purposes the same as //2.8) , //4.5 (very close
to //4) , //1. 5 (about a half stop faster than //1. 9) and others
whose proximity to the stops that have been listed will be
obvious to any camera user.

Lenses are generally identified, as to their speed, by the
stop number that indicates their largest diaphragm opening.
Thus, f/1.9 is the largest diaphragm opening of the fast, f/1.9
lens, while f/3.5 is the largest diaphragm opening of the f/3.5
lens.

Although the best results are produced by accurate expo-
sure, black and white movie films permit much latitude, and
one may make an error of as much as two stops, from the ideal
exposure, in setting the diaphragm, without producing a result
that may be regarded as a failure.

Nevertheless, we should seek the exact amount of exposure
in every instance. When one is working with color, it is doubly
important to make sure that the amount of light which is ad-
mitted through the lens is correct, for color film does not per-
mit so much exposure latitude as does black and white film.
An error of one stop will make a real difference in the rendi-
tion of color values. Underexposed shots are dark, and their
colors are muddy, while, in overexposed color shots, colors are

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE 43

pale and thin. The right exposure, only, gives the real color
values.

Determining exposure

Deciding upon the correct exposure and setting the lens
diaphragm accordingly is a task that the movie maker must
perform for every scene he records. However, there are many
aids to simplify the process.

First, there is the exposure chart or calculator, that is found
on certain cameras. In some cases, this is a plate on which are
described basic conditions of weather or light, such as "aver-
age scenes in direct sunlight" or "subjects in deep shade." The
diaphragm actuating lever may be placed so that it points to
one of these notations and, at the same time, to the proper
stop number for this condition, so that one may adjust expo-
sure without reference to / numbers, if he desires.

Another type of calculator is slightly more comprehensive
and complicated, for it may take into account different periods
of the year, types of film and various camera speeds. What-
ever the calculator on your camera may be, you can be sure
that it presents a dependable method of exposure estimation
and that it will serve you well, once you have learned to rec-
ognize its concise descriptions of light conditions.

One also may buy simple and inexpensive detached calcu-
lators which operate in much the same manner as do those
that are placed on cameras. Often, these devices include a
wider range of variables than we find on calculators that are
installed on cameras, for there is more room to expand the
descriptions of light conditions and to note exceptions to the
basic rules. The more elaborate of these may have sliding dials
or scales, which enable one to arrive at a lens setting, by cor-
relating, swiftly and easily, the various facts observed by the
user.

Exposure may be determined by estimation. We look at the
scene and set the diaphragm by judgments that are reached

44 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

from our previous experience. The movie maker who has taken
pictures for some time, and who has kept accurate records of
exposure for typical light conditions, can get excellent results
by this method. This procedure is impractical for a person
who is just embarking on his movie making career.

Exposure meters

The method of arriving at correct exposure which requires
the least individual judgment is that which involves the use
of an "exposure meter," a device designed to measure the
amount of light that is reflected to the lens from the desired
scene and to determine for you the proper diaphragm setting.
The accuracy with which meters will reveal the correct ex-
posure depends, to a large extent, upon the skill of the user.
To operate a meter, it is necessary to know the speed, or sen-
sitivity, of the film to be used. Most meters may be adjusted
for different sensitivities; the adjustment is made from data
supplied by the manufacturer of the instrument.

The simplest meter is of the extinction type, which depends
for its functioning upon the comparison of a fixed scale of
numbers or other markings with another scale of numbers or
gradations that change with the amount of light that affects
the mechanism. A specific example is offered by a meter which
is held to the eye, while a part of the device is rotated until
one of several numbers is barely visible. This barely visible
number is then set on a chart, by means of which the recom-
mended stop number is found. While such meters are gener-
ally satisfactory, they depend upon the human element to a
marked degree.

Persons with not entirely normal eyesight might get read-
ings that differ from the correct standard for a given light
condition. Reading an extinction meter is influenced by the
involuntary adjustments of the eye to bright or dim light.

When the use of the photoelectric cell became widespread, it
suggested itself as an ideal instrument for measuring light,

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE 45

since photoelectric cells have the property of generating
minute amounts of electricity when they are affected by light,
more current being generated by greater illumination.

These cells were harnessed in meters which indicated ac-
curately the amount of light that affected the meter itself. It
was but a step, then, to transpose these readings into stop
numbers and thus to produce a thoroughly workable exposure
meter for cinematographic use. Fitted with dials and film
speed indications, these meters are today immensely popular,
for they enable anybody to solve the exposure problem with-
out skill or technical ability.

The standard type of photoelectric exposure meter indicates
the amount of light that is reflected from the prospective
movie scene. However, its reading represents the average
amount of light that is reflected from the whole scene, which
may be composed of very dark subjects, reflecting little light,
and very brilliant subjects, reflecting much.

The exposure should be adjusted for the important subject
in the scene, and, therefore, it is often necessary to hold the
meter close to that subject, to register the light that it alone
reflects, without consideration of the amount of light that
may be reflected by adjacent objects.

Another factor is the possibility that the exposure meter
may cover a wider area than that which is covered by the cam-
era's lens. For this reason, too, it may be necessary to step
closer to the subject, in taking the reading, or to tilt the meter
downward.

For example, a prospective scene might include a dark
meadow in its lower half and a brilliant sky in its upper half.
The subject of interest is in the lower half of the picture; so
we should tilt the meter slightly downward, to exclude a large
part of the sky from its field. Otherwise, the brilliant light
from the sky would increase the meter reading, so that a small
diaphragm opening would be indicated, and this, in turn,
would mean that the meadow in the picture would be under-
exposed.

46 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

The proper technique of taking a reading under such condi-
tions would be to tilt the meter downward gradually until
the sky was excluded sufficiently, to cause the needle on the
meter's dial to drop sharply. The reading that was taken just
after the needle had dropped would be correct.

If the scene were light, such as a bright expanse of snow or
water, and if no dark details were desired, it might be satis-
factory to take the average reading of the entire scene from a
normal meter position.

On the other hand, if one were filming at the beach and if
the scene happened to be a close shot of a girl wearing a large
hat and a white dress, it would be important to hold the meter
within a few inches of the girl's face, to get an exposure reading
on it alone, for her countenance would be in a shadow, while
the rest of the scene would be brilliantly illuminated. If the
meter reading for this scene were taken from the camera's lo-
cation, the bright sky, the white sand and the white dress
would tend to produce a high reading, which would indicate a
small diaphragm opening; this would result in underexposure
for the flesh tones, which are darker in color and which are
also in the shadow of the hat.

The following illustrations show how these and similar prin-
ciples of meter use are easily applied, in getting an accurate
exposure reading for the important part of the subject.

Setting the film speed dial correctly is highly important in
the operation of any exposure meter. Before you take a read-
ing, be sure that you know just how to adjust this dial for the
film that you will use. Do not rely on speed ratings that come
from any source other than the manufacturer of the meter or
the Amateur Cinema League, for not all systems of film speed
rating are standardized. Manufacturers of meters are glad to
give you this information; it may also be secured from the
League at any time.

Once you have learned to use a meter, following its manu-
facturer's instructions, rely on it constantly. You will know its

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE

Sunlight falling on the face of the meter will
cause a false reading.

For landscape shots, tilt the meter, so that most
of the sky will be excluded.

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

^8^^»*

§^i^$§i^§i§^

SSSSv^WvWW^W^

If the camera is in the sun and the subject in

shadow, go close enough to get a reading in the

dark area.

The overhead sun gives strong shadows. Hold

the meter close to the subject's face, for a

usable reading.

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE

The sign is the important thing; go close, to
eliminate the dark area surrounding it.

A reading on the adjacent rock will indicate the
exposure for the more distant, similar subject.

50 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

advantages and limitations, and, as a result, you will improve
your method of taking readings, so that the meter will be-
come a highly accurate and easy guide, for use in exposure de-
termination.

Since color film has less latitude than black and white
emulsions, one must be more careful, in taking readings for use
with it, than in taking those, to be used with monochromatic
films. While exposure meter technique for Kodachrome does
not differ from that for black and white film, it must be fol-
lowed more carefully.

If one judges exposure for color film by observation of the
light on the scene, he must be careful to take into considera-
tion the direction of light, the time of day and other factors,
explained by the film's manufacturer in the leaflet that is
supplied with each roll. This leaflet gives exposure directions
for typical lighting conditions, which may be memorized
easily, if one does not care to use a meter.

An exposure difference of half a stop does not have an ap-
preciable effect on the average black and white scene, but it
may make a noticeable difference in the shades of color in a
full color view. Hence, many of the tables and charts pre-
pared for guidance in color film exposure have variations of
half stops. Although there may be no markings on the lens
between stop numbers, one may still set the diaphragm for
this half way position.

One of the handicaps of a new movie maker is the great
amount of well meaning advice about exposure that may be
given to him by acquaintances. On his trip to the tropics, he
will be bombarded on every hand by "tips" from "old timers"
to the effect that the light is "tricky."

Actually, he has no need to change his exposure estimation
method when he goes to the tropics. He will find light condi-
tions there, much like those to be encountered on his own
bathing beach in summertime. Advice to "use filters because
pf the glaring light" would apply equally, if one were to film

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE 51

on the sands of almost any shore. The best advice about
exposure for the visitor to the tropics is to take none from
photographers or from inexperienced movie makers.

Another handicap is found in the person who believes that
an exposure meter manufacturer errs in advising a certain
speed for a particular film. Such an individual may have had
an isolated experience which indicates that the speed that is
given by the manufacturer does not work well with his par-
ticular equipment, but such experiences, even if they happen,
by chance, to represent facts in a certain case, do not apply
to others. Always use the speed that is given by the manu-
facturer of the meter, unless yours happens to be one of the
very rare cases in which fair and careful tests prove that it
is not correct for you. In that circumstance, of course, you
will change the rating, to fit your needs. In a few instances,
changes are desirable, but they never should be made on
the advice of others whose equipment and technique may
differ from yours.

Exposure estimation is not so difficult as one might think.
Half the battle lies in learning to recognize correct exposure
when you see it. A ready knowledge of this may be gained
by looking at good photographs that are reproduced in the
better magazines and books. Note that these have no glaring
washed out parts and no dark, muddy areas. The overall tone
is a pleasant compromise between black and white.

One of the best ways to improve your ability to judge light
is to keep records of the conditions under which you expose
your film and to consult these records when you first project
your processed rolls. In a -short time, you will build up an
instinct for exposure and will know, at a glance, whether a
scene could have been improved.

If you employ the calculator system of exposure estimation,
it is important to learn to classify light conditions into the
categories that are listed on the device. These are well defined
and are easily recognized.

5* THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Focus

Everybody who has used an opera glass or field glass knows
what is meant, in general, by the term "focus." With the
opera glass, the image is formed in the eye, while, with the
camera, it is formed on the film's surface. Just as field and
opera glasses must be adjusted, to get sharp images of subjects,
far and near, so must the camera lens be regulated, if we are
to secure clear and sharp pictures.

Some lenses, those of the "fixed focus" type, are preset
during manufacture in such a way that they will render sharp
images over a reasonable range of distances without requiring
a special adjustment for each scene that is recorded. These
fixed focus lenses are generally of the slower variety — the type
which does not pass a great amount of light, as compared to
the fast lens which passes a large quantity of light.

Since the focus of a lens of this type must be a compromise,
in order to cover a useful range, it follows that such a lens
must have some limitations. One of these is its slower speed
and the other is the fact that with it, alone, you cannot get
a sharp picture of subjects that are within six feet of the
camera. For pictures made at distances closer than six feet,
one requires a "portrait attachment," a special lens to be
placed over the camera lens itself.

The chief advantage of the fixed focus lens is that, in
using it, one need not pay attention to the exact distance
from camera to subject, if this is greater than six feet.
In recording subjects that are constantly moving, it is helpful
to be able to film them without stopping the camera, to set
the lens for a sudden change of distance.

In contrast to the fixed focus lens, we have the focusing type,
which requires the same adjustment as does the opera glass. It
differs from the lens of the opera glass, because the focus of
the movie lens is secured by the adjustment of a calibrated
ring, while the opera glass is focused only by visual inspec-
tion. This calibrated ring is marked with a convenient range

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE 53

of distances that are stated in either feet or meters, depending
upon the system that is in use where the lens is sold. Markings
generally start at two feet and continue, by steps, up to fifty
feet. After this, we find "Infinity," in most cases, which
setting is correct for all distances of more than fifty feet
from the camera. Telephoto lenses may have calibrations
which reach one hundred feet or more, before the Infinity
mark is reached.

It is not difficult to guess the distance from camera to
subject with sufficient accuracy that we may set the focus, to
produce a sharp picture. The leeway in range, within which
one can get a sharp picture, is generous, especially if we use
small diaphragm openings (//5.6 to //1 6) and if our subjects
are more than ten feet from the camera. Accurate distance de-
termination is important at the closer ranges and* particularly,
if the lens is opened to apertures from f/3.5 to //1. 4. A tape
measure is a valuable aid in measuring distances for close
scenes.

Range finders or distance meters are convenient accessories
that are used for determining focus, because they give an
accurate indication of the distance from camera to subject and
because they are easy to use.

Where to set the focus for pictures of action in which the
subject approaches the camera from a considerable distance
may puzzle the novice. The best rule for shots like this is
to set the lens for one third of the distance from the nearest
limit of the range of action to the farthest. Thus, if the subject
that is moving toward the camera were to be filmed, first,
about fifty feet away and were to approach to twenty feet,
the lens should be set at thirty feet. Sharpness would then
be satisfactory throughout the range of the subject's movement.

If one is filming a stationary subject, such as a grove of
trees, with extensive range in depth, the same procedure
could be followed, and the whole scene would be in satisfactory
focus.

54 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

As with exposure, there is a reasonable and helpful leeway
in focusing. This comes from what is called "depth of field."
This phrase describes the area extending in front of the lens,
within which objects will be recorded in the picture clearly
and sharply, if they are filmed at a given diaphragm opening
and a specific focus setting. For example, when the lens is set
for ten feet at a certain / number, we find that objects that
are nearer than ten feet and farther than ten feet are
yet in satisfactory focus. The distance from the near limit
of this range of sharp focus to its far limit is the depth of field.

Two factors control this distance. One is the size of the
stop, or diaphragm opening, and the other is the distance
at which the lens is set. The larger the lens opening and the
shorter the distance, the shallower is the depth. The illustra-
tion on page 62 clarifies this point. The depth of field varies
with the focal length (a term that is discussed in Chapter XV)
of the lens and it is not the same for all lenses of equivalent
speed.

Scene lengths

The question, How long should a scene be? need not
puzzle any movie maker. An average scene runs about ten
seconds, which means four feet of 16mm. film or two feet of
8mm. film. Shots of important action may require much more
footage — enough to show the completion of the action — while
other scenes, that will convey a single idea, may require much
less — for example, a shot of a route number sign along the
highway. When you are in doubt, take plenty of footage.

The footage meter on your camera may be used to de-
termine how long the scene is running, if the camera is placed
on a tripod, but, if the camera is held to the eye, you may not
be able to see it. In that case, one may count slowly: "One
thousand and one," etc., each number representing one second
of screen time. Counting in this way, slowly, to ten would
give you about four feet of 16mm., or two feet of 8mm., film.

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE 55

Keep the camera running continuously until the desired
footage has been recorded. Guard against starting and stop-
ping the mechanism while you are filming the scene, for such
interruptions in the action result in unpleasant breaks in the
picture. They are akin to closing the eyes, while we are
watching some particular action, and opening them an instant
later.

Camera movement

The beginning movie maker may be puzzled by the number
of times that he will encounter the advice, "Hold the camera
steady!" But once he has seen the jiggly and scarcely recog-
nizable pictures that are produced by an unsteady camera,
he will realize the importance of this basic rule.

If you are to hold the camera in your hands, take a com-
fortable position, keep the camera as motionless as possible
and press the button. Don't move the camera while it is
running. Then you will see a steady picture on the screen,
instead of a dizzy whirl of unrecognizable subjects. The au-
dience can concentrate on the subject matter, not on the
dancing scene.

In shooting scenic and distant views, you may be tempted
to swing the camera horizontally from one side to the other;
in the resultant action, on the screen, the scene will rush past
like the telephone poles that are seen from the windows of
a speeding train.

Pivoting the camera horizontally in this manner is called
"panning"; this is a practice to be avoided, as you would avoid
an underexposed or out of focus shot. It can be acceptable,
if you "pan" exceedingly slowly and very smoothly, but more
film is used than would be employed, if you filmed a number
of separate, steady scenes. These would also be much more
attractive on the screen.

The utility of the panorama is chiefly apparent in following
moving objects. In doing this, one must center the subject

56 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

to be followed, in the viewfinder, and must keep it centered
there. Of course, the background rushes past, but the atten-
tion of the audience is fixed on the moving subject. This
technique, requiring considerable adroitness, may be seen in
theatrical newsreel shots in which the camera follows a horse
on the race track or a football player making a long run.

Swinging the camera vertically is called "tilting," and a slow,
steady tilt in one direction, either upward or downward, is
less objectionable than a panorama, if the camera is held
stationary for a few seconds at the beginning and at the end
of the tilt. For example, one might tilt, from the brink, down
a waterfall to a view of the churning water at the base. In
tilting, one should always reach the top, as of a church spire,
or the bottom, as of a canyon, to satisfy the natural curiosity
of the audience.

Camera speeds

While film passes through movie cameras, usually, at the
rate of sixteen frames a second, some of them are so de-
signed that this speed may be altered for special reasons.
Running the camera more slowly than is normal gives us
action, on the screen, which is faster than that of the subject.
The commonly used slow speed is a rate of eight frames a
second, or half the normal camera speed. When shots that
are made at this speed are screened at the regular projection
rate of sixteen frames a second, the action is just twice as
fast as that of the subject. Similarly, camera speeds, greater
than the normal, will retard the motion on the screen, as com-
pared with the real action. The usual range of camera speeds
comprises eight, sixteen, twenty four, thirty two and sixty
four frames a second.

Slow motion, which is produced by a higher camera speed,
is useful in making shots that enable us to examine action
which, in actual life, occurs so rapidly that one cannot analyze
it. Slow motion lets you study your golf stroke, to detect pos-

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE 67

sible defects; it permits coaches to study details of form in
athletics.

By means of slow motion, one may extend on the screen
the duration of action that takes place in a very short space
of time. The diver, filmed at usual speed, is just a flash on the
screen, but, when he is filmed in slow motion, the audience
can see the grace of the dive. Filmed at normal speed, a bird
might dart on and off the screen so rapidly that the audience
could scarcely observe it, but slow motion would increase the
length of the shot and enable us to see the bird clearly.

Slow motion also has the capacity of "smoothing out" the
effect of camera unsteadiness that might be encountered, for
example, in a scene that is recorded by a camera held in the
hand on a moving vehicle, for the reason that, just as slow
motion retards, on the screen, the action of the subject, so it
also retards the movement of the camera, giving its sudden
shifts of position less effect in the projected picture. A further
interesting use of slow motion is to impart an effect of
weightiness or ponderability to models in miniature shots.
Other uses of slow motion will be discussed in later chapters.

Half speed, or eight frames a second, has a more limited
range of usefulness. Its chief function is to provide greater
exposure time for each frame, by increasing the period in which
the shutter remains open. This increased period is especially
valuable with poor illumination, for it allows twice as much
light to affect a frame of film as would reach it at normal
camera speed. Half speed is most helpful when the subject
is relatively static, for, of course, doubling the rate of motion
might prove unattractive in some cases. In fact, hah* speed is
sometimes used for a comic effect.

While a camera speed that is less than normal increases
the amount of light that is admitted to each frame of film
during exposure, a camera speed that is higher than normal
decreases the amount of this light. If the camera is running
at thirty two frames a second, just half as much light is ad-

58 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

milled lo each frame as would reach it, if the camera were
operated at sixteen frames a second.

Hence, to compensate for this decrease in light, we must
open the lens diaphragm by one slop, which doubles ihe
amount of light admitled. Similarly, if the camera is
operated at sixty four frames a second, just half as much light
is admitled lo each frame as would reach it, were the camera
running al Ihirty Iwo frames a second, and so, lo compensate,
we musl open Ihe diaphragm by yel anolher slop, making a
lolal of Iwo stops over Ihe normal exposure for Ihe scene.

Adjuslmenl of exposure lo compensale for change of camera
speed may be reduced lo a simple lable:

8 frames a second — one slop less lhan normal exposure
16 " " — normal exposure

32 " — one slop more lhan normal exposure

64 " " — two stops more than normal exposure

For a camera speed of twenly four frames a second (used
principally for "sound on film" movies, lhal will be explained
in a laler chapler), Ihe lens is opened one half slop over Ihe
normal exposure.

Light and shadow

Lighl makes Ihe piclure, for il is lighl lhal affecls Ihe emul-
sion of Ihe film and produces Ihe image. Lighl also makes
Ihe piclure in anolher sense, because il is Ihe high lighls and
Ihe shadows lhal add deplh and inleresl and lhal give lo
objecls in Ihe scene an effecl of roundness and modeling.

How Ihese imporlanl high lighls and shadows are formed
in a piclure depends upon Ihe direclion of lighl; lo gel Ihe
besl movie shols, we musl conlrol Ihe angle al which lighl
falls on Ihe scene.

In ouldoor filming, we cannol shifl Ihe sun, bill we can
conlrol Ihe camera viewpoinl in relalion lo sunlighl, which
gives us almosl as much freedom as if we could change Ihe
direclion of Ihe sun's rays al will. So, when we selecl a camera

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE 59

viewpoint, we consider not only the subject matter, but also
the direction of the sunlight that falls on the scene.

Light may reach a given scene from an infinite number of
angles, but, for the purposes of movie making, the relationship
between the subject, the camera and the direction of light
can be divided into four main classifications.

Of these, the first is "flat lighting," in which the illumination
comes from the rear of the camera and falls flat on the front
of the subject. This produces the minimum effect of high light
and shadow, for, as they are seen from the camera's point of
view, all the contours of the subject are evenly illuminated.
Features do not stand out, because there are no shadows to
emphasize them.

But suppose that we shift the camera, so that the sunlight
strikes the scene from one side. Then we have what is called
"side lighting," and, from the camera's viewpoint, the light will
cast shadows — one side of the subject will be high lighted and
the other will be in shadow — which will give to the scene an
effect of depth and brilliancy.

The more directly the light comes from one side, the
stronger this effect will be. In fact, one side of the subject
may be too brightly illuminated and the other side may be
in too dark a shadow. This condition can be corrected by the
use of a reflector, to throw additional illumination on the
shadow side of the picture.

However, the average movie maker corrects the difficulty
by moving slightly to one side or the other, to get the light
at an angle of about forty five degrees, in relation to the axis
of his lens. Hence, sunlight will fall from one side and slightly
to the rear of the movie maker, as he faces the scene. This
type of lighting is the standard for movie shots; it is always
easy to find, except in late afternoon or early morning.

When the sun is directly behind the subject, the effect is
called "back lighting," a beautiful and dramatic type of
illumination that must be handled with caution. The shadow

60 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

side of the subject is toward the camera, and, if exposure is
adjusted for the illumination around it, the subject itself will
be silhouetted. This lighting may give an attractive result,
as in the scene of a grove of trees silhouetted against the late
afternoon sun.

If details are to be seen, the lens must be opened for the
proper exposure of that side of the subject which faces toward
the camera. Then, the subject seems to be surrounded by a
halo of light — a charming result in some cases. The classic
instance is a close shot of a girl, filmed with the sun behind
her head, so that the light "catches" in her hair, giving it a
luminous quality.

In all back lighting, one must be exceedingly careful, lest
the direct rays of the sun strike the lens and produce lens
flare, the result of internal reflections within the lens ele-
ments. One must shade the lens from these direct rays. This
shading may be accomplished by the subject, which may cast
a shadow over the lens, but usually it is necessary to protect
the lens itself, by holding something above it. Of course, one
must not obstruct the view of the lens and, thus, cut off a
corner of the picture.

When the sun is directly overhead, the scene is said to
have "top light." The results that are obtained by this form
of lighting are, almost without exception, unpleasant; hence
the midday period, when the sun is almost directly overhead,
is not a good time for movie making. Unpleasant downward
shadows are cast on faces, and landscape views are un-
interesting.

When the sun is overhead, scenes of a person who wears
a wide brimmed hat will be particularly unfortunate, for deep
shadows under the hat will obscure the face. If exposure is
increased to give proper detail in this heavy shadow area,
other parts of the scene may be greatly overexposed.

Flat lighting, which produces an unattractive scene in black
and white movies, is ideal for shots that are made with color

IN Focus

OUT OF
Focus

R. I. Nesmith and Associates

A focusing lens set for closeups would give the unpleasant effect
shown in the bottom picture.

The size of the diaphragm opening affects the range within which
subjects will be sharp in the picture. Above, a camera equipped
with a normal lens is focused on the golf tee. The parentheses
illustrate the range of sharpness at various stops. One can see
how much larger this range is when the diaphragm opening is

small.

Mrs. Warner Seely, ACL

If a bird nests near your home.
you have material for an out-
standing film. (16mm. frame
enlargement.)

Donald A. Buchan, ACL
In years to come, you will ap-
preciate fully a movie record of
your children. (8mm. frame
enlargement.)

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE 63

film. This is true, because, in color pictures, the effect of
modeling and plasticity is produced by the variation of the
colors themselves, and not necessarily by light and shadow.
Also, flat lighting illuminates all parts of the subject evenly;
therefore, all colors are reproduced with similar intensity. If
the exposure is correct, every color will be equally brilliant
on the screen.

Make a practice of watching the direction of light; note
how shadows fall, in relation to your camera position, and
soon you will judge lighting for movie scenes as automatically
as you estimate the interest of the subject matter. Further-
more, you will find that you begin really to see the full beauty
of things about you.

Almost any picture is better, if it is made on a clear, bright
day. When the sun is veiled by clouds, one can see at a glance
that the landscape is flat and uninteresting. Scenes do not
appear to have the life and brilliance that they achieve on a
sunny, clear day. This is a fact, because, in effect, the lighting
is flat and even, and there are no high lights and deep shadows
to give interest to the scene. The camera records what the eye
sees, and movie shots made on a dull day will lack the sharp
contrast of scenes that are filmed when skies are clear.

Selecting views

You can make more attractive movies if you choose pleas-
ing backgrounds for your shots. Shifting the camera's direction
slightly upward, downward or to one side may mean the
difference between a well composed and a commonplace view.
When you look through the finder, to center the action, also
note whether the background adds to the beauty of the scene
or detracts from it.

A telephone pole, directly behind a person, will appear, in
the two dimensional picture on the screen, to be growing out
of his head. The horizon that neatly bisects your view and
the trunk of a tree that cuts the scene vertically, through the
center, will create an unpleasant shot, while a slight change

64 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

in camera angle will avoid these difficulties. By comparing
various possible viewpoints, when you hold the camera to
your eye, you can select the best.

A useful device is the inclusion of some object at one side
of the foreground of the picture. It may be a tree, a boulder,
the corner of a fence or a person; whatever it is, it will give to
your movie scene the illusion of depth — the feeling that there
is one plane behind another in the picture.

Movie makers often frame scenic shots with a foreground
of tree leaves, and, when no tree is growing in the desired
spot, they may ask a friend, who should stand outside the
lens field, to hold a branch above the camera, so that
leaves will fall within the scene area, to provide a natural
foreground for the top of the picture.

Arches, corners of buildings, the hood of an automobile
or the opening of a tent may help you to frame a scene or to
provide a foreground.

When there is action in the foreground, the middle ground
and the background of a picture, at the same time, the scene
will have a considerable effect of depth.

If, in filming a ferry moving from a slip, you include a
portion of the pier in the foreground, the relationship between
the stationary object near the camera and the moving object
farther away will give an illusion of the third dimension on
the screen. If another vessel is moving in a different direction
in the background, this illusion of depth will be astonishing.

Be sure to avoid camera positions in which an adjacent,
rapidly moving body will cross the scene at right angles to the
lens. The effect produced by this action is very much like that
of the panorama — the scene dithers, as if one were trying to
look through a picket fence while he walked rapidly beside it.

Important things to remember

There is a generous leeway in exposure with black and white
film, but this is smaller with color.

Exposure meters are always helpful, but one may secure

BASIC CAMERA TECHNIQUE «5

very satisfactory results with the calculator or table method
of estimation.

You do not need to make a change in your exposure tech-
nique if you are in the tropics.

If you use a fixed focus lens and if you film subjects within
six feet of the camera, you must employ a portrait attachment.

Focusing lenses do not present a difficult problem, since
the depth of field is nearly always great enough, to cover aver-
age errors in judging distance.

A steady camera is one of the most important aids, in secur-
ing good pictures.

When you are filming at hah* speed, caution subjects to
move slowly.

Flat lighting generally gives truest color results but pro-
duces the poorest black and white pictures.

Forty five degree side lighting is a good standard for black
and white scenes.

The best black and white and the best color shots are made
in bright, clear sunlight.

An unpleasant background can spoil an otherwise good
scene.

Never let a subject move at right angles to the lens, unless
the camera is moved, to follow it.

CHAPTER V
FILM PLANS

IN Chapter II of this book, we considered the fundamen-
tal characteristics of good filming which make up a
genuine movie. We met the simple but inescapable fact
that a good movie must "be about something." It must, in
other words, have a theme, or something to say. Without this
core of an idea, even the best exposed footage is meaningless
and incoherent.

We found that this characteristic of theme or coherence
might be evolved from the simplest of situations — Baby hav-
ing a bath, Sister shelling peas or Brother washing the car.

But how do we discover such a central theme and how can
we develop it, once it is in hand?

An answer to the first query is to look for your theme in
whatever interests you. This simple guide leads us to film the
family. To say that the baby "interests" us is to put it mildly,
but it does explain why there is more family filming than all
other kinds combined.

But other people, other places and activities win our inter-
est as well. A day at the beach, the mystery and beauty of the
woods, clouds and water, or a brisk golf game — these things
and countless others make up our life. Any one of them, or a
part of any one, is the subject for a movie.

It is easy to choose the movie's subject, but the develop-
ment of the theme as a movie continuity is more difficult.
Subjects are plentiful and their essential high points are ob-

FILM PLANS 67

vious, but, when they are recorded, they may fail to make a
good film that has a clear continuity.

One reason for this fact is that the movie maker may fail to
realize that every interesting theme should have a beginning,
or introduction, and a conclusion, or ending, as well as the
central idea itself. Secondly, he may fail to see that each part
of the picture — its beginning, middle or end — must be devel-
oped by a number of groups of scenes that are called se-
quences. Here is a fundamental characteristic of the motion
picture.

The theme

To assure a satisfying treatment of one's central theme, the
first and most important step is to examine carefully the
theme itself. Why do we wish to film it? What are the high
lights that attract our interest? What relationship have they
to events that precede and follow them? And what signifi-
cance has the event or object for us and for others? These are
the questions that we should ask ourselves. The answers will
provide suggestions for a suitable beginning and for a satis-
fying end of the movie.

Suppose that we wish to film a parade on Memorial Day.
We might simply run a roll of film through the camera, taking
shots of the parade here and there, as opportunity offered. But
the result would not be interesting. We should not have made
a genuine motion picture. For although it is of a parade, it is
not about it! Such a film would have little more to say on its
chosen subject than would a good selection of still pictures.
Let us ask ourselves some of the questions that we have noted
and, then, see what happens.

Number 1: Why do we wish to film a Memorial Day pa-
rade f An honest answer might well be: We wish to film it
because Tom and Mary Anne (along with a hundred or more
other children) are going to decorate their bicycles and ride
in the line of march. Fine! At once, this suggests filming more
than just the parade itself. Here, opened by our first simple

68 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

question, is a whole new aspect of the matter, and one that is
well worth a little thought. We note — "Plan to get scenes of
the youngsters before (and maybe after) the parade."

Number 2: What are the high lights which attract our in-
terest? Well . . . plenty of them, it seems. Harold, an older
brother who lives down the street and was "across" in 1917,
is going to march with the American Legion band. Mother
will be Compassion, or something, on the Red Cross float, and
we know a lot of the boys in the Fire Department. Besides,
it's a swell show and . . . Besides, nothing! These three answers
already indicate new opportunities. We note, again — "Try for
'takes' of the band rehearsing, of Mother working on the float
and of the boys shining the new engine."

Number 3: What relationship have they (the high lights)
to events which precede and follow them? Oh, well, it looks as
if we had already gone into that. But it does show that we
were on the right track in our plans to shoot something of the
preparations for the parade, instead of just the parade itself.
Next question!

Number 4: What significance has the event for tis and for
others? And here our query does not mean simply interest
(the family and friends) or appeal (bright flags, colorful floats
and pleasing movement). It refers, more fundamentally, to
that background of meaning, inherent in the occasion, which
gives it emotional importance. What is Memorial Day? Why
is it celebrated? A quick look at the encyclopedia fortifies our
own hazy ideas on the subject: Memorial Day, it says, May
30th in the North, a day set aside since 1868 in honor of those
who fell in the Civil War. Since 1918, enlarged in scope to pay
honor to all of America's war dead.

Here, of course, is just what we are looking for as "signifi-
cance," and here, as well, is the real source of a beginning and
an end for our parade pictures.

In general, now, we begin to see our film plan shaping into
something like this: (1) announce the subject (Memorial

FILM PLANS 69

Day) and suggest quickly its significance; (2) indicate briefly,
as a bait to the audience for what is to come, how the occasion
is observed; (3) build up interest in this observance, by show-
ing widespread preparations for it; (4) present the central
event itself, as effectively as possible; (5) sum up or conclude
briefly, by tying this specific event once more to its general
significance.

Here, in essence, is a fundamental film plan for a picture
whose central theme is a Memorial Day parade. It begins
somewhere, goes somewhere and ends somewhere. More im-
portant still, it has something to say and, in its carefully inte-
grated development, it says this something with significant
coherence. Kept in its present general terms, the same struc-
tural plan might well serve as a skeletal outline for any num-
ber of films of any number of subjects. All that it needs is
a changed significance, to be embodied in different subject
matter. But let us see how it might be interpreted specifically
in our selected subject, the parade. Pencil and paper will
now be of aid, and we find ourselves jotting slowly:

FLAGS FOR THE FALLEN

This phrase might be a title for the whole picture, since it
catches the essence of the day's observance. Although it can be
changed easily later, it serves now as a convenient guide.
(Note — look into possibility of double exposed wordings on
a moving flag background.) With this in mind, how can we
best carry out item No. 1, already discussed? An introductory
subtitle seems to be most efficient, and we work out the fol-
lowing:

First conceived in 1868, Memorial
Day was once an honor only to those
who jell in the Civil War.

This does it nicely (announces the subject matter and
suggests its significance) , and we "mull over" what few scenes

70 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

we might get, to represent this idea. Briefly, let us start with
a full view of the United States flag, blowing out from its
staff against the sky; we tilt slowly down the flagstaff, until the
same shot discloses the serried ranks of gravestones in a
cemetery; we go from this shot to a semi closeup, in which an
old headstone fills the frame; a hand comes into view and lays
a wreath on the grave; we go to a similar shot of the foot of
the grave, as twin flags are inserted in the rusted iron insignia
that mark a soldier's rest. This should be enough to give the
idea of our introduction, and we move on in our development
to item No. 2 (indicate briefly how the occasion is observed) .
Again a subtitle is called into play, this time for transition:

But now, since the greater battles of
the World War, the day has grown to
be a memorial to all of our country's
soldier dead.

As bait for what is coming, we jot down some less specific
suggestions: run a series of three or four short scenes of the
parade, or, if possible, stage a series of brief shots of Civil
War, Spanish War and World War veterans. Since this foot-
age is just a "hook" or "come on," make it short, and get on
to No. 3 (build up interest by showing widespread prepara-
tions) . A subtitle keys it:

A quiet holiday, it is shared in prepara-
tion by all in the community.

Here, obviously, is the place for those scenes of Mother
decorating the Red Cross float, of Brother Harold rehearsing
with the Legion band, the volunteer fire crew shining the
engine and children adorning their bicycles. There should be
others, more impersonal, of the civic preparations along Main
Street. There is chance here for human interest, good view-

FILM PLANS 71

points and carefully studied lighting, all building up to No. 4,
the central event itself. Introduce it with a simple subtitle:

And soon the great day dawns . . .

Now for our pictures of the parade. Although we may
have seemed to take a long time in getting to this, actually
the introductory material which we have used will still be a
definitely minor part of the film — running a possible twenty
five to fifty feet, in comparison with the parade's hundred
or two hundred. And this modest extra footage will be
well worth the expense, in the feeling of roundness and im-
portance that it imparts to the finished job. As for notes
on what scenes to try for, at the parade, they cannot be
specific, but we may set down a few generally effective ideas
(that are discussed in full in Chapter X).

Now, we have to plan only a brief conclusion, to round out
our preparations. We know that the parade will march to the
cemetery for its final ceremonies; therefore, no transition
by a title will be needed to follow the guidance of item No. 5
(conclude by tying the specific event once more to its general
significance). Why cannot the closing scenes be simply an
echo of the opening, but with the order of the action running
in reverse? So, we have a long view of parade officials and
others gathered in ceremony at the foot of the flagstaff; a
medium shot, looking down a file of soldiers as they fire a
salute; an upward angle shot, against the sky, of Harold blow-
ing the bugle; hands lay a wreath and crossed flags on a grave;
we go back to a longer view of the Legion band and then we
make a slow tilt up the flagstaff that ends on the billowing flag,
brilliant against the sky.

Here, then, in fairly full detail, we see every step of the
way to develop the simple central core of an idea into a well
rounded film plan. In review, these steps are: (a) select a
theme or central idea which interests you; (b) examine or
analyze this theme from the viewpoints of the four queries,
already discussed; (c) in the light of your findings from this

72 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

examination, sketch a general skeleton of your film plan and
then fill out this skeleton with as many specific scene nota-
tions as are needed.

The end product of following this method is called, in movie
parlance, a "treatment outline." Although this may, by the
experienced, be produced successfully in the mind alone, it is
always better to work it out on paper. As may be seen La our
example, such an outline sometimes will indicate the exact
scenes that are needed and, at others, will endeavor merely
to suggest the kind of thing to try for. The next phase of film
plan development, beyond the treatment outline, is known
as the "scenario," which is discussed in full in Chapter XIX.

When you film the plan, whether it is written in full, is
expressed in a few notes or consists merely of an outline in
your mind, you may not be able to get the exact shots that
you planned to take. You may find that you will have to
make compromises, because things seldom happen exactly as
we picture them in advance.

Nevertheless, the plan will be invaluable. With its aid, you
can produce a unified and interesting movie and, because you
know what you are after, you can get the best shots that are
available. You can take advantage of unexpected filming op-
portunities that may crop up, because you have a scheme
into which they may be fitted, if they are suitable.

Since you know what you want, you can go about getting
it with a minimum of bother, and you need not stop con-
tinually, to decide what you are going to film. Working with
a plan prepared in advance is the easiest way to make a
movie, and it is the way that makes the best movie.

The basic scenes of silent movies

In all film planning, the camera's position is an important
factor. The conventional phrases that indicate what is in-
cluded in silent movie scenes are given here with illustrations.
They are not always applicable to theatrical talking pictures.

FILM PLANS

DO P

QOD r

Long Shot. An all inclusive scene, in which the participat-
ing human subjects are visible as full length figures in the
middle or background of the setting. Depending on the camera
treatment, nearly any required number of persons may be
included in the scope of a long shot. This type of scene has
two chief uses: (1) to establish the setting and locale of
more specific action which is to follow; (2) to encompass the
range of sweeping or mobile action, such as men on horse-
back, an automobile on a highway or a ski chase across the
crest of a hill.

Semi Long Shot. A scene, less inclusive than the long shot,
in which the human subjects are still visible at full length
and not in the foreground of the setting. A compromise term,
semi long shot can be used to suggest a lesser scope of estab-
lished setting or a narrower range of included action.

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Medium Shot. An exclusive scene, in which the human
subjects are seen in full length in the foreground of the set-
ting, dominating it and just failing to fill the frame at top and
bottom. This is the fundamental scene, by which all movie
story telling, of general nature, is carried on. In it, once a
subject has been registered with a closer shot, we can present
character traits, plot developments and action. It is from the
medium shot that one must work to the more limited and
more dramatic close shots.

Semi Closeup. A scene, more exclusive than the medium
shot, in which the included human subjects are seen from
about the waist line to just above the head. More dramatic
than the medium shot, the semi closeup can be used, to
a certain degree, in story progression, if the camera position
is properly taken. Each character should be identified, early
in the film, with a semi closeup, and it is from this and the
closeup that spoken titles are introduced.

FILM PLANS

Closeup. The most exclusive scene of all, in which one
human subject is seen from about the shoulder line to just
above the top of the head, completely dominating the picture.
This is the fundamental dramatic scene. It is used to heighten
dramatic effect, to show clearly the reaction of one character
to another and to emphasize important objects, story de-
velopments or turning points.

CHAPTER VI
AROUND THE YARD MOVIES

THE new movie maker need not go far in search of
something to film. Family and friends can be the first
subjects, and his own back yard, the first movie set.

But we need imagination and a fresh outlook. These can
come from careful observation of people and surroundings that
are old and familiar commonplaces, but which will yield
amazing movie returns, if we only look on them as an out-
sider might.

Regarding your family objectively, decide on the activities
or interests, most characteristic of each of its members. Work
out simple themes of action, based on these interests, and
your films will ring true. Plan pictures about the hobbies
and recreations of those who are closest to you, because their
unself conscious absorption in these things will prove to be
your finest filming ally.

How about Grandfather and his project of a pool in the
yard, for fish? What about Mother and her garden? There is
a natural pictorial advantage in a garden. Have you an
archer, a croquet enthusiast or a quoit pitcher in your midst?

Let us look at Mother and her garden. Here we bring in
little Mary Anne, who, like all toddlers, delights in copying
her elders. Mother's simplest action, echoed in miniature,
takes on new interest. Stress this dual action in your film plan.

Show Mother going into the garden, in her pretty flowered
pinafore, equipped with trowel, shears and watering pot. Mary

[76]

AROUND THE YARD MOVIES 77

Anne, bored by a picture book, has decided to help. She
disappears indoors, and Mother works on. After a few
moments, Mother looks up, in delighted surprise, to see her
youngest coming toward her, also in pinafore, loaded down
with her tiny tooJs.

Mother sets her at work at a safe and simple task. For a
brief time, they both are occupied happily. Then, into the
drive come two of Mother's garden club friends, whom she
goes to greet. One of the visitors wants to see Mother's new
method of setting out aster seedlings. Mother leads them
proudly to the aster bed — only to find that Mary Anne
has practically ruined the lot, because she thought that they
were weeds.

For a fuller record of Mother alone, why not film her daily
visit to market? Show her leaving the house in her car — you
can get a good closeup, as she takes her place behind the steer-
ing wheel — and then, in a few shots, picture the car at different
stages of her journey to market. It stops in front of a shop,
and Mother gets out. You can include closeups of the fruit
and vegetables on display at the shop entrance, as Mother
examines them and makes her purchase. You have a natural
film plan, if you but follow her progress.

After the day's marketing, Mother starts home deter-
minedly. But she sees — insert a long shot of a beauty shop,
a movie theatre or a window with frocks and furs — and is
completely diverted from the homeward rush. We leave her
there. Will it be the beauty shop or the kitchen range?

For a film of Father and the boys, there is baseball. Tommy
gets, at last, the new pitcher's mitt that he has longed for,
and, in the late afternoon, he and a friend are playing catch
in the yard. Dad arrives and soon takes a hand in the fun;
his pitching can either be better than it should be, or worse,
depending upon your own ideas. In any case, the boys are
delighted. They invite him to join Tom, next Saturday, at the
ball field. A big game is on, and they need an umpire. Dad

78 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

appears, and, from there on, you can write your own — and
Dad's!— finish.

Go out into the town, as well. Involve the public park, the
zoo, a hockey game or a ski meet with your family and their
fun. This works in winter, as well as in summer.

TIME. A wintry Saturday morning. The snow is nearly a
foot deep, after a long fall.

PLACE. The back porch, as Dad starts off to his work and
sees the drifted driveway.

PLAYERS. Dad, Mother and one or more children. Dad and
Mother are on the porch, as he is about to leave.

He stumbles through the snow, toward the garage; he
pauses, saying to Mother, "Tell Tom to shovel the snow off
the drive and walks, will you?"

Mother nods assent and calls through the open door to
Tom. He comes out, gets his orders, but makes a bargain with
Dad to drive him and his friends to a ski run in the afternoon,
as a reward. As the morning passes, we see Tom struggling
through his task. We catch Dad, outside his office, arranging
with a friend for bridge, that very evening. When he reaches
home, at noon, Tom holds him to the bargain, and off they
(and any others that you may want to put into the film) go
for skiing.

Here you can mix scenes of sport with pictures of the
family, but the all important thing is to show, clearly and
emphatically, that the youngsters give Dad an active and
bustling afternoon, in the open. When, finally, they get home,
he is tired and drowsy, and bridge is out of the question. As
Mother greets them in the drive Tom calls out gaily, "Gee,
Mom, I hope it snows tonight, so we can talk Dad into
taking us skiing tomorrow!" The film ends with Father waving
protesting hands, as he goes wearily into the house.

A. short film oj chUdren

Have you a daughter and a dog? There is the basis for a

AROUND THE YARD MOVIES 79

film story. The day is sunny, and Mary and her friends are
playing in the sand box in the back yard. Close at hand is a
small table, with children's chairs and the usual litter of toys.
The little girls decide to play "tea party"; they set about
gathering the scattered toy plates and spoons. These are
soiled from last week's production of mud pies.

"You can wash the dishes, Jane," says Mary, pointing to
one of her playmates. Jane protests, but it does no good. She
wins the job. The action could be filmed in this way.

Medium shot. The children playing about the sand pile.

Semi closeup. One of the girls, who looks up from her play

and says:
Title. "Let's have a tea party!"

(The title can be made, at small cost,
by a commercial title service.)

Medium shot. The girls like the idea. Mary, in the fore-
ground, picks up a tin plate, caked with
mud. She looks at it.

Semi closeup. Mary inspecting the soiled plate. She looks
up and points past the camera, saying:

Title. "You can wash the dishes , Jane!"

Semi closeup. Reverse the viewpoint of the camera and
point it toward Jane, who is facing Mary.
Jane does not want to obey, but she re-
luctantly takes the plate that Mary hands
to her.

(To reverse the viewpoint is often effec-
tive, in telling a story with a movie
camera. Here we see Mary, from Jane's

80 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

point of view; then, Jane, from Mary's
point of view. The result is much more
interesting than if we had filmed both
Jane and Mary in one medium shot.)

Mary and her companions busy themselves in the sand box,
manufacturing mud pies for the "tea party," while Jane
washes plates and cups at the tap, near the house. Mother,
seated on the back porch, watches the children. She is peeling
apples, preparatory to baking pies. We could film this part of
our story in the following scenes.

Medium shot. The children near the sand box. Jane carries
the dishes out of the scene, and Mary leads
the others in the pie making action.

Semi closeup. Jane washing dishes at the tap.
Medium shot. Mary and others at work in the sand box.

Medium shot. Mother peeling apples and looking past the
camera at the children.

Medium shot. Jane brings the clean dishes to the sand box,
to be filled with fresh mud pies.

(Here, several things happen at the
same time. Jane is washing dishes;
Mary is making mud pies, with the
other children; Mother is peeling apples.
Note how the shots of action are inter-
laced, to, give the impression that the
different scenes occur at the same time.
This is called "parallel action.")

We have the beginning of a little film story. Now we need
to develop it, so we introduce the dog. He bounces into the

AROUND THE YARD MOVIES 81

picture, while the children are working at the sand box. He
sniffs at the mud pies and proves to be a general nuisance.

Meanwhile, Mother has finished her task with the apples,
and a closeup of them, neatly sliced, shows that they are prob-
ably destined for pies. She carries them into the house.

The scene shifts back to the sand box, where the dog
is causing more trouble. (The application of syrup to the mud
pies will lure him to smell them and, perhaps, to lick them.)

The problem of the dog has become intolerable to the cooks,
so Mary ties him securely, she believes. A closeup of the dovg
shows him, with head cocked to one side, looking speculatively
at the camera.

In the next scene, Mary returns to the others at the table.
They have set it neatly, with all the mud pies in place. One
of the girls finds a vase among the toys and puts it in the
center of the arrangement. There is a discussion — flowers are
needed — and the whole group goes out of the scene.

We see the children in the garden, selecting flowers for the
table. The scene shifts to a closeup of the dog, straining at
his leash. The knot slips, and he bounds past the camera. The
action is filmed in this series of scenes.

Medium shot. Children in the garden, picking flowers. One
girl carries the vase, into which others place
blossoms.

Semi closeup. The dog straining at the leash.

Semi closeup. From a different angle, to show the knot in
the leash, as well as the dog. The knot slips,
and the dog runs out of the scene.

(The dog's master, or mistress, stands
beyond lens range and calls to him. Be-
tween these last two scenes, the knot
is loosened, so that it will slip.)

82 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Medium shot. The tea table. The dog bounds into the
scene and jumps up to the table, to look at
the mud pies.

Semi closeup. Two children in the garden hold the vase,
now nearly filled with flowers.

(Note the parallel action in this part
of the film. While the children are pick-
ing flowers, the dog escapes, which is
expressed by showing alternate scenes
of the two courses of action.)

Mary and the others return to the tea table, only to meet
disaster, for the dog has knocked it over. There is much grief
and excitement. The children scold the dog. They start to
right the tea table. But they hear something ?

It is a parade, evidently in front of the house. They rush
out of the scene, deserting the table and its confusion. All this
could be pictured in these scenes.

Medium shot. The children coming toward the camera, car-
rying flowers.

Semi closeup. Mary stops suddenly; she puts her hands to
her face and stares past the camera.

Medium shot. Reverse the position, the camera taking
Mary's viewpoint, to show the table, which
has been overturned. The dog still sniffs
amid the debris.

(Between this shot and the last, you
can tip the table, if the dog will not
oblige. Some raw meat, placed among
the wreckage, will entice him to nuzzle
the mud pies. Note the camera treat-

AROUND THE YARD MOVIES 83

ment, by which we show, first, Mary
staring past the camera, and, second,
what she sees. The latter shot is filmed
from her viewpoint. This is an ex-
ample of important movie technique.)

Medium shot. Reverse the viewpoint, to show Mary and
her friends. They run toward the table.

(Film this scene from a position that
is closer to the action than are the view-
points of the other medium shots;
center Mary in it.)

Medium shot. A side view of the tea table. The children
run into the scene and begin to set things
in order.

Semi closeup. Mary scolds the dog; the others are busy
with the table, in the background.

Medium shot. The children at work. Mary begins to tie
the dog again, when all hear something.
They stop suddenly.

Medium shot. Of a parade, a fire engine, or any other street
spectacle.

Medium shot. The children again. They all rush out of the
scene, toward the street, the dog with them.

[Here is another useful device for tell-
ing a movie story. The children do not
see the parade; they hear it. To tell
the audience what they hear, we insert
the shot that shows the parade. This
scene can be filmed at any time, or you
can take it from another reel and

84 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

"splice" it in at this point. (See Chap-
ter XI.) The parade need not even be
filmed in front of the house, because
almost any parade scene, that does
not show unsuitable background, can
be used.]

While the children watch the parade, Mother comes out of
the house, to the porch, carrying the pies that she has baked.
She puts them on a table on the porch, to cool. Suddenly
she sees the overturned tea table. (A closeup of Mother look-
ing up; a semi long shot of the tea table; another shot of
Mother, who smiles and shakes her head.) She goes to the
table and sets things right.

Then she leaves the scene, but returns with clean dishes
which she places on the table. She has also brought one of her
pies, which she cuts, apportioning a piece to each plate. As a
final touch, she puts the carefully garnered flowers in the
center of the neatly arranged table.

When we break this action into separate scenes, we should
splice in another shot of the parade and follow it with a scene
of the children, in line along the fence, looking eagerly past
the camera. (Actually they do not see the parade, but the
audience will not know this, because of the association of
ideas: (a) children watching and (b) the parade. This asso-
ciation will be so strong that the audience will take for granted
the fact that the children are watching an actual street scene.)

Next we show Mother on the porch, discovering the wrecked
table. We have a closeup, as she cuts the juicy pie.

The children, returning from the passing parade, discover
the neatly arranged table. They are puzzled, but delighted.
Mother, in hiding behind the house, catches the dog; she holds
him by the leash, while she watches the effect of her thought-
fulness.

Here, you might insert attractive closeups of the children,

AROUND THE YARD MOVIES 85

as they enjoy the pie. The next to last shot can show Mother
watching, and the final scene can very well be a closeup of
the dog licking his chops, which have been previously an-
nointed with syrup.

This simple, but lively, film tale could be completed in an
afternoon, for the whole action is staged out of doors and in
the same general location. Only the footage of the parade is
extraneous, but you may already have this or you can secure
substitute action — firemen, for example — within a few days.

Tricks that deceive

Easy tricks — the deceits that cinematography makes pos-
sible— which can be accomplished with any movie camera,
always add interest and variety to family film stories. Since
they exhibit the unusual in the very bosom of the usual, their
effect in these intimate films is especially hilarious.

First of these tricks is that in which the running camera is
suddenly stopped, all characters "freeze," or hold their posi-
tions, and an object is removed from, or added to, the
scene. If the object is removed, it must be one to which atten-
tion has been directed in a previous scene. When the camera
is started again, from an identical viewpoint, the effect on
the screen will be that of the object mysteriously vanishing
or appearing.

Since exact "freezing" and the exact registration of all ob-
jects in the second scene, just as they were located in the first,
are often difficult, especially if a large setting is employed, this
device is best used from a close camera position.

Second of the simple camera tricks is "reverse motion." This
is achieved by filming a scene of normal action, with the
camera held upside down. When you receive the reel from
the processing station, the inverted scene is cut out and its
footage is turned end for end, after which it is spliced back
into the reel. When the film is projected, every action in the
scene which was filmed upside down will appear to have oc-
curred backward.

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Holding the camera upside down plus turning

the scene end for end, after it is processed,

equals reverse motion.

A diver springs back from the water to the diving board,
a sled magically slides up hill or building blocks rise from the
floor, to arrange themselves into a structure. All this wizardry
is accomplished merely by holding the camera upside down
and by turning the scene end for end, after it has been
processed.

Suppose that we film Mary Anne reading in a swing. She is
intent on her book, which the camera, by a closeup, reveals
as a collection of fairy tales. Some friends enter the scene;
they ask her what she is reading; she shows them the book.
They laugh skeptically, but Mary Anne wins their attention
by pointing out that she has just been reading about a magic
wishing stone.

"Let's look for a wishing stone!" exclaims one, and, still
laughing at their own foolishness, all the youngsters are soon
intent on the new game. One after another, various stones
are tried, but nothing happens. Suddenly, one girl holds
a strangely shaped stone in her hand, as if she were making a
wish. Presto! A box of candy appears on a chair in front of her.

Amazed and incredulous, she gingerly puts out a hand to
touch it. It is real! In great excitement, all reach for a sweet
from the box which the wisher has opened. The stone is for-
gotten for the moment. But it is soon remembered, as one
child after another tries its powers. They wish for dolls, bi-

AROUND THE YARD MOVIES 87

cycles, or whatever their hearts desire (and your properties
permit) .

Mary Anne's brother, who nas come into the scene to
"cadge" the candy, looks speculatively up at a fairly high ob-
ject, such as a porch or the top of a wall. He picks up the stone
and scornfully expresses a wish to be lifted. Now, by using the
reverse motion trick, we can show him apparently flying to
the wall top. We merely film him with the camera upside
down, as he jumps from the high point down to the ground
where he stood, when he made the wish.

For a climax, Mary Anne might wish that all her guests
would go home, so that she would have no competitors for
the candy. Even as she voices the wish, in an aside — for her
politeness goes that far — the others disappear, carrying what
they wished for away with them, excepting the candy. (It will
be more effective if they do this one by one, rather than
en masse.) Mary Anne looks about, in evident disbelief. Now,
Mother enters suddenly and collars the remains of the candy.
Mary Anne stares at the wishing stone, which she holds out
in front of her. It vanishes, too. Mary Anne rubs her eyes,
shakes her head ruefully, and the film ends.

Direction

In "around the yard movies," you must nearly always be the
director, as well as the cameraman. The first rule of good
direction, whether the actors are children or adults, requires
that the director must have clearly in mind what his players
are to do.

Here, the well sequenced film plan is an important aid.
Since you have prepared a plan, you are thoroughly familiar
with the course of your story. By checking against the plan,
you may make sure, during the actual filming, that you are
getting the scenes that you need and want, and that your
choice of viewpoints is adequate, varied and effective. A film
plan leaves you free to tackle the job of managing your
actors.

88 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Your most important counsel to the players, of course, will
be the old warning, do not look at the camera. Besides stating
this rule categorically, it is often helpful to explain to your
cast, if they are not too young, the reasons for it. Since the
temptation to stare at the camera stems directly from a
"snapshot consciousness," point out that, in this case, you
are not trying to take their pictures, but, rather, to film them
as representatives of persons in a story.

Mother should think of herself, not as your wife, but rather,
as somebody embodying the general characteristics of mother-
hood. For the moment, she should endeavor to portray an
idea, instead of simply being herself. Don't say that you
want to take her picture. Say, rather, that you wish her to
serve as a model for the familiar actions of any mother. With
this thought in mind, your players will be far less tempted
to give way to inane and self conscious camera "jitters."

Second in importance is the matter of knowing exactly
what you want your players to do in each new scene. Explain
these actions to them clearly, in whatever manner you find
to be most effective. One method is by the general approach,
in which you simply outline the course of the story, leaving
the interpretation of his part in it to each player. While this
may work toward more natural action, it obviously can be
used successfully only with a relatively able and adult cast.

Far more sure is the specific method of suggestion, in which
you set forth, in exact detail, just the actions and the attitudes
that you wish to have portrayed. John, you point out, is
seated, looking over a handful of travel folders that describe
a West Indian cruise. Mary enters from the left, comes up
to him casually and begins to speak. As she does so, John
bounds from his seat and tries, awkwardly, to conceal the
folders. Mary, suddenly aware of his dismay, indicates a
wish to see what he is hiding. John finally produces the leaflets.
Now comes a closeup of these, in Mary's hands. This illus-
trates direction of the specific kind.

AROUND THE YARD MOVIES W

Whichever method you employ, be sure, in simple films of
this kind, that the actions which you ask or expect from
your players are natural and easy. Don't look for too much
in the way of histrionics. If you must have something on the
"heavy" side, plan especially to keep that particular scene
short and direct, so that your actors will have little, if any,
time for "acting."

Even in the simplest portrayals, be careful to provide every
player with some simple bits of "business," some casual actions
which will keep his hands busy and his mind free from self
consciousness. Common examples of business are found in
a man's lighting and smoking a cigarette, a girl's checking
her "complexion" or adjusting her hair, and in an actor's
tossing a small coin or twirling a key chain.

Once the actual shooting begins, don't take a position that
is obviously tense and uncomfortable. Your discomfort may
transmit itself to the actors. If you hold the camera in your
hands, do this easily and casually. If it rests on a tripod,
avoid crouching behind it, in your best newsreel technique,
while you shoot a simple garden scene. Select your setting
and determine your action, first; then, if possible, rehearse
the action, while you observe it in the viewfinder. When you
really film the scene, push the button from an easy stance
beside the camera. If you do this, you are far less likely to
distract your amateur actors.

This offhand camera handling has the further advantage
of letting you use the "chatter" technique of keeping your
players at ease, while you film them. Like the magician or
the card trickster, you will base much of your success on
ability to keep the attention of the actors fixed on things
of which you want them to be aware. Push the button and
begin your casual comments at once. Give your directions
easily, urge the actors softly, and act the clown somewhat,
if need be, to keep your players relaxed and responsive to
your desires.

90 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Directing children

If all your actors are children, the foregoing suggestions
will serve fairly well, but there are still others which are
important. In dealing with youngsters, be especially careful
to keep each scene short and simple.

Young minds either cannot, or will not, concentrate, for
long, on carrying out a continuous stream of directions. Don't
ask too much of them in any one take, and be ready always
to shift to a new camera position, if something goes wrong.
The changing viewpoints will improve the film, in any case,
and all slight errors can be trimmed out, in editing.

Many filmers have found it helpful to enact important bits
of action for the benefit of young players. Children are very
good mimics, and this love of mimicry gives you a natural
beginning, from which you can elicit more individual re-
sponses. Challenge the youngsters to do better than you have
done, and you will probably get convincing results.

Tell children, seriously and carefully, what the story is and
indicate the importance of each part of it. Be sure that they
know the reason for a scene in the film tale, for this informa-
tion helps them to keep a feeling of continuity.

Both children and adults may move more quickly than is
desirable. Tell them to pause, before making significant ges-
tures, and show them, by example, how to move more delib-
erately, yet naturally.

Above everything else, don't urge children to be "cute."
They probably will detest the suggestion and will freeze up
at once. Make them see that your movie making is, for them,
really a new and interesting game, and you will get the best
that they have to give you.

We must get close shots

In all pictures of family and neighborhood life, it is very
important to have close shots. The chief purpose of these
films is to provide, in years to come, a record of bygone days,
and a record that is more real and interesting than a rambling

AROUND THE YARD MOVIES 91

series of "portrait scenes" in which nobody is natural. So,
the camera must come close enough, time after time, to get
characteristic expressions.

Also, your audience, in looking at one of these family pic-
tures, will, very early in the projection, want to know which
figure on the screen is Sally and which is Dorothy. The close
shot will give the answer.

In directing a group of amateur actors in a simple back
yard story, the fewer you have in a scene, the easier it is to
manage them; so, we have another reason for the use of
close shots.

Finally, we must never forget that the camera has only
one method of giving us details which, in real life, we observe
by handling objects, and that is through the closeup, the most
informative of all camera positions, because it answers the
very natural question, "what is he doing now?"

CHAPTER VII
WE NEED MORE MOVIE TOOLS

IN THE earlier chapters of this book, we have met the basic
movie tools — camera, projector and screen. With these,
anybody who will exercise care can make and show beauti-
ful movie scenes. If he is willing to plan his pictures in advance
and to present a theme or continuity that follows the sequence
method, already discussed, he can, with the admixture of a
little imagination, produce entertaining, and even stirring,
movies.

But there are a number of accessory tools that will greatly
improve his pictures and expand the possibilities that lie be-
fore him. Some of these, like the exposure meter, already
referred to, help by simplifying necessary steps in filming,
leaving more time for the real fun of movie making — planning
what you want to film and how you are going to film it.

Other accessories add directly to the flexibility of the movie
medium and extend the range of effects that you can get. All
these are useful, but none can take the place of care or imag-
ination on the part of the man behind the camera.

The tripod

Foremost among the accessories that improve a filmer's
results is the tripod, because, after correct exposure and focus,
nothing contributes more to the attractiveness of a movie
scene than a rock steady image in projection. Few of us,
unaided, can hold a camera so firmly that views will not
appear to be shaking on the screen. This extraneous move-

[M]

WE NEED MORE MOVIE TOOLS W

ment is bound to detract from the scene, however beautiful or
interesting it may be.

Can you imagine yourself in an art gallery, trying to look
at a painting that bounces and pitches in every direction?
Your natural desire would be to grasp it and to hold it still.
You would, putting it mildly, enjoy the picture more without
this distraction. Is not your movie audience similarly entitled
to look at scenes in which only those objects move that
should move, and in which the earth, the sky and other nor-
mally stationary features remain fixed?

A tripod offers other advantages besides camera steadiness.
You can place your camera on it and, while you are looking
through the viewfinder, you can move the camera upward,
downward or to one side, until you discover the most effective
viewpoint. When this has been found, the camera may be left
in the desired position, while you step forward to take an
exposure meter reading or to direct your subject.

If you want to follow a moving object, the "pan" head of
the tripod will let you swing the camera smoothly, while you
keep the subject centered in the finder.

A tripod is exceedingly helpful when you film from a mov-
ing automobile, a train or some other vehicle. You might con-
clude that a scene made from a moving car would be steadier,
if the camera were held in the hand, so that the body would
"absorb the shocks." As a matter of fact, the body does not
absorb shocks; it magnifies them. The vehicle, being heavier,
does not bounce as high as you do; hence, the steadiest shots
from a motor car are made with a tripod resting securely on
its floor. If you doubt this, try the two methods and compare
the results.

Although the use of a tripod greatly improves a scene filmed
from a train window, it does not remove the objection to a
shot made at right angles to the direction of travel, if any
objects are in the foreground. Such a shot gives a result similar
to that of a panorama of adjacent vertical features, in which
objects that flash past you will dither on the screen.

94 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Filming from a train or automobile, one may obtain best
results by shooting either in the direction of travel, or away
from it — through the car's windshield or from the rear ob-
servation platform of a train.

Even if the tripod is the steadiest camera support, its bulk
and the time required to set it up are handicaps. There are
substitute devices, fairly convenient in use, such as the "uni-
pod," a single leg, at the top of which is a screw for engaging
the camera. This device prevents vertical camera motion, but
one must take care, to avoid lateral movement, in using it.

Variations of this type of camera support are the "breast
pod," a neck strap from which a camera may be supported;
the "chain pod," a chain, one end of which is fastened to the
, camera, while the other is left free, so that the operator can
stand on it and, by lifting the camera until the chain is
taut, prevent vertical movement.

When none of these accessories is available for camera sup-
port, objects that are near at hand can often be pressed into
service. The camera can be placed on boulders, tables, window
sills, car sides or fences. It may be rested against the side of
a building or a tree trunk.

Lacking a tripod or a tripod substitute of any kind, the cam-
era must be held as motionless as possible. Practice an easy,
comfortable stance, with arms braced against your body. The
rifleman's technique is a useful guide.

Filters

An accessory that will both improve a movie maker's re-
sults and expand the range of his artistic expression is the
filter. This is a piece of colored glass or tinted gelatin, set in
a suitable mount, that may be placed in front of the camera's
lens. Gelatin filters may be placed behind the lens. Filters
modify the effect of the light that reaches the lens and,
through it, the sensitive emulsion.

Most black and white films are especially sensitive to blue
light. This is something that would be of no particular con-

FRAMES FROM
AMATEUR FILMS

Judith and F. R. Crawley, ACL

Amateur fiimers make prize
winning movies of news
events, pets, vacation days
and back yard subjects. You
need not go far, to find ma-
terial for a good film.

Philip Gendreau

You can darken the sky
in a color shot, by using
a polarizing screen. Thus,
you may obtain a dark
blue background for bril-
liant foreground colors.

Esther Henderson from Black Star

In black and white film-
ing, use a filter to darken
skies and to make the
clouds stand out. The il-
lustration, right, shows
this effect. Below arc
frame enlargements of
filtered black and white
movie shots.

Ray L. Garner

Clement K. Chase, ACL

WE NEED MORE MOVIE TOOLS 97

sequence to the average movie maker, were it not for the
fact that the sky is blue. But it is blue; hence, the areas of
sky that are included in a black and white scene are likely
to be overexposed. Light coming from the sky is both strong
and plentiful and it is of a color to which monochromatic
film is especially sensitive. This light may give us a glaring,
white sky on the screen, a "bald sky" in which clouds — with
their wealth of beautiful forms — being themselves white, are
entirely lost.

But this effect is easily corrected by using a yellow filter,
which retards blue light or, putting it more exactly, allows
less blue light to reach the lens. A yellow filter darkens the
sky that we see on the screen and permits white clouds to
stand out against it.

We sometimes speak of using filters "to bring out the
clouds"; actually, the filter has no effect upon these, but only
upon the sky behind them. If this sky is completely filled
with clouds, as it is on an overcast day, using a filter will make
no appreciable difference in the picture.

Yellow filters are available in a variety of densities; roughly
speaking, the darker the yellow, the darker the shade of gray
in which the blue sky will appear on the screen. A red filter —
another type of these most serviceable movie making adjuncts
— has an even more pronounced effect, because it will give
us an almost black sky, in strong contrast to the white cloud
forms — a beautiful effect, but of limited usefulness, since it is
overdramatic.

A filter tends to lighten objects of its own color; therefore,
a red filter will cause red lips to register as very pale gray; it
has the effect of eradicating freckles from screen portraits and
of lightening the tone of deeply tanned skin.

There are also green filters, which are chiefly useful in
filming subjects, such as landscapes, that have a preponder-
ance of green. They cause green shades to register in lighter
tones of gray and they darken red shades slightly, when they
are used in conjunction with panchromatic film.

98 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

With all their magical effect on black and white movie
scenes, filters are both inexpensive and very easy to use.
Spring clip filter mounts may be had to fit lenses of any
diameter for 8mm. or 16mm. cameras. Optical manufacturers
supply filters, mounted to fit their particular lenses, and
camera makers also offer them, arranged for convenient use
with their products.

Since filters prevent a certain amount of light, of a specific
color, from reaching the lens, it follows that they diminish
the total amount of light that affects the film. One must open
the lens diaphragm wider, to compensate for this loss of light,
in order to avoid underexposure.

Filter factors

The extent to which we must increase exposure over the
normal amount, to compensate for the presence of the filter,
is called the filter's "factor." This is expressed in numerals,
with the addition of the letter "x," thus: 2x, 4x, etc. The letter
"x" signifies "times," just as it does in a multiplication table.

A 2x filter necessitates opening the lens by one full stop, to
compensate for the amount of light that is excluded by the
tinted glass. A factor of 4x would require two stops of addi-
tional exposure, while an 8x factor would call for three stops.
In calculating the number of stops indicated by a given
factor, one must remember that, whenever the diaphragm
is opened by one full stop, the amount of exposure that is
given to the film will be doubled.

The factor of a given filter is not constant, and it differs
with the type of film that is used. This is true, because black
and white films vary in their sensitivity to colors and, there-
fore, in their sensitivity to the effect of the particular color
of a filter.

So, we must find the factors of our filters, with reference to
the film that we use. The filter's maker can almost invariably
supply this information, but, if he does not do so, you can
obtain it from the Amateur Cinema League.

WE NEED MORE MOVIE TOOLS 99

Using filters can be greatly simplified, if, after getting your
factors, for employment with different films, you will trans-
late these into a statement of the additional diaphragm open-
ing that is required for each film. You can write the resultant
information on a card which can be carried in your camera
case. Notations on the card might read:

With film.

In using my yellow filter, open the diaphragm one stop
over normal exposure

In using my red filter, open the diaphragm three stops
over normal exposure

Notations for use with other films may be placed on other
cards, or all may be collected on one. However, it is essential
that, before you depend upon any set of notes, you make cer-
tain that these apply to the film that will be used. If, for
example, you shift from panchromatic to extra fast film, new
notations may be required.

A yellow filter may be used with orthochromatic or pan-
chromatic emulsions. A red filter may be used only with pan-
chromatic emulsions or with one of the extra fast panchro-
matic films, for orthochromatic emulsions are not sensitive
to red light, and red filters admit light of that color only.
If you try to shoot a scene with orthochromatic film in the
camera and a red filter on the lens, the net effect will be the
same as the result that you would get, if the protecting cap
were left on the lens — blackness on the screen and no picture
at all! A green filter is useful only when you are filming with
panchromatic and extra fast panchromatic emulsions.

No filter can be used profitably with "color blind" film, of
the positive type. With this emulsion, the only effect of
filters is to reduce the exposure, although a red filter would
prevent any exposure at all, as is the case with orthochro-
matic film.

All these filters are intended to improve black and white

100 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

movie scenes, and none of them should be used with color
films. The effect of such a filter on a scene in natural color
is precisely the same as that which would be observed, by
holding the filter to the eye. Everything in the view is tinted
with the color of the filter itself.

A specialized aid, that has no particular effect on any one
color in the scene, is the neutral density filter — a piece of
glass, tinted gray — which serves to cut down the amount of
light that is admitted to the lens. Its usefulness is limited to
those rare occasions when the movie maker wants less ex-
posure than that which is given by the smallest diaphragm
opening of his lens. This circumstance can occur when the
camera is loaded with one of the black and white, extra fast
films and when the action takes place out of doors in brilliant
sunlight.

Using a great many filters is unnecessary for the average
filmer, who will find his needs adequately covered by a rela-
tively small assortment. Medium yellow, medium red and
dark red give a sufficiently varied filter kit.

Some very good movie makers keep a yellow filter on the
lens for every black and white shot made out of doors in good
light. This practice does no harm, and it can add artistic
values. If you try it, diaphragm settings must be made ac-
cordingly.

The polarizing screen

A good addition to a filter kit is the "polarizing screen,"
which, unlike colored filters, may be used with color film as
well as with black and white film. It has two functions, one of
which is very like that of the filter. It can diminish the amount
of light coming from the blue sky and, if it is used with black
and white film, it may cause the sky to register as a darker
shade of gray. If it is used with color film, it may record
the sky in a deep shade of blue, without affecting other colors
hi the scene.

WE NEED MORE MOVIE TOOLS

101

The word "may" is used advisedly, because the exact re-
sults of the polarizing screen, unlike those of colored filters,
depend upon the direction of the illumination, in relation to
the direction in which the camera is pointed. The effect is
greatest when the camera is aimed, so that the sun's rays strike
at right angles to the axis of the lens. The effect is diminished
as the camera is turned further toward the sun or further
away from it. The diagram will help to make this clear. Obvi-

CLEAR BLUE SKYLIGHT ARRIVING
AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE SUNS
RAYS IS POLARIZED.

ously, the effect of the polarizing screen on the sky is smallest
when we are filming with the sun directly behind our backs or
directly in front of us. When the sun is exactly at one side, the
effect is greatest.

The intensity of effect of the polarizing screen may be regu-
lated by rotating it in its mount. In employing it, one stands
facing in the same direction as that in which the camera is
to be pointed. Then the screen is held to the eye and it is
rotated slowly, as one inspects the scene through it. When the
desired effect has been secured, the rotation is suspended and
the screen is placed over the camera's lens. But a polarizing
screen must be placed on the camera, so that its position in
the mount is identical with that which obtained when the

10* THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

rotation ceased. The effect on the projection screen is much
the same as that which we see when we look through the
polarizing screen itself.

The polarizing screen also has the property of eliminating
undesired reflections from various types of surfaces, such as
window glass, glossy painted objects and water, for example.
If one films through a window and if reflections in the glass
obscure the view, it may be possible to eliminate them by the
polarizing screen. The screen is manipulated, for this purpose,
just as we use it, to secure darker skies. It is held to the eye
and, while one observes the scene through it, the polarizing
screen is rotated slowly, until that point is reached at which
undesired reflections are eliminated or are subdued as much
as possible. Then the screen is placed over the camera lens.

Although the effect of the polarizing screen is conditioned
by the direction of light, its range of utility is surprisingly
large. By observing the scene through it, the user can always
discover what result it will give.

Filters for color film

For a complete discussion of filters designed for use solely
with color film, see Chapter XVII, Movies In Color.

More elaborate cameras

As one's filming range grows, he may want to buy a camera
with more special features and facilities. He may admire the
convenience of magazine film loading and may prefer a maga-
zine camera for travel filming or for some special purpose in
which interchangeability from one magazine of color film to
another of black and white, at will and without loss of footage,
is of particular value.

The rapid loading that is possible with a magazine camera
and the film interchangeability that it permits make this
equipment especially valuable in travel, sport and surgical
filming.

If you have a camera that is permanently fitted with a

WE NEED MORE MOVIE TOOLS 103

fixed focus //3.5 lens, you may wish to employ one that offers
lens interchangeability, so that you can use a fixed focus lens,
a faster focusing lens or a telephoto lens, at will.

Two types of lens mounts permit this interchange. One of
these is a screw mount, which is an opening in the camera
case, threaded to take the lens, which is also threaded. The
other is a bayonet mount, by means of which the lens is
snapped into, and held in, position by studs and locking
plates, instead of by threads. These two types of lenses are
not immediately interchangeable, but they may be used to-
gether with the aid of special adapters.

"Turret mounts," that are available on some cameras, both
8mm. and 16mm., make possible a simple and immediate inter-
change of lenses. These are mounted in place on the turret,
which is a revolving plate, that may be turned at will, to bring
the desired lens into the taking position. Thus, in filming a
football game, for example, one may shift rapidly from his
regular lens to a telephoto.

Variable camera speeds, that are used to produce fast and
slow motion, provide another feature that is available on more
complex and flexible cameras, although a somewhat limited
range of speed is offered with certain less expensive instru-
ments.

The "single frame release" is an additional feature that
opens new avenues for the ingenious filmer. It permits the
exposure of one film frame at a time, and it is used in securing
scenes with animated figures. In these scenes, jointed figures
appear to move of their own volition, or drawings seem to
come to life and move, as in theatrical motion picture cartoons.
In giving animation to jointed figures, the object is moved
slightly and a frame is exposed; then, a further movement is
made and another frame is exposed, until the desired action
is completed. When this footage is screened at normal projec-
tion speed, the object will appear to move without any ap-
parent propelling force.

104 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Winding film backward

A device by which film can be wound backward in the
camera, after exposure, is another feature of some of the more
elaborate types of 8mm. and 16mm. instruments. Generally,
this takes the form of a crank, which is installed in such a
way that, when it is turned, the entire film moving machinery
operates in reverse. Certain cameras allow the entire roll of
film to be rewound, while others permit backward winding
only until the limit of full tension of the spring has been
reached. Some cameras are also provided with a "reverse
takeup" mechanism, so that, as the film is wound backward
through the gate and the sprockets, the supply reel will run
in reverse and return the film to its original place.

Other cameras do not have this automatic feature, and the
film must be wound backward by hand, by means of a small
winding knob on the side of the case. The "wind back" feature
can sometimes be installed on cameras, not originally equipped
with this convenient device.

The importance of this mechanism lies in the facility with
which, by its aid, double exposures may be made. One may
expose a scene, wind the film backward to a predetermined
frame, and then reexpose it. In this way, for example, one
might film a landscape, and on it record, later, the main title
of a scenic movie; one might make a ghost appear in the scene
or fill the screen with several smaller, independent scenes. This
last effect, called "multiple exposure," requires the use of
special masks, designed to obscure a part of the camera's
aperture. One exposes a part of the film frame, having masked
off the rest. The film is rewound, the area that was first ex-
posed is now masked off, and another part of the frame is
exposed.

This method of winding exposed film backward for a second
exposure also aids in making "dissolves," which are to be
discussed shortly.

In some 16mm. cameras we find a device, by means of which

WE NEED MORE MOVIE TOOLS 105

one may make "fades." This is a "variable shutter," which may
be gradually closed or opened, while the camera is running.
This operation results in a scene which "fades out," if the
shutter is gradually closed, or "fades in" — as the reverse
of the fading out action is paradoxically termed — if the shutter
is gradually opened.

With other cameras, a "fade out" or a "fade in" must be
produced by devices that are placed in front of the lens for
the purpose of gradually diminishing or increasing the amount
of light that is admitted.

Since a "dissolve"is a combination of a fade out on one scene
and a fade in on another, both of which occur on one length
of film, this interesting effect is produced most readily by a
camera that has some means of winding exposed film back-
ward and also a variable shutter. One fades out on the first
scene, using the variable shutter for this operation, then winds
the film backward and fades in on the second scene. The com-
bination produces a dissolve, which gives, on the screen, the
effect of one picture gradually merging into, and being re-
placed by, another.

The "wipeoff," an effect in which one scene appears to dis-
place another by shoving it aside, may be produced by a
special device which can be fitted only to certain types
of more elaborate cameras. This device is geared to the
mechanism; it consists of a fan shaped blade, which moves
before the lens, cutting off one scene. When the movement
has been completed, the film is wound backward to the be-
ginning of the footage on which the effect will appear, and
the fan blade is placed in position, so that it will uncover
the new scene.

The utility of fades, dissolves and wipeoffs and the various
ways of achieving them without the aid of advanced cameras
are discussed in Chapter XVI.

Focusing devices

One of the most important features of certain 8mm. and

106 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

16mm. cameras is a focusing mechanism, by means of which
we may observe the image of the subject on a ground glass,
while we focus the lens, and thus see exactly when that image
is sharp. This device eliminates the need of distance meters
or tape measures, in getting accurate focus. Some cameras
that incorporate this feature do so in such a way that only
a part of the entire field is seen in the device; this part is
magnified, so that one may observe the image clearly. Other
cameras are designed to show the entire frame area, so that
one may see exactly the field that is covered by the lens, as
well as determine when the picture is sharply focused.

A special device, which gives "full field, ground glass focus-
ing," also may be obtained for magazine loading cameras.
It is temporarily substituted for the magazine, and, when
centering and focusing have been completed, it is removed
and the film magazine is put in place, again, for shooting.

"Lens hoods," devices to shade the lens against direct rays
of light, are often combined with holders for filters, since the
design of these two objects encourages this combination. A
lens hood, or shade, is a box like apparatus, especially useful
when one is filming a back lighted subject. Sometimes it is
attached to the lens with clamps; occasionally it is supported
on a special bracket, fastened either to the camera or to the
tripod. The rear of the box may be slotted, so that filters
can be inserted.

Diffusing devices

Diffusion, by means of which hard lines in a picture may be
softened, is achieved by placing a special medium before the
lens, to break the light rays and to make the picture soft and
hazy on the screen, to the degree that is desired. Special diffu-
sion filters are made of various kinds of thin material, such as
gauze, silk and mesh. Other diffusion filters are made of glass,
on which a layer of lenticulated material has been deposited.
Homemade diffusion devices can easily be improvised, by

WE NEED MORE MOVIE TOOLS 107

using one or more thicknesses of stocking silk, mosquito net-
ting or other thin stuffs. Light or white material tends to
produce a foggy effect, while dark or black textiles merely
diffuse the image.

Moderate diffusion is a pleasant effect, which should not be
confused with the result of incorrect focus, a decidedly un-
pleasant phenomenon.

Carrying cases

Movie makers who have acquired a variety of equipment
may find a special carrying case for their entire outfit to be
a useful possession. While some camera manufacturers make
very complete cases, even these may not accommodate your
own particular kit.

This need may be filled by getting a special carrying case,
built to your order by a firm specializing in such work. The
movie maker who is handy with tools may want to make his
own case. Inexpensive, small fiber or leather cases may be
bought from luggage shops, and special partitions and blocks
may be constructed within them, to suit the equipment that
is carried. A lining of felt or corduroy, held in place by glue,
adds neatness and durability.

CHAPTER VIII
THE CAMERA STEPS OUT

'OVIE making is a companionablt hobby. Most filmers
want pictures of other human beings, and they like
to show them to their friends. So, in making
movies and in projecting them, we cannot be solitary, be-
cause we need both subjects and audiences.

It is natural, then, for you and your camera to look for
wider fields than those that you have found at home. You
leave the back yard, not forever, because you will constantly
return to it, but to satisfy that irresistible urge to record
what goes on beyond the fence.

A movie camera is friendly, too. It readily unites with your
other interests, and it can be a partner in your recreations,
in your hobbies and in your fun. So, by all means, take it
with you, when you go away for a day or a week end, because
it will contribute a real share to the dividends of the trip
and bring home a record that you can enjoy afterward.

Filming a picnic

There are picnics, for instance. These are simple expeditions,
but, like everything that you record well in movie making,
they call at least for rough film plans. Sometimes, it may be
advisable to work out in greater detail the exact scenes that
you want to get. The introductory sequence, for example,
should be set forth in quite specific outline, because, at the
film's beginning, we must both give the reason for the footage

[108]

THE CAMERA STEPS OUT 109

to follow and try, if we can contrive it, to catch the interest of
the audience at the very outset.

It might be planned like this. In a closeup, we see a loaf
of bread, as a hand and knife slice it neatly. The next scene
shows Mother spreading butter and adding ham and cheese
to complete a sandwich, which she packs in the picnic hamper.
Now come more closeups and semi closeups of preparations —
the cold chicken, the fruit and the cake, as deft hands pack
them. Other members of the family are filmed, as they prepare
for the event. Junior examines his snapshot camera; Sister
rolls a swimming suit; Father assembles fishing rod and reel.

We must resist the temptation to get involved in filming
the departure, the journey and the arrival at the picnic locale.
We have provided a sufficient introduction, and now we need
only a method of linking our opening sequences with scenes
of the picnic itself. We want what, in movie parlance, is called
a "transition."

Suppose that the last view of the preparations is a shot of
the family assembled in the kitchen, ready for departure.
Junior carries the hamper through the door; Mother is folding
a blanket. The camera is moved forward, to get a closeup of
Mother's hands. She raises her arms and, as she does so, the
blanket obscures the entire view. The camera is then stopped.
Another scene follows, in which the blanket alone is visible.
Now it is shifted, in unfolding, to reveal the picnic surround-
ings in the background. The view that follows should be a
medium shot of the journey's goal, with Mother in the fore-
ground, shaking the blanket.

In another transition, an automobile might drive over the
camera, as the family departs. This action blocks the view.
In the next scene, the view is still blocked by the car, but,
as it disappears, the wooded area of the picnic ground is
revealed.

The sequence that is recorded at home could finish with a
view of the back yard, as it is seen through an open car door,

110 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

which is closed, to end the shot. The next scene shows at first
only the door, which opens, and we see the picnic table.

When we reach the scene of the day's activities, we shall
need only a well planned general idea of the different things
that we want to film. What the picnic party's members do
is our first consideration. Here we can show the action that
was forecast in earlier footage. Sister swims; Junior searches
for "candid camera shots" or what he hopes will be a pictorial
masterpiece; Father settles himself at the water's edge with
fishing rod and pipe. But each of these incidents must be re-
corded in sequences.

Junior or Father have interests that lend themselves readily
to the "running gag," an excruciatingly named — by Holly-
wood— but amusing device that can add humor, with com-
parative safety, to footage that might, otherwise, be without
it. This movie fun maker can be achieved very simply. One
of the party is shown repeatedly, during the course of the film,
engaging in some simple action, such as a wide yawn, the
concentrated munching of an apple, tying a shoe lace or drop-
ping a book. When this has happened six or seven times at
intervals, apparently with no relation to anything else in tfie
footage, it becomes ridiculous and excites real hilarity from
the audience. If, in the last repetition, the actor does not tie
the offending lace, but tears off the shoe and hurls it past the
camera, the "running gag" has accomplished its full purpose.

Our second concern deals with the real climax of the day's
outing — the picnic meal. Pictures of our friends and family
can be made here without the handicap of camera shyness, be-
cause everybody is too busy to bother about what he should
do while he is filmed. Getting sequences around the picnic
"spread" is an easy matter. You have only to caution all hands
not to look at the camera and to pay no attention to you
and it.

Shoot detailed closeups of setting the table or picnic cloth;
show the eggs and olives, the sandwiches and salads, the ice

THE CAMERA STEPS OUT 111

cream and the coffee. If steaks are to be grilled or sausages
roasted, get the camera's nose right down to the action, so
that moving patterns of firelight and flame will alternate with
the sizzling goodness of the broiling bounty.

Show somebody sniffing the tantalizing odors of the cooking
fire and others scarcely able to refrain from attacking the feast
to which they are not yet bidden. Then all fall to, and strip
the board of its heaped up provender. Remember to get the
rapturous expressions of delight which hungry city dwellers
exhibit, when they are led to food after a day in the open.
Semi closeups are serviceable in this filming. Finally, as a finish
of this sequence, draw back for a medium shot, as the
entire group relaxes in various attitudes of repletion. If, in this
last view, we gradually close the diaphragm of the lens, until
the scene has nearly faded, we have a good ending for the
whole picture.

A day's jaunt

Picturing a day's jaunt through the countryside is another
popular filming objective for the camera that goes traveling.
Here our continuity structure is not so clearly marked out in
advance as it is with the less rambling picnic film. But there
are, nevertheless, many themes, for sequences and subject mat-
ter, that we should keep in mind as a guide.

A popular type of pastoral film is that in which a walk
through woods or a climb over hills is used merely as a slight
connecting thread, linking a series of carefully filmed scenes of
natural beauty. We all love the bronze and gold of autumn
foliage, fields of summer flowers or the eerie quiet of winter's
snow. Without some connecting link of human activity, to give
livelier interest, these things are hard to present effectively in
motion pictures. But we can show them, as if they were seen
by a strolling pair, and we have a serviceable continuity.

This simple device requires thoughtful execution. It is not
enough to film an occasional long shot or medium shot of the

112 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

strollers, as they wander through the "view." These scenes
should be used sparingly.

What gives real interest are shots that are made at an up-
ward angle, showing the wanderers as they come toward and
pass the camera; a closeup of their feet, as they go along a
path; a medium shot of them, resting on a hilltop, as one ges-
tures to his companion, showing him something of interest in
the distance; or a series of closeups, as they pause to inspect a
flower or stone. These give the movement that is needed to
keep the film from becoming static.

If you happen to prefer seeing nature from a car's window,
instead of afoot, your more extensive expedition can be pic-
tured in much the same way as this filming stroll is handled.
You can add scenes of the car entering woods or turning a
curve in the road and you can show members of your group
leaving it or returning to it. For the rest, the treatment that
has just been outlined will suffice.

A more important adventure

There is the full fledged picture of mountain climbing. Here
are no casual strollers used as a secondary theme, in what is
primarily a study of scenic beauty. In this more specific film,
the participants and their problems are things of paramount
importance, while settings remain as backgrounds. Thus, our
film of such an expedition must be planned from the begin-
ning, as a story of action and accomplishment. In a rapid in-
troduction, we feature such items of equipment as hobnailed
boots, spiked alpenstocks, coiled safety ropes and carefully bal-
anced knapsacks.

If the party is accompanied by a pack train, we can show
the packing also. Once on the trail, our theme is the progress
of the group, as it winds through stream beds, climbs along
well worn paths or slips and scrambles up rocky trails. Here
again, a careful attention to significant closeups helps greatly
to heighten the effect.

THE CAMERA STEPS OUT 113

Shrewd choice of viewpoint may tell the audience of difficul-
ties and dangers that do not exist at all for the climbers, as we
avoid showing, for example, the protecting ledge below a strug-
gling mountaineer or a scrambling horse.

The film progresses with the party itself, as it pauses for a
rest here, or a brief lunch there, until, at length, the day closes
in the quiet of an e\ ning campfire. A natural ending can be
filmed with a series < shots of the blaze, as it gradually dies
and fades into blackness.

Hunting and fishing

A movie camera does fine work with hunting and fishing
parties. In films of these groups, our basic continuity problems
are much the same as those that we found in filming a picnic.
First we need a brief introduction — overhauling well worn
gear, poring over route maps, packing the car or trailer; and
then — off, down the highway!

Here is always a good place to introduce and to identify the
persons in the film. Next, if we want a full development of our
theme, comes a swift transition from city to country, followed
by the arrival at camp and the process of settling in.

Once on the ground, we are ready for the main body of the
film's story, which, with either rod or rifle, is basically one of
conflict. Many films of these subjects fail in their effectiveness,
through neglect of this essential truth. For what trout ever
came to creel without long minutes of exciting struggle? What
bear has dropped at a rifle's crack, shot comfortably from the
cabin's doorstep? Good fishing and good hunting are hard
work, a long, heartbreaking and, at last, an exhilarating con-
flict between the hunter and the hunted. If they were not, few
indeed would regard them as real sport.

A good hunting or fishing film must build up this feeling of
struggle and conflict, if it is to give a real picture of these
sports. To do this, the cameraman must keep in mind four ele-
ments, essential to such a record. These are the anticipation,

114 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

suggested by preparation of rods or rifles, and ending in the
actual start of the chase; the conflict between hunter and
hunted, depicted in a sequence of parallel action, showing the
pursuit by the hunter and the flight of the hunted; the con-
tinuing frustration of all the sportsman's best efforts, as the
game outwits him or he misses a difficult shot; the final victory
of the hunter, which now has significance because of the diffi-
culties he went through, to achieve it.

This progression of scenes is not easily obtained, particularly
if you attempt to catch them all during the actual hunt. But
staged views are just as effective, and they can be arranged
easily, such as medium shots of a hunter coming stealthily
toward, and past, the camera; closeups of his feet tracking
through underbrush; a shot, as he listens tensely, raising his
rifle hopefully, only to lower it slowly, in disappointment; de-
tailed closeups, as he loads, cocks or fires his rifle.

All these can be interwoven cunningly with such footage of
game as you can get before, during or after a hunt. This is real
movie making, and not just an unexciting long shot of a fine
buck or bear toppling to the ground in the far distance.

So much for the central activity of your expedition — the
hunting or fishing. Other things, far easier to film, belong in
such a record. One excellent amateur movie showed the joys of
two fine weeks by a trout stream and, not once, used a foot
of film to picture the actual fishing. But, in his movie, the
cameraman gave real attention to sequences of such matters
as washing and shaving, cooking and eating, smoking and
"yaranig" around the campfire. Replete with closeups, includ-
ing tantalizing views of frying fish, these sequences caught the
savor of the wilderness vacation, far better than could un-
steady distant shots of running game or fighting fish, that were
made with a telephoto lens. Keep this in mind, when next you
take your camera to the tall timber.

In all these films of expeditions, if you have shown the locale
at home during the preparations, do not repeat this, as a con-

THE CAMERA STEPS OUT 115

elusion. Doing so adds nothing to a good finish on the scene of
chief interest, and it may bring an anticlimax.
Filming games

Golf invites movies, because it involves our friends in natu-
ral action. To film a golf game, we might begin with a closeup
of a golf club's name, that is found on a building or a flag. The
next scene could show a medium shot, made at an upward
angle, of a friend teeing off. After he completes his drive, we
picture the fairway, where the ball bounces into view and
comes to a stop. (It was tossed into the scene from outside the
lens field.)

The other player in the twosome tees off, and we then see
his ball fall on the green. We could, in this way, alternate views
of the players, while we give the high lights of their game. Try
a slow motion scene of one player putting, or a sequence of
him, as he makes a particularly difficult drive over a water
hazard; but, first, film the hazard itself, so that the audience
will be aware of the obstacle confronting him.

Like a number of other outdoor games, tennis gives particu-
larly fine opportunities to record our friends in action, if we
can persuade them to stage an event for us. In a medium shot,
taken from a side of the court, we can show Jane and Sally
playing. Then we can get a medium shot of Jane, serving, by
filming from Sally's side of the net. Next, we reverse the view-
point and show Sally returning the service. (Jane served
again, from behind the camera, so that we could make this
shot.)

Such sequences cannot be filmed during the actual playing,
but we can make them in advance of a real game, and combine
them with shots of the match itself, that have been made from
the sidelines. Thus, we can create a dramatic movie treatment,
which would be impossible of accomplishment without these
expedients.

"Faking" shots in this way is not only permissible, but it
often presents a more realistic idea of the situation than the

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audience would get, if you filmed the actual game. By such
devices, one can give those who look at our record a sense of
actual presence, when they see the plays on the screen.

In picturing any contest, from badminton to croquet, don't
forget the spectators. Before a shot of an especially good, or
particularly bad, play, insert a scene of somebody watching the
game and, after showing the play, return to the spectator,
whose facial expression will comment vividly upon the chief
action. This kind of treatment is another device that gives the

In filming sports of any kind, don't forget to picture the spectators.

audience an illusion of participation. Furthermore, the human
reaction to something good or bad is really what makes it seem
to be good or bad. "Reaction shots," as these are called, are
your means of introducing the human element into any game
or contest.

When outdoor sports or games are filmed in black and white,
do not fail to use a filter. A white golf or tennis ball is lost in
a white sky, but it will stand out clearly, if the sky is darkened
by a filter. Upward angle shots of fishers and hunters, or of
spectators at a match, are the best expedients for showing their
intent faces, but you will also want the attractive background
of sky and clouds that a filter can provide.

At the seashore

At the seashore, a wealth of sunlight conspires with the bril-
liant reflecting surfaces of water and sand to give our subjects
high light and shadow. Under such ideal conditions, filters of
every density may be employed, with telling effect, in mono-
chrome filming; the medium yellow type serves for the natural

THE CAMERA STEPS OUT 117

correction of the strong blues of sky and sea; the red is needed
for those sparingly used dramatic shots, in which towering
thunderheads stand out like marble against an almost black
background.

In such surroundings, there is much to stimulate pictorial
imagination. Wind, wave and sun trace, everywhere, sculp-
tured designs of rippled sand and moving patterns of restless
water. Beach grasses provide foregrounds for scenes of the
shore or of the dunes. Color is all around us, brilliant on the
one hand and soft on the other; alternating these harmoniously
in Kodachrome footage is a real test of our ability.

The simplest scheme for a film of this subject is based on
the story of a day at the beach. The picture may be made up
of an introduction, the arrival and the activities, including per-
sonalities and special high lights. Instead of beginning this rec-
ord at home, let us start on the beach itself, with the semi
closeup of a hand, lettering in the sand. Here is the film's main
title and here also are introduction and arrival combined.

In this semi closeup, as the lettering is finished, two pairs of
feet scamper across the legend and out of the scene. Swiftly,
the camera tilts up to follow them, and we discover a boy and
a girl, who should be filmed in a medium shot. Close at hand,
preferably seated, are the others in their group.

Then the film might present sequences of leapfrog, medicine
ball, archery or swimming, depending upon the kind of beach
that we picture. Scenes need not be planned exactly, in ad-
vance of shooting, but the constant interplay of medium shots
and closeups should always be kept in mind. Later, in contrast
to these more active incidents, we could achieve a quiet study
of natural beauty.

Select, from the group, a lovely girl and a well tanned boy;
ask them to walk through scenes for you, pausing now and
then to marvel at the strange handiwork of wind and wave and
the oddments left, stranded by the sea, at the water's edge.
Show the couple walking on the beach and follow this shot
with a sequence of what they see. A challenge to your faculty

118 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

of finding interesting things, such a sequence will long be the
high light of your seaside film story.

Water sports

But there are other water sports. An entire short film might
center around a swimming pool, to combine the action of div-
ing and swimming with attractive shots of sun bathers, shim-
mering water and brightly colored cabanas. Where diving is
done from a tower and from its attendant lower boards, an
inventive cameraman may use an entire day, in getting just the
right positions for a smooth sequence. Low positions, with the
camera looking upward from the pool's rim; high positions,
achieved from the tower; side positions, in which the camera
follows the glistening arc of a swan dive — each of these plays
a part in the sequence.

Several dives may be filmed, and selected shots may be com-
bined, to simulate one complete action. Thus, you may get
scenes from various angles, picturing what purports to be one
continuous movement.

Slow motion adds to the beauty of breath taking turns from
the high board. Heavy filters outline a gleaming figure against
a darkened sky. There is much at a swimming pool, to attract
the ambitious filmer.

Boating and sailing provide potentially fine film subjects.
Do not overlook the advantage of medium shots and closeups,
that show significant objects and actors or actions. Views of
clouds and canvas are appealing, but so are closeups of the
compass card and of a helmsman's head or hands and semi
closeups of the wave breaking from the cutwater and of the
swirling wake. Such intimate detail, pictured from interesting
angles, will win an outburst of applause from your audience.

Back lighting is particularly effective in scenes of water and
of most sports that have to do with water. You can use back
lighted shots as ornaments for important sequences. For ex-
ample, try a slow motion scene of a diver, silhouetted against
the sunlight; catch a back lighted view of the sails of a sloop

THE CAMERA STEPS OUT 119

or yacht. You will find that, when sunlight comes from the
rear, sails will have a brilliant and luminous quality, that is
more striking, if the sky is darkened by a heavy filter.

When water is back lighted, the tops of the waves "catch"
the light in sparkling patterns. A traditionally beautiful scene
is a shot of the path of sunlight coming toward the camera
over a body of water. A heavy filter, used without full com-
pensation for its factor, makes such a view appear as a moon-
lit scene.

Remember that back lighting is hazardous and that the sun
must not shine directly into the lens, if you would avoid lens
flare. A lens hood or great care in shading the lens is necessary
for all these "effect scenes."

Protect your camera

When we film near water, it is easy for accidents to damage
delicate cinematographic equipment. Unless we take care,
sand may find its way into the camera's mechanism. Particular
precaution must be taken, in camera loading, to offset the
effect of blazing sunlight, as well as to protect against sand.
Hands, adhesive from salt water or tanning oil, hold sand
grains firmly. Friends running past, although yards away, may
cast up a spray of sand that will cause damage. Even the pro-
tecting camera case may shelter this enemy.

The sun is a constant threat, and not only in the act of
loading the camera with film. Serious harm may come to lenses
and filters, if a camera is left lying in strong sunlight for a
length of time. Even the camera's lubricants become thin
under the punishing heat, with the danger of dry bearings and
of oil on the film. Condensing salt sea air is another menace.
It should be wiped carefully and frequently from lenses, filters
and camera, whenever its presence is detected.

Winter movies

When the sun shines and skies are clear, winter serves film-
ing as well as summer, and most winter sports are so excel-

120 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

lently adapted to movie making that they seem to have been
devised especially for it.

You can give family movies a new "twist," by including
winter scenes. Perhaps your boys are building a snow man,
which can provide the topic for a whole film. Or a snow battle
may be recorded. For this, take a medium shot of snowballs
flying fast, from the defenses of the snow fort; reverse the
viewpoint, to show the barrage aimed at the defenders. Re-
verse it again, to show one of the defenders, struck full in the
face by a snowball. (This shot would, of course, be staged.)

This victim singles out a snow missile and hurls it past the
camera. The next scene shows an attacker, trying to dodge
the projectile, and this should be followed by one, taken from
the defender's point of view, that shows a ball flying straight
at the lens and, apparently, striking it. The final scene of the
sequence reveals a boy, whose face is seen, in laughter, through
the snow that was left on it from a bull's eye shot.

The scene of a snowball striking the lens is, like most tricks,
very simple. A sheet of glass is held just in front of the camera,
and the snowball — a soft one — reaches this, and not the lens
itself.

A sequence of youngsters on skis or skates will enliven a
"year round" family film, in which the calendar is followed, as
a major continuity motive. Adult skiing is worth a whole
picture.

Begin the ski movie with a sequence of semi closeups and
closeups of preparations; skis are waxed, fitted to feet and
buckled in place.

If the party goes to the ski run by special train, you could
precede this sequence of preparation by shots of the group en-
tering the train and by views, taken on the way, of impatient
individuals, making ready for skiing. Fast film permits you
to get interior train shots easily, especially if a blanket of snow
reflects sunlight into the cars.

When you reach the run, show skiers climbing to the top or
riding ski tows to reach it. From a ski tow, you may be able

THE CAMERA STEPS OUT 1*1

to make an excellent traveling camera shot, but be sure to
point the camera ahead or behind, rather than to one side.

For the down hill sequence, station yourself at a turn, to
film the skiers rushing past you. Get a view from another posi-
tion and, if possible, a long shot of a ski party. Then catch
scenes of various turns and jumps, to the extent that your
time and film, and the skill of your subjects, will permit.

To finish the reel, ask a skier to make a turn or a stop, in
front of the camera; this will cause a shower of white snow,
which will be shown very attractively on the screen. Take a
back lighted view of this action, and you will have an episode
that is always satisfying to your audience.

Winter sports, like water sports, call for the use of slow
motion; sequences may also be ornamented successfully by
side lighted and back lighted shots. Flat lighting on snow al-
ways produces a dull picture; side lighting is needed to bring
out its texture. Remember, too, that a white landscape on the
screen will be indistinguishable from a white sky; so, a filter
must be used with black and white film, if the sky is blue. In
fact, it is a good rule never to make a black and white record
of winter views or sports on a clear day, unless a filter is
employed.

Clear days are best for winter scenes — in black and white
or in color — but, on a gray day, color film will give an attrac-
tive result, while black and white emulsions will not. The
soft tones of such a day may be very beautiful in a color scene,
although they will be flat, in a black and white sequence.

Filming our town

The things we have been considering are, in a way, special
events. Most of us want, now and then, to film the ordinary
things of our experience, and, perhaps, our own town. So, why
not answer, on film, the question, where do you live? First,
show your geographical location in the surrounding country-
side; then go on to details of the town itself, and finally, to

123 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

achieve the climactic sequences of the picture, record your own
neighborhood and home.

You could plan a film of your town and could extend the
actual shooting over the period of a year or more, keeping your
eyes open, during that time, for the best possible shots —
parades, anniversaries, elections or the construction of a new
post office. You can get pictures of the town's prominent citi-
zens at work and at play.

The advantage of making such a film at leisure lies in the
fact that, besides collecting the best possible scenes, you can
augment footage, already recorded, with further views that
explain the action at greater length. Thus, the arrival of a local
boy from the city could be supplemented, at some later time,
by scenes of a locomotive's wheels grinding to a stop and of
passengers descending from the train.

Really interesting movies, of course, deal with people — and
people who do something. You might contrast two types of
work or the way of life in one part of the town with that in
another. You might go about your streets shooting sequences
of people, busy at different occupations, which would follow
the title, Men at work.

When you make "candid" shots — footage of those who are
unaware of the camera — a telephoto lens is a useful accessory.
With it, you can film from an unobtrusive doorway, across the
street, and get, for example, semi closeups of old women hag-
gling over the price of fish, of a vigorous discussion on a street
corner or of the foreman of a road gang shouting orders to his
men. The unposed shot has a disadvantage, however; the
movements of your subject, being unpredictable, are not al-
ways easy to keep in the viewfinder's field.

When you have posed a group of persons and come to re-
hearse the action, give all of them something to do. Beware of
long pauses, while you determine exposure or search for a cam-
era viewpoint. If these occur, you will lose the enthusiasm of
cooperation from your subjects. Arrange the scene, if only in
your mind's eye, beforehand; calculate exposure on the run.

THE CAMERA STEPS OUT 1*3

You must keep your subjects busy, which will keep you busy,
too.

It is possible to work out a sequence on the spur of the
moment, by considering the scene as a problem in question
answering. Aunt Hattie is watering flowers on the lawn. The
three questions — where, what, how — answered visually, will
give you a sequence. Thus, where will show the house and the
lawn, with Aunt Hattie, a small figure in the foreground; what
will show Aunt Hattie, in a medium shot, watering flowers;
and how will reveal her hand and the flowers, in a semi closeup,
as she goes about her business.

It is as simple as that. The camera may have "stepped out"
in this chapter, but it has not stepped far, and many of the
best subjects lie under our noses, in the everyday things of
our lives.

CHAPTER IX
THE CAMERA SEES THE WORLD

THERE are three convenient basic schemes for travel
and vacation movies, but, from each of these, we can
evolve a great many highly effective continuity treat-
ments. The three call for brief statement.

You may film a holiday, by showing how you get to its
location. Thus, if you go by automobile, you can use your
car, to link one place with another; a steamer, a train or an
airplane can serve the same purpose. Or you can omit the
vehicle entirely and use maps, on which a finger, a crayon
or an animated moving line points out the route. You may
join both schemes in one film and show how you traveled,
and where.

You can present the place that was visited, without telling
how it was reached, and save film by so doing. You may record
the beauty and interest of the Grand Canyon or of Yellow-
stone Park; you may study the ways of birds, off the Cali-
fornia coast, or show how people live in Hollywood or in
Guatemala, without any footage of your journey. If you
have an imperative urge to add something of your route
adventures to this type of picture, you can satisfy it by
filming a brief opening sequence, in quick tempo.

Finally, your personal Odyssey can serve as a central theme,
if you have a helpful companion who can record you. A honey-
moon is often filmed from this general viewpoint. There is golf,
swimming, sight seeing, riding or luxurious lazing in the sun.
What the two of you do is the important concern, and the

[124]

THE CAMERA SEES THE WORLD 125

journey and the novel sights at its end are but incidentals.

Of course, these film plans need not be mutually exclusive,
and many vacation records will combine several, or all, of
them.

So much for generalities. Now, let us break these down into
serviceable detail.

Films that show how we travel

A popular introduction to films, that use the method of
travel as continuity, is a series of short scenes that show
folders of railways, steamship lines and vacation resorts, in
a variety of interesting patterns. These folders are shuffled
until, at last, hands select one, and the camera moves back-
ward, to present the central personage of the film— you, per-
haps— relaxed in an easy chair, with pipe and pencil, all set
to plan.

Maps and pencil come into play, in the consideration of
various routes; at last, one is chosen, and the maps are gath-
ered up. Now we see luggage, packed and ready to be taken
out.

If you are going by ship, you can show the bags in closeup,
revealing a steamer tag, which connects the departure with
the travel folders. The departure itself should be only a
further development of the introduction. This must not spin
out into tedious footage, because it should launch the picture,
and not sink it. We need but a few brief scenes — the crowded
gangplank, the warning whistle, the waving crowd, the tugs,
the wharf slipping back, the screws turning in midstream
and, last, a shot of the wake boiling astern, as the scene
slowly fades out. The journey has begun.

Traveling by motor

Likewise, in filming a motor trip, the introduction can quick-
ly record somebody stowing the bags and checking the mileage
dial, the goodbyes, a momentary failure of the motor to start,
dismay on the faces of the passengers, then relief, as it roars

126 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

into life. Finish this sequence with a staged shot, as the car
goes down the street and turns a corner.

Once it is neatly begun, the continuity of your motor jour-
ney should not be difficult. You might lead off with a title,
It may be a long way to Tipperary, but how jar is it to Cali-
fornia?, and follow with scenes of the car in different sur-
roundings, as you go on your way, and with shots of mileage
posts and closeups of the flickering speedometer or of a spin-
ning car wheel. (You can get this one while the car is motion-
less, by jacking up the rear axle.) Now, the driver changes
place with somebody else, for a needed rest.

Emphasizing the continual progress of the trip will convince
the audience that you are actually going somewhere, and that
you are not presenting shots of incidental scenery, with no
definite objective. This illusion of progress can be heightened,
in many stationary shots, by using the car as a part of the
foreground; the vehicle can also be shown in front of road
signs, hotels and wayside inns.

A motor journey's footage can be amplified by staging shots,
after the vacation has ended, to serve as additional continuity
links. Suppose that we needed (or wanted) a scene of "the
mister" at the wheel. Very well, then; let him sit at the wheel
of the stationary car, while you, through the open door and
from a low position, that will exclude all but his figure, the
wheel, the window and the sky, shoot him, as he honks an im-
aginary vehicle out of the way, extends his arm and turns the
wheel, as if to pass. After that, you have only to convince the
neighbors that the master of the house is still in his right
mind.

In the same way, you can film missing connectives for your
continuity, by taking the car to some seldom used byway,
near home, where you may stage a little sequence of blowout
and repair, during the course of which Aunt Matilda collects
such an enormous spray of dogwood from the neighboring
forest that nobody can manage to stow it and her in the car.

In the privacy of this solitude, you can also get one shot

THE CAMERA SEES THE WORLD 187

which no film of this type should lack. Set the camera on the
road, at a slight, upward angle, depress the button in its fixed
position and leave it. Just afterward, the car is driven toward
and over the instrument. The driver must have good eyesight
and steady nerves and the camera must be firmly placed. The
result on the screen is one that we all know. Be sure to wipe
any dust or oil off the lens, later.

Filming trains

Trains are excellent movie subjects. A whole film can cen-
ter around a train journey. But, since ours is a vacation pic-
ture, let the train sequences be only an important part of a
more inclusive effort. Our departure is handled much as we
have done with motor car and steamer.

We shall probably go down, when we get home again, to
our local railway station, to film the engineer of Number Five
climbing into his cab, the conductor signaling, the porter with-
drawing and retrieving after him the little portable steps of
his trade, and finally the locomotive's wheels, as they slowly
revolve and move majestically away. You will have a clever
addition to this footage of the porter if you can, on the jour-
ney itself, show him, from within the car's vestibule, drop-
ping the floor trap and closing the door, after his steps have
been taken in. Spliced after the footage that you will get later
at home, this completing shot will give your movie a nicety
that other filmers will appreciate and applaud, because it
shows intelligent planning in advance.

The illumination in a railway coach is ample for filming
with extra fast emulsions, if the day is reasonably bright. Try
shooting the landscape through the window, with the sil-
houette of somebody lighting a cigarette in the foreground. At
some way station, film this same passenger from the outside,
through the glass.

When the train is in motion, you must (and there is no
exception) shoot from a support. This may be a tripod, the
jamb of a door or the top of a coach seat, but it must be

128

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

something solidly connected with the body of the train itself.
A very simple, short sequence, easy to secure in a film of
this kind, might be planned like this:

Semicloseup. Silhouette, taken inside, of a passenger gaz-
ing from the window.

Long shot. The train, filmed by holding the camera

close to the window glass, but pointed ahead,
to show the engine and leading cars going
round a curve.

Long shot. The outskirts of a small town, filmed by

holding the camera close to the window glass,
pointed forward.

Semi long shot. Of a part of the station platform, after the
train has stopped. This is filmed from the
car window.

Medium shot. Of the station sign, which shows distances
to both terminals of the line. (A telephoto
lens may be helpful here.)

Semicloseup. The conductor near a car step. (Go outside
for this.)

Long shot. The receding track, from the rear observa-

tion platform.

Make a real effort to get scenes of a train — presumably
yours, as far as the audience is concerned. From a convenient
location, record the last two or three cars, as they pass you.
Then, scramble rapidly to the center of the track, after the
observation car has gone by, and film the train disappearing,
in diminishing perspective, into the distance. The audience

129

Instead of making a panorama of a distant view, take separate

scenes. Note how readily the landscape may be divided into

steady, separate shots.

Lewis B. Sebring, jr., ACL

Georgre Tasso, ACL

Wherever you spend your vacation, you
can film action, human interest and scenic
beauty, as did these amateur movie makers.

130

Laurence S.
Critchell,
jr., ACL

William
Goeben, ACL

Charles R.
Dobbins, ACL

William
Goeben, ACL

John C.
Jay, ACL

FRAMES FROM AMATEUR COLOR
MOVIES MADE IN SUMMER AND WINTER

THE CAMERA SEES THE WORLD 131

will, if you are agile enough, have the curious sensation of
the camera's having been transfixed by the train itself. This
shot is a good finish for an entire section of your picture, as it
always gives a definite effect of finality.

These train sequences are the thread of continuity for a
travel movie of the first basic type, but they should not
usurp all the footage that might be devoted to places and in-
cidents, as the journey is broken by shorter or longer pauses.
But, since we are dealing with a vacation record in which
how we progress is more important than where we are going,
the train is never to be forgotten.

A useful and simple trick should not be overlooked in train
filming. In it, we record the track, as it is seen from the rear
observation platform, receding from the camera, but we film
it with the camera held upside down. This scene, when it has
been spliced into the reel later, but reversed, end for end,
will give you the familiar reverse motion, and you will have
created the illusion of seeing the countryside from the front of
the locomotive.

Filming in the air

Air filming differs from train filming, only because the space
is more limited and because you cannot get outside, on a
cloud, to show the airplane going past. There is often less mo-
tion, to prevent shooting from the hand, but the good rule for
all movie making from vehicles remains valid here, too, and
you should rest the camera on something connected with the
airplane itself. Illumination in the cabin is ample, during the
daytime, to achieve good exposures with extra fast film.

Record the stewardess, as she prepares dinner in her cubby-
hole kitchen. Film a passenger eating; let him poise a fork in
mid air, as he catches sight of something outside the window;
later, splice in a number of views from aloft, to be projected
before we return to his midday meal. Don't forget the little
electric sign that flashes on — Please adjust your safety belts —
to be shown in sequences of taking off and of landing.

132 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Movie makers will find it better, in modern transport air-
planes, to sit in rear seats, where the view beneath is least
obstructed by the low wing. Remember — and here is an im-
portant point for all travel filming — that it is advisable to
include a part of the airplane's structure in the foreground.
This inclusion establishes in the minds of your audience the
location from which the picture was taken. Without it, for all
they can see, you were like Mohammed's coffin, in the legend
— suspended between the upper and nether worlds.

When you are filming from an airplane, check your exposures
with a meter, because certain safety glasses, used for airplane
windows, reduce light. Employ a yellow filter with black and
white emulsions. It will reduce atmospheric haze and will
also add cloud forms to your sky views. A haze filter for
Kodachrome is a matter of personal preference, since some
movie makers like the blue tones that it filters out. To reduce
the airplane's speed to coherent visibility, in scenes of landing
and of taking off, film these, if possible, at thirty two frames a
second.

You can, of course, return to the airport later, as you did
to the railway station, to film these takeoffs and landings and
all the details of "checking out a plane," which you probably
missed in the actual departure.

Ocean voyages

An ocean voyage offers the most extensive opportunity for
a vacation film that has, as its principal theme, the method of
travel. The simplest continuity for shipboard movies is chron-
ological.

After the sequences of departure — these have been described
earlier — have ended with a fade out, you could use a title,
Southward Ho! Fair and warmer, after which you might fade
in on a shot of the ship's bell. It strikes four times — six o'clock.
Sunrise is filmed, either in the background or as a separate
scene, and you go on at once to shots of sailors washing the
decks, a sequence in which you should be able to get excellent

THE CAMERA SEES THE WORLD

133

closeups. The light will be less good, of course, so watch your
exposure.

Go, then, to breakfast in the dining room. Film that ex-
ceedingly nautical detail, the round beam of sunlight from a
port hole, as it swings leisurely, back and forth, across the
table, with the movement of the ship, throwing brilliant high
lights on glass and silver. Show the sea and the morning sky
through this port hole, to achieve a transition to the upper
decks and the morning games. Catch the determined health
"hound," as he tramps vigorously for his mileage, bringing in
closeups of his walking feet, the "do or die" look on his face
and the people in deck chairs, who watch him with varying
expressions of amusement.

The ever present deck game of shuffleboard can be given a
more extended sequence.

Medium shot.
Semi closeup.
Semi long shot.

Closeup.

Semi long shot.

Closeup.

Semi closeup.

Closeup.

A player comes forward with his shovel
stick.

Player, with an expression of "I can't
miss," looks confidently past the camera.

Player, in foreground. Scorer is seen in the
other court, in background.

Expression of derision on scorer's face.
Player, in foreground, shoots.
Scorer's head, as his eyes follow the chuck.
The chuck crashes among the others.

It careens into the scorer's ankle. (It is, of
course, directed from beyond camera
range.)

Medium shot. The scorer jumps with pain.

134 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Serving the mid morning bouillon can be pictured entirely
in medium closeups and closeups, including one that shows
the miniature sea of dregs in a discarded cup, tilting with the
motion of the ship. Immediately after this might come a long
shot of the restless ocean, by way of contrasting comment.
Here is a good place for the introduction of a series of views
of sea patterns, to show the Seltzer like wake of the screws,
the discharge of white condenser water into the sea, the tip
of the mast, quartering the sky, the swaying rigging, the wind
rippled pool of water on a hatch top, and tropical jellyfish,
churned to fragments in the bow wave — all of them, familiar,
but seldom pictured, sights of an ocean voyage.

In rough weather, get several long shots, with the ship as
foreground and the sea as the main feature, but keep the
horizon level, while the vessel tosses and rolls. This feat is
accomplished by centering the scene in the viewfmder, in the
usual way, and by concentrating your attention on the back-
ground, which you keep horizontal by balancing your body
against the ship's roll, so that the true, and giddy, motion of
the ship, in the foreground, will be revealed.

Films that show where we go

A different plan for the continuity of vacation movies is
used if you want to film only the place to which you go. This
might cover a visit to Niagara Falls. The first step, in planning
a movie of this type, is to divide it, on paper, into the various
broad groups of things that you want to include. Such a divi-
sion might read:

a. aspects of the falls themselves.

b. the river banks and scenes near the falls.

c. a journey on the familiar Maid of the Mist.

d. the river above the falls and the Whirlpool Rapids
below.

Knowing what we want to record, we can plan our con-
tinuity. Often, a single title wording may come to mind that
will suggest a continuity theme for the whole reel. Thus,

THE CAMERA SEES THE WORLD 135

Everything at Niagara foretells the great falls gives an ap-
proach to a film of this natural wonder, in which the falls come
as a climax, toward which all other footage leads. In this
scheme, items 6, c and d would precede a.

This picture could begin with a scene of mist, creeping
through the leaves of a tree at the river's edge, and go on with
a series of short similar scenes, taken along the bank. Then
would come shots of the power plants and of several of the
street signs, in the neighboring city, that refer to the falls.

Next, we could show visitors aboard the Maid of the Mist,
with closeups of their faces, gazing upward; we could catch
the bow wave and, again, the creeping mist. Somebody throws
a cigarette into the water; somebody else, above the falls,
throws another one, which drifts away, whirling down river.
Now comes a sequence, in mounting tempo, of the rapids, as
they grow wilder and more turbulent, until, finally, they rush
over the edge of the falls. This sequence introduces the main
portion of the film, in which we follow the general plan.

Filming waterfalls

Slow motion adds weight and immensity to a body of fall-
ing water. Filters are also invaluable, because they darken the
sky, behind the mass of water, and cause it to stand out with
startling distinctness. A fine shot of a waterfall will show it
from below, with the camera looking up, so that the lip of the
falls seems to overhang. The sky behind, filled with drifting
clouds, will give a counter movement to the descending water.

Side lighting and back lighting are particularly striking in
scenes of masses of water in violent motion. The geysers at
Yellowstone National Park are admirable subjects for this
type of illumination. Of course, filters are essential; without
them, the flying water will fail to stand out from the sky.

If you have cautiously refrained from tilting your camera,
you will find, in scenes of waterfalls, one of the few justifica-
tions for this procedure. You have the choice of following the
falls from the bottom to the top, or of reversing the motion.

130 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

But do not add one action to the other, because you will de-
stroy the effect that the first tilt has built up. There is little
choice, although tilting downward is, perhaps, more logical. Be
sure, in either case, to go to the very top or to the absolute
bottom, so that the fully completed motion will give the audi-
ence a feeling of definite ending in the scene.

Continuity for travel films

Continuity themes for travel films are often developed
around a single idea. Thus, with the West Indies, one could
choose, as a continuity motive, the theme of colonial life and
its interisland contrasts. A title, In Trinidad, the long arm of
British law turns black, might preface footage of a colored,
West Indian "bobby" on Frederick Street. Likewise, Clerical
costumes agree with faces in French Haiti and Dutch Curasao
could be followed by scenes of the fathers going about their
manifold colonial tasks.

A very easy and effective method of recording subjects,
without their knowledge, is to film them from a parked motor
car, because few passers by will notice you, if you are sitting
in the shade. Another expedient is to conceal the camera in-
side one of the large straw hats that are so common and so
inexpensive in many regions.

But, filmed openly or "on the sly," people are the important
items. How they live, what they do, where they work — these
are the things that you must get, if your movie is to have life
and if it is to repay your audience for sitting through it.

A "please" and a "thanks," obvious as they may seem, are
still the best way of winning cooperation. Naturally, the
poorer inhabitants like to receive some small tip, as well, but
it should be given with grace and courtesy, as a secret, not as
as a public, gesture. When somebody is unwilling to pose, it
may be necessary only to jingle a few coins in your hand dis-
creetly. If he still refuses, drop the matter. Personal pride is
everybody's privilege.

THE CAMERA SEES THE WORLD 187

Atmosphere

Atmosphere in a travel film is achieved by two main devices
— one, the choice of subject matter and the other, the direc-
tion of light. The first consideration is not so unlimited as one
might think. If you try to choose scenes that include only
local color, you will find your field of selection greatly re-
stricted— and your results greatly improved. Avoid jutting
corners of modern buildings, when the foreground is a native
market; guard against long shots with unwanted items.

In considering the direction of light, you will discover, by
keeping your eyes open, that certain illuminations enhance a
mood, while others spoil it. Early morning light may add di-
mension to coin divers in a harbor and utterly ruin a street
scene in a town. A flat, midday lighting will add contours and
relief to the latter, but the submerged divers will have a pasty
and one dimensional appearance.

People — to drive home this point — are the really impor-
tant subjects. If you go ashore in a tender, why not film the
boatman, who will pose for you, his face to the wind, his hand
on the tiller? And why not get a closeup of that hand, gnarled
and worn, as it turns the wooden stick? Then shoot the faces
of your fellow passengers, as they gaze ahead expectantly.
Move forward and show the man with the boat hook, as he
waits to catch the craft at the dock; add a closeup of the bow
wave diminishing, as the motor is cut off. Finish this sequence
with a closeup of passengers' feet, as they mount the steps to
the new world above.

You can go on, then, to some interesting views of the port
town, but, when you have established the locale in this way,
search for semi closeups, that show people buying curios in
the shops, chartering carriages for a ride into the "back coun-
try," exploring the remoter byways — all subjects of ample
opportunity for significant detail, such as cobblestones, signs
in shop windows or coconuts for sale.

Such footage is often unpredictable, but you will find it
more easily, if you look for it. You know, for example, that

138 THE AOL MOVIE BOOK

two sequences of Bermuda, that show Hamilton and St.
George, must be connected by transition scenes, to identify
the method of transportation. So, you make a point of filming
the members of your party as they embark in a carriage, add-
ing a closeup of their feet mounting the step, to be followed
by a scene of the driver's hand taking the whip from its socket,
after which a long shot shows the carriage going away. By
filming the vehicle, as it enters St. George, with, perhaps, a
brief preceding scene of the countryside en route, the transi-
tion is achieved, and there will be no worries, later, on the
editing table.

Are you driving to Florida in midwinter? Why not use the
idea of contrasted weather, as a basic theme for a film? Cold
to warm; bare elms to verdant palms; ice skating to swim-
ming; blanketed horses to floating rubber steeds; steam radia-
tors to electric fans; furs to Palm Beach suits — all contribute
to an amusing movie. But you must plan this procedure before
you leave home, so that you can choose scenes on the way, to
prove your point.

Filming what you do

Perhaps your film is to deal just with you and her, and
everything else will become mere setting. You can open it
with a short sequence of golf, swimming, tennis, sun bathing,
diving, and what not, and then go on to develop these activi-
ties at greater length.

Why not divide your personal vacation reel into sections,
devoting each of them to the special interests of yourself and
your companion? Thus a title, Joseph spends the summer
afternoons with Royal Coachmen, would be followed by a se-
quence of him, casting a fly into the riffle of some mountain
stream. When Joseph has tangled his line in the bushes and
when his companion has spent fifteen feet of film in getting it
free, there is a second title, Elsa is another Compleat Angler,
and she is shown, prone in the corral, getting an angled pho-
tograph of a cowboy, while he saddles a pony.

THE CAMERA SEES THE WORLD 130

To help us to plan films in advance, it is easy to make a
collection of travel folders and guide books. A study of them
will reveal many subjects of interest and many themes for
sequences; the photographs may offer ideas for views of well
known local features. One movie maker made a fine study of
Port Royal, in Jamaica, after he discovered, in a biography
of Morgan the pirate, that remnants of the old city still exist,
five minutes away from Kingston. These booklets are invalu-
able, later, for identifying scenes and for titling.

A travel movie need not always be a record, without any
expression of opinion. Although doing this calls for genuine
skill, a film may be made from a basis of personal prejudice.
The basis may be selected in advance, from preconceived no-
tions, or it can be chosen after arrival.

Do you really dislike the place? Show why. Do you believe
that the natives' lot, like that of policemen in Penzance, is not
a happy one? Prove it on film. Turn disapproval into visual
argument, distaste into screen demonstration. If you are fond
of the place, reverse the theme.

Good fortune, then, or bad is your subject matter. Suppose
that it rains, most of the time. Film the rain and make a point
of it. After a few sunny views, a title would remark, But pres-
ently, of course — , and subsequent scenes would show gath-
ering storm clouds, rain pattering in the dust, everybody fly-
ing for shelter and, finally, the downpour.

You watch the rain despondently, until a great idea emerges,
and you quickly seize the camera. You show concentric rings
in the puddles — streets, slicked down and shiny — natives,
rushing pell mell for protection, or huddled under trees — the
spray from tires, as they roll over cobblestones — sodden, drip-
ping leaves. A film in a thousand!

And, just about then, the sun comes out.

CHAPTER X
FILMING PUBLIC EVENTS

IN FILMING public gatherings, we have a double objec-
tive.
First, and most obviously, we must get scenes of the cen-
tral event itself — be it a football game, a parade or a country
fair. But, second, and equally important, are the people who
come to see these events, and we must film them en masse,
in small groups and as individuals.

An audience does not merely contribute to the excitement
of any great festival; it actually is the festival, for a great
many who go to see it. If anybody doubts this, let him imagine
the flatness and boredom of a World's Series baseball game
played to empty stands. The first caution in successful public
event filming is, Remember reaction shots!

A football game

Consider football, for instance. We know that half the fun
of a big game is the color and excitement surrounding it. Yet,
it is easy to forget this, in a stadium, with a camera.

Let us keep it in mind, at least, for a brief introduction
which heralds the main event. Make this progressive, working
from details and closeups to scenes that disclose the situation
more fully. The tempo, at first, is very fast, but, as more is
included in the viewfinder, the speed is reduced, to let our
film audience observe the expanding action, in more detail.

Shooting directions for such an introduction could specify
a progression to show: closeup of a poster announcing the

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FILMING PUBLIC EVENTS 141

game; closeup of hands exchanging money for tickets (and
be sure to use "stage money," to avoid tangling with stat-
utes); semi closeup of a boy and girl buying programs or
feathers, decorated in the colors of their college, from a ven-
dor; medium shot of the dense crowd coming toward the
camera; medium shot of the crowd, as it goes through the
gates; semi long shot of the thousands, as they find seats (in-
cluding only one section of the stadium and keeping the action
still relatively close) ; medium shot, from a high position, look-
ing down an aisle, as two friends reach their seats; semi close-
up, as they buy peanuts, examine programs and then stare at
the field in happy anticipation; semi long shot of the opposing
teams running out on the field, while the cheer leaders go
mad. Here are nine short scenes, yet, with their aid, we have
got down to the day's business and have shown the thou-
sands who are with us.

Now comes the game itself. If you have been lucky and
provident, your seats are on the west side of the field (putting
the sun behind you) and fairly high. A movie maker with
only a usual lens will find his best position, much nearer
to the field. But, for the very best results, go high, if you
have a telephoto lens, and take a unipod with you. At least,
use a breast strap support with this lens, or your screen results
will be unhappy. Tripods are pretty generally frowned on,
both officially and unofficially, at football games, unless you
have a reservation in the last row of seats.

If black and white is your film, let it be the fastest obtain-
able, for the increased speed will be a boon in boring into
late afternoon shadows or in facilitating the use of slow cam-
era speeds (twenty four and thirty two frames a second).
But, if you cling to color — and who doesn't, for such colorful
activities? — plan most of your shooting for the early, sunlit
parts of the game.

So much for the important technical preparations. There are
considerations, no less ponderable, that will affect, in large
measure, the successful choice of subject matter. These have

142 THE AOL MOVIE BOOK

to do with the scenes of football action that you will select
and with your method of selecting them. Any football enthu-
siast knows that, by and large, line bucks are least dramatic,
while end runs, pass plays and punts are a constant source of
action and excitement.

But how shall we select them, when valuable film is at
stake? One of the best ways is to study the players in advance,
so that you may know what plays are proverbially successful,
when they make them. Is Number Ten, of the home team,
hailed as a forward passer? Is Number Twenty Three, for the
visitors, a galloping ghost around the ends? Then, during the
first quarter of the game, study the formations for these plays,
to be ready for them in the rest of the game. When you see
a good chance for a pass, begin shooting at the huddle and
hold the button down until the play is grounded. Only in
this way can you hope to avoid those irritating and irresolute
results that give but a part of an exciting play. A good foot-
ball record does not invite film economy.

As the afternoon passes, the field is likely to be divided into
sharply defined areas of light and shadow. This situation calls
for quick exposure changes, as the play shifts from one area to
the other. You may encounter rain, which does not prevent
filming but which demands care, in protecting valuable equip-
ment from damage. Some professional football filmers have
gone to elaborate lengths in "rain proofing" their cameras.

Human interest

Between the high points of field action, turn your attention
once again to human interest and to reaction shots. Don't
worry about their order. They can be put into effective po-
sition later. Here are some of the many scenes that help: a
long shot across the rows of seats, as the great crowd rises,
en masse, in a burst of cheering; a medium shot of persons near
you, in an exciting moment; a semi closeup of your friends,
as they belabor each other in frenzy (staged, if necessary);
medium shots and closeups of the peanut, "pop," and "hot

FILMING PUBLIC EVENTS 143

dog" salesmen; long or medium shots of the cheer leaders and
their antics. Touchdown plays are essential; score board shots
make fine titles and advance the story of the conflict, while
the ceremonies between the halves are a "must" for any foot-
ball movie.

For your conclusion, wait until the crowd begins to pour
out on the field, in a dance of victory. Shoot sparingly in a
long shot, and then try to catch as close a view as you can,
with safety to the camera, when the goal posts finally give
way. Show a scene of the happy, exhausted spectators wan-
dering from the field, and end on a short sequence of the
emptied stadium, to include a long shot of it all, followed by
a semi closeup, showing a litter of tattefed programs.

Filming a parade

The plans and problems of filming other public events are
similar to those of our football movie. Parades are popular,
but pictures of them are often disappointing, for they lack
a background of preparation. "What's all the shootin* for?
What's being celebrated, anyway?" As we noted in Chapter V,
the introduction is all important.

In filming the parade itself, there are a number of points
to keep in mind. First in importance is the matter of position.
The serious cinematographer will discover, in advance, the
exact route and go over it at a time of day, as close as possible
to that of the event, to determine light conditions. For color
shooting, he will decide on a camera position that gives front
lighting, at the best, side lighting, if it must be, and back
lighting, rarely. For monochromatic film, such exact care need
not be taken, but the cameraman should keep in mind the
standard rule of exposing for the shadows, if they are deep.
Good lighting must be the first consideration.

When there is choice of equally well lighted spots, a position
at a corner, which is opposite to that around which the parade
will turn, gives excellent results. Safety islands, in the centers
of broad streets, are shooting positions made to order, if you

144 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

are permitted to use them. Second or third story windows
along the line of march are advantageous, but a telephoto
lens is advised for scenes that are made from them.

Wherever you are, there is one positive rule of parade film-
ing: Avoid shooting action that takes place at right angles to
the line of sight of your lens. This action is always too speedy
for the relatively slow shutter of your movie camera, which
cannot smooth it out. The result of such a shot will be a bad
case of "jitters." Moving objects, wherever we film them, are
more safely pictured when they are either coming toward or
going from the camera, at an acute angle.

So they pass, rank after rank, float after float. Although
it is the supposed essence of color and excitement, a parade —
in movies, at least — soon becomes dull and monotonous. The
action is repetitious, and breaks are needed between the simi-
larity of advancing groups.

So, human interest shots become a double essential, serv-
ing both as interludes and as an important feature of the
show itself. Catch them, as opportunity offers, and put them
into their proper place later. Shoot the crowds in medium shot
and closeup. Get souvenir salesmen and balloon hawkers,
"cops" and children, flag wavers and popcorn eaters.

Built up a "running gag," if you like, of an attractive young-
ster, seated on the curb, with eager eyes and an insatiable
appetite. Come back to him, now and then, as the action lags,
and use him to end the film — the last, and still hopeful, spec-
tator. If you buy the ice cream, he will provide the humor,
unaware.

Other events

Race meets make good movies, whether they feature men,
animals or machines. Not too much freedom is available at
any of these, in moving about, to film the main events, but
we can enliven our records with plenty of human interest. Try
to get behind the scenes, at various times, before the race.
Show the training and preparations. Look ahead to the ac-

FILMING PUBLIC EVENTS 145

tions of the race and try to stage now, for your camera, some
exciting closeups and medium shots that will be put into the
film, later — the starter's pistol, the tense crouch of the cox-
swain, the flash of pounding hoofs in the track. Just before
the actual race, authentic bits of atmosphere may be obtained
near the betting booths, in the cars of the crew train and in
the viewing stands. Using these as an introduction, and as con-
trast, during the meet, you will achieve a more convincing
record of the main event.

In all contests, the method of alternating shots is service-
able, to indicate rivalry. One boat is seen, with the aid of a
telephoto lens, while its crew strains every muscle, to gain
advantage. We cut to a scene of the opposing crew, even more
tensed for victory.

The familiar amusement park is a movie setting. Here,
there is an impression of everything happening at once, with
plenty of noise and excitement. Instead of a single event, oc-
curring in ordered progression, dozens beckon on every side.
To suggest them, some cameramen, having more specialized
equipment, will ornament their presentation with a variety
of multiple exposures and other devices of distraction, inter-
woven with the main flow of the film.

But the simplest camera can catch a series of brief, reveal-
ing closeups and can employ the interesting angles that go far,
in telling the story. To tie these shots together, take your
youngster to the park and turn him loose. Follow his ideas
of what is interesting — and film what he sees, with his willing
cooperation. But, while you record his actions, against the
background of merry go round, giant swing and "shoot the
chutes," don't forget the importance of the surrounding
human interest, the crowds, the "barkers," the food and the
flags.

Country fairs are worth a visit with your camera. As an in-
troduction, feature the activities near the entrance gate — the
cars, the crowds, the friendly greetings and the large family,

146 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

burdened with the day's food. Move in with them to the fair
grounds.

Get a program, and look over the order of events, planning
a sequence of the cake contest and a series of them, to show
the stock judging. Study the lighting, to get the most from
the bulging muscles of work horses and the sleek coats of prize
winning cattle. Remember reaction shots of proud owners,
and please them and yourself, by posed shots of the winners.
Don't miss exhibits from the 4-H clubs and from other junior
groups. The delighted parents make good subjects.

These are only some of the public events that you will want
to film. Not infrequently, your town will be visited by per-
sonages whom everybody will unite to honor. A movie record
of these incidents will bring the great world home to your
friends in later years, as they say, "Yes, he was right here and
we talked to him. Remember what he said to you, Bill?"

The graduation ceremonies of your children should be
filmed, and you can get any number of staged shots, to add
to them. Is there a pageant or a dance festival to which you
have contributed underwriting? If so, there is an opportunity
for a personal dividend and a chance to please your friends
who take part.

In filming these, the emphasis must always be dual. There
is the central feature, yes. But — and it cannot be said too
often — there are the people who see it. What they do and
what they look like will, in the years to come, tell your grand-
children about the world, as your generation knew it.

CHAPTER XI
MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT

'OVIE making offers a twofold opportunity for self ex-
pression. When you are filming, you can follow any
theme and record scenes according to any sequence.
When you edit, you can change that theme and rearrange
scenes or eliminate them.

Through "editing," you can combine short rolls of film, re-
turned by the processing station, to form longer reels, more
convenient for projection. You may excise mistakes; overex-
posed shots may be taken out and scenes with other defects
can be removed.

If you loaded the camera in bright sunlight and fogged the
beginning of a reel, the damaged film length may be discarded.
If lens flare spoiled a shot, this footage may be eliminated. In
short, by editing, you can bury your cine sins.

Editing is also a means of complete control over the movie
medium. You can trim scenes to the desired length; you can
improve the film's continuity, by rearranging the order of cer-
tain shots and by inserting others that may have been made
at a different time or place. Editing lets you clarify the film
story, by inserting titles.

Careful editing is almost as important as planning the film
in advance. In fact, through editing, you can often achieve a
continuity, even if none was planned when the film was ex-
posed.

Editing requires handling a film during a number of opera-
tions; it is advisable to use great care in the procedure, for a

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148 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

small scratch on the emulsion or a grain of dust will be mag-
nified into a blemish in the picture, when it is screened. Hold
the film by the edge, when you take it in your hands, wipe
emulsion fragments off, after splicing, and wind the coils
tightly, in transferring film from one reel to another. Fas-
tidious movie makers wear white cotton gloves when they are
cutting, splicing or rewinding film; this is a particularly valu-
able precaution in handling full color film.

Tools of editing

The most important tool of film editing is the "splicer," a
mechanism that allows you to join the ends of film perma-
nently, by applying cement.

There are several types of splicers, each of which is provided
with an instruction booklet that explains its operation. How-
ever, all these accomplish the same purpose and, with each,
the fundamental procedure in making a splice is as follows:

1. Place over the guide pins of the splicer the two ends of
film that are to be joined. When you splice original reversal
film to original reversal film (including full color), both
ends of the film are placed in the splicer bed so that the
emulsion faces upward. The side which is coated with emulsion
has a dull surface; the uncoated side has a shiny surface.

2. Operate the splicer, to shear the two opposing ends of film
neatly. All splicers provide an automatic means of doing this,
and instruction books make the procedure clear.

3. Scrape the emulsion off that part of the end of the bot-
tom film strip which is to be overlapped by the top film strip.
Splicers have guides, which indicate this protruding area on
the bottom film strip, and also scrapers with which one re-
moves the emulsion.

Some splicers require that the emulsion in the area of the
splice be dampened slightly, before it is removed with the
scraper. This is done by wiping the emulsion's surface with
the end of a damp finger or with a felt pad that has been

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 149

moistened in water. One should apply just enough moisture to
soften the emulsion within the area of the splice.

The scrapers of other splicers, known as "dry," do not re-
quire that the emulsion be loosened, first, by dampening. These
scrapers are corrugated, like a file, and remove emulsion by
rasping. "Wet" and "dry" scrapers operate equally well. Their
purpose is to remove emulsion neatly and cleanly from the
area of the splice, leaving the film base clear and translucent.

After removing the emulsion, clean the area of the splice
with a brush or a piece of lintless cloth. No particles of emul-
sion should adhere to the bare film base, because they will
weaken the splice.

4. To the area of the splice that has been scraped free of
emulsion, apply cement with a quick, even brush stroke.

5. Immediately operate the splicer (following directions in
the instruction book), to bring the overlapping ends of film
into contact and to hold them there, by pressure.

6. After an interval of a few seconds, remove pressure and,
while the film is still on the bed of the splicer, clean the area
of the splice with a soft cloth, to remove emulsion fragments
and excess cement. Then, take the film from the splicer guide
pins and test the splice, by holding the film in your hands and
giving it a firm tug. If the splice is made properly, it will not
part.

Through experience, splicing becomes a simple and almost
automatic operation, and one rarely produces a bad splice. But
the beginner faces a few hazards. He may not remove the
emulsion completely from the area of the splice; this must
be done, because the cement affects the base of the film only.
This cement is not a glue, but a solvent that partially dis-
solves the substance of the film base and, thus, welds the two
film lengths together. Because of this fact, a properly made
splice is just as strong as unbroken film.

Enough cement must be applied, to cover the area of the
splice with a thin coating of the fluid, but, if an excessive

150 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

amount of cement is used, it may seep beyond the spliced area
and stain the film.

In early experiments in splicing, allow the cement to "set"
for about twenty seconds; as you gain experience, you will
learn to judge the minimum amount of time that is required
for it to dry. At first, one may be impatient, and remove pres-
sure too soon from the splice.

Keep the bottle of cement corked, between operations, for
the fluid may thicken quickly by evaporation and lose its effi-
cacy. It is well to recork the bottle, immediately after cement
has been applied.

Cleanliness is important in splicing, because crumbs of emul-
sion, scraped off the spliced area, may adhere to the film. In
projection, these emulsion particles lodge in the projector gate
where they are hardened by heat from the lamp. Ultimately,
enough hardened emulsion may collect, to scratch the surface
of the film.

Therefore, before you remove the finished splice from the
splicer bed, wipe it carefully. Then, after testing the splice,
again clean the area of film on which you have been working.

Films cannot be spliced without the aid of a splicer, because
the ends of the film strips must be held in exact alignment,
when the splice is made, and because the extent of the overlap
must be precisely correct, so that there will be no variations
from the proper distance between sprocket holes. Otherwise,
the film will not run through the projector. The splicer, al-
though it is a simple device, capable of much use, and even
abuse, is an instrument of precision.

You may want to splice a print of footage, originally re-
corded on negative film, to a length of reversal film or to splice
the duplicate of one reversal film to the original footage of
another. Both prints and reversal duplicates are prepared so
that the emulsion faces away from the screen, when the film is
projected. Hence, in splicing prints to reversal film or reversal
film to a duplicate of reversal film, the ends of the strips are
placed back to back, and it is not necessary to remove emul-

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 151

sion, because the shiny, or uncoated, sides of the two films are
brought into contact.

This method cannot be followed, in splicing two pieces of
original reversal film — black and white or color — because the
image of one film strip would be reversed in relation to the
other. The illustrations on page 163 make this fact clear.

Rewinds

An important tool of film editing is tiie "rewind." This is
usually a substantial baseboard, to each end of which is at-
tached an upright pedestal, supporting a geared spindle that
is operated by a handle. The reel of film is put on one spindle,
while an empty reel is placed on the other. By turning the
handle, film may be wound on the empty spool slowly, or rap-
idly. Some rewinds have only one geared "head," but two of
these are more convenient. For continuous work, a motor
driven rewind is available, with a foot switch for speed control.

Film viewers

Another editing aid is the "film viewer" which lets one
inspect film, without setting up projector and screen. In its
simplest form, a viewer consists of a pocket magnifying glass,
backed by a channel of appropriate size through which the film
passes. The magnifier can be adjusted, to focus for individual
sight; a source of light must be provided, to illuminate the film
from the rear. A more advanced type of viewer incorporates a
complete rewind; in this mechanism, the film is always aligned
correctly in the channel of the viewer's eyepiece.

Another form of viewing device provides, instead of an eye-
piece, a miniature viewing screen, upon which may be pro-
jected the enlarged image of any one frame. A more advanced
form of this device projects the picture on the miniature
screen, in full motion.

How to edit

Suppose that you have planned a simple film, in advance,
and that most of the scenes are in the desired order, or con-

152 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

tinuity. In editing, it will be necessary only to splice the spools
of film together and to wind them on a larger projection reel,
to cut away the few scenes that turned out badly, for one rea-
son or another, and to insert titles. Perhaps one or two shots
were not filmed in the sequence in which you want them to
appear. These you will cut out and shift to their proper places.

Most amateur film editing is of this variety, and the work
involved is very simple. First, provide yourself with two empty
400 foot projection reels (if the film is 16mm.) or 200 foot
projection reels (if the film is 8mm.) . You may have a long
picture and may require several of these Heels, or you may use
reels of still larger capacity.

Also get several empty, small projection spools, to use in
storing, temporarily, lengths that are cut out, to be shifted
from one place in the finished movie to another.

Then, set up the projector and screen and project the rolls
of film, one by one. As you do so, make notes of the shots that
are to be removed and of the scenes that are to be shifted from
one place to another. You may also want to shorten some
scenes. Project the film slowly, and do not hesitate to reverse
the machine, to take a second look at a scene, if you want to
study it again.

When you have completed your notes, they may look some-
thing like these, without the explanations in parentheses:

Roll 1.

1. Cut out laboratory's perforated marks at beginning of
first scene.

2. Cut out scene of car in garage. (Underexposed.)

3. Cut out scene of Mother holding Baby at car window and
splice into second roll before scene of waterfall. (By this
change, it will appear that Mother is holding Baby at the
window, to look at the waterfall; we shall have made a
good scenic shot more interesting.)

4. Cut in half the traveling camera shot that was made
through car's windshield. Use part between two scenes of

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 153

the car and part between two sequences of scenic shots.
(The traveling shot was longer than necessary; a part of
it could be used between two shots of the car, as it is
driven past the camera, and another part could be shifted
to a later portion of the film and used there, to divide a
lengthy series of scenic shots.)

5. Cut end of scene of cows in meadow. (Camera unsteady.)

6. Shorten scene of mountains. (A lengthy long shot is mo-
notonous.)

Make similar notes about each roll of film, and, after pro-
jecting each of them, rewind it at once. When you have fin-
ished studying the rolls of film and have completed your notes,
you are ready to edit.

Begin with the first roll of film. Place it on one spindle of
the rewind and cut from it the several frames that bear per-
forations, placed on them by the laboratory for purposes of
identification. You are now dealing with footage that you in-
tend to use, and which will, in the finished reel, be the first to
pass through the projector. So that it may be threaded with-
out involving the beginning scene, a "leader" should be pro-
vided, which is a length of blank, white film. Use the one that
was spliced to the first roll by the laboratory. A leader is im-
portant, because it provides a length of film, for use in thread-
ing the projector, and because it protects the outer coil of film
on the reel. Two or three feet of leader should be spliced at the
beginning of each large reel.

After the leader has been added, wind the film slowly on the
empty, larger projection reel, placed on the opposite spindle
of the rewind. As you wind the film to the larger reel, make
the changes and corrections in succession, as you reach them.

When you arrive at the end of the first roll of film, cut off
the laboratory's perforated marks and any film beyond them.
Remove the empty spool and place the second spool on the
vacant rewind spindle. After excising the leader at the begin-

154 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

ning of the second spool, splice this new footage to the end of
the film on the larger reel, and continue operations.

A shot that should be shifted from one part of the film to
another is removed and is wound on an empty, small spool,
which is put aside, until you reach the place where you plan
to insert the deferred footage.

When the editing is completed, all the film will have been
wound on the larger reel. Then, to the end of the movie, splice
a trailer — a "leader" at a film's end, serving the same purpose
there, as at its beginning. Place a second larger reel on the
vacant spindle and wind the film backward on it. The picture
will then be ready to project.

Editing is simpler, if one works always with film running in
the same direction. You will note that we began at the be-
ginning of the reel, and worked toward its end. Then the film
was rewound to the beginning, to make it ready for projection.

When one removes a scene from the continuous film, so that
it may be shifted to another place, there is some possibility of
confusion. The separate strip might be inserted, so that the
scenes would be upside down or the emulsion would face
wrongly, in relation to the rest of the film. Observance of three
simple cautions will avoid this error.

1. Be sure that the strips of film lie flat — that they are not
twisted.

2. Be sure that the dull sides (which bear the emulsion) of
the opposing ends of film in the splicer bed are both fac-
ing upward (unless one of the film strips is a duplicate or
a positive print, which have been discussed earlier) .

3. Make sure that you are splicing the top of one frame to
the bottom of another. (The beginning of one scene is
spliced to the end of another; if this splicing is not done,
the frames in one scene will be upside down, in relation
to the other.)

The illustrations on page 163 clarify this system.

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 155

After editing, clean the film with folds of soft, lintless cloth,
held in the hand between the rewinds. (This may be done
while you are rewinding the film, to make it ready for projec-
tion.) You will be amazed by the quantity of emulsion frag-
ments and other dust that the film will have picked up during
the editing process, despite your care in making each splice.

If the film has been much handled, it may be advisable to
moisten the cleaning pad with more carbon tetrachloride or with
film cleaning solutions, provided by film manufacturers. How-
ever, unless the film has been soiled by fingerprints, this is not
recommended with Kodachrome, and no cleaning fluid should
be used with Kodachrome, unless it is specified for the purpose
by the manufacturer of that film.

When you have finished editing, you will have the pleasure
of viewing the film as a whole and of noting the great improve-
ment that has been made by your changes. You will find that
eliminating a few faults and shifting a few scenes will have
improved the quality of the whole movie.

You may decide that further changes will help. By all means
make them, for, when you learn to criticize your own work,
you will have passed another milestone on the road to good
movie making. You may find that transition scenes are miss-
ing and that you will want to film these later. You may dis-
cover that a sequence lacks an important closeup. Perhaps you
can get this later, too, or that may be impossible, and you may
have to content yourself with resolving not to make the same
mistake again.

Look at the film a second time, more critically. Have you
been too lenient? Are shots still in the reel that should come
out? Remember that you have a natural disinclination to elim-
inate anything, for, at first, doing this seems wasteful. But a
good movie is your objective, not the mere conservation of
film footage.

Then, too, you can preserve the excerpted scenes on a sep-
arate reel and, from this, you can compile a roll of "seconds,"
to be looked at privately from time to time. If, for any reason,

156 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

you feel, later, that a given scene is indispensable, you can
splice it back into the reel.

On a reel of "seconds" or "stock shots," you also can pre-
serve those scenes that present no difficulty, so far as film
quality is concerned, but which contain matter that is ex-
traneous to the movie in hand. You will find spots for these
scenes, in later pictures.

After editing, the next step is to splice titles. If the titles
were written when the film was planned, and were made
soon after, you may splice them into their proper places in
the first editing. However, if the titles are to be written after
the film is made, you will probably want to postpone writing
them until you have seen the picture in its edited state. A dis-
cussion of title writing and title making follows at the end of
this chapter.

More elaborate editing

When one is following a scenario or is producing a serious
film of any type, it may not be convenient to record scenes in
the order in which they are to be projected. All the indoor
shots of the movie might be made at one time and all the out-
door shots at another time. Then, the process of editing must
be more elaborate.

It will be necessary to separate the whole film, or large parts
of it, into the component scenes. These are catalogued, accord-
ing to a system, and are reassembled in the new order, follow-
ing the script, if there is one.

This necessitates some method of storing numerous short
lengths of film and of keeping them in order while you are
working. These scene lengths can be wound into small coils
and placed in numbered, round pill boxes, in typewriter ribbon
cans, in shallow, round holes, drilled in a soft wooden plank, in
compartments of egg boxes or in any pigeon hole arrangement
that will serve the purpose. Each compartment is labeled with
a number which refers to a numbered card, on which is writ-

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 157

ten a description of the scene. Thus, the contents of any pigeon
hole may be identified by reference to the numbered cards.

Another way to segregate scenes is to secure each of them at
one end, by a spring clothespin, and to attach each of these to
the top edge of a barrel or waste basket, lined with soft cloth.
Each clothespin is numbered, to identify the film strip that it
supports, while the ends of the strips are allowed to fall, loose,
inside the barrel.

There are numerous methods of segregating and storing the
separate scenes, and one's own choice depends upon his taste.
But the important thing is not to allow film to coil indiscrimi-
nately over desk or floor, where it may be scratched or may
pick up dust. Loose film strips will invariably become tangled,
and you will waste a great deal of time in hunting for the one
that you want.

When a method of storing film clips has been devised, thread
the projector with the first roll of film to be edited, but omit
the takeup reel. Let the film run off on a clean, flat surface, in-
stead. A square of white cardboard, propped upon a desk top,
will serve as a miniature screen, and the projector image may
be focused upon this. It is not necessary to turn off ordinary
lights for this miniature projection, as the image will be bright
enough. Specially made, shielded small screens are also avail-
able for this purpose.

Place the rewind close at hand, and obtain a notebook
or some blank cards on which to record the salient points of
each scene. As the film comes out of the projector, stop at
the end of each scene, cut this scene out of the reel with a
pair of scissors, place it in its identifying compartment and
make a note, describing it. For winding in small coils, handy,
single flanged editing reels are available. The film can easily
be removed from these in a roll, ready for placing in its proper
compartment.

It is not necessary to write an involved description of each
scene. All that you need is a series of identifying tags that
will recall to you what the scene contains, when you come

158 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

to the later rearrangement. A note like this will usually suf-
fice:

Scene 3. Jane comes out of door; met by dog. They
walk out of scene.

This kind of note will usually give you all that you need.
Naturally, if the scene has special characteristics which you
will have to know, in editing the film, later, you must add
these to your notes. For instance, besides listing Jane's action
in the scene, it may be necessary to add, "wears red dress,
no hat." This information will prevent you from using, for
the next scene, a shot in which Jane appears in a blue dress
and a broad brimmed hat.

While you are cutting the film, ideas for appropriate titles
may occur to you. Jot them down on similar cards, relating
them to the nearest scene, thus:
Following
Scene 3.
Title: Jane decides to explore —

You may wish to plan the titles later, after you have
rearranged your scenes.

After this procedure, the actual editing is done, by studying
the separate cards and by rearranging them in a new order,
which represents the final continuity.

After the cards have been finally arranged, the film strips
are spliced together in the same order. Since each strip is in-
dexed and is readily accessible, this step is simple. Titles may
also be spliced in now, if they have already been made. Some
film editors insert a short strip of blank film wherever a title
is to be added, for later convenience in splicing.

Having spliced the film together, you will find it advisable
to project it several times, to make sure that the relationship
between scenes is as smooth as possible. Such a checking may
suggest minor changes, and it will reveal any accidental errors.
It will also give additional aid, in planning titles. It may be
desirable to shorten certain scenes, but we can better reserve
this process until the last, because, once scenes have been

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 159

shortened, it is not easy to lengthen them again, except by
awkward splices.

The mechanics of editing can be reduced to routine sim-
plicity, while the real fun of editing is the magic that you can
work, by rearranging scenes and sequences. Editing, and the
proper admixture of titles, will make a movie continuity grow
out of a hodge podge.

Suppose that you have a few sequences of a college reunion
— an unplanned movie, made in haste. Let us say that the se-
quences were filmed in the following order:

1. Close shots of friends on porch of college inn.

2. Group of alumni arriving on late train.

3. Sequences of horseshoe pitching and of golf.

4. Shots of car, filled with alumni, arriving at campus.

5. Scenes of open air luncheon.

6. Medium and semi closeup scenes of a group of alumni
singing.

7. Scenic views of campus.

8. Parade.

9. Car filled with alumni, driving slowly away from camera.

Searching for a continuity for these scenes, one thinks first
of the obvious plan of showing alumni arriving at the cam-
pus, engaging in activities in logical sequence and then de-
parting. But why not begin with the college and end with the
college, since that is the most important thing? Then, within
this bracket, we can present a logical continuity. Thus, the
scenes might be rearranged as follows:

Title: Once each year, Summit College recalls her sons . . .

A. Scenic views of campus. (Part of 7, but save the best
shots for later use.)

B. Group of alumni arriving on train (2) .

C. Shots of car, filled with alumni, arriving at campus (4) .

D. Close shots of friends on porch of college inn (1) .

160 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

E. Scenes of open air luncheon (5) .

F. Parade (8).

G. Sequences of horseshoe pitching and of golf (3) .
H. Group of alumni singing (6) .

I. Car filled with alumni, driving slowly away from the
camera (9).

J. Best scenic views of the campus (part of 7) .

Additional titles will help to tell the story. Before sequence
D, a title that introduces the thought that we are meeting
old friends again could be inserted; before sequence H, a title
could be used, to indicate that alumni are reluctant to leave.
Before J, one could insert a title, such as,

But when the twentieth reunion comes, Summit will still
be there.

When a movie has been carefully planned, before it is
filmed, editing offers opportunity for further refinement. Often,
you can "intercut," that is, alternate scenes of action, made
at one time, with those of different action, made at another
time. For example, suppose that we filmed a country fair and
that we took some excellent shots of livestock judging. Sup-
pose that, later, we made scenes of various types of people
watching something that is not included in the lens field.

Perhaps we have shots of a little boy, of two elderly women
and of a stout man, all gazing past the camera, their attention
held by something of interest — it does not matter what, since
it is not seen.

We could intercut the two sets of scenes and show: shots
of prize cattle — stout man looking at something (presumably
at the cattle) — more shots of cattle — shots of elderly women
gazing past the camera — shots of judging cattle — little boy
looking intently past the camera — shot of the blue ribbon
steer. Thus, we can introduce the human element and make
the scenes of cattle judging more entertaining.

Of course, this method could not be followed, if the scenes
of the intent faces were obviously made in one part of the fair

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 161

ground and the views of cattle judging, in another. How-
ever, one part of a country fair ground looks much like a
second, and, if the views are close, the audience will not know
the difference.

We can also intercut, to make it appear that two things
are happening at the same time. For example, we have a
series of scenes of George building a camp fire and another
series of Helen mixing batter for pancakes. We cannot make
sequences of both operations at once. We should film George
building the fire and then film Helen mixing pancake batter.
But, in real life, these activities would take place concurrently,
and we can make them appear to do so on the screen, by
alternating scenes of George and Helen, thus:

1. George chopping wood.

2. Helen, at camp table, opening box of pancake flour.

3. Semi closeup of Helen pouring flour and milk into bowl.

4. George building fire.

5. Helen beating batter in bowl.

6. Semi closeup of George lighting fire.

7. Helen greasing skillet.

8. ( We bring our two sets of parallel action together.) This
shot shows George at the fire, which is now burning well.
Helen enters the scene, carrying the skillet.

Often, in filming, we start the camera before the significant
action of the scene begins and allow it to run for a few seconds
after the action is completed. In editing, we can trim out the
unnecessary footage and improve the film's tempo greatly.
For example, we have a shot of a bicycle lying by the road;
Jack enters the scene, mounts the bicycle and rides out of
the lens field. The shot continues for a few seconds. Obvi-
ously, this scene could be trimmed. At the beginning, we could
cut the shot at the first frame in which Jack begins to enter
the scene and, at the end, we could cut it at the first frame
after he had entirely disappeared.

162 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

If the subject matter of a shot is static or if the action is
continuous, you must judge, for yourself, the proper length
of its footage. But don't permit the scene to run longer than
the time that is required by most persons, to grasp the im-
portant details of the picture. It is a common amateur failing
to be too lenient in using scissors.

"Cutting on action" is an involved editing practice that
may be required in photoplays and in special purpose movies
of other kinds. When two successive scenes represent continu-
ous action, it is necesary to match the action in the last frame
of the first scene with that in the first frame of the second
scene. Suppose that we film a character raising a cup of cof-
fee to his lips and that, while he does this, we shift the camera
from a medium shot to a semi closeup. Actually, it would be
necessary to ask the actor to raise the coffee cup to his lips
twice — once, when we film the medium shot and, again, when
we film the semi closeup.

Then, in editing, we should cut the end of the first scene
after a frame showing the coffee cup, midway in the air, and
we should trim the beginning of the second scene before a
frame in which the coffee cup occupied almost the same posi-
tion. When the two scenes were spliced together, the motion
of the hand raising the cup would be continuous, in spite of
the shift in viewpoint.

As your knowledge of the fine points of editing progresses,
look over your older films, to see how they could be improved.
By reediting an old reel, you can make a new picture. It is
fun, too, for editing is a challenge to your ingenuity.

Writing titles

There are two basic types of titles, and these may be used
in any movie. First, there are the captions that introduce the
picture and, second, there are those that appear in the body
of the film. These two varieties of titles differ in purpose and
they differ both in style of composition and in physical ap-
pearance.

Above, left: this is what happens, if the wrong end of a strip of film is spliced to the

preceding scene. One scene is upside down, in relation to the other. Above, right: this

is what happens when ordinary reversal film is spliced, shiny side to shiny side. The

words in the sign at the top are reversed, as if they were seen in a mirror.

Reversal film, correctly
spliced. The top of one
frame is joined to the
bottom of the other.

Frances Christeson, ACL,
and Harry V. Merrick, ACL

Lewis B. Sebring, jr

NORTH

Robert W. Nutter, ACL

Frame enlargements of titles in amateur
movies. The title, NASSAU, was drawn in
sand, and it was filmed with reverse motion,
as a wave washed it away. Below, a sign post
serves as a title.

George E. Tomlinson

Jess Leverich, ACL

f A GREENE
CHRISTMAS

Mildred Greene, ACL

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 165

Titles that introduce the film, consisting, at a minimum,
of the name of the movie and the name of its maker, are
called "the lead title assembly." This may be expanded to
include additional "credit titles," lists of players and a dedi-
cation or foreword; the number of titles depends upon the
intention of the movie and upon its importance and length.
But the primary service of a lead title assembly is to identify
the picture and to record names and facts.

However, the "main title," or name of the film, and the
foreword, if one is used, may serve a second, and but slightly
less important, purpose. This is the creation of interest in the
film and the evocation of an atmosphere, suited to its subject
matter. Thus, main titles — unless they are written for record
films — need not, and should not, be too bald, too matter of
fact.

Our Trip to Hawaii gives the name of the film and tells
what it will show, but it does little else. Its effect is deaden-
ing. The identification is so complete that it leaves no room
for curiosity. The wording is factual, commonplace and with-
out grace.

Write, instead, Islands o] Aloha, and note the very dif-
ferent effect. Here, too, is a name, but it suggests the sub-
ject of your film, instead of stating it bluntly. There are over-
tones of emotion, and the imagination has room to stir about.
The wording is melodic and graceful, not threadbare, from
daily usage.

The selection of such wordings is not governed by exact
rules, but, rather, by esthetic concepts. The presentation of
a lead title assembly, however, should be planned to accord
with accepted practice and with good taste. These vary with
the type and importance of the film.

In a picture that will be shown only to your family and
friends, it will be obvious that you are the cameraman. The
concern of first importance is the subject matter of the movie;
the main title is, therefore, placed first. It may be lettered on
a plain card or on a simple pictorial background that will sug-
gest the film's content.

166 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

When it is given at all, the name of the filmer appears in
the credit title. Since this caption is necessarily an adjunct to
the main title, it may be introduced smoothly, by dissolving
to it from the main title. A cut would serve nearly as well, but
the intrusion of a fade out and fade in, here, is undesirable.

The credit title should be lettered in the style of the main
title and on the same type of background. A slightly smaller
type size, however, may be used, to indicate the relative im-
portance of the main title and of the more personal credit
title.

Generally accepted forms for personal credit titles are:
Photographed by John J. Smith; Photography by John J.
Smith; Filmed by John J. Smith; Produced by John J. Smith.
If the filmer is a member of the Amateur Cinema League,
he may well add after his name the identifying initials, ACL,
recognized the world over as the emblem of a competent
movie maker.

Bombastic credit title phrasings, which should be avoided,
are: A John J. Smith Production; From, the Camera of John
J. Smith, or John J. Smith Presents. The especial weakness
of the last of these is that, in using it, the credit title must
appear before the main title, which, in personal pictures, is
pretentious.

Captions inserted in the body of the film, to meet specific
needs, are called "subtitles." Their composition is governed
primarily by the use for which they are intended. Their most
fundamental service is to give information that the audience
will need, to understand the following sequence. A simple
example of a subtitle is: The Grand Canyon, more than a
mile deep.

Another important function of a subtitle is to link sequences.
It may bridge a gap in time or space, or in both, that is cre-
ated by a transition which is not represented in pictures. So
we could have: From lunch at the Myrtle Bank to laughter
at Bournemouth Baths.

A subtitle can also suggest atmosphere or stir the imagina-
tion of the audience, to accord with one's own feeling about a

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 167

sequence. A single caption may serve all these purposes.

By rewriting the informative title already given, we might
evolve: The Grand Canyon — deep wrinkle in Dame Nature's
face.

Subtitles also tell us what characters say. A child is seen,
playing in a yard. The scene shifts to show Mother coming
out to a porch. She speaks to the child, and what she says is
shown by words in quotation marks, "Daddy's Homer

A few simple rules will guide us in choosing wordings for
subtitles.

Avoid "tipping off" — telling the audience,
by means of a title, exactly what it will see
in the scenes to follow.

THIS NOT THIS

A cool haven in a hot coun- We swam at Bournemouth

try — Bournemouth Baths. Baths.

Avoid the depressing effect of unnecessary
facts and figures.

THIS NOT THIS

Havana — from gray skies Havana — 1400 miles from

to blue seas. New York City.

Try to write titles in an impersonal manner,
except in essentially personal films.

THIS NOT THIS

To make hay while the sun We saw the farmers hay-

shines is still the rule. ing and rode on the hay-

rick.

Avoid a telegraphic style.

THIS NOT THIS

Jamaica's green gold pours Loading bananas Jamaica,

into north bound steamers.

168 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Follow regular rules of grammar and punc-
tuation.

THIS NOT THIS

George Washington, hero George Washington Hero

and saviour of his country. and Saviour of His Coun-

try

Do not, except in compiling a lead title
assembly, let one title follow another. Re-
write them, making only one, or separate
them by scenes.

THIS NOT THIS

Calling first at Kingston, Jamaica, spice island of the

we came to Jamaica, spice Indies,

island of the Indies. (no scenes)

Our first call was at Kings-
ton.

Avoid the use of more than about twenty
words on one title card.

THIS NOT THIS

Distinctive dress marks As one drives around Lake

clearly the natives of each Atitlan, or goes about it by

community around Lake speedy motor launch, one

Atitlan. (12 words) sees that the natives have

distinctive costumes in
each village which identify
them and the communities
from which they come. (85
words)

A similar taboo is rightly leveled against that specialized
titling technique which calls for a wordy exposition of a mass
of facts on a scroll or "traveling title." Admissible only as a
needed foreword at the commencement of a film, a "scroll

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 169

title" should not appear in the body of a picture; its content
may be restated in shorter form or broken up into two or
more independent captions, separated by scenes.

Title styles

Although subtitles may be lettered on cards that carry
some form of decoration, or even over a suitable pictorial
background, these should be of the simplest kind. Legibility
is the most important attribute of a good title card, and any-
thing which obscures this should be avoided.

The style and size of types used in lettering subtitles should
not vary within a film. But the lead title may well have a
special typographical dress.

Titles are commercially available in 8mm. and 16mm.
widths. Prices are reasonable, and the cost of brief subtitles
is very small indeed. You have only to give to a title making
concern the wordings of your captions and instructions as
to the type and background that you prefer.

Title making companies offer booklets, to illustrate com-
binations of type and background. Usually, a wide variety of
type styles, borders and backgrounds is available, to suit every
purpose. Titles for a cruise film can employ nautical back-
grounds; captions of skiing films may be supplied with orna-
ments that suggest winter. Special backgrounds and hand let-
tering may be combined, to your order, for elaborate main
titles, although these are not recommended for subtitles.

Commercial titles, designed for use with black and white
footage, are generally printed on positive film, which has a
clear base; those that are used with Kodachrome are most
frequently recorded on emulsions that have a "purple haze,"
or blue tinted, base. Titles made on Kodachrome film are more
expensive, although commercial companies will supply them.

Making your own titles

Many amateurs like to prepare their own titles. This proc-
ess, from the choice of phraseology to the actual filming, is

170 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

fairly simple. Titles may be made without accessory equip-
ment. Large, wooden blocks can be placed on a lawn or a
table, where they are filmed by normal methods. Letters with
adhesive backs may be taken on a filming expedition, and
titles may be made "on location."

For less limited and more convenient title preparation at
home, there is a device, known as a "titler." This holds the
camera and the title card in fixed positions, with reference
to each other, assuring sharp focus. Exposure is simplified by
a uniform illumination which is easy to secure indoors, with
artificial light. In this machine, title cards can be changed at
will.

Titlers are of many types. One model is designed for use
with small cards, whose area, as it is seen in the finished title,
must exactly fill the film frame. To insure this, the distance
between camera and card must be most accurately deter-
mined. Because of the size of the cards, it generally approxi-
mates seven inches; therefore, we need a supplementary lens,
or. portrait attachment, which was discussed in an earlier
chapter. This supplementary unit is a part of the titler, and
it is designed to come into place directly in front of the
lens of the camera. When it is used with typed or printed
cards, and with those that have been lettered legibly by
hand, but in small characters, this titler gives satisfactory
results, although it does not permit the employment of larger,
movable letters. Special small letters are available for use
with this device.

Other titlers are more versatile and, also, more expensive.
With some of these, cameras of all kinds may be employed,
as they are provided with means of locating any particular
camera in an accurate position, with reference to the title
card. The distance between camera and card may be varied
at will; so, we may use cards of different sizes. Some of these
more complex instruments possess revolving drums, spindles
for scrolls and other devices that give variety in title choice
and enable the filmer to secure many interesting effects.

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 171

Lighting title cards and other objects that are filmed in
the process of making captions presents few difficulties. A
light source may be held directly over the camera, in using
small ti tiers. This may consist of a hundred watt lamp, which
will serve very well, unless slow film is used. Exposures will
vary with the subject and the kind of film in the camera, but
the instruction booklets that accompany titlers generally give
full information about diaphragm openings. Some titlers have
lamp sockets in a permanent location. Inexpensive flood bulbs,
that will be discussed in a later chapter, will give additional
illumination, if this is essential.

Preparing titles for filming

Preparing your own titles is a twofold undertaking. Unlike
most movie making, title filming demands that you first cre-
ate your subjects and then record them. The initial part of
the title making process is only indirectly cinematographic,
because it deals with what will be filmed later — the title card.
This may be anything from a sheet of wallpaper to a photo-
graphic print, on which the text appears by a number of
methods.

Letters may be drawn, typewritten, printed with movable
type or applied in the form of characters that are manufac-
tured from metal, wood, linoleum, cork, modeling clay, or even
rope. Only your ingenuity and the space that is available on
the card set limits to your imagination.

Backgrounds must always be subordinated to the chief
requisite of a caption, which is quick legibility. In lead title
assemblies, we have the widest choice, because our audience
is, hopefully, curious and attentive, which permits us to offer
it two things at once, the title wording and its illustrative
background.

Photographs are very popular, as main title backgrounds,
because they can so readily be secured and because they may
be made for this special purpose. A still picture, taken when
the footage was filmed, will show the subject of the movie.

17t THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

The print that will be used should be fairly dark, so that
white title lettering may stand out well against it. Contrast
of legend and background increases legibility.

Mottled paper is a pleasant background for titles within
the body of a film. If you can get a wallpaper sample book,
you will have a constant source of title material, because, if
you employ movable letters, the same square of paper may
be used repeatedly. Letters may be pasted on glass which is
laid over the background. These expedients are unnecessary,
if the background is not to be preserved for later use, and
legends may be lettered upon it in ink, water color paint or oil.

If your draftsmanship is mediocre, you can improve it with
lettering guides; if you enjoy playing with printers* ink, small
hand presses will serve admirably, for you can, with their aid,
print very neat and attractive captions. Persons who perform
lettering commercially may be employed to make more elab-
orate titles.

The wide variety of movable letters that one finds indi-
cates the popularity of this titling aid. Made of almost every
conceivable material, these characters are of two chief varie-
ties; there are those that must lie flat and others that will
adhere to a vertical surface. The latter are sometimes magnet-
ized, for use on metals; sometimes they have pins, by which
they may be attached to a background. Others have gummed
backs, suitable either for a single employment or for repeated
adhesion.

Obviously, modeled characters of this kind are more widely
serviceable, if they are capable of vertical application. If you
will be using those that must lie flat, you should get a titler
that will permit the card to be placed horizontally. If you use
magnetic letters and wish to vary the background — which
must, of course, be metallic — a thin sheet of paper may cover
the metal, without affecting the adhesive quality of the letters.

Scissors and patience may advantage your pocketbook, if
you will make a collection of letters cut from magazine adver-
tisements, posters, calendars and leaflets. Edible alphabets,

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 173

designed for juvenile soups, games in which movable letters
figure and the inexpensive characters employed in bulletin
board wordings, cafeteria signs and other notices will servf
the amateur title maker.

Filming titles

Our titles are prepared, now, and we must film them. We
may use Kodachrome, black and white reversal or positive
emulsions. If we elect to film with reversal footage, either
black and white or color, our work ends with the actual shoot-
ing, and the processing laboratory does the rest. If we use
positive film, we must employ a commercial laboratory to
develop it for us or we must set up our darkroom.

This is not so involved as one might think, because positive
film may be developed at home, without special ability or
equipment, if we deal only with short lengths, which are ade-
quate for titles. This emulsion is the least expensive of all, yet
it has, for the title maker who works at home, a most service-
able property, because it provides reversed black and white
values in the finished caption. By virtue of this, black letter-
ing on a white card appears, on the screen, as white lettering
on a black background. Lettering in black ink, on white cards,
is much easier than using white ink on black cards; white
letters on an otherwise dark screen are more legible and more
comfortable to our eyes than is a glaring white surface, bril-
liantly lighted, in the midst of which a huddle of black letters
is only partially visible.

For longer title wordings, more film is required. In deter-
mining the length of your titles, a practical expedient will be
helpful. When you are ready to film a caption, press the but-
ton, and, while the camera is still running, read the title aloud
twice; when you have completed the second reading, stop the
camera.

This will insure ample footage, whether the title is brief or
lengthy. If you are in doubt, shoot the maximum footage that
you may need, because you always can shorten this, in editing.

174 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Special effects with titles

Title backgrounds and the letters themselves may be filmed
in motion. If you make use of the simple tricks that were dis-
cussed in Chapter VI, you can introduce a variety of illusions.
The first of these tricks is performed by stopping the camera,
by modifying the scene and by starting the camera again. The
second trick employs reverse motion. These devices will serve
16mm. filmers, but the second is not available to 8mm. camera
users, without elaborate methods which are not discussed
here, but which will be explained to members of the Amateur
Cinema League, on request. Film of 8mm. width, when it is
ready for projection, has only one line of perforations. In
reverse motion effects, 8mm. film is not only spliced end for
end; it must also be turned over on its longer axis, and this
operation will force the audience to read all titles backward
on the screen.

With the first of these simple tricks, characters may be
added to, or taken away from, the title card, so that legends
may appear on the screen and depart, letter by letter.

Reverse motion in titling will permit a scrambled heap of
alphabetic characters to range themselves into a caption or
it will bring a title out of flame. Letters can appear to fly from
the nowhere into the here, to form desired phrases.

Using these methods of titling demands, first, a clear under-
standing of the principles of these two magical effects, as they
have been set forth earlier in this book, and, second, a willing-
ness to experiment with different devices for employing them.

Moving backgrounds add interest to titles. To film them,
we can apply the title wording to a glass of suitable size,
which is placed between the camera and the scene that will
be filmed. The lens is focused on the background, and the
shot begins. While the camera continues to run, the focus
of the lens is shifted, so that the background will become
indistinct and the title wording will come into clear vision.
After enough footage has been recorded, to permit the title
to be read comfortably, the focus is again shifted to the back-

MAKING THE FILM READY TO PROJECT 175

ground, so that the title will be blurred, as it was at the
beginning of the scene. This method is also serviceable with
static backgrounds, if one prefers to eliminate action. The
general appearance of this titling effect is like that of a dis-
solve, in the projected picture. It is possible only for those
movie makers who have a focusing lens at then* disposal.

The camera may also move, to create an effective title. In
this procedure, letters are laid on the ground, where they are
filmed, after which the camera tilts smoothly upward to reveal
the scene that follows. Title wordings may be placed on blank
leaves of books, by lettering, by printing or by using gummed
characters. A hand turns a page, to reveal the title and, again,
to remove it. This device is very effective in films of historical
regions.

Titles may be revealed by a wipeoff, which has previously
been described. The lettered card is momentarily covered by
a sheet of dull, black cardboard, which is drawn aside, at
any desired speed, to show the legend. The title may be
obscured by reversing the process. Title cards may be lowered
in filming, to show the appropriate scenes that follow, but
focus must be changed quickly, to avoid indistinct footage
in the action which the title precedes.

The more elaborate cameras, already described, will produce
still more complex titles. These special effects will be discussed
later, in this book.

Our movie, that we have edited and titled, with so much
satisfaction in the absorbing and challenging processes of these
important phases of filming, is now ready to go on the pro-
jector.

CHAPTER
PROJECTION

A THOUGH a movie may be a great success, as a pro-
duction, an audience will judge it by the presentation
on the screen. If pictures are out of focus, if their
corners are obscured by dust which has gathered in the gate
of the projector and if the showing is interrupted several times
by broken splices, your guests will have a poor impression
of your capacity as a movie maker, no matter how carefully
you planned and recorded the film that has just been pro-
jected.

Therefore, the presentation is very important. Its success
will depend, to a great degree, upon what you do before your
guests arrive.

Arranging the room

The screen should be placed in the room, so that the entire
audience may have an unobstructed view of it, but it should
not be raised so high that your guests will have to crane their
necks, to see the picture. The most satisfactory arrangement
is to stagger the seats and to place the screen, so that its
lower area is on a level with the eyes of the seated guests.
If this is done, nobody will block another's view, and every-
body can enjoy the projection in comfort.

The precise arrangement of projector, seats and screen
depends upon the shape of the room and the location of its
furniture. It may be advisable to move some of the things in
the room, in advance of the showing, to provide generous

[176]

PROJECTION

177

space for the guests. If the party is small, this may not be
necessary.

Because the brilliance of the picture on the screen is
diminished, if it is seen from an angle, the best seating plan
would place the whole audience directly in line with the screen.
Those who sit out of this direct line will see less well. This
ideal cannot always be reached.

A path must be reserved for the beam of light coming from
the projector and passing through the center of the best seating
space. A guest will be very uncomfortable, if he has been
placed so that he must twist himself to one side, to avoid
obstructing the shaft of light that carries the picture to the
screen. The diagram shows a good arrangement of audience,
projector and screen.

to-

The audience must not sit too near the screen.

Some hosts place the first row of guests too close to the
screen. This should not be done, because everybody in the
audience should be able to see the whole picture, without
turning his head from side to side. We have all learned the

178 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

discomfort of this position, from having gone forward too far,
in motion picture theatres.

The minimum distance from the screen to the nearest chairs
should be one hah* of the total distance from the screen to
the projector. This rule applies when the regular lens is used
on a 16mm. projector or when the usual lens is employed on
an 8mm. machine. When a lens of greater focal length (a term
that is discussed in Chapter XV) is employed for projection
in an auditorium, the first line of seats may be placed nearer.

The comfort of your audience is the principal purpose of
these precautions, because you want your guests to enjoy
your movie party, just as you would want them to take
pleasure in any other entertainment that you might give them.

Preparing the films

Select the films to be shown, place them on a rewind and
inspect them carefully. Look for broken splices or imperfect
splices that have loosened. By holding the edges of the film
in your fingers, as you wind it slowly, you can detect tears
or breaks. If you have added the titles just before the presen-
tation, check them, to assure yourself that they have been
spliced into the film correctly.

After you have rectified any faults that may be found,
rewind the film, so that it will be ready for projection; while
you rewind it, clean it, by passing it between the folds of a
soft, lintless cloth.

Make sure that film containers are correctly marked and
that they are arranged in the order in which you will project
the reels that they hold. Then, as you change reels, you need
not fumble in the dark.

The projector

Turn your attention, next, to the projector. The first pre-
caution is to clean the gate, by pulling a soft cloth through
it, back and forth, several times. Then, using a camel's hair
brush, remove lint that may have been left by the cloth.

PROJECTION 179

If your projector has a still picture attachment, set the lever
at "still picture" and throw the switch, to operate the motor
and to turn on the lamp. Doing this will illuminate the aper-
ture, so that you may see any dust, remaining after your
cleaning, and it will set the projector's fan in motion, to blow
lint away.

Remove the lens and brush the edges of the aperture, to
remove dust. Clean the surfaces of the lens with lens tissue
or with a soft, well laundered handkerchief. Follow the instruc-
tion manual, in cleaning reflectors and condenser lenses.

After you have cleaned the projector, oil it, if necessary,
following the manufacturer's instructions, and then thread
into the mechanism the leader of the first reel of film that
is to be screened. If the projector has a knob that may be
turned by hand, to discover if the perforations have been
engaged properly over the sprockets, revolve this several
times, to make sure that your threading is correct. Be sure
that the end of the film is attached securely to the takeup
reel. It is most embarrassing to find, during the showing,
that the projected footage has piled up on the floor at your
feet!

Now, after throwing the switches to start the motor and
to turn on the lamp, engage the clutch (if your projector
has one), to operate the mechanism. While the machine is
running, center the picture on the screen and adjust the
distance between projector and screen, so that the image
exactly fills the latter's white area. It should not "spill over."

While the machine is running, focus the lens, to make the
image sharp. This should not be done while the mechanism
is set for still picture projection, because heat from the lamp
may cause film to buckle slightly, in the gate; the resultant
focus will differ from that which should obtain when the
machine is in operation.

After the image has been centered on the screen and the
focus has been adjusted, reverse the mechanism and return
the film to the starting point — the first frame of the main

180 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

title. Then, disengage the clutch, turn off light and motor
and set the switch for normal projection.

Now you are ready for your guests. Later, when the room
is darkened, turn on the motor and, after it, the projector
lamp and, finally, engage the clutch. The show is on! The
picture that flashes on the screen is in perfect focus, and there
will be no interruptions until you stop, to change reels.

Projector lamps will give longer service, if you take care
of them. If your projector has a variable resistance (a device
for changing the amount of electric current that is admitted
to the lamp), turn this to its lowest point, before you start
the projection. Then, with the machine running, raise the
illumination gradually to the desired intensity.

Do not operate the projector so slowly that the picture will
flicker, because doing this will shorten the lamp's life; more-
over, it will create an unpleasant effect for the audience.
When a projector is operated too slowly, the fan, which cools
the lamp, also runs too slowly, with the result that the lamp
will be overheated. To approximate the normal projection
rate of sixteen frames a second, you should first operate the
motor slowly and, then, gradually increase its speed, until no
flicker is evident in the projected picture.

Shall we talk?

The question of what to do while your movies are projected
is a delicate one. You will inevitably be tempted to "explain"
the picture to the audience. Of course, since the "theatre" is
your own home and the audience is made up of your guests,
you will not want to adopt the impersonal attitude of a
theatrical projectionist. On the other hand, if you offer a
running commentary of casual observations, such as "Now,
you will see the Grand Canyon — I moved the camera there
slightly — wait a minute — I forgot — that isn't the Grand
Canyon — it's Bryce Canyon," your audience cannot enjoy the
movie, however good it may be.

PROJECTION 181

The well planned silent film should need no explanations;
if you wrote your titles, so that you carefully avoided "tipping
off" your audience to what it will see next, you should not
commit that very fault in casual conversation. Let your pic-
tures speak for themselves. You will naturally answer ques-
tions that may be asked by anybody who is particularly
interested in something that you have not explained fully,
in titles.

Oilier films

Your own films may be sufficiently varied and interesting,
to make up a well balanced evening's program. If they are
not, take advantage of the diversified offerings of film libra-
ries. You may buy some of these, for use from time to time,
or you may prefer to rent them for an occasion. An extensive
assortment of silent and sound 16mm. films and of 8mm.
silent subjects is available, among them dramas, "shorts,"
current newsreels of important events, cartoons and "comics."
Industrial and publicity pictures may be borrowed without
fee. Even if you have enough material of your own, you can,
by adding a commercial movie to the program, give your
guests better entertainment.

Formal showings

A formal movie showing, at a club, church or school, in-
volves more careful planning. For these occasions, a projector
that will accommodate reels of larger capacity is desirable,
so that the presentation may take place without interruption,
although two projectors might be used alternately. While one
machine is running, you can thread the mechanism of the
second and make it ready to continue the projection, when
the reel in the first has been shown. With practice, you can
change from one projector to another, without interrupting
the continuity of the screen images. As soon as the last
scene of the first reel nears its end, the motor of the second
projector is started. The lamp of the first projector is switched

182 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

off, at the instant in which the lamp of the second projector
is turned on.

The auditorium in which the films will be screened should
be inspected, well in advance of the actual presentation.
Investigate the electric current supply, to determine, beyond
question, whether it is alternating or direct. If your projector
has a switch that is marked for both kinds of current, this
should be set to agree with the type that is supplied to the
hall where your films will be shown. If your machine is not
designed for use with the electric current that is delivered
to the auditorium, a suitable projector must be secured.

Locate the electrical outlet that is to be used for your
projection and determine whether you have a cable, long
enough to reach from it to the projector, when this is placed
in position, for screening.

What must be the distance from projector to screen?
It may be necessary to place the projector so far away that,
if it is shown with a regular projection lens, the picture will
be too large for the screen. You can meet this difficulty with
a lens of greater focal length (a term that is discussed in
Chapter XV) or you may be able to move the projector or
the screen.

A screen that is permanently installed in public auditoriums
may be dusty, spotted and yellowed by age, or its surface may
be cracked. It is advisable to use a screen, specially secured
for the occasion, to avoid the disappointment and anger that
you will feel, if the brilliance of your most beautiful shots
is dimmed by a yellow screen of "magic lantern" vintage.

You will, as a matter of course, go carefully over the pro-
jector and the films that will be screened in it. Take every
precaution, for it is most embarrassing to be the maestro of
a movie program that "fizzled."

Carry an extra projection lamp and a pair of gloves, for use,
if you have to remove a lamp that had burned out, during the
screening. The bulb, to be replaced, will be too hot to touch
immediately, without some protection for your hands. Movie

PROJECTION 188

makers who give frequent programs outside their own homes
carry extra projection lamps, lengths of electric cord, "two
way" electric plugs and gloves, in a kit, housed in the pro-
jector case.

If you are asked to project in the daytime, assure yourself
in advance that some adequate means have been provided
to exclude sunlight. Those who have no experience with movies
do not realize the extent to which a small ray of extraneous
light may dim the brilliance of a projected picture, and they
are likely to be optimistic about the possibility of darkening
the room sufficiently, for good movie projection.

Screens

As we learned in Chapter III, screens with beaded, matte
white and silver surfaces are available. Different housings and
supports are also offered. Some screens are rolled into a box
which is opened for projection; the screen is pulled up and
is held erect by rear supports; the box may be set upon a
table or a shelf.

Other screens have tripods that eliminate the need for a
detached support. They also may be rolled, when they are
not in use (the tripod support being collapsible) , so that the
whole unit is compact and portable. Some of the roller screens
are so designed that they may be attached to a wall, as well
as supported on a table.

The size of the screen that you will use most frequently
will depend upon the power of the lamp that you habitually
employ in the projector and upon the size of the room in
which most of your movies will be shown. The average screen
for 16mm. projection at home varies from eighteen by twenty
four inches to thirty six by forty eight inches in size.

Your own theatre

Some movie makers fit out a basement or an attic as a little
movie theatre. A projection booth, equipped with glass covered
portholes, is built at one end of the room and a screen is

184 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

installed permanently at the other end. The screen can be
covered by a curtain that is drawn open for projection. A
rheostat may be provided for the room lights, so that they
may be dimmed gradually, as in a commercial theatre. A
proscenium can be built around the screen, and colored lights
may be provided for its arch. One may go as far as he wishes,
in emulating the mechanics of the movie theatre. If any special
wiring is installed, this should be done by a competent
workman.

Your projector, as well as your camera, is a mechanism of
precision. It deserves careful treatment and an occasional
overhauling at the factory where it was built. Summer is a
good season for this periodical examination, the cost of which
is slight.

Caring for film

Storing film, either black and white or full color, presents
no special difficulties in the average home. The one essential
precaution is to refrain from keeping your reels close to a
steam radiator, steam pipe, stove, chimney or other heat
producer. Heat or extremely dry air causes the moisture,
present in films, to evaporate, and, if this evaporation con-
tinues for some time, film may become brittle. Hence, the best
storage place in the average home is a shelf near the floor
of an unheated closet.

It has been found that the optimum in storage conditions
calls for a temperature of approximately fifty degrees, Fahren-
heit, and a humidity of about fifty percent. These conditions
represent the ideal, and a reasonable deviation from them does
not cause the slightest damage to film.

It is not necessary to humidify film, unless it has been
subjected to extreme dryness or unless it has been projected
continuously for a fairly long time. If film has dried until it
has become brittle, this condition can be rectified, by placing
the film and a small square of damp blotting paper within an

PROJECTION 185

airtight container. In twenty four hours, the film will again
be pliable.

Do not permit water to come in contact with film, because
it softens emulsion; this softening will cause the coils of film
in a reel to adhere. In humidifying, one must be sure that the
damp blotting paper does not touch the film itself. Koda-
chrome is especially sensitive to damage from excessive
dampness.

Films present about the same storage problems that we
encounter in dealing with books. The chief requirement is to
protect them from dust and from excessive dryness or damp-
ness. The ordinary, metal film can serves excellently, as a per-
manent container. Various types of cabinets and portable
boxes, for storing and carrying film reels, may be purchased.
Steel storage cabinets may also be built to order.

One need not fear that, in the course of years, his films
will shrink or stretch to an extent that will prevent projec-
tion. Careful tests have shown that maximum changes in film
length do not exceed the tolerance of projectors that are
commercially available.

Recent tests, conducted by the United States Bureau of
Standards, have shown that cellulose acetate, the material
that is used in making what is commonly known as "safety
film," upon which all 16mm. and 8mm. movies are recorded,
is a remarkably stable composition. Therefore, this film is
widely used by museums and libraries, in which photographic
and cinematographic records are preserved.

Although movie film is a stable composition and although
a carefully handled reel may be projected more than five
hundred times without showing signs of wear*, it is always
possible that valuable footage may be scratched, through
mishandling or by allowing the projector to accumulate emul-
sion which hardens. This is film's worst enemy. Keeping

* Practicing movie makers have reported that they have projected both
black and white and color films as often, without noticeable ill effect,

186 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

projection equipment in order and cleaning it frequently will
prevent this kind of damage.

When you rewind film, do not tighten the coils, by holding
the reel in one hand and pulling the loose end of the ribbon
with the other. This practice, known as "cinching," causes the
coils to rub against each other, so that, if the smallest grains
of dust are present, the emulsion will inevitably be scratched.

If an original black and white or full color film is espe-
cially valuable, one may preserve it from danger of mishaps
during projection, by having it duplicated. The duplicate
footage is used for ordinary projection, while the original reel
is preserved carefully and is used, only, if a duplicate is not
available. Any number of duplicates may be made, which
will be of excellent quality. Full color pictures may be
duplicated either in color or in black and white.

Special treatments designed to preserve film, and to aid
in protecting it against wear, are offered to movie makers.
Certain of these minimize the danger of film damage.

Sound accompaniment

Movies are sometimes more entertaining, if they are ac-
companied by suitable music, which can be provided, by
playing phonograph records during the screening. An ordinary
phonograph may be used for the purpose, but a smoother
presentation is possible with a dual turntable assembly which
was developed for this use.

This assembly consists of two turntables upon which records
are played, each of which is equipped with a "pickup" and a
"volume control." The electrical pickups are connected to an
"amplifier" and a "loud speaker," which may be those of
a household radio or which may be found in a special unit,
to be placed on the floor below the screen.

The "dual turntable" is so designed that one may change
from the music of one record to that of another, without
interruption in the continuity of the sound. It is also possible
to play two records at the same time. For example, while one

PROJECTION 187

record provides soft "background music," another might be
played on the second turntable, to produce suitable "sound
effects" that would match the action of the picture.

The records and the dual turntable unit are generally placed
beside the projector, so that one can operate both mechanisms
at once. Some persons are so adept at fitting music and appro-
priate sound effects to the picture and at manipulating records,
that the final result is very like a "sound on film" movie.

There is a great variety of phonograph records from which
you can effect a combination of music and movie, to suit your
own taste. The procedure, in planning a musical "score" for
a movie, is, first, to review the film and to determine the
general mood or emotion that is produced by each of its
sections. For example, a movie of a journey from city to
country might be divided into these sections which are based
upon the moods that they evoke: (1) introductory sequences
— excitement, city atmosphere; (2) country fair — gay, light;
(3) farm and scenic shots — peaceful, pastoral.

When this division has been made, it is not difficult to find
recorded music, to fit each mood. Frequent changes of music
should be avoided, because of the difficulty of manipulating
numerous records. It is best to change records while a title is
on the screen, because the caption usually indicates a shift in
mood. We diminish the volume of music from the first record,
when the title appears on the screen, and, as the sound dies
away, the volume of the second record is increased, to reach
the desired level, as the title ends and the next scene appears.

Every imaginable sound is recorded on standard phono-
graph discs. Such widely differing noises as "freight train
passing," "coffee percolating," "man walking on gravel road,"
"steamboat whistle — continuous" are catalogued for use with
corresponding movie scenes. They are widely sold and they
are inexpensive. Skill and practice are, of course, requisite for
a successful use of these interesting adjuncts of projection.

In addition to musical and sound accompaniments, a narra-
tion, or commentary, can be given vocally. The operator may

188 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

speak into a microphone that is connected with the assembly
or he may have his remarks recorded on a disc which can be
played on one of the turntables. There are studios where
records of narration may be made at very reasonable cost.
Using a recorded commentary is generally preferable to speak-
ing into a microphone.

It is possible to make one's own records of voice, music or
sound effects, on discs, by employing recorders that are
available. These devices look very much like electrically oper-
ated phonographs, and they are not difficult to use. One speaks
or plays into a microphone, and a record is automatically
produced on a disc. The discs are made of a special material;
they are inexpensive; they can be "played back" immediately
on the recorder itself, on any double turntable or on phono-
graphs that employ discs. The recorders are compact and
easily portable, and they may be set up anywhere. A special
model is available, by means of which large records can be
made, so that a single disc can serve to accompany an entire
400 foot reel.

CHAPTER XEI
FILMING INDOORS

INDOOR movie making offers us the special advantage of
filming at leisure. We can set up a tripod carefully, with-
out the interruptions that we may encounter out of doors;
we can plan scenes and viewpoints comfortably.

Our whole house is a potential movie studio, and the inci-
dents of our daily life make fascinating subjects. Nor is it
difficult to take pictures indoors, for fast film, fast lenses and
the "flood bulb" have banished the need of powerful or numer-
ous lighting units and heavy cables. Today, one can make
movies inside his home as freely as he makes them out of
doors. You need not clutter a room with equipment, to take
pictures in it.

Lenses of high speed, with apertures as large as //1. 9, are
available for both 8mm. and 16mm. cameras. Others, even
faster, with speeds of //1. 8, //1. 5 or //1. 4 are also offered. Fast
black and white film is spooled for both 8mm. and 16mm.
cameras, although, at present, the most sensitive of all emul-
sions is limited to the 16mm. width.

Flood bulbs

The invention of flood bulbs has been a factor, as important
as fast lenses and fast film, in simplifying indoor movie mak-
ing. These electric lamps, which look like ordinary frosted
household bulbs, burn with high intensity, generating a very
great amount of light from the relatively small quantity of
current which they consume. But the life of the inexpensive

[189]

190 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

flood bulbs is only a few hours, so most filmers burn them at
full intensity, only when the camera is operated.

Flood bulbs of three sizes are commonly used by movie
makers. The first, known as No. 1, gives illumination that is
approximately equal to that of an ordinary lamp, rated at
750 watts; the second, or No. 2, is twice as powerful as No. 1,
and the third, the No. 4, produces light that is four times as
strong as that of No. 1. No. 1 and No. 2 have the familiar
screw bases that fit standard household sockets, while No. 4
has a "mogul base" which fits only the large sockets that are
specially designed for that purpose.

There are two varieties of flood bulbs. The type that is most
commonly used emits light which is richer in red rays than is
daylight; the other type employs blue tinted glass which gives
to its illumination a color that is practically the same as that
of daylight. Either type may be used with black and white
film. The particular advantage of the blue tinted lamp is
found in the fact that, when regular Kodachrome is exposed
by its light, the special filter, which would be needed with
white flood bulbs, is not required.

Some flood bulbs incorporate their own reflecting surfaces,
which are provided by adding a silver finish to the bowl
shaped part of the lamps. They give the same results that
would be obtained from ordinary flood bulbs, employed with
small, highly polished reflectors.

Lighting indoor scenes

With the fast lenses and the extra fast black and white
film at our disposal today, we can make a satisfactory movie
shot in a room that is well lighted by ordinary household
lamps. It is not imperative that we increase this normal illu-
mination, to get a passable scene. However, the best pictures
are not made with just a minimum of lighting, and, since it
is so easy to obtain plenty of it, by the use of flood bulbs,
there is no reason why one should hamper himself by meager
illumination.

FILMING INDOORS

191

Flood bulbs may be screwed into overhead electrical fixtures,
wall brackets and domestic lighting units, such as floor, table
and desk lamps. Shades may be removed from floor and table
lamps, if they are outside the lens field, to illuminate the
scene. A shaded lamp, within the scene, also may be used as
a light source; if this is done, the ordinary bulb is replaced by
a flood bulb and the lamp is put in such a position that its
light will be cast on the subject. Three No. 1, or two No. 2,
unshaded flood bulbs will produce adequate illumination for
a home movie scene that is to be filmed with an //S.5 lens or
with one that is faster, and with moderately fast film. The
illustrations show several of the numerous lighting arrange-
ments that are possible in the average home.

A high light from the table lamp is well supple-
mented by general indirect illumination.

192

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Good general illumination can be helped by
using a natural lighting source.

A simple plan which will produce a natural
lighting effect.

FILMING INDOORS

No.4 4

193

Indirect light is especially good for filming chil-
dren, as it will not cause them to squint.

Strong side lighting, produced by daylight, needs
to be supplemented by flood bulbs.

184 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

One of the simplest and most effective movie lighting plans
is carried out, by directing the rays of a powerful lamp toward
a white or light colored ceiling. The ceiling reflects a soft,
diffused illumination over the whole room; this is an excellent
light for movie making.

It is easy to obtain this type of lighting, by using a floor
lamp that is designed to give indirect illumination and by
replacing the ordinary bulb in the lamp's reflector with a No. 4
flood bulb. An indirect floor lamp is usually fitted with the
mogul socket that is required by this larger light source.
If a lamp of this kind is not available, almost any reflecting
unit, that can be turned upward, may be used. Special lighting
assemblies are offered commercially that will meet this need
very efficiently.

The process of lighting a movie scene well does not stop
with providing enough illumination to get good exposures.
If we want to produce really interesting and beautiful scenes,
we must control the direction and the intensity of the light.

In the discussion of outdoor filming, we learned that, if the
illumination came from behind the camera, flat lighting was
produced, which makes uninteresting black and white shots.
But we also found that, if the greater part of the light came
from one side of the camera, shadows were cast, to model the
subject and to create a far more attractive picture.

These principles hold true indoors, but we have the added
advantage of being able to control the placement of the lamps.
Out of doors, we were limited to shifting the camera view-
point, with reference to the direction of the sun's rays, but,
now, we can either shift the viewpoint or move the lights.

Furthermore, indoors, we can, and usually do, use more
than one source of illumination; with the additional lights,
we can create effects that are far more subtle than those
which we can get out of doors.

Side lighting

We may give overall illumination to a scene by the methods
that have just been described and we may then produce the

FILMING INDOORS

effect of side lighting, by placing another lamp at one side
of the subject. The same scene may be back lighted, by plac-
ing still another lamp, so that its rays will fall on the rear of
the subject.

A widely used lighting arrangement is obtained, by placing
lamps, as they are shown in Figure 1, on page 196. Two light
sources are used, one of which is placed on one side of the
subject, and the second, on the other. Both lights are turned
toward the subject at an angle of about forty five degrees.

One light source is made stronger than the other, to avoid
the flatness of balanced illumination. To increase the relative
strength of the light on one side of the subject, we can:
(1) move one lamp closer to the subject; (2) place a more
powerful lamp on one side of the subject; (3) place two lamps
on one side and one lamp on the other.

This generally serviceable method of using two light sources
that are placed at forty five degree angles, with reference to
the subject, and of making one of these stronger than the other
always produces excellent results. The stronger light, on one
side, casts shadows that give the subject form and depth in
our two dimensional pictures, while the weaker light, on the
other side, decreases these shadows, so that they will not be
too dark and so that they will show more details.

There are numerous variations of this basic method of
lighting a movie scene. For example, the weaker light source,
on one side, might be replaced by a reflector which would
throw illumination back to the shadow side; also, the scene
might be given sufficient general light, from overhead flood
bulbs, and the effect of unbalanced illumination and the de-
sired shadows might be obtained from a single lamp, placed
at one side of the subject. Here, there is enough overall
illumination to lighten the shadows on the other side.

A third variant of our basic scheme provides general illu-
mination, by any convenient means, and casts a high light on
one side of the subject, by placing near it a shaded table lamp

106

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

OP floor lamp, into which a flood bulb has been inserted. The
effect that is created is pleasant and natural, because the high
light comes obviously from the familiar light source that the
audience sees in the picture.

Back lighting

After he has arranged lamps, to throw more light on one
side of the subject than on the other, in order to get the bene-
fit of side lighting, a movie maker can further improve his
scene by illumination behind the subject. This is shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 1. The simplest arrange-
ment for satisfactory lighting.

Figure 2. A logical placement of
a third light.

This back lighting gives the scene an illusion of depth. Be-
cause of the different planes of illumination, the subject seems
to "stand out," producing an effect which is most important,
if whatever you are filming is near a wall; without some
illumination from the rear, in this case, your subject may
appear, in the two dimensional picture on the screen, to be in
the same plane as that of the wall itself.

FILMING INDOORS 197

A further refinement in our basic plan is obtained from
additional lamps, so placed that their rays will create special
high lights, wherever these may be desired. Emphasis may be
given to faces, in this manner.

We see, therefore, that the different steps in a simple, but
very effective, plan of indoor lighting for movies are: pro-
viding sufficient overall illumination, to permit a good exposure
at a middle range lens stop, such as //3.5 or f/4.5; "building
up" the picture, by adding lamps, to produce side lighting and
to give depth and roundness; casting high lights on special
areas or objects; and intensifying the illusion of a third dimen-
sion, with back lighting.

In black and white filming, we may combine sunlight, that
enters through a window, with the light of flood bulbs. Some
scenes that are made near a large window may require nothing
but natural light, but a reflector should always be placed on
their shadow sides. If you are using outdoor color film in-
doors, however, daylight and floodlight cannot be mixed
unless the bulbs are of the blue-glass type. For a complete
discussion of color film lighting, see Chapter XVII.

Special lighting equipment

Good movies can be made, by using flood bulbs in household
lamps and in regular lighting fixtures and by placing the lights
in proper relation to the subject, but, obviously, one cannot
control the results as effectively in this way as he could, if
he used lighting equipment that is specially designed for
movie making.

There are special lighting units which have efficient reflec-
tors that will direct light according to your desire; they permit
you to use the full power of the flood bulb or of any other
lamp.

The simplest of these special units comprises a lamp socket
and a small reflector that may be clamped on a table or on a
chair. This device is convenient and inexpensive; since the
clamps are covered with rubber, they will not mar furniture.

19S THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Another very useful lighting aid is provided by a pair of
sockets and two reflectors, which are mounted on a collapsible
stand. Each socket will accommodate one No. 1 or one No. 2
flood bulb; when the lamps in both reflectors are turned on,
a wealth of illumination is produced. This device can be
dismantled quickly and it may be packed in a small space.

Spotlights, that employ either flood bulbs or special types
of lamps, extend the range of home movie lighting. Many of
these permit you to vary the area of their light beams, so that
you can provide a high light of greater or smaller cir-
cumference, at will. Decreasing the area of light beams will
increase their intensity.

Commercially available equipment, that is specially de-
signed to illuminate movie scenes, is inexpensive, light in
weight and compact. One need not hesitate to contemplate
indoor shots that would require its use.

Since flood bulbs have a relatively limited life, if they are
burned at full strength, a device, which will permit you to
reduce the amount of current that is admitted to them, when
the camera is not in action, is desirable. A switch, known as a
"hi lo," which may be connected to the cord of the lighting
unit, can be found in any electrical supply store. This switch,
that will provide light of two intensities, is turned to the
"low" position, while you arrange the lamps, and to the "high"
position, when you start the camera.

When they are burned at full strength, No. 1 flood bulbs
draw two and two tenths amperes of electricity, No. 2 bulbs
draw four and four tenths amperes and No. 4 bulbs, eight and
seven tenths amperes. Therefore, only six No. 1 bulbs, three
No. 2 bulbs or one No. 4 bulb may be used on any one elec-
tric circuit, which is "fused" for fifteen amperes. Houses and
apartments are provided with several circuits, as a rule, so
that some of the lamps may burn on one of these and some on
another; placing lamps in this way lessens the probability of
"blowing a fuse." To replace a fuse of lower amperage with
one of higher amperage is generally inadvisable; under no

FILMING INDOORS 1W

circumstances should one bridge the fuse contacts with a coin
or with a piece of metal.

Placing lamps

Lamps must be so placed that direct rays from an unshaded
light will not strike the lens. Units that are equipped with
reflectors can be turned away from the camera, but one must
be very careful, if he uses unshaded flood bulbs.

A lamp that is so placed as to provide back lighting must
be shaded to prevent its direct rays from reaching the lens.
Sometimes, one can conceal a lamp behind the subject, to
guard against lens flare, which has already been discussed.

Unshaded light sources should not be visible in a scene,
as you observe it in the viewfinder. Shaded floor lamps and
table lamps, as we have learned earlier, may become parts
of an indoor movie setting, where they will give a very natural
effect.

A deep lens hood serves to exclude direct rays of light from
the lens, and it is especially convenient, if back lighting is
employed.

When lamps are used, that have open reflectors, the in-
tensity of the light that they cast on a subject varies with
the square of the distance from the subject to the light source.
Therefore, if we move a lamp only slightly, we shall have
changed the illumination quite perceptibly. Hence, we can
increase the effect of any particular lamp to an important
degree, by moving it nearer to the subject. We must not move
the lamps after we have calculated the exposure and after
we have set the diaphragm of the lens. The camera may be
moved forward or backward, without changing the requisite
exposure, but this will be affected, if lamps are shifted.

In planning a lighting arrangement, polished surfaces in the
scene should be examined carefully, to make sure that they
do not contain reflections of lighting units. Varnished or waxed
wood, glazed pictures and metal objects may present mirrored
images of the light source. Survey the scene carefully in the

200 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

viewfinder, to discover anything that may give this undesired
effect, which can readily, be obviated, by moving the lamps
or, perhaps, the troublesome objects.

Artistic effects

The experienced indoor filmer arranges his illumination,
as if he were "painting" a scene with light. He knows that
shadows really make the picture, for it is only by means of
their shadows that objects achieve the effect of roundness and
plasticity. The face of a pretty girl, for example, will be flat
and uninteresting in a black and white scene, unless the illu-
mination is so arranged that her features will be emphasized
by the delicate shadows which they cast.

The careful movie maker knows the value of diffusing agents
which are employed to soften the "hard" rays of light. One
may diffuse the light of a flood bulb, which is fitted into a re-
flector, by the simple expedient of holding a thin white silk
handkerchief in front of it. Various fabrics, such as netting or
scrim, will modify the illumination, to the extent that is
desired.

Correct exposure for indoor shots

Lighting tables and exposure guides will help us to deter-
mine the correct diaphragm openings that should be used, in
filming interior scenes that are illuminated artificially. From
these tables, we can also determine the number of flood bulbs
and the distances between them and the subject that we must
employ, to produce a well exposed scene, at a given diaphragm
opening. Here, the distance from a lamp to the subject has a
definite effect; therefore, we must measure this distance care-
fully when we use interior lighting tables. If the lights should
be shifted to a new position, the tables must be consulted
again, and the recommended exposure for the revised dis-
tances must be used.

Exposure meters are very serviceable, in indoor filming.
When a meter is employed, to determine exposures for interior

FILMING INDOORS «01

scenes, it shpuld be held close to the subject, as we see it in
the illustration. Care should be taken, to prevent the direct
rays of an unshaded lamp from striking the exposure meter,
because the very strong light that comes from such a lamp
would produce a higher reading than the subject required.

Wrong: Too much dark area is Right: Only the illuminated

included in the meter's field. affects the meter.

If one reads a meter as he stands near the camera, the read-
ing may be affected by dark areas that are outside the range
of the lamps.

The exposure that will be used for an interior scene which
includes several items of interest should be determined from
readings that are taken in the darker parts of the scene and
from others that are taken in the lighter parts. These readings
should be averaged, in order to obtain a generally satisfactory
diaphragm setting. Sometimes you will have several persons,
in the scene, who are wearing dark clothing. If you determine
an exposure for this scene by the method of averaging several
readings, the dark garments will influence the result too
strongly, as compared to the faces; therefore, you should take
a reading of one of the countenances and you should use this,
even if it is incorrect for the clothing.

An exposure meter may serve us when we arrange lights
for an interior scene. We shall often want to know whether
the illumination provided by one lamp is stronger than that

202 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

of another, so that we may secure a desired high light or an
artistically unbalanced effect. We cannot always determine
this fact by inspection, but our meter will give accurate in-
formation. Again, a meter will keep us within the safe bounds
of light variation in interior filming. The most brilliantly il-
luminated part of a scene should not give a reading that
differs from that of its darkest area by more than three dia-
phragm stops, if the picture is to be really well exposed.

The wide angle lens

A wide angle lens, which includes a larger field than that
which is afforded by the lens that is ordinarily used on a cam-
era, facilitates a variety of indoor shots. For example, a movie
maker, who is filming in a room of average size, may meet an
obstruction, when he attempts to move his camera farther
from the subject, in order to get a larger view of it. This ob-
struction may be a piece of furniture that can be moved onty
with difficulty or it may be a wall that cannot be moved, at
all. He can solve this problem, by employing a wide angle
lens; with it, he can obtain a larger view of the subject, with-
out moving the camera farther from it.

Wide angle lenses are invaluable to a movie maker who
films indoors; they are also useful in outdoor movie making.

A wide angle lens includes a larger field than that which is
covered by the viewfinders of average lenses; so, one must
allow for this factor, in determining the limits of a scene that
will be filmed with this convenient accessory. Adjustable view-
finders, that meet the needs of this situation, are discussed
in Chapter XV.

Special lighting effects

The effect of firelight may be produced without a fire, by
placing a single flood bulb reflector unit in an empty fireplace
and by arranging the principal subjects in front of it, so that
only the light, and not the unit itself, may be seen. You may
place the lamp in a corner of the fireplace, which should be

FILMING INDOORS

*03

outside the area of the scene, or you may depend upon the
subjects, to hide the lamp from the camera's view.

A silhouette can be filmed, by placing the subject in front
of a light colored wall, upon which a flood of illumination
has been directed. No light should be permitted to play upon
the subject from the direction of the camera, because the side
that faces away from the wall must be in deep shadow. The
strong reflections from the brightly lighted background will
illuminate the subject from the rear, with the result that it
will be sharply silhouetted, in the screen picture.

The mildest mannered person of your acquaintance may
acquire a truly diabolical aspect, if you will light his face
from below, by means of a lamp that is placed on the floor
in front of him and out of camera range.

Brilliant and fairly even lighting will give to a scene the
effect of gaiety, while sombreness and gloom may be suggested
by large areas of shadow.

A moonlit scene is easily simulated in color filming, by
exposing indoor color film in daylight and by using a dia-
phragm opening that will cause a slight underexposure. A still
smaller diaphragm opening will give the effect of greater dark-
ness. Daylight that enters a room through a window can be
made to look like moonlight, if it is filmed in this manner.

204 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

With the fastest black and white emulsion, many scenes can
be taken at night, without strong lights. You may film a
man's face by the illumination of a match, cupped in his
hands, as he lights a cigarette; a flashlight will enable you to
record a face in a darkened room; children can be filmed, as
they play by a hearth, with no illumination except that which
comes from the flames in the fireplace.

Filming indoors in public places

You can make movie shots of indoor sports, such as wres-
tling, boxing and hockey, because arenas where these are
carried on are, in most instances, sufficiently lighted to insure
good results, if fast black and white film is used. The only
difficulty that we encounter is that of finding the correct ex-
posure. A meter reading that is taken from a seat in the audi-
ence will not serve, because it will be affected by the large
dark area that surrounds the brilliantly illuminated space
where the action takes place. One must take the meter closer,
so that its field will include only the well lighted area. The
difficulty arises from the fact that we cannot always take the
meter closer, with the result that we must frequently omit
this reading and depend upon our judgment alone.

Theatrical performances and brightly lighted spectacles in
night clubs may be filmed in black and white or in color. An
exposure of approximately //1. 9 for indoor color film
usually gives excellent results. If the performers are illumi-
nated by a number of powerful spotlights, less exposure may
be required.

Indoor swimming pools, gymnasiums and field houses are
generally too poorly lighted to permit the use of any film
except the fastest black and white emulsion. If you want to
insure perfect exposures in these places, your best guide is
an actual test.

Filming outdoor night scenes

By using black and white or color film, you can get footage

FILMING INDOORS 205

of theatre marquees, electric signs, lighted shop windows and
brilliantly illuminated metropolitan areas, when you film at
night. The best time to make these shots is at dusk, just after
the lights have appeared. Then there is still enough daylight
to illuminate some of the areas in the scene that, later, would
be recorded as completely black.

For color shots of electric signs, use indoor color film
and open the diaphragm to a stop of about //1. 9, if you want
brilliant results. A much smaller opening should be used for
the fastest black and white film, which is so sensitive that
you can get good footage with it, even in such places as
restaurants and shops, if these are brightly lighted by normal
illumination.

Night scenes in the woods may be filmed, by lighting a
magnesium flare, which will illuminate a circle with a radius
of about fifteen feet; in this area, one can record the action
with black and white film or with indoor color film.

Some indoor themes

Of all indoor filming occasions, Christmas is probably the
most popular. And it is deservedly so, because its atmosphere
of excitement and color provides excellent opportunities for
pictures.

You may use scenes about town, that show preparations for
Christmas, as an introduction. Shop windows bulge with gifts.
Children's faces press eagerly against the panes. Santa Clauses
and Salvation Army lassies are active at every corner and
the streets are bright with wreaths and colored lights. The
giant community Christmas tree makes a good picture and
a nice transition from these scenes of general interest to the
more specific incidents of home.

Once inside our own doors, an attractive galaxy of activity
invites our camera's attention. The knowing filmer will use
many closeups and semi closeups, as he records the pleasant
task of addressing Christmas cards and the joy of reading
the greetings of others. Hands are seen, as they wrap and tie

206

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

gifts in a bright assortment of papers and ribbons. Quiet fun
can be suggested, as Mother and Dad succeed, by various
subterfuges, in concealing from each other the bulky pack-
ages that will appear as surprises with tomorrow's tree.

But the children of the family are the subjects of first
importance in any Christmas film; so we soon turn to their
eagerness and to their many activities. The proverbial letter
to Santa, filmed in medium shots, semi closeups and closeups,

makes a fine sequence. The ceremony of hanging the children's
stockings, enlivened, perhaps, by little Tommy's trick of
exchanging his own short sock for Mother's more commodious
gift receiver, is good material for our Christmas movie. In
many families, the well loved songs and stories of the season
form a part of the ceremony at Christmas Eve; they offer de-
lightful opportunities for good shots that will give the atmos-
phere of holiday time.

On Christmas Day itself, there are two predominant sub-
jects— the happy hullabaloo around the tree, as the gifts
are opened, and the colorful feast of Christmas dinner. In film-
ing either of them, it is well to plan for an even distribution
of footage between medium shots of the whole activity and
closer shots of the significant details that enliven it. Try to

FILMING INDOORS «07

capture the expressions of the children, as they pounce on
their presents and reveal each new surprise. Follow these
shots with brief, individual closeups of the more attractive
gifts and, later, insert them ahead of the shots that show the
youngsters' delight. Treat the adults in the same way, and
stage, if you like, a little scene of humorous action, in which
Dad gets the inevitable gaudy necktie, or Mother, a dozen
handkerchiefs from each member of the family. Arrange, if
need be, an interesting jumble of torn wrappings and twisted
ribbons, and end your sequence with a shot of it.

At dinner, much the same procedure may be followed with
good effect. There will be medium shots that show the entire
setting and the arrangements of the table; semi closeups that
feature each guest in turn; and a series of closeups of the well
cooked bird, the bright jellies and the plum pudding, wreathed
in holly and dancing blue flames.

Birthdays are popular and important occasions for indoor
filming. Here, as at Christmas, the children dominate the
scene. We might show Dick's tenth birthday in the following
scenes.

A good beginning would present the closeup of a hand, as
it writes and addresses invitations to the party. Not only will
this shot suggest the subject matter that is to follow, but
it will also give the important facts that reveal to the audi-
ence the date of the occasion and Dick's age. Added interest
might be brought to this action, by filming the handwriting
in Dick's boyish scrawl. From the first closeup, we move
backward to a semi closeup that shows both Dick and Mother,
as they finish the task; this sequence can end with a fade out
on a scene in which Dick drops the letters into a mailbox.

The next scene, which fades in, might show the excitement
and gaiety of the little guests, as they arrive. The children are
filmed, entering the door; this should be done in a medium
shot. Greetings are exchanged and the presents are given to
Dick. The action shifts, now, to the living room, and we can
show Dick opening his gifts or we can picture the games

208 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

that have been arranged for the afternoon's fun. Here, the
active cameraman will try to take semi closeups and closeups
of the excited youngsters.

At last, for the climax, comes the ceremony of the birthday
cake, with the happy scenes around the refreshment table. In
this action, the good filmer will get his finest sequences. Light-
ing presents no problem, if enough flood bulbs have been placed
in the overhead fixtures. Nobody is embarrassed, for the chil-
dren are too eager, and too intent on the cake and the ice
cream, to be self conscious. In a medium shot, you can show
all the guests, as they take their places. You must follow this
with a closer shot, when the gleaming cake is brought in,
bright with its ten candles. It is placed ceremoniously in front
of young Dick.

Move very close, to film the tense moment in which he
puffs his cheeks and blows out the wavering flames. Step back-
ward, now, to take a medium shot, while the cake is cut and
the plates are heaped with ice cream. The youngsters fall to!
A series of semi closeups will record their delight, and the film
may well end with a closeup of the crumbling remains of the
once proud pastry.

There is no dearth of material for indoor filming. No filmer
should fail to get a record of family weddings; if yours is the
kind of clan that enjoys periodical reunions, pictures of these
will serve for the years to come, when later gatherings will
be reminded of the past. Does the bridge club come to your
house occasionally? Filming it may disturb the serious play-
ers, but it will provide fun for the other guests.

With fast emulsions and flood bulbs, the problem of light-
ing is simple. Bring to your interior movies but a little fore-
thought and a simple film plan, such as those we have just
looked at, and the results will be good enough to satisfy your
most critical friends.

CHAPTER XIV
THE CAMERA DECEIVES

JESTING Pilate asked, "What is truth?"
It would be most inconvenient, if our senses, particularly
the sense of sight, told us the truth all the time, for, if
our sight did not deceive us, the illusion of the motion picture
itself would be impossible.

Consequently, we welcome the facility that movies offer
for building up whole structures of illusion, one upon another;
indeed, this very facility is a fine outlet for our creative
powers.

Most cine illusions are absurdly easy to produce. The real
effect of a movie trick comes from the way in which it is
introduced — the preparatory ideas that precede it and the
element of surprise that is involved.

Basic tricks

We have already examined the basic movie tricks that are
so simply performed and that are so highly effective, when
we employ them in the right context. The first of these
produces an interesting mystery. After careful prearrange-
ment and with a precise understanding by the actors of what
will be done, we stop the camera; but, just as we do this,
everybody who is in the scene "freezes," that is, he remains
absolutely motionless, to the best of his ability; we then take
something out of the scene, add something to it or change
the position of some object that is in it, but it must be some-
thing to which attention has been called in earlier action;

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210 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

then we start the camera. The object will appear, in projec-
tion, to have moved of its own volition. This illusion proceeds
from the fact that frames of film, continuously projected,
will picture continuous action. The effectiveness of this trick
depends upon how little the audience will realize that the
motion has been interrupted; hence, the camera must be held
firmly on some solid support, and everything and everybody
in the scene must remain motionless throughout the two
takes.

The second basic trick is that of reverse motion, by means
of which the footage of the actual scene that was recorded
first will, in projection, appear last. How this is accomplished
with 16mm. silent film has already been explained, and we
know that we have only to hold the camera upside down,
as we take the picture, and to turn the footage end for end,
as we edit it into the film that will be projected.

A special condition makes it difficult to follow this pro-
cedure with 8mm. film. Processed 8mm. footage is perforated
on one side only, so that the film of a scene cannot be turned
end for end, if its emulsion is to face in the same direction
as does that of the rest of the film.

Therefore, if one wishes to shoot an 8mm. scene with the
camera held upside down, he must be content to splice his
"end for end" strip into place, with its emulsion facing dif-
ferently. If this is done, objects will be reversed from left to
right in projection; this reversal is not particularly objection-
able, unless printing or writing is filmed or unless wordings
appear somewhere in the scene; these would, of course, be
illegible. When a shot that has been recorded on 8mm. film
by reverse motion is projected, the lens of the projector must
be refocused, as the scene appears on the screen, because the
image has been recorded on the emulsion, which will, by reason
of the special splicing, be in a different vertical plane from
that of the rest of the footage.

These basic tricks can be used in simple, or in more complex,
movies. Sometimes, they may be so unobtrusive that the

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audience will not be aware of any illusion. For example, if your
film plan calls for a realistic automobile accident, you may
ask an actor to stand directly in front of a motor car, with
his body curved backward and with his hands thrown wildly
upward; the car is then driven backward rapidly, while the
actor walks backward out of the scene, in a preoccupied
manner.

If this shot is filmed with the camera held upside down,
the car will appear, in the projected scene, to be rushing to-
ward the actor, and then it will seem to strike him, as he
walks into view. The illusion may be enhanced by fast motion,
which can be secured, by shooting the scene at a camera speed
of twelve or of eight frames a second. This shot should be fol-
lowed by a closeup, that is made with the camera held up-
right, which will show the "victim" sinking to the ground,
in front of the car. Another closeup, of the horrified driver's
face, will complete the sequence.

A more familiar use of reverse motion, of which the audience
will not be aware, is found in scenes in which it will appear
that the camera has been placed on the front of the loco-
motive of a train that is traveling at high speed. In reality,
the shot has been made from the observation platform at the
rear of the train, but with the camera held upside down.

A humorous illusion

A humorous effect, which may be used in the film record
of a Hallowe'en party, can easily be made. The host meets
a guest and offers his gloved hand, which the visitor takes,
only to find himself holding a glove that seems to cover a
severed hand, while the host turns away, to reveal an osten-
sibly empty sleeve.

Suddenly, the host turns again to the guest and says, "Give
me back my hand. I need it!" He recaptures the missing mem-
ber with his other hand and places it on a table, near a box
of cigars. Immediately we see the hand on the table, in a
closeup; the arm in the empty sleeve approaches, and presto!

212 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

— the two are magically reunited; the gloved fingers flex them-
selves, and then they select a cigar.

Here are the steps that are required to film this trick. The
introductory sequence, in which the guest literally "takes"
his host's right hand, is filmed without interruption. The
"hand" is really a stuffed glove, which is held by the host
within his sleeve. As he asks the guest (in a spoken title)
to return his hand, the host grasps the stuffed glove in his
left hand, but his right sleeve still remains apparently empty.
He moves toward the table.

The next shot is a closeup, in which we employ the trick.
In this scene, the empty sleeve rests on the table, as the host
bends over it. Using his left hand for the purpose, he places
the stuffed glove in its natural position in the empty sleeve.
The camera is then stopped. While the host remains motion-
less, somebody takes the stuffed glove away and carefully
brings the host's right hand from the sleeve. This hand must
wear a glove that is a replica of that which was stuffed,
and it must be placed in the very position that was previously
occupied by the stuffed glove. The camera is then started;
after an instant, the fingers move, and the apparently reunited
hand and arm take a cigar from the box.

Some additional illusions

Illusions may be created in editing. Among these is the
closeup which appears to have been made when the scene
was filmed, but which, actually, was "faked" later.

The actions or the incidents of two successive scenes are
associated automatically in the minds of the audience. If
a character is shown, in a closeup, pointing at something that
is not seen by the audience, the next shot will be accepted
as one that represents the thing at which he pointed. Material
from entirely unrelated sources may be associated in this way.

You can, with telling effect, use footage that is taken from
commercial library films. For example, two boys are shown
prowling warily through the tall grass of a New Jersey meadow

THE CAMERA DECEIVES 213

that looks like the African veldt. Suddenly, one of them stops;
he grips the other's arm, apparently paralyzed with fear. The
next shot, which has been cut from a library "thriller," shows
a very live lion rushing, full tilt, at the camera. The associa-
tion is inescapable to the audience. That lion is "going for"
those boys!

Another instance of trick editing is found in the familiar
chase, that was so popular in the early "custard pie comedies."
Up hill and down dale, through all sorts of obstacles and
difficulties, go the chasers and the chased, always recorded
in separate scenes. Often, these are filmed at entirely different
times, for convenience or by necessity.

A successful illusion results from the employment of close-
ups that have been framed carefully, so that they exclude
unwanted or extraneous objects from the background. By
this device, one dilapidated stairway can serve for a whole
haunted house. The closeup of a steer's bleached skull lying
in a dried puddle will suggest a drought; in actuality, the skull
was carefully prepared, and it was "planted" in a green
meadow. Propaganda films often use this deceit. A prosperous
village may be given an appearance of complete destitution,
if one films only close views of several deserted hovels.

Remember that, in the movies, things are assumed to be
what they seem and that skimmed milk can easily masquerade
as cream, or vice versa. The eye cannot rove beyond the
confines of the frame that you set for it; so it is incumbent
upon you to select that frame carefully, with thoughtful con-
sideration of its content, so that it will tell your story force-
fully and with simplicity.

Shots that involve the unseen manipulation of objects in
the scene may be considered as camera tricks. A closeup of
the driver of a car can suggest its travel very effectively, if
somebody shakes the body of the automobile, while the driver
goes through the motions of steering it. In such a shot, of
course, no stationary objects in the background should be
included in the scene, but the subject may be outlined against

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

the sky. Sometimes, the breeze that is created by an electric
fan, which has been placed outside the lens field, can be used,
to give realistic motion to scenes that, without this expedient,
would have none.

Branches of trees and other flexible objects may be bent
into such a position that they will frame the subject. A branch
which has been cut from an adjacent tree may be held in the
foreground, to produce an ornamental effect in a corner of
the frame or to cast a pleasant shadow.

Moving small objects by invisible wires or strings and film-
ing them in reverse motion may produce serviceable tricks.
If you want to show the innate "cussedness" of a golf ball,
which drops into an impossible lie, you should select the
goal of its perversity and place the ball in it, after you have
fastened a black linen thread to the projectile with a blob
of sealing wax. Holding the camera upside down, you should
then film a medium shot that shows the ball, at rest, for an
instant, and, afterward, its travel, as you jerk it toward the
camera by the thread, which will not be recorded, because of
its black color. When this shot, reversed end for end, has been
spliced into your film, it will produce a humorous effect on
the screen, especially if it is followed by a scene of an angry
goffer's face.

Pointing the camera at angles that will exaggerate reality
can emphasize certain aspects of a subject. A close upward
angle usually makes a man look stronger and more rugged;
hence, there is a wealth of upward angle shots of athletes.
A downward angle tends to dwarf the subject; it may be used
for dramatic effect, when one character in a film story intimi-
dates another. You can tilt the camera, to give a steeper
slope to a hill.

Shooting in a mirror

When a mirror is held close to the camera's lens, at an
angle of forty five degrees to its axis, a scene will be recorded
that is actually located at the right or left of the one toward

THE CAMERA DECEIVES

215

MIRROR 5URPACE

A mirror, inclined to the lens axis at forty five
degrees, will give a view of a subject placed at
right angles to the camera. The mirror may be
so arranged that its edge bisects the lens field;
this arrangement will give both reflected and
direct views in the same picture.

which the camera points. If the field of the lens is split in
half by the mirror, as the diagram shows, the resultant picture
will contain two views, one of which shows a scene that lies
straight ahead, and the other, a scene that is situated at a right
angle to the first. The opaque backing of the mirror may be
removed from a small area in its center; the hole that is pro-
duced will provide, on the screen, a restricted view of what-
ever lies straight ahead, but this will be surrounded by the
scene that is reflected in the mirror.

Other scenes may be made with the aid of mirrors, which
will be nothing more than ordinary views of mirrored re-
flections that we see everywhere in real life. In shots of this
kind, the camera may be placed at any distance from the

216 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

mirror that may be necessary, to achieve the composition
that has been selected. However, in these shots, if the camera
is stationed at a distance from the mirror that is greater than
two or three feet, a special precaution must be taken, in
setting the focus for the reflected image. This special precau-
tion is explained in the next paragraph.

A correct focus setting for the shot of an image, that has
been reflected from a mirror, includes both the distance from
the camera to the mirror and that from the mirror to the sub-
ject. A critical focusing device or a distance meter will give
the correct focus setting for a mirrored shot automatically,
but, if you determine the focus by measurement, you must
add the distance between the mirror and the subject to the
distance between the camera and the mirror, and you must
employ the total figure.

Interesting shots may be made of images that are reflected
from round polished surfaces, such as garden balls and the hub
caps of automobiles. Sharpness of focus, here, depends entirely
upon the curvature of the surface; hence, a critical focusing
device will serve the filmer well, when he records these shots.

Miniature settings

Shots of miniature models are interesting; they can include
many lighting effects which would be impracticable for most
filmers, in full sized settings. Sometimes, shots of models
can be related to scenes of life sized subjects in editing, so that,
by their context, they will appear on the screen in full size.
The successful construction of the models will depend upon
the skill of the builder, but surprisingly realistic effects can
be achieved from moss, pebbles and clay; some very realistic
toys also may be purchased. Model railways and ships, some of
which are replicas of their prototypes, down to the last detail,
may be filmed, to produce very lifelike results.

Models are best filmed with plenty of light, so that a fairly
small lens aperture may be used, in order to produce a realis-
tic depth of field. In shooting almost any moving model,

THE CAMERA DECEIVES 217

it is advisable to use a slow motion speed of thirty two or sixty
four frames a second, which will add the slightly more ponder-
ous effect that brings verisimilitude. Closeup filming devices,
which will be discussed in Chapter XV, serve to make pictures
of small models.

Effects that are appropriate to certain dramatic situations
may be secured, by shooting through something that will dis-
tort the picture, such as crinkled cellophane, the bottom of
a milk bottle or a faceted glass button.

Animation

Special cameras and special attachments and accessories
greatly increase the scope of cine illusions. A few cameras
are equipped with single frame releases, that permit the ex-
posure of one frame at a time. These devices are helpful, in
making the scenes of animated objects or drawings, which
were mentioned in Chapter VII.

One may tap the release button or lever of an ordinary
camera so quickly and lightly that only one or two frames of
film will be exposed at a time. Thus, with any camera, it is
possible to produce animated scenes of inherently motionless
objects, although the single frame release makes the operation
simpler and more certain.

Simple objects are animated most easily. In a movie scene,
you can cause an ink bottle to appear to travel across a desk,
by exposing one frame of film, moving the bottle an inch for-
ward on its path and then exposing a second frame. This
process is continued until the bottle reaches its destination.

The greater the distance through which an object is moved
between the exposure of one frame and that of the next, the
faster it will seem to progress on the screen. However, if the
object is moved too far between exposures, it will appear to
jump from place to place, rather than to move continuously.

One can determine, in advance, how many seconds of pro-
jection time are desired for the completion of a particular
movement. This number of seconds is multiplied by sixteen,

218 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

to discover the number of frames of film that are required to
depict that movement.

For example, if we wanted our ink bottle to move across
the desk in three seconds, we should have to make three times
sixteen, or forty eight, separate exposures of single frames.
Between the exposure of one frame and that of the next, the
bottle would have to move one forty eighth of the distance
that it is to traverse. If that distance were twenty four inches,
the bottle should be moved half an inch, each time.

To produce acceptable shots of animated figures, it is neces-
sary to place the camera on a steady support and to keep it
there throughout all operations. The illumination and the
diaphragm setting must not be changed, in a series of exposures
of single frames, because a variation in these would produce a
flicker on the screen. Since daylight varies continually, scenes
of animation are best made indoors with artificial illumination.

You will find it easy to animate objects, jointed figures or
lines on maps, if you will observe these precautions, although
a lengthy animated shot requires both time and patience. Ani-
mation is an effective aid, in presenting graphs and charts in
special purpose films. It is often used, to enliven maps that
appear in travel pictures and in educational movies. A route
may be indicated clearly on a map by the progressive exten-
sion of a line of dots.

The production of animated cartoons is beyond the ability
of most movie makers. The preparation of the drawings that
are needed requires skill in draftsmanship and vast labor. A
large staff of trained workers is employed, to produce even the
shortest theatrical cartoon.

Double and multiple exposures

Double exposure is a movie trick that is produced, by re-
cording two different images on the same length of film. This
is accomplished, by shooting the first scene, by rewinding the
film to the starting point of this scene and by filming the sec-
ond scene. Some cameras, that were discussed in Chapter VII,

THE CAMERA DECEIVES

are equipped with devices that permit us to wind film back-
ward.

A double exposed shot may be filmed with a camera that
lacks these special attachments, but, to achieve the desired
results without them, a movie maker must manipulate the
camera mechanism and film by hand, and with exceeding care.

The procedure that must be used, to make double exposures,
without employing a rewinding device, is made up of these
steps: (1) the loaded camera is taken into a room or a closet,
from which all light has been excluded, and the cover is re-
moved; the upper edge of the film is notched with a pair of
scissors, at a frame that is near the aperture; the cover is re-
placed; (2) the first scene is exposed, and the exact footage
that has been used is noted; (8) the camera is taken again
to the darkroom and the cover is removed; the film is un-
threaded, and it is rewound by hand to the starting point of
the first scene; (one locates the starting point, by running the
film through his fingers, while he rewinds it, until he feels the
notch that was made earlier); the film is threaded in the
camera mechanism again and the cover is closed; (4) the sec-
ond scene is filmed, and the footage meter is watched care-
fully, to make sure that the same length of film is reexposed
that was used for the initial exposure.

By repeating this procedure, a triple exposure or a quad-
ruple exposure may be made. Obviously, the device by means
of which film can be wound backward in the camera greatly
simplifies these operations.

220 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

A popular double exposure is the scene in which an indi-
vidual is shown, talking to himself. This effect, which is called
a "split screen," is obtained by masking one half of the frame
area, while the first shot is made, and masking the other half,
while the second shot is filmed. The frame area might include
several different scenes, but these would require complicated
masks.

Some cameras are equipped with slots that will accommo-
date masks; with others, it is necessary to place a mask box

in front of the lens, as it is shown in the illustration.

»
Tricks in titles

Titles are especially well served by cine tricks. In fact, a set-
ting for titles, since it is easy to illuminate and to manipulate,
offers a fine opportunity for experience in creating illusions.
Some titling expedients, that involve tricks, were discussed in
Chapter XI, but others are given here, because of the wide-
spread interest in this kind of filming.

Titles, in which thick wooden letters or those that have been
molded from some substance are employed, may reveal inter-
esting shadow patterns. With these letters, you should use
two lamps, to illuminate the title, and you should place one
of them much nearer to the subject than the other, so that the
letters will cast long shadows. You may move one of the lights
slowly, while you film the title; doing this will cause shadows
to change form.

Title letters may be affixed to plane or curved surfaces,
which may be moved in various ways. For example, the title
cards that are used in a lead title assembly might be placed in
the card holder in a series. After enough footage of one title
has been filmed, its card drops forward, to reveal its successor.

Letters may be attached to the surface of a drum, which is
so placed that it will fill the field of the lens; after the camera
has been started, the drum is revolved slowly, to bring the
caption into view. Letters may be affixed to one side of a
square box that is suspended on a horizontal rod. The box is

THE CAMERA DECEIVES

revolved, so that the side that carries the title is brought
squarely in front of the lens.

The lead title might be placed on one side of such a box,
the credit title, on another and the introductory subtitle, on
a third side. When the camera has been started, the fourth, or
blank, side should be visible; the box should then be revolved,
to bring the first title in front of the camera, and, after a suffi-
cient length of film has been exposed, it should be revolved a
second and a third time, to record the others.

By using the method of double exposure that has been de-
scribed, a white lettered title may be superimposed upon any
movie scene. The scene is recorded first; the film is then re-
wound, and it is exposed a second time, to record the title,
which is composed of white characters that appear on a dull
black background. The title should be illuminated and exposed
in the ordinary way. The black title background will not be
recorded, if the exposure has been correctly chosen, and the
final result will be a length of film in which white letters ap-
pear over a movie scene. The area of the scene in which the
title is to appear should be dark, so that the white letters will
be legible.

Time condensation

Time condensation is a movie illusion that is somewhat like
animation, for it requires that the film be exposed, frame by
frame, with an interval between exposures. However, while
the purpose of animation is to make things appear to move,
although they are really motionless, the purpose of time con-
densation is to accelerate, in appearance, the motion of objects
whose normal movement is so slow that the eye cannot de-
tect it.

The commonest use of this movie device is found in pictur-
ing plant growth and tropisms. For example, a growing plant
is placed on a prearranged movie stage, and one frame is
exposed, at the end of each successive fifteen minute interval.
When the footage that is so recorded is projected at normal

83* THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

speed, the growth of the plant will appear to have been enor-
mously quickened, and one can watch buds forming and shoots
springing forth with an almost terrifying abruptness.

The camera must be placed on a firm support, and this must
not be moved between exposures. The lighting and the inter-
vals between exposures must be uniform. The camera may be
operated by hand, but an automatic releasing mechanism,
that one can secure for this special purpose, is much more
convenient.

CHAPTER XV
THINGS FAR AND NEAR

WHEN one sits in the balcony of a theatre, he may
have a full view of the stage, but the distance from
the balcony to the stage may be so great that he
cannot see clearly the expression on an actor's face. So he
raises a pair of opera glasses to his eyes; through these glasses,
he sees only a part of the stage, but every object in that part
will appear to be much larger than it seemed to be when his
eyes were unaided. Now he can see the actor's expression
clearly.

The "one inch" lens that is designed for most frequent use
with 16mm. cameras or the regularly employed "half inch"
lens of 8mm. cameras may be compared to the unaided eyes
of the spectator in the balcony; the results that are obtained
from the movie lenses that we call "telephoto" are roughly
analagous to those that we can get from our eyes, when they
are reinforced by opera glasses.

Telephoto lenses

Lenses that are commonly referred to as "telephoto" will
picture a smaller area of a subject than that which will be
recorded by the lens that is ordinarily employed with the cam-
era that is used, but whatever is included in the recording will
appear to be much larger, on the screen, than it would seem
to be, if the average lens were employed.

If we use a telephoto lens to film a distant subject, this
subject, on the screen, will be pictured as if it were closer to

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224 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

the audience than it would appear to be, if the ordinary lens
were used. The audience will see the moose on the screen
clearly, although, in reality, when the shot is made, the camera
is so far away from him that the audience might not perceive
the animal, at all, if the scene were filmed with the usual lens.

When we use a telephoto lens, to film a subject that is close
to the camera, the part of the subject that is shown will be
greatly enlarged. Thus, a telephoto lens may be used either to
bring distant objects apparently nearer or to make the sub-
ject appear to be larger. The lens operates in the same way in
both cases, of course, but, ordinarily, we have only one of
these purposes in mind when we employ a telephoto.

For the sake of simplicity, and following common practice,
we shall apply the word, "telephoto," to any lens that pictures
scenes in which the subject appears to have been closer to the
camera than it actually was or scenes in which it is more
greatly magnified than would have been the case, had the
ordinary lens been used. Actually, there are lenses that pro-
duce these effects by means of longer barrels and others that
produce them by means of special optical design. The latter
are true telephotos, in the exactly scientific meaning of the
term, but both are entirely effective for their purposes.

Telephoto lenses are referred to by designations in inches.
Thus, we find "two inch," "three inch" and "four inch," as
well as terms that contain still larger figures, used to distin-
guish the telephoto lenses that are employed with 16mm. cam-
eras. The telephoto that is common to 8mm. cameras is the
"one and one half inch" lens. These designations proceed from
optical principles which, although they are interesting, have
little practical value for the average filmer. The designation
of a lens by inches is commonly called its "focal length."

The greater the focal length of a lens, the smaller is the
area that it pictures, and the greater is the apparent magnifi-
cation of that area on the screen. The one inch lens, that is
used in 16mm. cameras, and the half inch lens, that is em-
ployed in 8mm. filming, record scenes that are comparable

THINGS FAR AND NEAR 225

to those which our unaided eyes will see. Therefore, they are
known as "normal lenses." The degree of apparent magnifica-
tion by a telephoto lens may be understood by comparison
with a normal lens.

A two inch lens includes a scene area that is one hah* as
wide as that which is included by a one inch lens; so it may
be said to magnify the subject twice. A three inch lens includes
one third of the width of the area that would be recorded by
a one inch lens; so it may be said to magnify the subject three
times. This progression applies to four inch and to six inch
lenses, as well as to those of intermediate focal lengths.

The same relationship is found in telephotos that are de-
signed for use with 8mm. cameras, the normal lens for which
has a focal length of one half inch. Thus, a one and one half
inch telephoto lens, used with an 8mm. camera, would picture
scenes that are similar to those that are obtained by a three
inch lens, used with a 16mm. camera.

The telephoto lenses that are most commonly employed
with 16mm. cameras are those that have focal lengths of two
inches, two and one half inches, three inches, four inches, four
and one half inches and six inches. The one inch and the one
and one half inch telephoto lenses are most frequently used
with 8mm. cameras. Lenses that have been made for use with
16mm. cameras may, in some instances, be adapted for em-
ployment with certain types of 8mm. cameras.

Most telephotos are not so fast as normal lenses; this differ-
ence in speed results from the fact that it is difficult, as well
as ^expensive, to grind lenses that have both power of mag-
nification and great speed. Generally, the longer the focus of
the telephoto, the slower it is likely to be. Yet this does not
always obtain, because, for example, a four inch lens that has
a rating of f/2.7 may be purchased. However, its cost is some-
what greater than that of a lens of the same focal length, but
with a speed of f/4.5.

Since a telephoto lens includes a smaller field than that
which is covered by the normal lens, the viewfinder that is

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

used with a normal lens will not be serviceable with a tele-
photo. Cameras are equipped with various devices which per-
mit filmers to change the area of the viewfinder, to match the
focal length of the lens that they employ.

Some cameras enable the user to observe the actual field of
view through whatever lens may be placed in the taking posi-
tion. By such an observation, the cameraman may determine
the precise scenes that will be covered by telephotos, as well as
by other lenses.

Using telephotos

The magnification of the subject on the screen carries with
it, unfortunately, a magnification of the effect of the camera's
movement. If the camera is unsteady, when a scene is filmed
with a two inch lens, any trembling of the picture on the
screen will be twice as pronounced as it would be, if a one
inch lens were used. Similarly, a three inch lens will magnify
the effect of camera movement three times.

If one's nerves are sound, he may be able to hold a camera
so steady that he can produce an acceptable result with a two
inch lens, but, to do this with a lens of greater focal length
is impossible. With any telephoto lens, the use of a tripod is
advisable; it is imperative with those whose focal lengths ex-
ceed two inches.

"Panning" and tilting the camera are ordinarily taboo, when
one uses a telephoto lens. However, if you*have a geared tripod
head or a tripod head of the "friction" type that works very
smoothly, you may be able to "pan" the camera, if this is
essential in a shot that follows action, even if you use a tele-
photo; the results of this procedure can be satisfactory, if the
operation is performed carefully. In general, the best rule to
follow in filming with telephoto lenses is, Use a tripod and
don't move the camera!

With a telephoto lens, you can secure a semi closeup from
a camera position that would enable you to get nothing closer
than a medium shot with a normal lens, or you can make a

THINGS FAR AND NEAR 227

medium shot from a location which, if you used a normal lens,
would let you record only a semi long shot or a long shot.

Suppose that you are filming an angler who has waded into
a stream and who is no longer close to the camera. You could
use your normal lens, to get a medium shot of him, as he casts,
and then shift the turret, to bring a telephoto lens into place,
so that you could obtain a semi closeup, as he nets a fish.

A telephoto lens will enable you to get natural, unposed
shots of people anywhere, for you can film them from so great
a distance that they will not know that they are the objects
of your attention. You can get lifelike scenes of the debaters
at a street corner political meeting, of a picturesque peasant
woman, offering her wares in a bazaar, or of a little boy stand-
ing, fascinated by the monkeys, at a zoo. You can turn the
telephoto on the members of your own family and you can
catch natural shots of them, when your subjects are unaware
that they are being filmed.

With the aid of a telephoto, you can bridge distance, to
bring wild animals close to your audience. You can film deer,
while you are with a hunting party, or, from a blind, you can
get close views of birds. Medium shots of moose, bears and
mountain lions have been filmed by means of telephotos.

To picture baseball and football games or track meets ade-
quately, you will need a telephoto lens, because, with it, from
your seat hi the bleachers, you can film close views of the
players and of important actions. A telephoto will bring a rac-
ing yacht close, on the screen, or it will single out a shell on
the river at a regatta. Telephotos are invaluable aids in de-
picting outdoor events of all kinds, from rodeos to Fourth of
July speeches.

When a telephoto lens is used with black and white film, to
record distant subjects out of doors, it is advisable to employ
a yellow or a red filter.

A peculiar property of a telephoto lens is best explained by
an example of its application. If, with a normal lens, one filmed
a man who was running toward the camera, he would, in a

228 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

relatively short time, reach the camera's position, and his
body would fill the field of the lens. However, if the subject
began to run at a greater distance from the camera, and if a
telephoto lens were used, more time would be required for the
runner to reach a point at which his body would fill the frame
of the viewfinder. This effect is useful, in filming sports.

While we can buy telephoto lenses that have standard
mounts which are designed to fit most cameras, it is prudent,
when we have added one of these to our equipment, to send
the new lens, and the camera with which it will be used, to the
manufacturer of the camera or to the maker of the lens. Either
will check the lens carefully, to see that it can be seated prop-
erly. A variation of a thousandth of an inch from the proper
distance between the lens's shoulder and the film's plane will
affect the sharpness of the picture. But, once the lens is prop-
erly seated, you can depend upon its performance.

Filming ultra doseups

Little things may appear to be enormous, on a movie screen,
if they have been filmed in extreme closeup. The petals of a
flower may fill the picture with color, and insects may be por-
trayed as gigantic, antediluvian monsters.

Between only microscopically visible objects, on the one
hand, and life sized movie subjects, on the other, there is a
whole world of the small that offers both novelty and beauty.
If you are jaded with ordinary movie^making, look to the
little, and you will find great variety.

Filming extreme closeups presents three problems. The first
of these is raised by the difficulty that we encounter, in getting
a picture, when the subject is so very close to the camera. It
must be remembered that most lenses are not designed for
this kind of filming.

Our second problem is the determination of the exact field
that the lens will cover. In this connection, we must take into
consideration the fact that viewfinders are so designed that
they will not indicate the boundaries of a scene, if they are

Dr. James E. Bliss, ACL

229

Mildred Greene, ACL

FRAMES FROM AMATEUR

MOVIE SCENES
MADE INDOORS

An example of a cue
sheet for a musical ac-
companiment for an
amateur movie.

Leo Caloia

Cue sheet #1,

Opening title 1

Silhouette of (entry 2

Fade tot modern troops 3

Title Today's soldier.-" 4

Artillery at gallop 5

Title "Bitter memories are

forgotten---." 6

Title "The lovely setting

of the Gettysburg hills-." 7

Trees against sunset 6

Benjamin F. Farber, jr.

"OETTYSaU.-.O isBMHISS* 1 Heel

FIRST CALL

TENTING TONIGHT ON THE OLD CAMP GHOL'ID)

UNDER THE DOU3L3 2A3LS March

ACTION FRONT Uarcii

FIELD ARTILLERY Uarcii

JOHN BROWN'S BODY

L1EBESTRAUM

ANGELUS (sare second side to use as j)ti6)

230

David E. Kirkpatrick, ACL

A. M. Zinner. ACL

Close shots of flowers from amateur films

Hamilton H. Jones. ACL Frances Christeson, ACL,

and Harry V. Merrick, ACL

Frames from amateur made movies of
sports. At the right, the camera was
'"panned," to follow the racing horses
— a legitimate use of the panorama.
Note the reaction shot which was
inserted between scenes of the race.

W. W. Champion, ACL

THINGS FAR AND NEAR 281

employed at distances that are less than those which are
marked on the focusing scales of the lenses with which they
are used. The focusing scales of most lenses are not calibrated
for the small distances that extreme closeups necessitate.

The last problem is that of securing a sharp focus on objects
that are very close to the camera. It is obvious that, if the
focusing scales of lenses are not marked for very short dis-
tances, they will not serve us, in focusing upon anything with-
in such distances.

The simplest accessory that enables us to obtain a picture
of a subject, when that subject is very close to the camera, is
the supplementary lens, or portrait attachment, that has been
referred to several times previously, in this book. This device
may be placed in front of any regularly employed lens, wheth-
er it be normal or telephoto. Its use will insure satisfactory
pictures, when these are taken in extreme closeups.

Another way to get pictures, when we attempt to film ex-
treme closeups, is to place a washer, or shim, under the shoul-
der of the lens, when it has been brought into the taking posi-
tion. This method, which is applicable only to cameras that
have the screw type of lens mount, is limited by the relatively
short distance that a lens may be unscrewed, and yet remain
firmly seated.

Still another method of getting pictures of small objects in-
volves the use of extension tubes which are placed between
the camera and the lens. Assorted extension tubes, that are
designed to be used with certain cameras, are available.

Since the effect of opening the aperture of a lens is changed,
if extension tubes are employed with it, this changed effect
must be considered, in filming with these expedients. The man-
ufacturers of extension tubes offer tables with them, which
show the actual effect upon exposure that the use of the tubes
will produce. One may purchase a small calculator which will
show the effective aperture that should be used with various
combinations of tubes.

Some telephoto lenses have been so constructed that they

232 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

may be focused at distances that are much smaller than the
shortest of those that are marked on their focusing scales.
These provide a further means of producing extreme closeups.

Our two remaining problems that must be solved, in order
to film extreme closeups — determining the lens field and secur-
ing sharp focus — involve the employment of devices that are,
in general, designed to accomplish both determination of the
field and sharpness of focus, although some of them perform
only one of these functions.

For example, some cameras are equipped with a viewer that
employs ground glass upon which the image of the subject
will be reflected. One observes this image and moves the focus-
ing ring, until a sharp focus has been obtained. Some viewers
do not show the entire scene; those that do provide this im-
portant facility are said to give "full field reflex focusing," by
means of which one may observe the image that will be re-
corded. With a viewer of this type, one may determine the
lens field and also secure sharp focus.

When only a portion of the image that will be recorded is
visible in a viewer, additional means must be provided, to de-
termine the lens field. Some cameras permit us to see the full
field of the scene that the viewer includes, so that we may
focus sharply, but an alignment device must be employed
additionally, if it is essential that this field shall be the same as
that which the lens will record.

A device that enables us to determine the field and to se-
cure sharp focus may be purchased for use with magazine
loading cameras. Another accessory, that is available for use
with some cameras that have the screw type of lens mount,
will show the exact field of the lens that is used, but it will
not serve for focusing; a variant of this device will accomplish
both purposes.

Using small titters in filming closeups

One commonly used movie accessory, which is at the dis-
posal of both 16mm. and 8mm. filmers, will solve all three of

THINGS FAR AND NEAR 333

the problems of ultra closeup recording, but its use is limited
by a fixed distance from the lens to the subject and by an
inflexible degree of magnification. This device is the small
titler that was discussed in Chapter XI.

A typical small titler is made up of a supplementary lens, an
easel and a support which maintains the camera, the supple-
mentary lens and the easel in proper, and invariable, relation
to each other. The guide frame of the easel determines the field
for extreme closeups. We can place a flower or any small
object in the area that is bounded by this frame, and we can
then film an ultra closeup of it, with complete certainty that
whatever is within the frame will be recorded satisfactorily
and in sharp focus. The small titler will not serve us, if we
want to magnify greatly a small object, such as an ant or a
minute crystal, because the area that is recorded will always be
that of the actual easel frame, no more and no less.

Altogether, there is a wide variety of equipment that is
designed to help us to film extreme closeups. In planning to use
any of the devices that may be secured, we must always re-
member the three problems of this kind of filming, to be sure
that adequate equipment is at hand, to solve all of them.

When the subject is very close to the camera, the depth of
field of the lens is limited. The image may lose sharp focus, if
the subject is moved only a few inches nearer to the camera
or farther from it. In extremely close shots of minute objects,
a variation of the fraction of an inch will cause a loss of sharp-
ness.

The smaller the diaphragm opening, the greater is the depth
of field of a lens; therefore, liberal illumination is of real ad-
vantage, in recording extreme closeups. Indoors, it is easy to
concentrate enough light on the little subject; out of doors, it
may be possible to use a mirror or a small reflector, to throw
light upon it.

The small depth of field that is available, in filming ultra
closeups, may be an advantage, when we work with some sub-
jects. When a flower, for example, is in sharp focus, its back-

*S4 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

ground may be a soft blur, which will cause the flower to stand
out more strongly. A black velvet background may be used
behind flowers that are filmed in ultra closeup.

These shots are superlatively beautiful, if they are filmed in
color. Pick a fresh blossom that is covered with morning dew;
if there is no dew, an atomizer, filled with water, will supply
the deficiency. Attach the stem of the flower to a support that
rests below the lens field; this support will hold the flower
steady and in place, after you have arranged it in the field.
Hang a piece of black velvet just behind the blossom, and
then film the ultra closeup in full color. The result of this
effort will bring sincere praise from your audience.

Even more beautiful shots may be made, if the flower is
back lighted, because it will then appear to glow with its own
inner light.

With a small titler, you can film sea anemones and other
forms of marine life that are to be found in the shallow pools
that are left in *ocky formations on a beach, when the tide
has gone out. Place the easel of the titler under the water, to
frame the subject, but take care that the camera is not damp-
ened. After the scene is made, the titler should be dried im-
mediately; after a period of underwater filming of this type,
it is necessary to coat the titler with some heavy oil, so that
it will not rust.

The possibilities of filming minute objects do not end with
the opportunities that are offered by extreme closeups. Even
smaller subjects may be filmed with a microscope and with
special equipment. Complete facilities are offered for this kind
of movie making.

If you are fond of experiment, you may care to make an
assembly that will enable you to record movies through a
microscope. The Amateur Cinema League will send informa-
tion to its members concerning this interesting field of ad-
venture.

CHAPTER XVI
BETTER METHODS OF EXPRESSION

A THOUGH we have learned how to make acceptable
movies, we should become further acquainted with
methods and devices that will give us opportunities
for more adequate expression in our filming.

We have seen the need for transitions — expedients by which
we move from one sequence to another — and it is obvious that
a variety of these will add suavity to our pictures. Not every
transition is accomplished by an intermediate shot; there are
methods of securing these scene shifts that are the peculiar
property of the motion picture. The swiftest variation in the
action of a film is achieved through the cut, which simply ends
one scene and permits the next to follow it without hesita-
tion. The wipeoff is less abrupt than the cut, but it is more
brusque than the dissolve. The fade is a more definitive pause
than the dissolve, while the title gives us the most positive of
all transitions, because it stops the action completely. All
these devices have been described, and the last has been dis-
cussed in detail in earlier chapters. Some of the other transi-
tions merit fuller examination.

Fades

The fade was described in Chapter VII. A none too smooth
production of this serviceable effect can be secured with the
simplest camera and with no accessory. Closing the diaphragm
opening to its smallest circumference or opening it to the ex-
tent which the ultimate exposure requires will achieve a fade

[235]

236 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

out or a fade in. In ending the first and in commencing the
second, a hand must be placed over the lens, to bring com-
plete blackness to the screen. Obviously, unless this is done
very smoothly, the result will be too abrupt. This method of
securing fades is really effective only, if the scene from which
or toward which the fade proceeds is one that calls for a
fairly large diaphragm opening, so that there can be enough
variation of the diaphragm, to emphasize the change in screen
illumination.

A passable fade may be produced, by passing a card gradu-
ally across the lens and directly in front of it. This must be
done very smoothly, if the result is to be satisfactory.

A "fading glass" operates more successfully. This is a rec-
tangular strip of glass, about eight inches long, which is trans-
parent at one end and opaque at the other, with gradual vari-
ations from light to shade between the two extremities. The
glass is moved across the lens, to achieve the fade. It must
never be taken away from its position, in front of the lens, until
the camera stops. If a fade out is desired, the scene in which
it will be employed should be commenced with the transparent
portion of the fading glass in front of the lens; similarly, for
a fade in, the camera should be started with the opaque por-
tion of the glass in position. A temporary fading glass can be
improvised, by smoking a clear glass over a candle flame. Fad-
ing devices are sometimes made in the shape of discs that
have graduated variations in their light transmitting capacity.
A fourth method of making fades involves the use of polariz-
ing screens that are set in a frame which is equipped with a
control lever.

Some cameras are provided with fading devices which are
integral parts of the mechanism. These are generally called
"dissolving shutters," although they are more exactly "fading
shutters." They have movable blades which will open or close
while the camera is running. The rate of this action is con-
trolled by a lever which is located on the camera's exterior.

Fades may be effected in finished film, after it has been re-

BETTER METHODS OF EXPRESSION 237

turned by a processing laboratory. A dye may be applied to it,
which will stain it much or little, depending upon the time
of application. By this method, the strip of film upon which
you wish to produce the fade is weighted at one end and is
dipped into a long, narrow tube which contains the dye, where
it is allowed to remain for an instant. It is then drawn from
the tube with a gradual and steady motion. The weighted
end, which should remain longest in the dye, will be most fully
stained, and the density of the dye on the rest of the film
will vary gradually from end to end.

Fades may be produced in the course of processing, if the
picture has been recorded on a negative and if prints will be
made for projection. The negative image can be darkened or
lightened, to produce the fade, by the application of special
chemicals. Also the printing machine may be manipulated, to
produce a fade on the print itself. Many laboratories are dis-
inclined to perform these operations, because of the special
attention that they require.

A fade out produces an effective pause in the flow of the
film story. It is most frequently used, to end a sequence or to
conclude an entire film. The combination of the fading out of
one scene and the fading in of another is a transitional device
that indicates a lapse of time or space, or of both.

In a sequence of Christmas Eve, we can fade out on a scene
of little Tommy, already asleep in his bed; if we then fade in
on a shot of him, as he wakes in daylight, we shall have
spanned the time between Christmas Eve and Christmas
morning. If we fade out as Tommy says goodbye, when he
leaves to go to a summer camp, and then fade in on a shot of
his arrival there, we can bridge a gap in both time and space.
We can indicate a long lapse in time, and any desired change
in location, by a slow fade out that shows Tommy, now of
high school age, walking hand in hand with a girl, which would
be followed by a slow fade in on a scene of his marriage.

The fade out brings a feeling of finality, peacefulness and
quiet, by its marked deceleration. But this feeling will vary

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

with the speed of the fade. If the gap in time or in space is
comparatively slight (Christmas Eve to Christmas Day) , it
may be shown by a fairly rapid fade out and fade in. The fad-
ing would extend from eight to fifteen frames of film, and an
image of full intensity would give way, gradually, to a com-
pletely darkened screen. If the transition is to be more pro-
nounced (Tom leaves home and reaches camp) or if finality
is to be indicated, slow fades would be used, which would
cover ten to twenty frames. For still more special effects —
such as the classic Chaplin ending, that shows the sad, but
unsubdued, little tramp walking off into the distance — an ex-
tremely slow fade might be used, which could extend over
forty to eighty frames.

Fades are also used in title footage. Main title assemblies
may fade in at moderate speed and their credit titles or fore-
words may fade out. Subtitles may be faded in and faded out;
if this treatment is used, the fades should be fairly rapid. Ac-
cording to professional standards, a fast fade of title footage
will extend from thirty to forty frames; a slow fade will cover
forty to sixty frames.

An inventive movie maker will find ways of devising ac-
tion, to give the effect of fades. A character may walk toward
the camera, until he obscures the lens field; a door may swing
across the view; a car may be driven over the camera, which
rests on the pavement; a blanket, a card or a newspaper may
move toward the lens, the field of which it finally cuts off.

Dissolves

Dissolves were explained in Chapter VII. A method of wind-
ing film backward, without the use of a special device, was
described in Chapter XIV, in a consideration of double ex-
posure. Dissolves are actually two overlapping fades, one of
which is a fade out and the other, a fade in, but both are made
at the same speed and on the same length of film. To achieve
them, we must produce fades and must employ the additional
expedient of winding film backward.

BETTER METHODS OF EXPRESSION *39

While a dissolve effects a transition, it does so without the
deceleration that is caused by fades. Indeed, a dissolve seems
actually to speed the pace of a film, because it achieves the
transition more smoothly. Fades bring one series of actions to
a definite end and mark the beginning of another. The dis-
solve, on the other hand, suggests that we are leaving one inci-
dent and are going on to a second, which has a direct relation
to the first.

The dissolve has two principal functions; (1) to bridge,
without deceleration, a gap in time or in space, or in both of
these; (2) to suggest a direct temporal connection between
two sequences. As an example of the first function, one could
employ r- dissolve between brief scenes that would show
Mother feeding the baby, washing dishes and cleaning the
house, if it were desired to indicate swiftly that hers was a
busy morning. Again, if a not too great feeling of interruption
were wanted, one might use a dissolve — instead of fades — be-
tween the scene of Tom waving goodbye, as he leaves home,
and that of the youngster greeting his companions, on his ar-
rival at camp. Because of the deceleration of the fades, the
change in locale and in activity acquires importance and final-
ity— one era ends; another begins. Because of the smoothness
of the dissolve, the change has less importance, and the un-
broken continuity of Tom's existence is suggested.

The second function of the dissolve is the connection of
parallel action, that interesting device of the movie that we
have met earlier. We may dissolve from scenes of Mother
washing dishes to several that show the children playing in
the yard, and finally to a shot of the mischievous dog in the
living room. Here, says this treatment, are three different ac-
tions, in three different localities, and yet all take place at the
same time.

Less closely knit would be such examples as a dissolve from
a shot of a swindler guzzling champagne to a view of his vic-
tims emptying their last bottle of milk; from the scene of a
"gangster" dying by a "G-Man's" bullet to the shot of a news-

340 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

boy crying his death; from a view of the elector marking his
ballot to one of the elected taking his oath of office. In each
instance, the relationship of one action to another is so imme-
diate and direct that the interruption of a fade would be in-
appropriate.

The effect of the dissolve is determined by the speed with
which it is executed. In the dramatic treatment of the "gang-
ster's" death, one should employ a relatively fast transition,
extending from ten to fifteen frames. In the brief scenes of
Mother's busy morning, the tempo would be less nervous, and
the dissolves should include from fifteen to thirty frames. To
show the sordid tragedy of the swindler and his starving vic-
tims, the dissolve should be slowed still further, to run from
thirty to fifty frames. A dissolve from a main title to a credit
title should be relatively slow.

To attain great suavity, dissolves may be made between
objects of similar physical form or aspect. Thus, the swindler's
champagne bottle becomes the empty milk bottle of his dupes
and Tom's gesture of farewell merges into his wave of greet-
ing. Even the scene of the slain "gangster" might be treated in
this way, and the "G-Man" could draw a white shroud over
the dead criminal, which would dissolve into the white surface
of the newspaper.

The effect of dissolves can be secured without special equip-
ment. A closeup of a round, white door knob can be followed
by another that shows a billiard ball. One actor may walk to-
ward the camera, until he obscures the view; another can walk
away from the lens, in another locale. A shot of a steamer's
wake can give way to one that shows a similar pattern of toss-
ing water behind a speed boat. There is also what is known—
horribly enough — as the "swish pan," in which the camera
swings suddenly away from one object, across a path of com-
pletely blurred images, to come to rest upon a second. One
may tilt the camera skyward at the end of one scene and
bring it down to earth again at the beginning of another.

BETTER METHODS OF EXPRESSION 241

Wipeoffs

A wipeoff, which was discussed in Chapter VII, where the
special device that is used to effect it was mentioned, may be
simulated by other methods. We may affix a long, triangular
piece of waterproofed tape to the length of film on which we
wish to produce the wipeoff, in the manner that is shown in
the diagram.

Black dye is used, to obliterate the scene, in this
type of wipeoff.

The partially covered length of film should then be dipped
in black dye; after the dye has dried, the tape should be re-
moved. In the length of film that has been treated in this way,
a larger portion of each succeeding frame will be opaque, and
the last frame will be completely blackened. When this scene
is projected, it will appear to slide off the screen.

A similar effect may be obtained, by applying a black cellu-
lose tape to the film, although the permanent adhesive quali-
ties of this medium are problematical.

In these wipeoffs, the scenes will, on the screen, appear to
slide out of view, but they will not be replaced by others that

A section of transparent tape is used, to bind
together two diagonally cut film strips.

242 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

appear to slide into the picture. If this additional result is de-
sired, one may treat two film lengths, in the way that is shown
in the diagram. These are placed side by side and they are
backed by transparent cellulose tape. The tape may not serve
indefinitely, as its strength may diminish in use. This double
wipeoff can be made permanent, if the footage that is held to-
gether by the tape is duplicated. Also, if the effect has been
secured with negative film, the resultant prints will record
the wipeoffs.

The wipeoff provides a rapid transition between brief scenes
of similar suggestion and import. Suppose that we want to
imply that the United States is a vast country, to which fast
transportation is vital. We can do this by scenes, separated by
wipeoffs, that show giant buses, speeding trains and droning
airplanes. Wipeoffs are advantageously employed in a series
of short scenes; they should always be used sparingly and with
discretion.

Trucking shots

A "trucking shot" is made, by moving the camera toward
the subject, or away from it, while a scene is filmed. The chief
requirement for producing this effect is some means of keep-
ing the camera steady, while it moves forward or backward.

Small vehicles, equipped with rubber tired wheels, may be
used, to support the camera and to provide smooth movement.
A tea wagon, a baby carriage or a child's cart can serve, but
the surface over which these are drawn must be smooth.

Small supports, which are equipped with wheels or casters
and which will receive the legs of tripods, are available. The
camera is placed upon the tripod, and this is mounted on the
mobile frame. A smooth floor is essential, in using these de-
vices.

A camera dolly may be built by using rubber tired wheels
that have ball bearings. These mobile camera supports give
the best results, if they are drawn over a smooth wooden
track, which has been laid especially for the purpose.

BETTER METHODS OF EXPRESSION £48

Although they are not widely used in amateur films, truck-
ing shots may serve them well. Their most direct application
is found in following a moving subject. The bank robbers have
escaped in their car, but the police are hot on the trail, in an-
other, and they fire at the bandits, as the two machines rush
over the highway. The camera, in a third automobile, gets
alternate shots of the pursuers and the pursued. This sequence
will present the running battle very realistically.

The trucking shot lets us move from the general to the par-
ticular. The heroine has been told to beware of a man who
wears a black pearl. As she comes into a crowded room, her
glance roves over the guests; she stops suddenly, while the
camera trucks relentlessly to a closeup of her fiance's brother,
whose cravat reveals a black pearl. Not only does the advanc-
ing movement of the camera parallel the action of the hero-
ine's eyes, but the unbroken flow of the film creates a mood of
inevitable menace, far more potently than would a straight
cut.

A contrasting employment of the trucking shot occurs in
transitions from the particular to the general. In dim lighting,
we see a hand wiping blood from a knife. Slowly, the camera
recedes, to show, first, who holds the knife, second, the limp
figure of a murdered man and, third, the half hidden face of a
woman in a corner, who is an unseen witness to the crime. By
the uninterrupted course of these successive revelations, the
dramatic impact of the murder's discovery is heightened.

Montage

"Montage" is a French word that, in movie making, has
come to mean a special form of editing. In its use, a number
of very short and individually different scenes are spliced to-
gether, to represent one general idea. These scenes are very
brief, since it is only their surface symbolism that is impor-
tant, and not their detailed content. A girl who lives in a small
town wins a "beauty contest," and soon she is known every-
where. The notoriety that she achieves could be suggested by

244

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

a montage which would show a series of shots of (1) her de-
parture from home; (2) the advancing wheels of a train; (3)
the blinding flash bulbs of news photographers; (4) a cocktail
party; (5) a swarm of autograph hunters; (6) trembling
hands that sign a movie contract.

These various methods of better expression must be used
with care and discretion. Each has its own purpose and its
own place in movies. But imprecise employment and too fre-
quent repetition will cause even the simplest of them to ob-
scure the clarity of the film.

Composition

As we progress in movie making, our scenes will be better
composed and, hence, more beautiful. We shall come, event-
ually, to an almost automatic selection of camera positions
that will give us pleasing compositions.

Objects should be included in the foreground of our scenes
and we should frame views with branches of trees and with
arches. If we film at the beach, we should not forget the pat*
terns of ripples that the wind has formed in the sands. We
might film a group of fishing boats through the strands of a
wide meshed net or we might picture a building through a
pattern of elm leaves. Both man and nature have provided at-
tractive details, some of which may serve for the foreground
of our films, while others may fill the scene entirely.

A triangular arrangement of masses generally gives an inter-
esting composition, as we can see in the accompanying picture.

By selecting the proper viewpoint, you can ob-
tain a pleasant triangular arrangement of masses.

BETTER METHODS OF EXPRESSION

One can, with relative ease, obtain this triangular arrange-
ment from the stationary masses in the background of a scene,
but one cannot always control moving persons or things. But,
if this can possibly be contrived, it is an excellent plan to select
a camera viewpoint that will produce a diagonal line of motion
on the screen, because this direction of action is more pleasing
than one that goes straight across the field of the lens.

For example, if you film a railway train, you can point the
camera, so that the train will move diagonally or in a curve
across the lens field. When you are dealing with subjects whom
you can control, you should so direct your actors that they
will not walk across the scene, at right angles to the camera.

Point your camera so that moving objects will
pass diagonally through the lens field.

If your subjects are pictured sitting down, you can achieve
a triangular composition, either by an arrangement of the per-
sons who are in the scene or by placing them in relation to
objects that are hi the view. An actual shifting of properties
and individuals can usually be obviated by a different camera
position.

Sublety in composition may be achieved by planes in the
view, that have different degrees of illumination. A scene that
has a light foreground, a dark middle ground and a light back-
ground will be livelier than one that is equally illuminated in
all its planes. It will also have an illusion of greater depth.

Planes of contrasting colors, in Kodachrome movies, will

246 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

give interesting effects in composition. Objects in the fore-
ground will add to the beauty of a scene, if they are in defi-
nite contrast to the dominant tone of the middle area.

Not every one of these better methods of expression will be
used in every better film, but we should always remember that
they are special devices which are available for use in turning
what might, otherwise, be a "bald and unconvincing narra-
tive" into a picture that has greater interest and charm than
it would possess, if they were not employed.

CHAFrER XVII
MOVIES IN COLOR

THE use of color film by amateur movie makers has
now become so general that it is safe to say black and
white emulsions are now used only by necessity — eco-
nomic or otherwise.

Fortunately, it is easier to make effective movies with color
film than with black and white, even though everyone knows
that exposures must be accurate to within one half stop. The
eye-filling beauty of full color completes the picture and re-
leases the camera operator from the need to seek accented
lighting effects as he must do when shooting in monochrome.
Although brilliant highlights and velvety shadows may be
put to work in color filming also, still it is safe for a movie
maker to employ general flat lighting without risking monot-
ony. This is because the constant change in color
patterns diverts the attention of an audience to such an
extent that the unimaginative lighting schemes will go un-
noticed.

It is, indeed, easy to create effective movie scenes in color,
but there may be times when unsatisfactory results are ob-
tained. These generally are due to the more obvious causes
of failure — underexposure or overexposure — which can soon
be corrected. Of prime importance is a basic understanding
of the color material you have to work with and its charac-
teristics under all photographic conditions. Let us examine
these materials.

[247]

248 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Types of movie film available

The amateur movie maker has available to him two brands
of color film which he may purchase for use in his camera:

A. Kodachrome, manufactured by the Eastman Kodak
Company, Rochester 4, N. Y.

B. Ansco Color, manufactured by Ansco, Binghamton, N. Y.
In these brands, the following film sizes are made:

A. Kodachrome, in both 8mm. and 16mm. widths.

B. Ansco Color, in both 8mm. and 16mm. widths.

In the widths indicated, there are two types of color film
offered by each manufacturer:

A. Outdoor film, known as Daylight Type in both of the
brands.

B. Indoor film, known as Type A Kodachrome, or as
Tungsten Type Ansco Color.

There are these two types of film (outdoor and indoor)
because of differences in the color qualities of outdoor and
indoor (artificial) light. These differences are expressed
technically in degrees of color temperature (° Kelvin), a
matter into which there is little value for the amateur to
inquire deeply. We shall refer to color temperature ratings
only in so far as they will serve to clarify other needed data.

The indoor films are readily converted to outdoor (day-
light) use by means of a suitable filter, and the modified
speed of the film will then be the same as that of regular
daylight type film. The daylight type film may be used with
artificial light if a suitable filter is used, but the film speed
is then reduced so much that it is unwise to use daylight
film with artificial light unless absolutely necessary. For cer-
tain effects, such as lap dissolve from an outdoor to an in-
door scene, such use of daylight film is unavoidable. But it
is only in extreme cases that it is feasible to employ it, be-
cause of the slow speed.

Inter changeability of the two brands
The physical characteristics of Kodachrome and Ansco

MOVIES IN COLOR 249

Color— such as width, perforations, thickness of film, etc.
— are sufficiently alike so that the two films may be spliced
together and projected interchangeably. Aesthetically, how-
ever, some differences may be noticed which will make this
practice inadvisable. It is wholly a matter of personal taste
and decision.

Characteristics of Kodachrome film

Daylight Type. This film is balanced for exposure in sun-
light, plus skylight. It produces its best color rendering in
bright or hazy sunlight during the period between two hours
after sunrise and two hours before sunset. At other times,
sunlight is not recommended for making pictures of people,
although the warm, orange east in the sun's rays may be
very desirable in, for example, a landscape or a seascape.

For bluish daylight conditions, and scenes taken in shade
under a clear blue sky, or on an overcast day, and also to
reduce bluishness in distant scenes, a Kodak Skylight
Filter is recommended with no increase in exposure. Color
rendering becomes warmer with the Kodak CC14 Filter
(1A to % stop exposure increase) , or still warmer with Kodak
CC15 Filter (% to % stop exposure increase) .

EXPOSURE INDEX

Daylight Tungsten

ASA-10 ASA-4*

W-8 W-3*

GE-12 GE-5*

* With Kodachrome filter for Photoflood.

Type A for artificial light. This film is balanced for ex-
posure with Photoflood lamps (3400° K) by means of which
the best color rendering will be obtained. 3200° K lights (pro-
fessional type) may be used if a Kodak CC4 Filter is in
place on the lens.

Type A film can be used with daylight most satisfactorily
if a Kodachrome Type A filter for daylight is in place on the

250 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

lens. Since this filter excludes ultraviolet, no haze filter is
necessary. However, because with some subjects and espe-
cially under overcast conditions this combination does not
produce as good color rendering as does Daylight Koda-
chrome, it is not recommended for general use. Also, the
Kodachrome Type A filter is only moderately stable and
may fade if in sunlight too long.

EXPOSURE INDEX

Tungsten Daylight

ASA-16 ASA-10*

W-12 W-8*

GE-20 GE-12*

* With Kodachrome Type A filter for daylight.
Characteristics of Ansco Color film

Daylight type. This film has approximately the same color
balance as does Kodachrome Daylight Type. Thus, the data
given for Kodachrome will apply to Ansco Color, daylight
type. It is pointed out to users of Ansco Color daylight type
that the film is balanced for mean noon sunlight (5400° K) ,
but the film range is 5000 to 6000° K.

For those light conditions which, with Kodachrome, call
for a sky filter, the Ansco Color UV-16 filter is recommended.
Use of the filter will help to maintain the same excellent
color rendition present in pictures made in bright sunlight.
The Ansco Color UV-17 and UV-18 filters give still warmer
tones.

EXPOSURE INDEX

Daylight Tungsten

ASA-10 ASA-3*

W-8 W-2.5*

GE-12 GE-4*

* With No. 10 conversion filter and 3200° K lamps, not Photofloods.
Tungsten type. This film is balanced for use with any

MOVIES IN COLOR

artificial illuminants which closely correspond to a color tem-
perature of 3200° K. A recommended lamp for good results
is the PS-25 500 watt lamp which is approximately equal
in candlepower to a No. 2 flood lamp. Slight changes in the
color temperature of the lamp used to illuminate a scene will
affect the color rendition, and so with flood lamps such as
the Photoflood and the Superflood (3400° K), a UV-15 filter
should be in place on the lens.

EXPOSURE INDEX

Tungsten Daylight

ASA-12 ASA-10*
W-10 W-8*

GE-16 GE-12*

* With Ansco Color conversion filter No. 11.

Exposing color film

There is but one accurate exposure for color film at which
a scene and the colors therein will be reproduced correctly.
But film manufacturers agree that there is a certain latitude
in the film which permits an error up to one half stop varia-
tion from the normal exposure without sacrifice in quality.
This means that a filmer will adopt some means of gauging
or estimating the correct exposure or his results are likely
to be disappointing.

Overexposure causes the colors and the picture details to
appear diluted and washed out, whereas underexposure will
make the scene look as if it had been photographed through
smoked glasses. On the other hand, if the sky chart (the
instructions which come with the film) is followed, or if
an exposure meter is used correctly in arriving at the ex-
posure, then the scene will be reproduced so as to accent
and enhance all of the colors and details within the angle
of view of the lens.

Most cameramen agree that, when filming in direct sun-
light, use of the directions which come with the film is the

252 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

most dependable way of estimating exposure. However, this
involves a certain amount of thinking, for the light and
subject matter conditions must be estimated and these con-
ditions interpreted into an exposure by reference to the data
chart. For this reason, an exposure meter is often bought
with the camera. All of those available today are dependable
if used correctly. But they, too, require study and close ad-
herence to instructions, as will be discussed in detail later.

Using the instructions which come with color film

Daylight type color film is balanced for sunlight plus sky-
light. Scenes illuminated by sunlight are in addition partly
lighted by reflections from other objects, such as grass, trees,
rocks, walls and the like. But there is also present, if the
blue sky or clouded sky is visible from subject viewpoint,
a considerable amount of skylight. These added sources of
illumination bolster the shadow side of objects in the scene,
thus tending to decrease contrast in the lighting. Otherwise
a scene would be made up of harsh highlights and inky
shadows, and color photography would suffer greatly thereby.

In following the instructions which come with the film
(daylight type) outdoors in the daytime, the scene must
be appraised from two separate standpoints. First of all,
weather conditions are considered. There are five categories:
(1) clear, direct sunlight; (2) hazy sun (when soft shadows
are cast) ; (3) open shade (with clear blue sky) ; (4) cloudy
bright (no shadows cast) , and (5) cloudy dull (threatening) .

With the exception of No. 3 (open shade with clear blue
sky), these five categories are easily understood and need
no explanation. By "open shade with clear blue sky" there
are meant the conditions encountered in an area shaded by
the side of a house. Persons pictured in closeup under these
conditions will not squint their eyes, and the movie shots
take on a candid, off-guard appearance.

However, to use the diaphragm stops indicated in the in-
structions, there must be visible from subject viewpoint an

MOVIES IN COLOR 253

expanse of clear blue sky from the zenith almost down to
the horizon in all visible directions as one stands with his back
to the house. If there is any doubt about this, it will be better
to take a reading with an exposure meter, rather than to go
by the instruction sheet. Also, when filming under these
conditions, a haze filter is needed to prevent a bluish look
in the finished movies.

Pictures made in direct sunlight require no haze filter;
but on overcast days (No. 4 — cloudy bright) one is recom-
mended, especially if such footage is to be included with shots
made in direct sunshine. It is generally agreed that color
movies made on an overcast day with the proper filter in
place on the lens are very pleasing to the eye. Lighting con-
trasts are soft and, to the eye, colors take on a pastel shade.
In the finished movie, however, the colors are vivid and the
picture sharp. And, for an obscure reason, this combination
also imparts a stereoscopic quality or illusion of depth to the
projected image.

Movies filmed in direct sunlight are most effective when
lighted by mid-morning or mid-afternoon sunlight. When the
sun is directly overhead it casts heavy, unattractive shadows,
especially in closeups of persons in which eye sockets and
areas under the nose and chin will suffer. On the other hand,
color pictures made during the recommended period make
possible general front lighting. This is desirable not only
because it is an effective type of lighting, but also because
it reduces exposure problems to a minimum. With the sun-
light reaching the scene from the general direction of the
camera, shadows will be almost invisible from the camera
viewpoint. To achieve this lighting, a cameraman faces his
subjects toward the sun, then takes the picture with the
sun behind and slightly to one side of the camera.

Taking Bright Sunlight as a standard, the recommended
changes in exposure for the different weather categories are
as follows;

254 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Bright sunlight. See exposure recommendations in the table
which follows.

Hazy sunlight. Requires one stop more exposure than
bright sunlight.

Cloudy bright. Requires two full stops more than bright
sunlight.

Open shade. Requires about three full stops more than
bright sunlight.

Cloudy dull. Requires three full stops more than bright
sunlight.

Other variations from the norm are:

Side lighted subjects in bright sunlight require one half
stop more than front lighted subjects.

Back lighted subjects in bright sunlight. If a rim-lighted
or halo effect is desired, give one full stop more than for
front sunlighting. If details in the shaded area must stand
out, give two full stops more under the same conditions.

Types of picture subjects

The second category into which scenes fall concerns itself
with the objects in a particular scene. Generally speaking,
all subject matter may be classed as either light-colored, dark-
colored or, if it is in-between, as average. The color or tone
of the principal objects in a scene (those which must be
reproduced faithfully on the screen) will influence the ex-
posure greatly. Average subjects will require a particular
diaphragm stop, whereas if the subjects are light-colored, one
half stop less exposure will be correct. Conversely, if the
subjects are dark-colored, one half stop more exposure should
be given.

For this reason a filmer will familiarize himself with the
color or tone of standard scenes so that he can readily
classify them when he is using the instructions packed with
the film.

For example:

Average subjects. Light and dark objects combined in

MOVIES IN COLOR S55

equal proportions, all being given the benefit of the same
general illumination. Also, objects whose tone or color is
roughly in between light and dark.

Light-colored subjects. Beach and snow scenes, light-
colored flowers, people in white clothing, light-colored build-
ings, closeups of fair-skinned persons and all other subjects
light in tone.

Dark-colored subjects. Dark foliage, deep-colored flowers,
dark animals, dark-colored buildings and similar subjects.

It is by combining these two categories — light conditions
and types of subject matter — that the following exposure table
is worked out for Daylight type color film.

RECOMMENDED EXPOSURES

Direct sunlight Average subjects. . f/8

Light subjects between f/8 and f/11

Dark subjects between f/5.6 and f/8

Hazy sun Average subjects, .f/5.6

Light subjects between f/5.6 and f/8

Dark subjects between f/4 and f/5.6

Open shade, Average subjects . . f /2.8

clear sky Light subjects between f /2.8 and f/4

Dark subjects between f/1.9 and f/2.8

Cloudy bright Average subjects . . f/4

Light subjects between f/4 and f/5.6

Dark subjects between f/2.8 and f/4

Cloudy dull Average subjects . . f/2.8

Light subjects between f/2.8 and f/4

Dark subjects between f/1.9 and f/2.8

The above exposures, which should be followed for both
close and distant views, are for front lighting. They will also

256 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

be affected in each case by the compensation for side or back
lighting already mentioned. When in doubt as to whether
a subject is light or dark, the average exposure should be
given. The guide is intended for use in both temperate and
tropical zones.

Using a reflected light type exposure meter

A reflected light type exposure meter is one which measures
the light reflected from the subject. To do this, a reading
is made by pointing the meter directly at the subject.

Complete instructions for using the meter are supplied
with each instrument, of course. In practice, however, it
would seem as if some new users meet with indifferent success
when using the meter for the first time. This is probably due
to the fact that the instructions are not truly followed. But
whatever the cause, many meter owners adopt a simple
formula which serves them — such as taking a reading of the
palm or back of the hand, reading the subject's face, etc.
Another system is to take a reading of the lightest and the
darkest objects in a scene and then to use a stop halfway
between those indicated by the two readings.

If any one of these systems returns you consistently good
exposures, there is no reason why you should not follow it.
However, for those cameramen who desire to understand
the true functioning of a reflected light meter, there are a
number of further considerations which are of great interest.

Reflected light exposure meters are calibrated in such a
way as to give correct exposure readings for medium-toned
(average) subjects. It is recommended, for that reason, that
a "gray card reading" be made at the subject position. A
gray card is a piece of gray cardboard, usually about 8 by 10
inches in size, which reflects approximately 18 percent of the
light which illuminates it. The meter is held close to it so
that rays of light from no other object affect it, and the
reading thus made will indicate the correct exposure for
average subjects.

MOVIES IN COLOR 257

If the subject is light-colored, the lens diaphragm is then
closed down one half stop. If the subject is dark-colored,
the diaphragm is opened up one half stop.

Now, let us suppose that the meter is pointed at a light-
colored object— instead of at a gray card. The meter has no
brain, and so all it can do is indicate the strength of the light
being reflected by the light-colored object. This light is cer-
tainly more than 18 percent of that which is iluminating the
object. If we expose the film as indicated by the meter under
such circumstances, the light-colored object will be repro-
duced as a medium-colored object, because that is the way
in which the meter is calibrated. The same error, in reverse,
occurs when a reading is made of a dark-colored object.

To use the meter properly, a filmer must keep the fore-
going facts in mind. There are three things to remember:

1. When the meter is pointed at a medium-colored subject,
the exposure which is indicated may be used.

2. If the meter is pointed at a light-colored subject, more
exposure than the meter indicates should be given.

3. If the meter is pointed at a dark-colored subject, less
exposure than the meter indicates should be given.

Thus, the question which is to be decided by the filmer
is how much more, or how much less exposure must be given
when a reading is taken of other than a medium-toned
object. This depends upon the tone of the object. A fair-
skinned person or a blonde will require one-half to one full
stop more than the meter indicates, if a reading is taken using
the light reflected from skin or hair. When a reading is made
of whitish objects, exposure should be increased by two full
stops. When a reading is made of an extremely dark subject,
two full stops less than the meter indicates should be given.
These are extremes, and the filmer will find it necessary to
appraise the in-between subjects by accumulating experience.

Using an incident-light type exposure meter
The incident-light type exposure meter, such as the Nor-

258 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

wood, was developed in order to utilize the light illuminating
a scene to calculate the exposure. For many years, it has been
agreed by experts that this was the method least likely to
lead to error. But it was only recently that this type of meter
was made available to the amateur movie maker.

In use, the incident-light meter is pointed toward the
camera from subject position. It will then indicate an ex-
posure which is correct for medium-toned subjects. If the
subject is light colored, the diaphragm should be closed down
one half stop. For dark colored subjects, the diaphragm is
opened up one half stop.

In this connection, it is interesting to note that the exposure
table given earlier functions as does an incident light meter,
since it depends on the light falling on the subject. It also
should be noted that, in effect, the incident light meter pro-
vides the user with what would be a gray card reading with
the reflected light meter. It is, however, done easily and
without the need to carry the card about or to hold it up as
the reading is made.

It should be kept in mind when using an incident light
meter that the meter is calibrated so as to reproduce flesh
tones accurately. Therefore, use of the stop indicated by the
meter is advisable whenever persons appear in the scene, re-
gardless of the compensation for light-colored or dark-colored
objects otherwise suggested.

When taking a reading of distant scenes outdoors, such as
landscapes or mountains, it is recommended that slightly
less exposure be given to the film than is indicated by the
incident light meter. To arrive at the proper exposure, it is
suggested that a reading be taken with the meter pointed
toward the camera, and a second reading made with the meter
pointed at the sky. Both readings should be noted and an ex-
posure half way between the two is given to the film.

When it comes to calculating the proper exposure for
back lighted scenes, the cameraman must be the monitor of
his meter, regardless of which type is used. Both instruments

MOVIES IN COLOR

provide a reading automatically which is correct for fully
lighted subjects. In other words, meters do not know when a
subject is back lighted. You do, and so you must make some
adjustments.

Let us suppose that you are taking a picture of a girl in
bright sunshine and that you wish to take advantage of the
pleasing effects of back lighting for this particular scene. To
the eye, the slanting sunshine outlines the head and shoul-
ders of the girl strikingly, but her face and other detail are
in shadow.

With the reflected light type meter you would take a read-
ing of the shadow side of the subject, taking care that rays
from the sun or from other objects are excluded. With the
incident light meter, you would simply point the photosphere
of the instrument at the camera, from subject viewpoint, al-
lowing the sun's rays to fall upon the photosphere from the
rear.

Under such circumstances, both meters would give you
about the same reading. But if you were to expose the film
as indicated by the meters, the shadow side of the subject
would be reproduced as brightly as if it were in direct sun-
shine, or approximately so. In any case, the effect of back
lighting would be washed out.

A suggestion would be to give one full stop less than indi-
cated by meters under such circumstances, so that the shad-
ow would then reproduce as a shadow. Later, you could
study the picture on the screen and decide to give more or
less correction depending upon your personal taste in the
matter.

Lighting contrast and subject contrast

Color film will reproduce contrasting subjects satisfactorily
within certain limits. Extremely light-colored and very dark-
colored objects in the same scene will be reproduced fairly
well if the contrast range does not exceed 1:16. This means
that the brightest object must not be more than sixteen

260 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

times brighter than the darkest object. With the lens dia-
phragm set for medium toned objects (in this case, objects
whose color is midway between the extremes included in the
scene) then the entire range of contrasts (from 1 to 16) will
be reproduced pleasingly on the screen.

If this ratio is exceeded in, for example, a scene outdoors
where contrasts of 1:30 are often encountered, then the prin-
cipal objects in the scene are favored and an exposure given
which will reproduce those objects satisfactorily.

Contrasty lighting will aggravate subject contrast because
objects in shaded areas naturally reflect less light than do
objects which are fully illuminated. Therefore, it will be seen
that, with color film, light should be projected into shaded
areas; if that is impossible, a camera viewpoint should then
be chosen which will make the details in the shadow area un-
important. In other words, simply do not photograph scenes
with color film if there are important objects in both the high-
lighted and shaded areas. Such a scene would be a group of
people, some of whom are in sunshine, others in shadow. Un-
der these conditions, the results are certain to be disappoint-
ing.

Sometimes control over the lighting arrangement can be
exercised — such as using a reflector to lighten the shadow side
of a sunlit subject in making a closeup, or when working in-
doors with several movie lights. At such times, the main light
is supplemented by a so-called fill-in light on the other side
of the subject. It is generally conceded that the light reaching
the subject from the fill-in light should be at least one quarter
as bright as the highlighted side, or create a ratio of 1:4.

Where harsh subject contrasts are encountered in a scene,
exposure latitude is reduced to the minimum — and but one
diaphragm stop will give a satisfactory exposure. If this ex-
posure is increased or decreased, then the light colored objects
will be washed out or the dark colored objects will be repro-
duced too dark, as the case may be.

On the other hand, if a narrow range of contrasts is en-

MOVIES IN COLOR *61

countered — such as in yachting scenes on a gray day, when
subject contrasts may not exceed 1:4— the scene will be re-
produced quite satisfactorily even if a variant of two full
stops either way from the correct stop is used. For this rea-
son it can be said that the latitude of color film depends
somewhat upon subject contrast.

Exposure of color film indoors

When a movie maker gets into his stride, many scenes will
be photographed indoors, using Type A or perhaps Tungsten
type color film in the camera. His first and basic problem will
be one of simple illumination — or just getting enough light on
the subject to achieve adequate exposure. And, although
color emulsions are relatively slow in speed, this is not too
difficult a problem to solve with modern lighting units.

Perhaps the most popular of these are the series of bulbs
known as Photofloods, with the light of which Type A Koda-
chrome is specifically balanced and under which Tungsten
Type Ansco Color may easily be exposed with the use of the
UV-15 filter, already mentioned.

Photoflood bulbs for home use are made in two strengths
or sizes (No. 1 and No. 2) and in two types in these sizes —
inside frosted bulbs, which are to be used in efficient metal
reflectors, and the RFL-2 and RSP-2 types (flood and spot) ,
which are about equal in strength to the No. 2 but have re-
flecting surfaces built into them. There are also a 375 watt
medium beam lamp (60° spot effect), and the B-l and B-2
bulbs of blue glass, for use in combination with daylight and
the Daylight Type color films.

Of this assortment, the No. 2 units are most often used for
overall off-scene illumination, with the No, 1 bulbs used on-
scene to dress up the setting in ways which will be discussed
later. Here again, in the use of No. 2 flood bulbs for overall
illumination, the simplest arrangement is the front-lighted
one — which copies the same lighting out of doors. Exposures
on such a lighting arrangement, because of its simplicity, may

262 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

often be estimated by the lamp-to-subject system. A table
of such suggested exposures, using two No. 2 Photofloods in
hard-surfaced metal reflectors, follows. With the use of two
RFL-2 bulbs instead, these exposures should be increased
by approximately % a stop.

RECOMMENDED EXPOSURES

Light to
subject
in feet

Dark

Average

Light

colored

subjects

f /5 — 5.G

f/5.6 — 6.3

f /6.3 — S

f /4 — 5.G

f/5.6

f/5.6 — 8

f/4

f/4 — 5.6

f/5.6

f/3.5

f/4 +

f/5.6 —

f/3.8 — 3.5

f/4

f/4_5.6

f/2.8 +

f/3.5

f/4 +

f/2.7

f/2.8 — 3.5

f/8.5 — 4

f/2_2.7

f/2.7

f/2.8 — 3.5

11%

f/2.7 —

f /2.8 +

f/1.9 —

f/1.9 — 2.7

f/2.7

f/1.4 — 1.6

f/1.6 — 1.9

9
10
15

Depending, obviously, on an even spacing of one's lighting
units in relation to the subject, this method of lighting and
of exposure estimation is likely soon to become monotonous.
The cameraman will find that he has splashed all his available
wattage on the principal subject without regard for natural-
ness in his effects. A beginning filmer may take more than a
few shots like this without realizing that this kind of lighting
leaves something to be desired.

When he takes critical stock of his films he will see that it
is mostly a question of stepping up the pleasingly subdued
lighting effects found in the home under normal conditions. A
way must be found to reproduce the same highlights and
shadows, using lights ten times as strong as the ordinary home
lights. Estimating exposure for such lighting is best done with
the meter, following the instructions which come with it and
the special cautions already discussed.

MOVIES IN COLOR 263

This natural effect is achieved by careful placing of lights.
If any floor lamps or table lamps are within the field of view,
the ordinary bulbs are first replaced by No. 1 Photoflood (or
tungsten) bulbs — proper precautions being taken to see that
the bulbs do not come in contact with the lampshades. The
positions of the on-scene room lamps are then noted, and
movie lamps are located outside the scene so that their light
might conceivably be the light coming from the table or floor
lamps.

When a person is in the scene, he should be lighted about
the same as he would under normal room conditions. A strong
key light may be located fairly high and to one side, at an
angle of about 45 degrees to the subject; it should be aug-
mented by a weaker fill-in light shining from the other side
of the camera, very near camera viewpoint and at about the
eye level of the actor. Some back lighting of the head and
shoulders, on the side away from the key light, will produce
so-called modeling, while walls and other objects in the back-
ground may be lighted independently to a degree which is
consistent with your equipment and the mood of the scene.

RSP-2 photospot lamps are excellent for lighting the back-
ground, since they can project a strong beam of light and
still be positioned well outside the picture margins. RFL-2
flood lamps or No. 2 Photofloods in metal reflectors are com-
monly used for the key and fill lighting. Regardless of where
it is used, each light should be pointed and shifted about to
determine the exact spot in which it will be most effective.

The lighting setup just described might be termed a basic
lighting arrangement. In using it as a basic lighting formula,
and in working out from it to other effects, there are a num-
ber of interesting points to keep in mind.

1. Having the key light too high illuminates the hair of a
subject unduly and causes a distinct shadow to be cast under
the nose and chin. Light should not be so high that the shadow
from the nose extends into the line of the lips.

%. Using a fill-in light on the other side (the shadow side)

£64 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

softens the shadows cast by the key light. It also highlights
the eyes, which is very necessary in closeups. The ratio be-
tween the fill and the key light should never be more than
1 : 4 for color. In fact, it is considered that 1 : 3 gives sufficiently
modeled effects, and 1 : 2 constitutes standard practice in most
studios.

3. Working with just one key light is thought to be best
because it makes for simplicity in the lighting scheme. If two
or more lights are shining on a person's face from the key
light direction, they will cast multiple shadows — one of the
worst of the lighting sins.

4. Placing the fill-in light at about the eye level of the
subject will create desirable catchlights in the eyes and it
also tends to minimize cross-shadows from the subject's nose.
If the fill-in light is much to the side, the cross-shadows will
be noticeable, especially with a ratio of 1:2.

5. Whenever it is possible to do so, move main objects and
persons away from background walls. If this is not done, there
will be a shadow cast on the wall for each one of the front
lights. With lights kept high and main subjects away from
the walls, any shadows which are cast will not be seen. Floor
lamps and table lamps, above all, should not cast shadows —
especially multiple shadows on back walls — as this shows that
they are not really the source of illumination which they are
supposed to be.

6. Back lighting will be ineffective if it is seen from camera
viewpoint against a highlighted background. For this reason,
background walls should be held to a lower key in the areas
in back of a subject's back lighted head and shoulders. This
will provide the separation or modeling which is probably the
most artistic tool a cameraman has at his command when
arranging lights for interior filming. Much time and care
should be devoted to "painting in" the accented back light-
ing, for it will always give foreground objects in a scene
roundness and reality.

MOVIES IN COLOR 265

7. Avoid "arty" or bizarre lighting, even though you may
feel the need to do something different with your lights. The
first thing an inexperienced cameraman wants to do is to
throw light up from floor level, thus casting grotesque shad-
ows on the faces of his actors. Or he might go in for contrasts
in side lighting, just to be different. These are intentional sins.
But an unintentional and equally horrendous sin is committed
when key lights are clamped to chair backs one on either side
of the camera The result, which is harsh and "hot" in the ex-
treme, has been aptly tagged "Third-Degree" lighting.

A good rule might be to avoid positioning your lights too
immediately in any "handy" place. Instead, try to forget the
lights for the time being, while you think of the lighting. If
you decide in advance where your highlights, shadows, top
light and modeling light should be on the subject, then all
you have to do is to place the lights in such a way that the
predetermined effects will be created.

CHAPTER XVHI
SOUND ON FILMS

WE HAVE already encountered, earlier in this book,
very serviceable methods, by means of which an al-
most unlimited variety of sounds may accompany
our movies. But sound may be provided for 16mm. pictures
by recording it on the film that will be projected. The record-
ing may be done after you have filmed the movie scenes; this
procedure is known as "post recording." Sound may also be
recorded simultaneously with the motion picture image.
Whichever method we use, the result on the film itself will be
the same.

So that it will not encroach upon the normal picture area,
the "sound track" is located along the edge of the film that is
used for sound recording. One row of the usual perforations
is omitted, to provide space for it, but this omission will cause
no difficulty in the film's passage through the camera or the
projector.

This sound track may have jagged edges or it may vary
only in density. The first of these appearances is known as a
"variable area"; the second is called a "variable density." In
both cases, the effect is produced by the action of a beam of
light upon the sensitive film. This beam is affected by original
sound impulses which are transformed into light impulses.

Post recording is, at present, more widely used in substand-
ard filming than is the simultaneous recording of pictures and
sound. It serves every purpose of the latter method, except
that of achieving exact synchronization between sounds and

[266]

SOUND ON FILMS 267

the actions that produce them. In post recording, music, nar-
rative and other sounds are recorded, by competent techni-
cians, on a separate film. This film and that upon which the
picture was recorded are then used, by a laboratory, to pro-
duce the third, and final, film, which is actually employed in
projection. Both black and white and color movies may be
treated in this manner, with results that are of high quality
and relatively small cost.

Filming for post recording

If you wish to add sound to your movies by post recording,
you should take the pictures, on your regular film, at a cam-
era speed of twenty four frames a second, because they must
be projected at this rate, to achieve an adequate reproduction
of sound. Except for this increased speed, your filming will be
performed just as you would carry it on normally. Care is
essential in exposure, especially with color footage, because
your original film will be duplicated, to secure the final print.
Overexposed shots and underexposed scenes should be elimi-
nated entirely, as these will give poor results in duplication.

As you edit the picture that has been recorded at the faster
camera speed, you should bear in mind the length of time in
which the scene will appear on the screen, because it will re-
quire more footage than would be needed, if the filming were
done at the rate of sixteen frames a second. Therefore, you
should add fifty percent to the length of your scenes. If narra-
tion is to be used in your movie, scenes in which it is employed
should be longer than those that will be accompanied only by
music or by other sounds, because the audience will be receiv-
ing information both from the picture and from a voice.

Footage that has been filmed at sixteen frames a second ran
be used in post recording, if the action is such that the in-
creased projection speed will not make it seem to be unpleas-
antly fast on the screen.

Before the technicians proceed to the actual post recording,
a rehearsal of any music and sound effects with a double turn-

268 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

table is essential. Music of great contrast in volume of sound
should be avoided, because a steady level of volume is prefer-
able to one that is variable. If narration is used, music or in-
cidental sounds must be subdued at those times in which the
narrator speaks, while other sounds are heard. In this re-
hearsal, it is essential that the projection of the picture take
place at twenty four frames a second. A stop watch should be
used, to give exact information of the time for changes in the
sound, according to the plan by which these should occur in
the final projection.

From this rehearsal a "cue sheet" should result. This is a
list of all sounds that will be post recorded and a statement of
the exact times at which they will be employed. The record-
ing technician will make use of it, as his guide; so it must be
very accurate. The studio that performs your post recording
will advise you of the form in which the cue sheet should be
prepared, to meet particular requirements.

The narrative

The addition of music and other sounds to films has been
discussed earlier in these pages, in a consideration of double
turntables. But the problem of a narrative involves new fac-
tors. First of all, the narrative must be carefully planned, so
that it will accomplish precisely what is desired, in technically
perfect fashion.

To prepare a well timed narrative, we should first edit the
film. However, we should not yet shorten scenes that may be
too long. After the film has been edited, we should prepare
a numbered list of the scenes that it contains. In this list, shots
need not be described in greater detail than is essential for
ready identification. The footage of each scene should be mea-
sured and its length should be entered beside the description.
A convenient form for this scene list is provided by setting
down, on one half of each page, the description and the foot-
age of the scenes and by leaving the other half blank, so that,
when the narrative has been completed, we shall have place
for it.

SOUND ON FILMS 269

In the next step, we determine the time, in seconds, that is
required for the projection of each scene. A film that is to be
projected at twenty four frames a second requires 1.67 sec-
onds of screen time for each foot. So, a scene that is one foot
long will last for approximately 1.7 seconds on the screen,
while a scene that runs ten feet will consume 16.7 seconds in
projection.

With the list of scenes and the notations of the time that is
required for each, as a guide, one can write the narrative.
After a rough draft has been completed, rehearse it with the
aid of a stop watch. You will probably find that it is necessary
to eliminate phrases, and even complete thoughts, for we tend
to write too much for narration. Remember, also, that you
will want to shorten some of the scenes, unless you insist upon
leaving them as they are, in order to afford time for a longer
commentary.

The next step in the procedure is the rehearsal of the narra-
tion, while the film is projected. You should time the delivery
to the flow of the film and you should make sure that you have
provided pauses that will permit the speaker to pronounce
his words in synchronism with the pictures that they should
accompany. The final step is the completion of the editing and
the modification of the narrative, to agree with the amended
time scale.

The narration should be rehearsed with a screening of the
film, in the laboratory where the sound will be recorded. It
may be found that minor adjustments in either film or narra-
tive will be advisable, in order that the best possible effect
may be secured.

In preparing a narrative that will accompany a movie,
whether it is to be delivered in person, as a lecture, or whether
it will be recorded permanently on a sound track, one should
follow the all important rule of title writing, Don't tip off!

Do not tell the audience what it will see next and do not
describe what it is seeing now. The commentary should am-
plify, and not duplicate, the content of the picture. It affords

270 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

an opportunity to make the movie more interesting, but, if
you tell the audience what it can see on the screen, you will
only induce boredom.

It is very important to provide pauses in the narration. You
should not compel the speaker to race through your words, in
order to keep up with the film. He must, at least, have time
to catch his breath.

Not infrequently, you may want to have some word or
phrase spoken in precise synchronism with the appearance of
a scene; if you do not provide a pause in the flow of narration,
just before the scene appears, it will be very difficult for any
speaker to time his delivery.

Then, too, sound films of the lecture type are generally
accompanied by music, and there should be some opportunity
for the audience to hear it. While the commentator speaks,
the music should be subdued, but, when he pauses for a few
moments, its volume may be increased. Such a variation pro-
vides a pleasing contrast and prevents the voice from becom-
ing monotonous.

When you rehearse the film in conjunction with narration,
music and sound effects, if they are used, be sure that none of
these interferes with another and satisfy yourself that the
pauses in narration are sufficiently lengthy, and numerous
enough to create a pleasing effect.

Subtitles may be included advantageously in a sound film,
for they are very effective, in calling attention to a new type
of subject matter within the film and in emphasizing some im-
portant point. They also will provide pauses that give excel-
lent opportunities to introduce new musical themes. Not in-
frequently, a one reel sound movie, that is made for teaching
or training purposes, will include three or four subtitles.

The Amateur Cinema League will suggest themes for nar-
ratives of sound on film pictures and will review narratives
that have been written.

After the narrative has been planned, we must decide whose
voice is to deliver it. There may be an advantage in recording

SOUND ON FILMS

a familiar voice, although this is not great in post recording,
since its owner will not be seen in the act of speaking. If you
are persuaded that your own voice will best give the narration,
you should obtain disinterested opinion. Generally, persons
who are trained in this work will do it better.

After these preliminary procedures have been carried out,
you can, if you wish, send the cue sheet and the picture to a
recording studio, and await the finished product. The more
exactly you have indicated your desires, the more competently
can the recording technician give you what you want.

The choice of music for use with movies has already been
discussed in earlier references in this book, that dealt with
double turntables. One thing must be remembered, however, in
this connection. Your film will probably be shown publicly;
so, you must investigate musical copyrights, whether you use
performed or recorded music. The advice of the recording
studio should be secured, before your choice is made final.

If it should appear to be essential that the narrator be
shown in the act of speaking, footage that will record him can
be made and added to the film, by the studio that carries out
the post recording process. This procedure is known as "di-
rect" or "spot" recording.

Simultaneous recording

Cameras and recorders that will place pictures and sound —
of all kinds — simultaneously on 16mm. film, are available.
They range from relatively simple instruments to those that
are both complex and expensive. With these cameras and re-
corders, personal and special purpose filmers may achieve re-
sults on substandard film that are of very high quality. The
technical problems of this kind of movie making are not baf-
fling, by any means; however, they are of interest chiefly to
persons who want to make sound films, and, because of the
limitation of the size of this book, they are not discussed here.
Members of the Amateur Cinema League may obtain informa-
tion concerning them from League headquarters.

THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

A discussion of editing sound film is also omitted. It in-
volves procedures that are exact and that must be performed
carefully. The League will give information about them to its
members.

Projection

Sound projectors will reproduce both sound and pictures.
Although they have special features, they are not difficult to
operate. Care must be taken, in threading film in a sound pro-
jector, because its travel will be somewhat more devious than
it would be in silent machines and because the speed of this
travel will be increased. The projector must be kept scrupu-
lously clean, as the presence of foreign bodies will affect the
quality of the sound very perceptibly. As is the case with every
piece of movie making equipment, the instructions of the
manufacturer should be followed.

Sound projectors possess amplifiers and loud speakers,
which require about the same amount of care as does the aver-
age radio. After extensive use, the tubes in an amplifier should
be tested, to insure proper results.

When you show sound on film pictures, you should test the
acoustic properties of the room where the showing will take
place, and you should do this well in advance of the presen-
tation. Unpleasant results may be reduced, if not eliminated,
by a different placement of the loud speaker or by hanging
draperies over windows and other parts of the room.

Just as you can secure additional films, to amplify your own,
in silent movie programs, so can you buy or rent a large
variety of sound on film pictures from movie libraries. Sub-
jects may also be obtained from various sources without
charge, except for postage. Their addition to your presenta-
tion will bring increased pleasure to your audience.

CHAPTER XIX
SPECIAL PURPOSE FILMS

A HIS abilities grow with experience, a movie maker
will generally want to turn them to more special pur-
poses. His hobby will begin to serve practical, as well
as recreative, ends.

Business films

The subject matter that is most often selected for this newer
expression is that which is nearest at hand — one's daily occu-
pation. There are few trades, industries or professions that are
not well adapted to good movies. In its simplest form, a film
of your business need be little more than a factual record that
will be of interest and value to the men who work in your
field. It could begin, for example, with the arrival of raw ma-
terials at a factory, and it could follow them through the
processes of manufacture, until they emerge as finished prod-
ucts. Sometimes, the effectiveness of such a continuity may
be heightened, by opening the movie with a view of the fin-
ished products, in daily use, and by returning, then, to the
beginning of the story, which will show "how they got that
way." In any case, an interesting record will result, if the
movie maker follows, in this project, as in others, the sound
methods of good motion picture treatment that have already
been discussed.

When you film inside an office or a factory, you will en-
counter the problem of lighting areas that are much larger
than those with which you have to deal in a house. One solu-

[273]

274 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

tion of this problem is reached by confining your filming to
close shots; this is a limitation that may be an actual advan-
tage, because the story of most of the processes of business or
of manufacturing is told better in close shots than in medium
shots.

To film larger views of areas that are found inside factories,
one should use No. 4 flood bulbs, installed in reflecting units.
It may be necessary to secure special electric cables, to supply
the current that is required for these lamps of larger wattage.

A plain background will improve closeups of the details of
manufacture; it will also simplify lighting. If the arrangement
of the scene does not provide one, you can easily supply the
deficiency, by placing a piece of light gray wallboard behind
the subject.

With business films, we can serve not only those who are
employed in our occupation; these movies may also be of real
aid in the conduct of business itself. Without going beyond
the immediate circle of a firm's employees, the motion picture
can help an enterprise in many ways. Films have been made
that show the results of tests of wearing power, of tensile
strengths or of reactions to heat and cold; these records are
preserved for repeated study.

Simple and complex movements of workmen and the travel
of products through a factory, on assembly lines and from one
department to another, have been analyzed, by means of
movies that are filmed in normal and in slow motion. Human
effort, time and money have been saved, as a result of their
revelations.

Employees, whether they work in a factory or in the distant
outposts of a large concern, have been trained by films, in
everything from safety to salesmanship. The substandard
movie, in the hands of an imaginative and far seeing business
man, brings the mountain to Mohammed — and with telling
effect.

Outside the confines of your office or factory, the business
film has still other functions, which are, possibly, more potent

SPECIAL PURPOSE FILMS 275

and, certainly, more widely appealing than those that it
performs within your organization. These functions may
range from an effort that is chiefly designed to give informa-
tion, on through persuasion, to an eventual outright bid for
sales. In films of this kind, the business man, be he merchant,
manufacturer or professional, is talking directly to those mem-
bers of the public whom he hopes to make customers. For-
merly, thes3 pictures, because of their considerable cost, were
used only by a few relatively large companies. Today, since
substandard cameras and film are available to everybody, the
butcher or the baker may turn his skill in filming to account
and profit. Short pictures, that take no more than five min-
utes in showing, are presented in store windows in continuous
projectors. Longer and more comprehensive efforts may be
exhibited before commercial groups and in local schools, clubs,
and even churches.

Business may address its message to audiences that are to be
found outside its own community. From New York City, a
manufacturer of elevators distributes an entire series of pic-
tures of vertical transportation, which were produced directly
on 16mm. film by members of his staff. From Florida, a grower
of citrus fruits tells the rest of the world about the superlative
qualities of his oranges and lemons — and the camera that re-
corded this picture also filmed his children. From Chicago, a
large air transport company calls attention to the ease and
comfort of travel over its many lines, by means of a film that
was made entirely by one of its pilots, who used his own, and
not the company's time, for this purpose.

Some business films do not sell products or services openly.
Indeed, many concerns, particularly banks, have found that
they may best bring themselves to the public's attention by
indirection. One large urban bank, that is located in the south-
ern part of the United States, has secured an attractive film
that pictures the city in which it maintains its headquarters;
this picture, in which the bank appears only as the agent of
presentation, is distributed, as a free loan, by the Conservation

276 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Commission of the State which the bank serves. A smaller
bank, which is located in an agricultural county of a South-
western State, has prepared a series of pictures that discuss
the problems of farming. These are presented by members of
the bank's staff at meetings of farmers.

Public utilities, that depend so largely upon the good will
of the residents of their areas, have recognized the movie as
an able servant. In northern New York, a large electric com-
pany found that its rural clientele was critical of new, and
higher rates. A dramatic presentation, in film, which shows
the expense and the human suffering that are involved in
maintaining uninterrupted service in wintry weather, turned
the tide of opinion. Railroads, everywhere, use films, to show
the advantages of the regions that they serve.

Persuasive films

Movies, with their possibilities of subtle persuasion and of
dramatic appeal, are very effective instruments for social
workers and for civil servants. The American Red Cross, the
Boy Scouts of America, the Travelers Aid Society and other
national and local bodies use films that are produced, in many
instances, by competent amateurs. Hospitals have found new
funds and have solved old problems, with the camera's aid.
Cities commend themselves, in movies, to tourists, business
men and home seekers. Departments of city governments
boast of the honesty of local weights and measures, the excel-
lence of swimming pools or the purity of milk, by means of
films that are often made by a departmental Tom, Dick or
Harry.

The increasingly popular summer camps use movies, to
attract new patrons and to urge the visitors of other years to
return. Parents, whose children are eager to live in one of
these places for a part of the summer, are more likely to send
the youngsters to a camp, if they can be convinced, in film,
that sanitation and supervision are given expert attention.

SPECIAL PURPOSE FILMS 277

Religion* films

The church uses the motion picture regularly. Sometimes,
the clerical staff and the congregation are recorded, as a part
of the history of a parish. If a new building is erected, the old
home of the church may be shown, in use, in a motion picture,
before the edifice is given up. Groups of Sunday school stu-
dents have dramatized the great stories of the Bible, both in
their traditional aspects and in striking transmutations to
modern circumstances. Important conclaves are recorded by
a church's national headquarters. Rituals have been filmed
for the instruction of the clergy and the laity.

Movies serve the church particularly well in the mission
field. They have, at last, provided a medium by means of
which those lonely workers in far places — the missionaries —
may send home a living record of their problems and their
progress, their trials and their triumphs.

Teaching films

The use of movies by teachers is not a new activity. Early
in the life of theatrical motion pictures, educators made re-
peated efforts, to secure films that would amplify other forms
of instruction. Those that were made available to teachers, by
theatrical companies, were, at best, selections of footage that
had been shot originally for other reasons. With the develop-
ment of substandard filming, movies were produced specifically
for employment in schools. The latest application of narrow
width filming to the needs of education has come with the
individual production of pictures by teachers.

A superior teacher will prefer his own course outlines to
those that are handed to him; similarly, he will want to use
movies that contain what he believes to be essential. So, many
teachers have made their own films. These cover a wide range,
from the problems of simple fractions to the details of com-
plex scientific subjects, from history to histrionics, from mak-
ing cakes to binding books. Many of these movies have been
made in classrooms, or with the aid of students, and some of

278 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

them have been produced as group projects, by an entire
class. It has been found that students are more likely to under-
stand anything, if they have had to discover how to make
somebody else understand it.

Colleges have gone still further in the matter of producing
films that will meet exact needs, and we find, in some institu-
tions, regular departments or well unified groups, whose func-
tion is the preparation of movies for faculty members who
use them.

Medical, surgical and scientific films

Surgeons, dentists, physicians, medical schools and hospitals
are active users of substandard films. Case records, operative
techniques, elaborate prosthetics and many other procedures
are filmed.

Scientists record their observations and experiments on film,
and a motion picture camera is an important adjunct to a well
equipped laboratory, because its records can amplify, and even
supplant, those that were formerly made only by means of the
written word.

Highly elaborate filming mechanisms are sometimes em-
ployed for medical and scientific pictures; in almost every in-
stance, a high degree of precision in the operation of the cam-
era is absolutely requisite. Special lighting must be employed;
the extreme closeups, that are so necessary an accompaniment
to this kind of movie making, call for the careful determina-
tion of focus and for the exact location of minute objects in
the lens field. If anybody undertakes this work, he will be well
advised to consult the Amateur Cinema League, in advance
of actual shooting, to make sure that he will avoid costly errors
and that he will not spoil records that cannot be made again.

Film plans

In special purpose filming, the plan is all important. We
must always remember that we are addressing a public that
may not be of our own choosing and that we shall not in-

279

John V. Hansen, ACL

CAREFUL COMPOSITIONS FROM
AN AMATEUR COLOR MOVIE

280

At the right, frames from
a photoplay made by an
amateur movie club. Be-
low, frames from scenes
of two practical film sub-
jects, a boys' camp and
medical technique.

SPECIAL PURPOSE FILMS £81

variably be able to add something to our footage, by means
of comments in projection. What is recorded must be crystal
clear to many persons of different capacities for understanding.

Medical and scientific procedures will sometimes enforce
their own continuity, but other special purpose films will, gen-
erally, accomplish their end or fail to reach it, depending upon
the way in which they tell their stories. In business films and
in persuasive movies, we are trying to win confidence and to
create good will; so we cannot be inept or incoherent. Our pres-
entation may be direct or it may be subtle, but it must never
be dull or indecisive. Clarity is the absolute essential, and clar-
ity calls for hard thinking, before ever a foot of film is exposed.

What is the purpose of our film? To get an answer to this
apparently simple question is, perhaps, the hardest task of all,
in planning special purpose pictures. The reason for the diffi-
culty lies in the fact that human beings are generally impelled
by several purposes; consequently, they conclude that they
can, in film, serve several purposes. We might as well recog-
nize, at the very outset, that this cannot be done with movies.
We must choose one primary goal and we must bend all our
efforts toward its achievement.

We cannot answer the important question, that we have
just stated, until we have answered another that is implied
by it. To what type of audience is our picture directed? Sup-
pose that we want to make a film that will sell washing ma-
chines. We say to ourselves that this is a simple matter. But
we cannot stop here, because our second question comes im-
mediately into play. Will it sell them at wholesale? If this is
the case, we may want to discuss ready supply, distribution
of territory, discounts and other matters that wholesale mer-
chants will need to know. Will the film sell washing machines
to retailers? They will be interested in methods of displaying
machines, of demonstrating them and of urging them upon
ultimate consumers. Will our movie sell our product to house-
wives? They will be interested in performance, in design and
in ease and economy of operation, but they will have no inter-

282 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

est in the things that wholesale and retail merchants must be
told.

This example proves to us that a film cannot serve multiple
purposes. It must do one thing and it must do that one thing
well.

Now that we know our specific aim, we find still another
question. How will the finished film be presented? We may
decide to make a silent movie, that will be complete in itself,
so that it may be projected anywhere and by anybody. We
may want to record sound on the footage, in addition to pic-
tures. If our film is to be presented only by our own agents,
will it be silent or will it have sound? Will our representative
speak before the showing or after it? Will he accompany it by
some discussion? He may, perhaps, use a double turntable.
We cannot begin to shoot, until we have reached a clear de-
cision.

These three questions are germane to all special purpose
films, although some of them may have less importance, when
we plan enterprises of a highly specialized kind, such as scien-
tific and medical films or certain kinds of teaching pictures.

Now, the preliminary decisions having been made, we are
ready to attack the plan itself. It will, of course, follow the
general principles that have been outlined earlier in this book,
but it should be made in greater detail than would be called
for by many personal filming efforts. Since special purpose
films may be compared to public addresses or to written dis-
cussions that are intended for publication, their outlines
should be as clear and as logical as those of formal speeches
or manuscripts.

Each part of the film plan should be tested, as we develop
it, for any weakness in clarity or logic. When it has been com-
pleted, it should be checked carefully, not only to bring these
faults to light, but, even more, to make absolutely certain
that the movie, as we have planned it, will do what we want
it to do, as nearly as we can be sure of this, in advance. It
should begin at a definite beginning, carry on through entirely

SPECIAL PURPOSE FILMS 283

understandable sections and, finally, reach a definite and cli-
mactic end. If it does not seem that the completed plan will
insure these things, it should be recast, to make sure that they
will be accomplished.

Human significance

The plan of a film that is designed to sell a product should
not fail to take into account the human significance of that
product. By this term, we mean such questions as these: What
value has the product for the average person? What are the
pressures or needs that will cause anybody to buy it?

To return to our washing machine, let us see what human
significance it may have. Obviously, it makes the back break-
ing labor of the old fashioned "wash day" unnecessary. It
cleanses garments better, in less time and for less money. Here
are the real reasons why a woman will like it; we know at once
that these reasons must be presented persuasively and clearly
in any film that endeavors to sell washing machines.

What is the human significance of a savings bank? It pro-
vides protection, in case of illness, security in old age and
ready funds, when we want to buy an automobile or to enjoy
a cruise to the Bahamas. If you will dramatize any one of
these facts, you will have the basis for your film plan.

A weakness of business films is found in a too detailed ex-
position of manufacturing processes. The public is almost
never as interested in these, as is the manufacturer himself.
Unless they contribute directly and quite evidently to the
value of the product in its human service, they are best left
out of any movie presentation. Housewives will not ask how
the gears of a washing machine are ground; they may want to
know why those gears make the machine more effective. But
they will appreciate a seamless wash tub, that is spun from
aluminum, because they know that it will not leak. They will
understand the value to them of a well placed wringer that has
adequate protective features. If you make movies of your own
products, guard against the inclusion of footage that deals

284 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

with things of which you are proud, but which are difficult to
express in human terms.

We know that a film cannot be successful, if it tries to
present too many ideas. Experience has shown that it will fail,
also, if it has too many producers. Whoever would make a
business film or a persuasive picture must insist upon a clean
cut understanding as to whose word is law. It may be his own
word; it may be that of his superior, but it cannot be the
divergent opinions of several eager, but relatively uninformed,
persons who are members of the organization's staff.

The most reasonable solution of this problem is found when
a business executive outlines the ideas that he would like to
have presented in film, and when the movie maker decides
which of these are capable of being filmed and how the filming
must be accomplished.

Just as special purpose films may be spoiled by too many
ideas and by too many producers, so they may be made dull
and ponderous by too many titles. A cameraman who titles
his personal films with good judgment is sometimes over-
whelmed by the novelty of attempting to show special proc-
esses, with the result that he relies so greatly upon titles, to
explain what the film presents, that he offers more captions
than actions. These verbal intrusions will grow long, even to
the use of the indefensible scroll title, and the film will become
a kind of illustrated sign board. Even if we make our movies
for the purpose of presenting details of a special kind, we must
never forget that they are, first of all, movies and that they
must be made according to the rules by which good movies are
filmed.

Photoplays

A photoplay may be produced purely for entertainment, or
it may be planned to serve other purposes, as well. Many
persuasive, business and teaching films are actually photo-
plays, which require carefully prepared plots, well chosen
actors and expert direction.

SPECIAL PURPOSE FILMS 285

A simple, homemade photoplay, that may be produced with
members of your family as the cast and with the cameraman
as the director, is real fun, both in its making and in its show-
ing. It is likely to please your friends to a greater extent than
will any other type of family picture.

Making an amateur photoplay with maximum pleasure and
minimum difficulty is greatly furthered by choosing a plot
which can be filmed by means of settings, locations and actors
that are readily available. If, also, the actors are not required
to portray emotions and attitudes that lie outside their ex-
perience and if the plot is both brief and simple, the photoplay
is likely to be a success.

If you live on a ranch, you can film a "Western"; if you
dwell in an apartment in New York City, you will do well to
plan a picture that will fit that setting. If your prospective
actors are guests at a week end party, you should choose a
plot that is based upon such an event. Then, the settings and
the incidental action that you may require will be right at
hand.

Plots

Plots are adaptable, and it is easy to transpose the action
or locale, to fit actors or settings that are available. One can
glean simple situations for plots from short stories or from
the comic sections of newspapers, and one can alter them to
fit his needs.

If John loves Marjorie, and wants to keep other men away
from her, the story can be located on a New England farm,
in Palm Beach or in Chicago. John can be cast as a farmer, a
life guard or a business man. Marjorie can be a high school
girl, a vacationing debutante or a stenographer.

Since basic plots are so adaptable, it is easy enough to cut
your suit to fit your cloth. One caution should be observed:
most plots that you might use will require shortening and
simplification, since the production of elaborate stories calls
for great effort and quantities of film. You will be surprised

286 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

by the footage that will be needed, to film even a simple plot.

Elaborate plots are also likely to demand skilful acting, and,
unless you want to produce a burlesque — and this is fun, too —
you should not demand greater Thespian ability than your
actors can supply.

If you do not find a plot that fits your needs, you can ask
the Amateur Cinema League for a Film Treatment Chart. If
you will prepare this and return it to the League, a plot treat-
ment that is made to your order will be sent to you.

You may prefer to write a plot. You will probably want to
do this, if the photoplay is designed to serve some particular
purpose, beyond entertainment. You might want to tell, in
dramatic form, the story of the development of safeguards for
health; you might want to produce a photoplay to advertise,
indirectly, the advantages of a summer camp. You may want
to show how your heroine attains some particular objective by
using a certain product, which the film is designed to adver-
tise, although this treatment has been worn threadbare by
trite handling in the comic sections of newspapers, in which
Sally gets her man or becomes the leader of her set, by means
of soap, tea, cosmetics or a tinned comestible.

The proof of a good movie plot is found in its capacity to
stimulate curiosity. The audience should want to know what
will happen next. Interest will be maintained by curiosity, as
the film story develops.

The opening of a plot states the problem and poses the
question that the climax will answer. The patient is ill. Will
he recover? John loves Mary. Will he win her? Bobby wants
to help Daddy with his photography, so, while Dad is absent,
he goes to work in the darkroom. What will happen?

A plot's development occurs in its "middle action." The
patient does not get well immediately; John does not win
Mary at once. There are obstacles that must be overcome.
And here enters the villain, who represents the opposing forces.
The villain may be nature, the perversity of fate or a specific
person who has plans that run counter to those of the hero

SPECIAL PURPOSE FILMS 287

The extent to which the middle action is developed deter-
mines the length of the photoplay. There may be numerous
obstacles and all kinds of conditional factors. John loves Mary,
and she appears to return his affection, but the son of John's
employer also loves her, and John is afraid that he will lose
his position. The employer's son is heavily in debt, and he is
desperate. He steals the jewels of his hostess, during the course
of a week end party, and Mary is accused of the theft.

The plot is advanced, not by a steady progression of diffi-
culties that mount relentlessly to a climax, but by a develop-
ment which lets tension rise, diminish and then rise again. If
trials are heaped upon the hero with monotonous regularity,
the story will be too grim for our modern taste; hence, we
have subsidiary motives and "comedy relief."

At the end, or climax, of the plot, the solution for which the
audience has been waiting is provided. We learn whether John
or the thief gets Mary and whether the serum arrives in time,
so that the patient is saved. The solution itself may pose a
broad social question — shall these conditions be allowed to
continue? — but the climax has one chief function, which is to
satisfy the curiosity that has been aroused.

Two very useful devices of movie plots are the "hook," by
which you can stimulate curiosity in the first two or three
scenes of a picture, and the "twist," that enables you to sur-
prise your audience with a novel ending. The "hook" may be
applied to any film that is dramatic or quasi dramatic. In the
first shot, Jack is seen, sharpening an enormous knife. Is he
planning a murder? No. He is about to hack a can of beans
open. Later scenes will reveal the fact that he had tried,
earlier, to make use of a flimsy can opener and that he had
reached the end of his patience.

The "twist," or surprise ending, is a device that is well
known to every patron of the theatrical screen. The brutish
thug was Tio* the murderer; the suave attorney was the guilty
man. John did not win Mary; she had enough of his fears and
vacillation, so she took the son of the hostess, leaving both
John and the jewel thief flat.

288 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Treatments

When our plot has been selected, we have then to write a
"treatment." This is a synopsis of the story, as our picture
will tell it, but a synopsis that describes the story in terms
of what will be seen on the screen, with all extraneous matters
excluded. When we have prepared the treatment, we are
ready, at last, for our scenario. This is also known as a script.

Scenarios

Although we may film many kinds of movies without the
aid of a written script, a photoplay, a persuasive movie or a
business film requires a carefully prepared scenario. Earlier
in this book, we have seen examples of short scenarios, or of
parts of them. The scenario is nothing more than a list of
scenes, which is amplified by notations of the camera positions
that each requires.

Most filmers, in their early scenarios, include too much
action in one scene. Doing this tends to make the story
monotonous and to cause the omission of close shots of things
that should be seen. Although it would actually be possible
to use too many different camera positions, to portray a se-
quence of action, this superfluity is never encountered, and
the error is always in the other direction.

The typographical style of a scenario is not important; how-
ever, the form that follows has been found to be convenient.

Scene Camera Setting or Description of action

number position location and notations of cam-

era technique and
methods of direction.

Scene 1. Medium shot. Boat house. Johns rows dinghy

into scene. He jumps
out, carrying a pack-
age which he carefully
places beside him,
while he ties painter
to wharf.

SPECIAL PURPOSE FILMS

289

Scene 2. Semi closeup. Boat house.

Scene 3. Medium shot. Boat house.

Scene 4. Medium shot. Path.

Scene 5. Semi closeup.

John is tying knot,
working in haste. He
looks around furtive-
ly.

John finishes. Stands
upright, and wipes
his forehead, looking
about apprehensively.
He picks up his pack-
age carefully; then,
he suddenly looks
past camera. He hears
something. He pauses;
then he darts into
boat house.

Reverse camera posi-
tion, to show Mary
running toward boat
house. She waves a
letter.

Boat house. Mary runs into scene.
Stops short, bewil-
dered. She shouts.

Title 1. "John! Oh, John!"

Scene 6. Medium shot. Boat house. Mary looks anxiously

about. John comes
out of boat house be-
hind her. He is not
carrying the package.
Mary turns, sees him
and runs toward him.

Scene 7. Semi closeup.

Boat house. John, from Mary's
viewpoint. He speaks.

290 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

Title 2. "What's the fuss, Mary?"

Scene 8. Semi closeup. Boat house. Include both John and

Mary. Mary evidently
asks John where he
has been. John replies
vaguely and shrugs
his shoulders. John
reaches for the letter.
Mary gives it to him.

Spoken titles

The spoken title is a necessity that is peculiar to the silent
movie; one will see few examples of its use today, in theatrical
films. In the employment of spoken titles, the prime requisite
is that the speaker shall be identified clearly. If two persons
are talking together, we must indicate definitely, by the con-
text of the title or by the accompanying shots, which of them
is supposed to have spoken the words of the caption.

In the short section of a scenario that we have just read,
there could be no doubt that it was Mary who called, "John!
Oh, John!" (Note that this title tells the audience the name
of an important character in the story.) The title which
represents John's reply is preceded by a semi closeup of the
speaker; also, the context of the title is such that he, alone,
could have spoken it. (Note that the second caption informs
the audience of Mary's name.)

For the production of a photoplay or a special purpose film,
a "location script," or list of settings and locations, is a valu-
able adjunct. Under each entry on this list, all scenes that will
be made in that particular place should be grouped. If a loca-
tion script is employed, we may shoot, at one time, the whole
group of scenes that are to be filmed in a certain neighbor-
hood. Doing this will save us the necessity of a second visit
to the locale.

In producing a dramatic film, one must be careful of minor

SPECIAL PURPOSE FILMS 291

details. Mary must not wear one dress, in a medium shot
(filmed on Tuesday) , and another, in the succeeding closeup
(filmed during the following week end).

Before filming begins, the amateur photoplay maker should
assure himself that the entire cast is costumed correctly and
that all requisite properties and accessories are at hand. When
groups or movie clubs produce photoplays, one member may
be put in charge of properties, another may check costumes,
a third may handle lights and reflectors and a fourth may
have the task of following the script carefully, to make sure
that every scene is filmed and that the action accords with
the preconceived plan.

Human records

For the ambitious and imaginative movie maker, there is a
real challenge in the human record. Although pictures of this
kind are included in the category of special purpose films
largely for convenience, they are of a special kind, because
they offer an unexcelled opportunity for artistic expression.

Human records are films that tell us how people live, how
they work and how they play. They should be simple and sin-
cere, and they should present actual life. Although many pic-
tures of this kind have been packed with propaganda and
have falsified reality, to prove political or economic theories,
a human record should have no axe to grind. It should rest
on facts, as these facts are observed without ulterior purpose,
by a cameraman who seeks beauty and simplicity, rather than
arguments.

Human records that have won amateur honors are Mexican
Fiestas and L'lle d'Orleans, which range over a country or an
area, and Riches from the Sea and Vida Pacoima, that are con-
fined to one locality. Their makers presented life, without
bending it to serve a special end, and, having seen its signifi-
cance, they permitted this to speak for itself, without added
comment. That is the true technique of human records.

CHAPTER XX
PROFITS FROM YOUR MOVIES

THERE is no reason why a hobby should not pay, in
part, at least, its own way.
Many amateur filmers have found that they can meet
some of the expenses of their movie making, if not all of them,
by placing the special abilities, that they have acquired, at the
disposal of other persons who can use them. For some camera-
men, substandard movies have begun as a hobby and have
continued as a livelihood. This is a logical progression, be-
cause, as a filmer's skill and the amount of his equipment
increase, opportunities for employing them commercially are
more often presented.

If profits from your movies attract you, the first step toward
earning them may be found in doing for others just what you
have been doing for yourself, that is, in making personal films,
and in making them, not for your own pleasure, but to serve
other people. Every family that has a movie projector should
have good film records of important occasions in its history.
Weddings, birthdays, reunions, graduation ceremonies and
anniversaries of all kinds afford opportunities for your camera
to pay its way. Golfers will find that slow motion analyses
of their strokes are worth buying; coaches of athletic teams
can be persuaded to find money for films that will aid them
in their work.

Projection also can bring profits. Churches, schools and
clubs frequently want movies for particular occasions; you
can provide these, by using your own projector and by renting

[292]

PROFITS FROM YOUR MOVIES 293

films that are commercially available. Somebody in your com-
munity may need your help in editing and titling his footage,
particularly, if he is faced with a time limit and can neither
do the work himself nor send his films to some editing and
titling company that is located at a distance from his home.

Business filming to order

In the chapter that precedes this one, we have read about
business films. Many firms can use them, but they lack com-
petent filmers who can make them. There is no reason why
you should not supply this deficiency in your own neighbor-
hood, because you know the business men in it and they know
you. But you must take the initiative, and you cannot expect
to find a ready reception of your suggestions, because not
everybody is convinced that movies will serve his practical
requirements.

A substandard filmer who would turn his skill to commercial
ends must be an active salesman; he must look about his
community, to find instances in which films could be of
genuine service to his friends, in their daily work; he must
then present a cogent plan for his movie enterprise and he
must be able to give to it such interest and conviction that
his aid will be enlisted wholeheartedly. Proposals should be
suited to the resources of the firm that will, hopefully, employ
him, to carry them out.

If you have to ox with business enterprises of some size,
you may find that their executives will have spent large sums
of money, in the past, for motion pictures which did not bring
in enough extra revenue to justify their high cost, because tne
films were produced in 35mm. width and with the elaborate
methods of commercial studios. Perhaps, these executiv-s
may not have bought movies; they may only have deci »ed
against buying them, after an investigation of their expense.
If you meet these situations, you should emphasize the greatly
lessened cost of 16inm. production, but you should make it

294 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

quite clear that your plans do not provide for elaborate studio
facilities.

Sometimes, you can persuade several small firms to unite
in a filming enterprise, which you could offer under a title,
such as The Merchants of Main Street Present. In a produc-
tion of this kind, the costs would be divided among a number
of concerns, so that the expense, to be borne by each of them,
would be small.

Business filming has been undertaken by many movie mak-
ers, and pictures have been made, in small communities and
in large centers of commerce, that show such widely assorted
activities as dairy farming and the methods of home loan
banks.

Working for doctors

Surgeons and dentists, as we have learned, make full use of
movies, in exchanging information about their technique, al-
though not every one of them can do his own filming. You
may very well visit the members of these professions in your
city or town, to discover whether some of them have not
developed new professional methods that they would like
to show to their colleagues. Hospitals find movies to be of
great value, in training internes and nurses; medical associa-
tions may raise funds, to film a presentation of some aspect
of community health; colleges are large users of motion pic-
tures, in their medical, surgical and dental schools. Movies
that deal with these matters call for very special methods
of production and for patience and exactness, but they are
more than normally profitable, because their length may be
extensive, since they have to present full technical procedures
with few elisions.

Films for organizations

Organizations of many kinds use movies in securing funds,
to carry on their activities. Community chests, chambers of
commerce, educational, civic, religious, scientific and charitable

PROFITS FROM YOUR MOVIES 295

bodies will appeal, from time to time, for public support.
These "drives" will give the alert filmer occasions for selling
his services. Sometimes, a club or a church will celebrate some
event in its history; a film record of this celebration may well
be suggested as a proper accompaniment of the event itself.

Films as detectives

Motion pictures have become expert witnesses in the court
room. Making films, to serve this legal purpose, is better
accomplished with small, substandard cameras than with
larger, and more readily observed, equipment. Movies have
been chiefly employed in trials that result from claims for
insurance, when somebody fraudulently asks payment for a
disability which is, allegedly, caused by an accident against
which he is insured. His witnesses, expert and ordinary, may
be totally confounded by the projection of films that show
him, active and agile, going about his daily work, although
his legal contention is that he cannot engage in any gainful
pursuit.

Films that will be projected before courts must be made
after simple, but rigid, requirements. Footage must be uncut
and unedited, because it must present a series of actions just
as they occurred, and there can be no recourse to tricks of the
camera. A movie maker who films evidential pictures must
project them in court. Since he will be offered as an expert —
in the legal sense of this term — he must expect hostile cross
examination. He should be prepared to give a straightforward
account of the whole procedure of filming, of preparing the
film for projection and of the projection itself.

Films with lectures

All the world seems to love a lecturer, especially if he shows
movies. Whether it is easier for a lecturer to learn movie
making or for a movie maker to learn lecturing must be left
to individual research. It is, however, possible for a movie
maker to show his own pictures and to talk about them, be-

206 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

cause many filmers have done this very thing with profit.
The churches, schools and clubs of your community may be
willing to pay you a fee for showing the results of your
Mexican holiday on a screen. If you can persuade them to do
this, you will, perhaps, have built a springboard from which
you may eventually leap into the full current of lecturing
and, thus, provide for yourself a pleasant and a lucrative
occupation.

The opportunities to make profits from your movies exist
only in the non theatrical field. Experience has shown that
theatrical motion picture producers are very unlikely pur-
chasers of substandard footage, except in those rare instances
in which some unpredictable and exceptional event has oc-
curred that theatrical newsreel men failed to film, but which
a personal filmer has recorded. Then, any footage is better
than none, as far as the newsreel companies are concerned,
and yours, if you were at hand, will probably be salable. The
unwillingness of 35mm. motion picture companies to use
16mm. movies does not proceed, necessarily, from a dislike of
the narrower film, but from the difficulty of its employment,
since substandard footage must be reproduced on 35mm. film;
this reproduction will increase the "grain" of the projected
picture, so that the result on the screen will be similar to that
of a halftone engraving in a newspaper which employs a very
coarse "screen," in preparing a plate from an original photo-
graph. Also, the projection speed that is used for 35mm. sound
prints, in theatrical showings, is different from that which is
employed with 16mm. silent footage.

Television?

There is some probability that television will be able to
make use of substandard movies, because experiments have
already been conducted, to determine the feasibility of such
an employment. At present, only short movies, running be-
tween one hundred and two hundred feet of 16mm. film, are
acceptable for television. Subjects must, therefore, be brief, but

PROFITS FROM YOUR MOVIES 297

they should be complete. They will best report some relatively
unknown activity, so that they will have both educational
value and human interest. For the happiest results in tele-
vision reproduction, long shots should be avoided and medium
shots and closer views should be taken of whatever is filmed.
Substandard cameras and projectors and the films that are
used in them will permit a movie maker to record and to show
pictures that will meet a wide variety of non theatrical needs.
We can make profits from our hobby, if we can bring to it
the necessary initiative, imagination and skill.

CHAPTER XXI
THE MOVIE SHOPPER

'OST readers of this book have bought the basic tools
of movie making. For them, shopping chiefly involves
the addition of accessories, although some persons
will make replacements of their initial equipment. There are
services, as well as goods, which are offered to personal and to
special purpose filmers, and shopping will frequently be con-
cerned with them.

The movie shopper should, first of all, determine to buy
intelligently. New equipment should be acquired, to meet
specific needs and not through "hit or miss" purchases, which
can be very wasteful.

The tools of movie making are good tools, honestly made,
whose performance is consistent with the prices that are
charged for them. The purchaser does not face the problem of
avoiding worthless equipment, but, rather, that of determining
just what he wants a machine to accomplish. When you have
decided what you wish to do, you can readily find good tools
and services with which to do it.

Members of the Amateur Cinema League can secure prac-
tical counsel upon their equipment needs, by requesting it from
the League's consultants. This request should indicate the
purpose which new equipment is to serve; it should also give
information of what the filmer already possesses, which should
be specified in detail. Dependable stores also will give excellent
advice to those who want more movie tools.

After you have discovered what you need, to do the things

THE MOVIE SHOPPER 299

that you want to do, buy it, if the price is within the range of
what you care to pay. If it is beyond that range, a request to
the League will frequently bring substitute suggestions.

Eight or sixteen?

Filmers who use the 8mm. system of movie making some-
times ask whether they should abandon it, in favor of 16mm.
filming. The great advantage of 8mm. movies over 16mm.
films is found in their smaller cost. This may not be so ap-
parent in the initial purchase of equipment, but it becomes
evident in the matter of upkeep — by which is meant, of course,
the purchase of film. All kinds of 8mm. film are less expensive,
when expense is computed on the basis of minutes of screening
time, than is comparable 16mm. footage. The favorable dif-
ferential runs from one third to one half in monochrome or
color emulsions. Other accessories, such as reels and film
containers, are less expensive in the 8mm. size.

Movie makers who use 8mm. equipment and film produce
excellent results. Since the advent of the 8mm. system in 19-
32, a wide range of basic equipment and accessories have been
provided for it. Thus, the day has long since passed when the
8mm. worker need, or in fact does, feel himself the poor re-
lation of personal movies.

The disadvantages of the 8mm. filming system are not
many. The size of the image on the screen is smaller than that
which can be secured from 16min. film, but larger images
are essential only for public projections; therefore, 8mm.
pictures are entirely satisfactory for showing in the home.
Special purpose films are more serviceable, if they are pro-
duced in 16mm. width, because many persons and most organ-
izations that will borrow them have 16mm. projectors. If the
projection is always to be performed by the maker of the film,
or by his agents, he can control the choice of equipment and,
hence, he can use 8mm. film before small and medium sized
groups.

300 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

A full range of desirable emulsions — fine grain panchro-
matic, superspeed panchromatic and color film — are available
to the 8mm. worker. Although the photronic sound-on-film
track is not likely to be adapted to 8mm. film, magnetic
sound tracks, coated on new or existing films, are a promise
for the future.

Closeups that are made with 8mm. equipment compare
favorably with those that are recorded on 16mm. film, in black
and white and in color, although distant shots that are filmed
in 8mm. color seem to be less sharp on the screen than those
that are made in the 16mm. width.

Added feature*

Many cameras can be adapted to purposes that are not
served by the unmodified instrument. Adaptations include
the addition of hand cranks, reverse takeups, single frame re-
leases and other valuable features. If you are interested in
any of these, you should be quite certain that you know what
they will do, before you add them to your camera. Some
manufacturers of cameras will decline to make adaptations,
which are carried out, otherwise, by special machinists. The
advice of the Amateur Cinema League should be sought by its
members, before they order these modifications.

Replacements

Do not get a new camera, merely because it is more elaborate
than your old one. Be sure that you really need additional
features, before you abandon equipment that can serve you
fully. When you do exchange a simple instrument for one
that is more complex, it may be well to get a camera that will
give you many new facilities, because your ability and the
range of your filming interest will increase, when you get
beyond the level of the average.

A new camera should be chosen because it does things that
you want it to do. The choice of instruments is wide, and each
will accomplish some particular feat that its maker believes

THE MOVIE SHOPPER 301

will be of great value to those who purchase it. You should
buy specific features that will suit your needs.

A new projector will be acquired because of definite projec-
tion requirements. The freedom of combining different lenses
and lamps is a convenience. Reel arms that will accommodate
larger amounts of footage and the capacity of projecting sound
on film pictures are both factors that will influence you, in
buying a new machine.

The types and purposes of movie screens have been dis-
cussed adequately, elsewhere in this book.

Some persons habitually possess one or more cameras and,
possibly, more than one projector. A "second camera" is a
convenience, particularly, if it is small and light in weight.
Magazine loading cameras and 8mm. machines are very popu-
lar, for this reason.

Used goods

Movie makers will buy used equipment. The first step in
doing this is to select a reliable store, or a concern or person
that advertises in dependable periodicals. It is always well
to buy used equipment with the privilege of return, after trial.
One should have a clear understanding about the condition
of the items. Do you take them "as is," or does the agreement
call for them to be in perfect working order? If you buy used
equipment, it is prudent to have its manufacturer examine
the lenses and other instruments of precision that are involved,
although you must expect to pay a fee for this service, since
the maker of these devices will gain nothing by the sale of
used items. If you buy exposure meters or range finders, that
are not new, you should have these checked by competent
workmen, before you use them.

If the prices of used equipment seem to be extremely low,
after you have considered the age of the offerings, be cau-
tious. Their condition may be poor, or the goods may not
have a clear title. You should make it a rule, not to buy
equipment from unknown persons at ridiculously low prices,

302 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

without getting a verified history of the items and without
examining them very closely.

Buying film

What film shall we buy? Here is a question about which
every movie maker should have reliable information. Two
factors are involved; the first is that of the particular type
of emulsion which you need, to achieve specific results; the
second is concerned with the kind of handling, or processing,
that it will receive after you have exposed it. As far as the
first of these is concerned, League members will find it advis-
able to discuss the question with the League's consultants, if
they have any doubt as to the best emulsion, to be used for a
definite purpose.

Dependable film processing can be expected from those com-
panies that have demonstrated their ability to provide uni-
form results over a period of years, and that have at their
command the necessary machinery to do this work well. Or-
ganizations that have a large number of processing stations,
located all over the world, will offer you an additional con-
venience, particularly, if you are far from the place where the
film was manufactured.

The prices of good emulsions that may be used with full con-
fidence in their performance, in their freshness (which will
be indicated by the date which appears on packages of unex-
posed film) and in their subsequent processing, which most
companies sell, included in the initial price, are fairly uniform.
Film that will perform special functions often costs more than
ordinary emulsions. When you pay more for film, be sure that
you know why you need it, and do not use more expensive
footage, unless you really require it. Reliable manufacturers
will give impartial information and will make no effort to sell
you more costly products than you need. The prices that are
charged by the better known companies are based on the
specific attributes of the different emulsions; they do not rep-
resent competitive bidding for the movie maker's dollar.

THE MOVIE SHOPPER 303

Processing is very important. The large companies that
sell movie film have proved their ability to perform this im-
portant task carefully and well. Some smaller organizations
have built up records for dependability, by years of satisfac-
tory relations with the public. Before you buy film, particular-
ly, if its price is lower than that which is charged by the older
companies, assure yourself that you are dealing with a busi-
ness concern that will be able to perform complex processing
adequately, and that makes no claims that cannot be accepted
at full value.

Ready made films

Films that are ready to project can be bought or rented. If
you will be giving frequent movie programs, you will find it
advisable to assemble a library of films that you will own;
records of important historical events are desirable possessions
which will serve you well in later years. If you are greatly in-
terested in any subject, you will find that films that deal with
it are worth buying. Rented films are a real convenience, when
you invite your friends to a movie party, especially if your
own footage is fairly limited in quantity and in range of in-
terest. These rented additions to your program can be secured
at a reasonable cost and without delay. Companies that ex-
change films, on a permanent ownership basis, will enable you
to refresh your film library conveniently. Rental and exchange
are less expensive, of course, than outright purchase.

A wide assortment of pictures is available, without charge,
besides the cost of transportation. Some of these are offered
by various governmental units, others may be secured from
societies that wish to further their purposes by movies, and
a very large number are offered by commercial concerns,
for the purpose of increasing their sales. This purpose does
not usually make a film unsuitable for most programs, be-
cause the advertising is generally unobtrusive. Lists of "free
films" are available from various sources. Not every one of

304 THE ACL MOVIE BOOK

these films will be sent to individuals; many of the distributing
organizations will require that their pictures be shown to a
specifically minimum number of persons, before they will lend
them.

Services

The services that are offered to personal and to special pur-
pose filmers are comprehensive. Titles can be made for you,
and your editing can be performed as you direct, or, if you
prefer, without your direction. Scenarios can be prepared, to
meet your needs, and sound can be added to your finished
movies. These services will be honestly performed, if they are
those that are advertised in reputable publications; their cost
is not excessive.

Cameras and projectors can often be rented from movie
and photographic stores. If you want both the equipment and
somebody to operate it, many dealers will provide this service
also. A number of competent individuals or companies will
make films of special events, such as weddings, graduation
ceremonies, awards of honors and similar occasions, so that
you need not be without a movie record, if circumstances pre-
vent your making it.

Repairs to movie equipment should generally be made by
the companies that manufacture it, although many movie
dealers and special repair shops are entirely dependable, if
you should find it inconvenient to send your instruments to a
factory.

INDEX

AIR FILMING, 131
AMUSEMENT PARKS, 145
ANIMATION

Described, 217

Methods of using, 217
ANSCO COLOR

Characteristics, 248, 250

Daylight type, 248, 250

Exposure index, daylight (table),
250

Exposure index, Tungsten (table),
251

Indoor, 248

Interchangeability with Koda-
chrome, 248

Outdoor, 248

Tungsten type, 248, 250

See COLOR FILM
ANTI HALATION COATING, 29
APERTURE, CAMERA, DEFINED, 18
ATMOSPHERE SECURED IN
TRAVEL FILMS, 137

BABY, FILM PLAN FOR BATH

OF, 9
BACK LIGHTING

Described, 59

Effect of, 196

Interior, 199

With water films, 118
BACKWARD WINDING

By hand, 219

Described, 104

BASE OF FILM, DEFINED. 26
BIRTHDAY FILMS, 207
BUSINESS FILM

Denned, 4

Production of, 273-284

CAMERA

Aperture, defined, 18

Care of, 24, 119

Carrying case for, 107

Claw, defined, 18

Cleaning, 24

Diagram of, 19

Diaphragm, purpose of, 40

Essential parts, 18

Essentials of, 1

Gate, defined. 18

Half speed of, 57

Lens, denned, 24

Loading of, 22

Oiling, 24

Position, 12

Precaution against movement of, 55

Scratches caused by, 24

Shutter, defined, 18

Speeds, 21, 39, 56

Sprocket, defined, 20

Supply reel, defined, 20

Supports, 94

Takeup reel, defined, 20

Threading the, described, 23

Tricks, 85, 86, 174, 209-222

Viewfinder, 21
CAMERA POSITIONS

Defined, 73

Illustrated, 73
CAMERA SPEED, CHANGES IN

DIAPHRAGM FOR, 58
CAMERA VIEWPOINTS, 15
CARE OF LENS, 26
CARRYING CASES, 107
CEMENT, FILM, 149
CHILDREN, DIRECTING FILMS OF,

90
CHILDREN'S PARTY, FILM PLAN

FOR, 79
CHRISTMAS, FILMS OP, 205

[306]

306

INDEX

CLEANING

Camera, 24

Film, 155

Projector, 179
CLOSE SHOTS, IMPORTANCE OF,

CLOSEUP, ILLUSTRATED, 14, 75
CLOSEUPS

Ultra, 230-235

With telephotos, 225
COLOR FILM, 247-265

Characteristics, 248-251

Exposing, 251

Exposure indexes for (tables),
249-251

Exposure, indoors, 261-265

Exposure meter, with incident
light type, 257

Exposure meter, with reflected
light type, 256

Exposures, daylight, recommended
(table), 255

Exposures, indoors, recommended
(table), 262

Interchangeability, 248

Lighting and subject contrast, 259

Lighting, indoors, 261-265

See ANSCO COLOR, KODA-
CHROME

Subjects for, 254

Types available, 248

Using instructions, 252

Weather conditions, 252
COMPOSITION, 244
CONDENSER, PROJECTOR, 33
CONTINUITY

Defined, 11

For travel films, 136
COUNTRY FAIRS, 145
CUE SHEET, 268
CUTTING ON ACTION, 164

DIFFUSION

Devices for securing, 106

In interior lighting, 200
DIRECT RECORDING, 271
DIRECTION, PRINCIPLES OF, 87
DISSOLVE

Described, 105

Simulated, 238

Speed of, 239

Use of, 238

DISTANCE METERS, 53
DOLLY FOR CAMERA, 242
"DOUBLE-EIGHT," DESCRIBED, 22
DOUBLE EXPOSURE, 104, 218-220
DUAL TURNTABLE, 186
DUPLICATES

Of reversal film, 29, 186

Splicing, 150

EDGE FOG, DESCRIBED, 23
EDITING

Cleanliness in, 148-150

Defined, 147

Methods of, 148-164
EIGHT MILLIMETER, 21, 174, 210,

299

EMULSION OF FILM, DEFINED, 26
EXPOSURE

Calculators, 43

Defined, 38

For interior scenes, 200

How to determine, 43

Importance of correct, 42

In tropics, 50

Keeping records of, 51

Meters, use of, 44, 256, 257
EXPOSURE METERS, IN INTERIOR

LIGHTING, 200
EXPOSURE TABLES, 249-251, 255,

262
EXTENSION TUBES, 231

DAY'S JAUNT, 111
DAYLIGHT TYPE FILM, see Color
Film, Ansco Color, Kodachrome
DENTAL FILM, 268, 294
DEPTH OF FIELD, DEFINED, 54
DIAPHRAGM
Changes in, with different camera

speeds, 58
Function of, 26, 40

"F" NUMBERS

Denned, 41

Diagram of, 41
FADES, 235-238
FADING GLASS, 236
FADING SHUTTER, 105, 236
"FAKING" SHOTS, 115, 212
FAMILY, FILMS OF, 76

INDEX

907

FILM

Anti halation coating of, 29

Base, defined, 26

Care of. 184

Cement, 149

Classifications of, 30

Cleaning, 155

Color, described, 31, 248-251

"Double Eight," described, 22

Duplicates of reversal, 29, 186.

Emulsion of, defined, 26

Extra fast, 31

Humidifying, 184

Inspecting before projection, 178

Length of rolls of, 22

Life of, 185

Negative, described, 29

Orthochromatic, 31

Panchromatic, 31

Perforations in, 21

Positive, described, 29

Print, described, 29

Reversal of, described, 29

Scratches caused in camera, 24

Special treatments for, 186

Speed of, 30, 44

Splicing various types, 150

Storage of, 184

Widths, 2, 22
FILM VIEWERS, 151
FILTERS

Denned, 94

Factors of, 98

For color film, 249-251

Green, 96

Neutral density, 100

Red, 96, 99

Used in winter scenes, 121

Yellow, 96. 99
FISHING FILMS, 113
FIXED FOCUS LENSES, 52
FLAT LIGHTING

Defined, 59

Interior, 193

Not used in winter scenes, 121
FLOOD BULBS

Amperage of, 198

Described, 189, 261
FOCAL LENGTH, 224
FOCUS

Described, 52

Devices for securing, 106, 231
FOOTAGE METER, 54
FOOTBALL FILMS, 140
FRAME, ILLUSTRATED, 17

FRAMING DEVICE, 34

FRAMING IN COMPOSITION, 64

"FREEZING" TRICK, 85, 86, 87, 211

GAMES, FILMING, 115
GATE

Camera, defined, 18

Projector, cleaning, 34
"GRAY CARD READING," 256

HALF SPEED, 57
HAZE FILTER, 249
"HI LO" SWITCH, 198
HOME TOWN FILMS, 121
HOOD. LENS, 106
HUMAN INTEREST, 137-144
HUMIDIFICATION, FILM, 184
HUNTING FILMS, 113

INDIRECT LIGHTING, 191
INDOOR PUBLIC PLACES, 204
INFINITY, 53
INTERCUTTING. 160
INTEREST AS BASIS FOR FILM

THEMES, 66
INTERIOR LIGHTING, DIAGRAMS

FOR. 191

KODACHROME

Characteristics, 248, 249
Daylight type, 248, 249
Exposure index, daylight (table),

249
Exposure index, Type A (table),

250

Filters for, 249-251
Indoor, 248
Interchangeability with Ansco

Color, 248
Outdoor, 248
See COLOR FILM
Type A, 248, 249

LAMPS
Household, use of, 190

308

INDEX

Projection, 33, 180, 182
LEADER, 153

LECTURES WITH FILMS, 295
LENS

Camera, defined, 24

Care of, 26

Depth of field of, 54

Fast, 26

Fixed focus, 52

Flare, described, 26

Focal length, 224

Focusing, 52

Hoods, 106

Mounts, 103

Normal, 225

Projector, defined, 34

Speed identification of, 42

Telephoto, 25, 223-234

Wide angle, purpose of, 25
LENS CAP, IMPORTANCE OF, 26
LENS FLARE, DESCRIBED, 26
LIGHTING

Back, 59, 196

Color film, 261-265

Contrast, 259

Forty five degree, 196

Interior, diagrams of, 191-193

Rule for lamp placement, 199

Side, described, 59

Side, interior, 194

Titles, 171

Top, described, 60

Types of, 59

LOADING, CAMERA, 22
LONG SHOT, ILLUSTRATED, 73
LOOP, IMPORTANCE OF, 23

MARINE LIFE FILMING, 234
MASKS, USE OF, 104
MEDICAL FILMS, 4, 280. 294
MEDIUM SHOT, ILLUSTRATED, 13,

74
METERS

Distance, 53

Exposure, 44, 200
MICROPHONE, 188
MICROSCOPE, MOVIES WITH, 234
MINIATURE SETTINGS, 216
MIRROR SHOTS, 214
MONTAGE, 243

MOONLIT EFFECTS INDOORS, 203
MOTOR TRIPS, 125

MOUNTAIN CLIMBING, 112
MULTIPLE EXPOSURE, 104, 218

NARRATION, 187-188, 268-271
NEGATIVE, DESCRIBED, 29
NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTER, 100
NEWSREELS, FILMING FOR, 296
NIGHT FILMING, OUTDOORS, 204,

205
NORMAL LENS, 225

OILING

Camera, 24

Projector, 179
ONE INCH LENS, 223
ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM, 31
OVEREXPOSURE, DEFINED, 38

PANCHROMATIC FILM, 31
PANORAMAS, CAUTION

AGAINST, 55

PARADES, FILMS OF, 143
PARALLAX, DEFINED, 21
PARALLEL ACTION, 80, 145, 161
PERFORATIONS

Laboratory marks, 153

Reason for, 21

PERSUASIVE FILMS, 4, 278, 294
PHOTOELECTRIC CELL, 44
PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES COME

FROM, 1

PHOTOPLAYS, 4, 284
PICNIC, FILMING A, 108
PLANS FOR SPECIAL PURPOSE

FILMS, 280
PLOTS, 285-287
POLARIZING SCREEN, 100
PORTRAIT ATTACHMENT, 52, 170,

231

POSITIVE, DESCRIBED, 29, 30
POSITIVE FILM

Filters not used with, 99

Used for titles, 173
POST RECORDING

Defined, 266

Filming for, 267

INDEX

309

PRACTICAL FILMS, DEFINED, 5
PRECAUTIONS

For camera use, 36, 64

For film use, 37

For projector use, 37
PRINT

Described, 29

Splicing, 150
PROCESSING, PART OF FILM

COST, 302
PROJECTION

Arranging audience for, 177

Formal, 181

In daytime, 183

Precautions in, 35

Shall we talk during, 180

Size of images in, 36

Sound, 272
PROJECTOR

Arranging for projection, 179

Cleaning, 178

Described, 33

Essentials of, 3

Oiling, 179

RACE MEETS, 144
REACTIONS, FILMING, 116
RECORDS, PHONOGRAPH

Use of, 186

REEL ARMS, LARGE, 301
REFLECTOR, 195, 197
RELIGIOUS FILMS, 4, 279, 295
REPAIRS OF EQUIPMENT, 304
REVERSAL FILM

Described, 29

Splicing, 150
REVERSAL PROCESS, DESCRIBED,

29
REVERSE MOTION

Effects with, 85, 174, 211

Splicing 8mm. film of, 210
REVERSED VIEWPOINT, 79, 83
REWINDS, 151
RIGHT ANGLES, AVOID FILMING

AT, 144
"RUNNING GAG," 110, 144

SAND, DAMAGE TO CAMERA BY,

119
SCENARIO, 288-290

SCENE

Basic unit, 13

Division into, 12

Length of, 54, 164
SCIENTIFIC FILMS, 4, 280
"SCORE" FOR SOUND, 186
SCRAPERS FOR SPLICERS, 148
SCRATCHES

Caused in camera, 24

Caused in projector, 185
SCREEN

Defined, 3

Distance from projector, 182

Placement of, 176

Size of, 183

Supports for, 183

Types of surfaces of, 36
SEASHORE FILMING, 116
SEMI CLOSEUP, ILLUSTRATED,

13. 74
SEMI CLOSEUPS WITH

TELEPHOTOS, 226
SEMI LONG SHOT, ILLUSTRATED,

73
SEQUENCE

Denned, 15

Purpose of, 16
SERVICES FOR MOVIE MAKERS,

304

SETTINGS, MINIATURE, 216
SHADOWS, EFFECTS OF, 58, 200
SHIP TRAVEL, 125, 132
SHOTS, BASIC, 73
SHUTTER

Camera, denned, 18

Variable, 105
SIDE LIGHTING

Defined, 59

Interior, 194
SILHOUETTE, 60, 203
SIMULTANEOUS RECORDING, 271
SINGLE FRAME RELEASE,

DESCRIBED, 103
SIXTEEN MILLIMETER, 21, 299
SKI FILMS, 120
SLOW MOTION

Defined, 56

Uses of, 56

With water sport films, 118
SOUND

Accompaniment by, 186-188

Effects, 187

Making records for, 188

Narration with, 187

310

INDEX

Post recording with, 266

Projection, 272

Recorders, disc, for, 188

Recording instrument, 2

Use of microphone with, 188
SOUND TRACK, 266
SPEED

Camera, 18, 21

Of film, 44, 51
SPLICER

Described, 148

Operation of, 148
SPLICING

Film of different types, 150

Precautions in, 154
SPLIT SCREEN, 220
SPOT RECORDING, 271
SPOTLIGHTS, 198
SPROCKET, CAMERA, DEFINED,

20
STILL PICTURE ATTACHMENT ON

PROJECTOR, 34
STOP NUMBERS, DEFINED, 40
STOPS, DEFINED, 40
SUBJECT, GOOD MOVIE MUST

HAVE, 8
SUNLIGHT

Damage to camera by, 119

With artificial light, 197
SUPPLY REEL, CAMERA, DEFINED,

SURGICAL FILMS, 4, 280, 294
"SWISH PAN," 240

TABLES, EXPOSURE INDEX
Ansco Color, daylight type, 250
Ansco Color, Tungsten type, 251
Kodachrome, daylight type, 249
Kodachrome, Type A, 250
Recommended exposures, daylight,

255
Recommended exposures, indoors,

262
TAKEUP REEL, CAMERA.

DEFINED, 20

TEACHING FILM, 4, 279, 294
TELEPHOTO LENS, 25, 223-232
TELEVISION, FILMING FOR, 296
THEATRE, YOUR OWN, 183
THEATRICAL FILMS
Defined, 3
Not discussed, 5

THEME OF FILM, 67
THREADING

Camera, described, 23

Defined, 20

TILTING, DEFINED, 56
TIME CONDENSATION, 221
TTTLER

Described, 170

Used with closeups, 232
TITLES

Background for, 171

Background, moving, for, 174

Basic types of, 161

Characters for, 170-173

Commercially made, 169

Credit, 165-166

Fades with, 239

Filming, 173

Lead title assembly, 165

Length of, 173

Lettering on, 169-173

Lighting, 171

Main, 165

Making your own, 169

Preparing cards for, 171

Splicing, 156

Spoken, 290

Styles of, 169

Subtitles, 166

Subtitles in post recorded sound,
270

Traveling, 168

Tricks used in, 174, 234

Wipeoff used in, 175

With special purpose films, 284

Wording of, 166-168
TOP LIGHTING, DESCRIBED, 60
TRAILER, 154
TRANSITION, 109, 138, 235
TRAVEL FILMS

Plans for, 124

Types of, 108, 127
TREATMENT, 288
TREATMENT OUTLINE, 72
TRICK, "FREEZING," 85, 86, 87, 212
TRICKS, 85, 86, 131, 174, 209
TRICKS IN TITLES, 221
TRIPOD

Advantages of, 92

Required with telephotos, 226
TRUCKING SHOTS, 242
TUNGSTEN TYPE ANSCO COLOR,

See ANSCO COLOR
TURNTABLE. 106

INDEX

311

TURRET MOUNT FOR LENSES, 103
"TWIST," 287

TYPE A KODACHROME, See
KODACHROME

ULTRA CLOSEUPS, 230-234
UNDEREXPOSURE, DEFINED, 39
USED GOODS, BUYING, 301

VARIABLE AREA, 266
VARIABLE DENSITY, 266
VARIABLE RESISTANCE, 180
VARIABLE SHUTTER, 105
VIEWERS, FILM, 151
VIEWFINDER, CAMERA, DEFINED,
21

VIEWFINDERS FOR TELEPHOTOS,

225

VIEWS, CHOICE OF, 63
VISION, PERSISTENCE OF. 1

WATER SPORTS, 118
WATERFALLS, FILMS OF, 134
WEATHER CONDITIONS, COLOR

FILMING, 252
WIDE ANGLE LENS

Purpose of, 25

Used indoors, 202
WINTER MOVIES, 119
WIPEOFFS

Described, 105

How to make, 241

Used in titles, 175

movie of a parade or pageant, a football g

or a county fair.

MAKING READY TO PROJECT-The tools

techniques of editing, splicing, title wri

and title making.

PROJECTION— Placing the projector, sci

and audience ; use of narrative and music.

FILMING INDOORS-The equipment, pri

pies and practice of interior lighting

exposure.

THE CAMERA DECEIVES-Simple and

vanced camera tricks; reverse motion, i

camera, movies in a mirror, animation, mi

tures, double exposures and time lapse.

THINGS FAR AND NEAR-Using the telepl

lens, and other methods of closeup m<

making.

BETTER METHODS OF EXPRESSION-Creal

and using basic film effects; the fade, lap

solve, wipe off, moving camera, montage e

ing and composition.

MOVIES IN COLOR-Complete characters

of Kodachrome and Ansco Color; expos

color film indoors and out; filters for col

subject matter and lighting contrasts.

SOUND WITH FILMS-Use of narrative, mi

and sound effects, on disc or sound tracks.

SPECIAL PURPOSE FILMS-Personal films

business, teaching, science and the church ;

film story and the documentary.

PROFITS FROM YOUR MOVIES-How cc

petent amateur filmers help pay the freight

THE MOVIE SHOPPER-Eight or Sixtee

Buying used equipment; accessories i

services.

HERE IS COMPLETE COVERAGE:

Color and Black and White
8mm. and 16mm.

Beginner and Advanced

Outdoors and Indoc
. . . all in 311 pages, with how-to-do
illustrations and full index.

Read these advance reviews by practicing filmers
and prominent authorities in the field of amateur
motion pictures . . .

"In 25 years of serving thousands of amateur filmers, I am con-
vinced that all of them might benefit from THE ACL MOVIE BOOK."
JOSEPH E. DOMBROFF, President, Willoughbys, Inc., New York
City.

"As one of the first 8mm. filmers on the West Coast, I feel that THE
ACL MOVIE BOOK is a 'must' for all amateurs— 8 or 16." FRED
EVANS, FACL, Founder President, Los Angeles 8mm. Club.

"In my 10 years as a photographic editor, I have recommended
THE ACL MOVIE BOOK more times than I can remember. I am
happy to do so again." NORRIS HARKNESS, Photo Editor— 'New
York Sun."

"As the distilled product of two decades' experience, THE ACL
MOVIE BOOK should be bottled-in-bond aid to all home movie
makers." FRANK FENNER, JR., APSA, ARPS, Editor— "Popular
Photography"

"Film planning and the how and why of eqHiiig are made crystal
clear in the pages of THE ACL MOVIE EJOOK." CARROLL K.
MICHENER, ACL, Past President, Minneapolis Cine Club.

* "THE ACL MOVIE BOOK has been a real guide to making better
movies for nearly 20 of the 25 years I've been in the game. It's full to
the brim with movie making know-how." NESTOR BARRETT, APSA,
ARPS, Motion Picture Editor, "Journal of the Photographic Society
of America."

"As one who favors color filming of travel, I have found THE ACL
MOVIE BOOK an invaluable aid to first class results." ARTHUR H.
ELLIOTT, ACL, Past President, Metro Movie Club of Chicago.

"The Amateur Cinema League's help to the bewildered amateur
filmer since 1926 is unquestionable, culminating now in this fine i.cw
edition of THE ACL MOVIE BOOK." CHARLES BASS, President,
Bass Camera Co., Chicago, III.

"Not every amateur can meet with his fellows as we do in Chicago.
But no movie maker need pass up the blue-chip benefits of THE ACL
MOVIE BOOK." DR. C. ENION SMITH, Founder President, Asso-
ciated Amateur Cinema Clubs of Chicago.

AMATEUR CINEMA LEAGUE, INC.

420 LEXINGTON AVENUE, NEW YORK 17, N. Y.
Publishers of MOVIE MAKERS, The Magazine for 8mm. and 16mm. Filmers

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