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A 



A COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 



OP THE 



ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE; 



IN WHICH 



ITS FORMS ABE ILLUSTRATED 



BT THOSE OP THE 



SANSKRIT, GREEK, LATIN, GOTHIC, OLD SAXON, OLD FRIESIC, 
OLD NORSE, AND OLD HIGH -GERMAN. 



By FEANCIS A. MAECH, LL.D., 

PBOFESSOn OP THE INOLIBH LANGUAOS AND OOMFABATIVB PHIL0L06T IN LAFATBTTB 

COLLEGE, AUTUOB OP " MBTHOD OP PUILOLOGIOAL BTITDT OP TUB 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE," "aN ANGLO-SAXON BEAPF.K," ETC. 



■^t 



NEW YORK: 
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN SQUABE. 
187 I. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by 

FRANCIS A. MARCH, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of 

Pennsylvania. 




B.W.B. Nicholson 
1012 



PREFACE. 



The Anglo-Saxon language has been studied at Lafayette 
College for many years in the light of modern philology. It 
seemed necessary to print, for the use of its students, general 
laws of phonology and syntax, with tables of analogous pai-a- 
digms, prefixes, sufiixes, and idioms. In preparing this outline 
for the press, love of the work has led me to fill it up into a 
Comparative Grammar. Other Comparative Grammars have 
discussed several languages, each for the illustration of all, and 
of language in general ; this book, is an Anglo-Saxon Gram- 
mar, and uses forms of other tongues and general laws of lan- 
guage only so far as they illustrate the Anglo-Saxon. 

The hope lias, however, been cherished that the methods of 
Comparative Grammar might be exemplified more fully than 
they have yet been for our students, in connection with the 
early forms of our mother tongue, and that in this way the 
Anglo-Saxon might be associated with the modem Science of 
Language, and share its honors. 

If this hope should be answered, the book may serve as an 
introduction to the masters in whose light it has grown up — 
to Jacob Grdim, the greatest genius among the grammarians, 
whose imagination and heart are as quick as his reason and 
industry, and make his histories of speech as inspiring as poet- 
ry — to Francis Bopp, impersonation of pure science, who never 
spreads his wings, but who pursues his thread of thought with 
unfailing sagacity till he loses it in the islands of the Pacific 
— to Geobge CuRTnis, master of the new and the old, surest 
and safest of guides— to Pott — to Kuhn and his collaborators. 
Special students of Anglo-Saxon must spend their days and 
nights with Grein, whose Glo^ary of Anglo-Saxon Poetry 
first made possible a thorough treatment of its grammar, and 
to whom this work is every*, where indebted. Maetzner, and 
Koch, and Heyne have also "been, my constant companions. 



iv PREFACE. 

Schleicher, Rumpelt, and IIoltzman I liave used most in 
phonology and etymolog}', Becker in syntax. 

There are a good many Anglo-Saxon Grammars. The Lat- 
in Grammar of JElfric, Avritten in Anglo-Saxon, is a valuable 
Anglo-Saxon Grammar. Other grammars, to the time of Rask, 
are mainly arrangements of the declensions and inflections on 
tlie ground of external resemblances, with outlines of syntax. 
Some of them are learned works. Rask classified on the basis 
of the supposed stems, but with mistaken views. The real re- 
lations of the Anglo-Saxon inflections were fixed by Bopp in 
fixing those of the Gothic. In German, Anglo-Saxon has a 
place in the Compamtivo Grammars of Grimm, Heyne, and 
others, and in the great English Grammars of Maetzner and 
Koch. The English still use Rask ; Hadley, in Webster's Dic- 
tionary, goes with Grimm. It is pleasant to remember that 
Jefferson, who started this study in our colleges in his Uni- 
versity of Virginia, made an Anglo-Saxon Grammar. 

Labor has not been spared to fit this book for use. The ex 
amples have been translated; the citations made easy to verify; 
leading rules and groups of facts have been brought together; 
indexes have been made ; the resources of the printer freely 
used to make every thing distinct. Paradigms and the histor- 
ical discussion of them are kept on opposite pages, so that they 
may lie before the eye together. The type has sometimes been 
varied for that purpose, and spaces filled with matter not strict- 
ly in the plan, such as the changes from Anglo-Saxon to En- 
glish. 

I wish to thank William G. Medltcott, Esq., of Longmeadow, 
Massachusetts; he let me take from his precious collection, and 
use at my own home, Anglo-Saxon texts not elsewhere to be 
had for love or money. And, finally, all those who find this 
book of value should join me in thanks to the Trustees and 
Faculty of Lafayette College, who were the firs* to unite 
in one Professorship the study of the English language and 
Comparative Philology, and who have set apart time for these 
studies, and funds for the necessary apparatus to pursue thcni. 

Frai^cis a. Marcil 

Easton, October 25, 18G9. 



CONTENTS. 



Section 

1. Introduction — Historical. 



, 1 



PART I. 

PHONOLOGY. 



Section Pag« 

General View, 

10. Alphabet 4 

13. Punctuation 5 

14. Sounds 6 

15. Accent 6 

16. Classes of Vowels 6 

17. Classes of Consonants 7 

18. Indo-European Vowel System.. 8 

19. Consonant System 8 

20. Clianges of Sound 9 

20. Laws of Letter Change 10 

Special Discussions, 

21. Classic Anglo-Saxon 11 

22. Voice 11 

23. Vowels — Anglo-Saxon 11 

26. Northumbrian 14 

27. Consonants — Anglo-Saxon 15 

31. Northumbrian 18 

Variation. 

32. Euphonic Changes 19 

32. Umlaut..; 19 

33. Breaking 20 

34. Assibilation 20 



Section P«l{« 

35. Assimilation.... 22 

30. Dissimilation 24 

37. Compensation 25 

Accentual Changes. 

38. Gravitation 20 

38. Progression 26 

38. Precession 20 

39. Ablaut 28 

40. Mimetic Changes 28 

Etymologic Changes. 

4L Shifting. 28 

FiGCRATION. 

43. Aphffiresis 30 

44. Apocope 31 

45. Elision 31 

46. Syncope 31 

47. Ecthlipsis 31 

48. Prothesis 31 

49. Epithesis 31 

50. Epenthesis 31 

51. Metathesis 32 

Contraction. 

52. Synseresis 32 



PART n. 

ETYMOLOGY. 



53. Definitions 33 

59. Classification 34 

Nouns. 

60. Case Endings 34 



64. Declension 36 

67. Gender 37 

Strong Nouns, 
69. Declension 1 38 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



Section 
88. 
1)2. 



Pi«e 



95. 

00. 
01. 
02. 



Declension 2 44 

Declensions 48 

Northumbrian 49 

Weak Nouns, 

Declension 4 50 

Northumbrian Ctl 

Irregular Nouns 52 

ProperNames 54 

Decay of Case Endings 55 

Adjectives. 

04. Declension Indefinite 5G 

05. Declension Definite. 58 

00. Varying Forms 58 

19. Participles 61 

21. Northumbrian 61 

32 Comparison 62 

30. Pronouks 66 

38. Numerals 73 

Verb. 

49. Definitions 77 

57. Conjugations: 78 

58. From^blaut 79 

From Contraction 80 

From Composition 81 

Tense Stems 82 

Mode Suffixes 82 



59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 



Section fatl» 

163. Personal Endings 82 

Paradigms, 
Strong Verb, 

164. Indicative Tenses 82 

169. Subjunctive Tenses 86 

172. Imperative 88 

173. Infinitive 88 

173. Participle 88 

176. Potential 88 

177. Other Periphrastic 89 

178. Passive Voice 90 

Weak Verb, 

183. Active Voice 92 

187. Passive Voice 94 

188. Varying Presents 94 

189. Syncopated Imperfects 95 

190. Syncopated Participle 95 

Weak and Strong, 

191. Umlaut in the Present 96 

192. Assimilation 96 

197. Varying Imperfects 98 

198. Summary of Variations 98 

199. Table of Varying Verbs, 99 

212. Irregular Verbs , 112 

225. Northmnbrian 117 

226. Weathering of Endings 118 



Derivation. 



227. Definitions 118 

228. Suffixes 119 

230. Stems by Variation 122 

231. Formation of Substantives .... 123 

240. Adjectives 125 

246. Verb 126 

251. Adverb 128 



253. Preposition 130 

253. Prefixes 130 

260. Particles 132 

262. Conjunctions 133 

263. Interjections 133 

264. Composition 134 

268. Forms to express Gender 135 



PAKT III. 

SYNTAX. 



272. Simple Combinations 137 

278. Sentences, Clauses 139 

285. Figures of Syntax 141 

NOTJNS. 

Uses of Case Endings, 

286. Agreement \ 142 

288. Nominative 144 

289. Vocative 144 



Accusative : 

290. In Objective Combinations... 145 

293. In Quasi-predicative 147 

295. In Adverbial 148 

Dative : 

297. In Objective Combinations.... 148 

302. In Adverbial Combinations... 151 

^04. In Quasi-predicative 152 



CONTENTS. 



Vll 



SwUoa 

806. 

310. 
314. 
315. 
322. 

827. 
830. 

861. 
862. 

866. 
367. 
868. 
874. 
877. 
879. 
386. 
893. 
895. 
899. 



401. 



Instramental 153 

Genitive : 

In Attribative Combinations.. 153 

In Predicative Combinations. . 1 55 

In Objective Combinations 155 

In Adverbial Combinations... 158 
Uses of Prepositions, 

Rules 158 

Table of. 159 

Al>J£CTIV£8. 

Agreement 172 

Strong or Weak 173 

Fkonouns. 

Personal 174 

Possessive 175 

Article 175 

Demonstratives 177 

Interrogative 178 

Relative 178 

Indefinite 180 

Numerals 181 

Adverbs 182 

Particles 184 

Verbs. 
Uses of the Verb Forms. 

Agreement 185 



Section 

406. Kinds of Verbs 

407. Voice 

411. Tense.*. 

Mode: 

420. Indicative 

421. Subjunctive 

In Subordinate Clauses, 

422. By Attraction.... 

423. In Substantive Clauses .... 

427. In Adjective Clauses 

428. In Adverbial Clauses 

435. Potential 

444. Imperative 

445. Infinitive 

450. Gerund 

455. Participles 

460. Verbals 

461. Interjections 

Conjunctions. 

462. Co-ordinate 

467. Subordinate: 

468. In Substantive Clauses 

470. In Adjective Clauses 

471. In Adverbial Clauses 

478. Conjunctions omitted 

482. Principal Rules of Syntax .... 



186 

187 
187 

190 
191 

191 
192 
193 
193 
195 
196 
197 
198 
200 
201 
202 

202 
205 
206 
207 
207 
208 
209 



ARRANGEMENT. 



488. General Laws 214 

484. Predicative Combinations 214 

487. Attributive Combinations 216 

491. Objective Combinations 218 



493. Adverbial Combinations 219 

Clauses: 

495. Co-ordinate 220 

495. Subordinate 220 



PART IV. 



496. Rhythm 222 

498. Feet 222 

499. Verse 222 

601. Caesura 223 

602. Rime 223 



PROSODY. 

503. Alliteration 223 

509. Common Narrative Verse 225 

511. Riming Verses 226 

512. Long Narrative Verse 227 

514. Alliterative Prose 228 



Indexes of Words and Subjects 229 



ANGLO-SAXON TEXTS 

CITED IN TfflS WORK, WITH THE LESS OBVIOUS ABBRE- 
VIATIONS. 



AdHanwi and Bithtiit, Ettmaller. S!>. 
' jEdelbirlU, jEMrid, .^deltlin, ^tfrM, LL., 

.Xd^Min, .Slfrtd, renea aboat, Grelii, L, 

vn,m. 

^{Me, OnmuniT, la Somner'a Slctlonnr]'. 
-Mfr^t, CoUoqilT, In Thorpe'a AnBlecln. 
AI«aMn,Oreln.iL,SB0^BeIJglaii9Poeai,Ex. 

4fil. 

Anolwta Anglo-SttXimica. B. Thorpe. Lon- 
don, ISU. 
.Indralj, QTdn JL, t ; Ven;.,1..1. 
AfMmiv* of Tjr«. B. Tborpe. London, 

J2ar{a«,0r(ln,l.,119; Ex. 199. 

SLB. = Bt Baaa, Ueiameron. Eev. U. W. 

Bti. — Biia, Hletoiiffi eccleslaat. AnglDrom. 

Smith. Cantsb., 1TS2. 
BM. = B*to, HlstorlB eccleslaBt. AngloranL 

Whelocns. Cnntab.,!M4. 



BaUchofl da Oemahls, Grain, 1., %& = Frog 
BijtUikIK, Grain, L, MS. 



Grain : two, the piij;e and l]iie In Thorpe. 
Cfc.=CAo«5er. Wright. PetcySocIelj. Lon- 

CltTiii (CynewBlfs), Grein, l« = To Jaaoa 

Chrtot, Ki. I-IOS. 
<nr.=Chroalele,Ang1o-Saxou. B.T1iOrpa. 

London, ism. 
Cmit, LL. LawB Id Schmld. 
Codex Dtpbnnatlai* AmSia. 3, M. Kent- 

bla, toi tUs Baglleh BlBtorlcal Sodetj. B 

TOls. Lonainl,lM»-1848. 
Codas Bxoniaitit. B. Tboipe, for the Sncletj 

of Antlqnulaa of London. Ixmdon, l&Vi. 
CodtaVerctlUnua. J. M. Eemble, toe tbe £1- 

McBocietr. I'Oiidou,J3tS-W. 
CMIamiwn. .Alftic, In Thoii>e'B Annlecta. 
Crmfli* nMniul,Ordn,L,£M=On the En- 
dowments and PDimita ot man, Ex. WS. 
Clidbert, Tborpe'B Analecta. H; Horn., 11,, 

<?j;Tii»,Tborpe>Analccla,6S; Or08.,fl.,4,ll. 

Dtmitl,Qtebi,i.,M. 

Dfdn Ei«e,GreIn,f.,S4B=Daor the Scald'a 

Comp1«riit,EK.STT. 
DeuttTBnomv, Thvnlles. 



iirf« dxp, Crcin, 1., 19B=The Day of Jadg- 

rbjun Book. See Xorthvmbrlan. 

dgdi", EddiRTindj EiiduAne. T.L. Lava [d 

Ichmid. 

dii&r, Etidmiavl, PoemA, Grei 

jftrt, c— — ■ — -- - "- 

ird Commlulon, im 
fnff. Grain, IJ., 1' " 
liiallfl-, Ang.-S 






^..-Ari Qnedl.BlLlpila!,36M. 
Et.— Codex &MiH0aait, page and line. 
EnaiL^Exodnt, Thwallea. 

Fxder Ulteridiig, Grain, II., 34;=A Fiitber'a 

Instruction, Ex. BOO. 
Fala Apostolomm, Orein, il., T ; Verc.. 11., W. 
De F0t CotliBlica, Thorpa'a Aiiaiecta, G3 ; 

Hom.,1„lJ4. 
FinnalniTg DflherDilI in, Orein, L, E41. 

Oeneait, Thvaltea. 
Gruaaiti rcrmu. Grain. II., 33», 34&, 
GREiK.BlhliothekderBngelBilchBlachenpoc- 
BielakritlBchhearbeltetenTeTtennndmlc 
YollBtdDdlgem UloBSBT heranBcegetten ron 
CW.M. Grein. Dr. Phil. CaaaenindGocI- 

Crn/E.'G.,AUhochacnlBrherSprBchHchBli. 



S(. G.=Lire of OutbUc, Goodwin. Li 

HepiateiKll, Th wail cs. 

H&ta, LIng.Vett. Seplentrionaltum Thesan- 

S74itort,LL. 'LawainBchniid. 
BBiintrtiArt Chriali, Grein, 1., 191=The Ilar- 



JuiliA. Grain, L, 1»l t Thwaltea ; 

Aualecta,I41: EttmUllFr, 140. 
Jrili'ana,Qrolii,il.,e'i; Ei.S4:i. 



KUige der Fran, Grein, L, «45=Thc Exile's 

Complaint, Bx. 441. 
Klipstexn^ L. F,^ Analecta Ang.-Sax. 2 vols. 

New York, 1866. 
Kreuz, Das hellige, Grein, ii., 143=The Holy 

Rood,Verc.,ii,83. 

Layamon^ Brat Madden. 8 vols. London, 
1847. 

LL.=Law8 in Sehmid, q. v., or Thorpe. An- 
cient Laws and Institates of England, etc. 
S vols. For the Record Commission, 1840. 

LeeehdoTMf etc. Rev. O. Cockayne. 8 vols. 
London, 1864-66^ 

Bi mann& Isaae. Grein, ii., 142=:A Fragment, 
moral and relisioas, Verc.. ii., 79. 

LeOy H., Alt- una AngelsUcnsische Sprach- 
proben. Halle, 1838. 

Luc=zLe.=zLake, Ttiorpe or Northumbrian. 

Jfrc.=Marc. Thorpe or Northumbrian. 

Matthew. Thorpe, NortlL, or Kemble. Cam- 
bridge, 1858. 

Menoloqium. Grein, iL, 1, or Hickes. 

if^f. =Alfrea's Meters oiBoethius, Grein, ii., 
296. 

M6d mann&y Grein, i., 210=Monitor7 Poem, 
Ex.813. • 

Seoty St., Life of, in the Hist, and Antlq. of 
Eynesbury and St. Neot's. G. C. Gorham, 
London, 1820. 

NicodemuSy Gospel of, Thwaites's Hepta- 
teuch. 

Northumbrian Gospels. C. G. Bouterwek. 
Giitersloh, 1857. Surtees, 1864-1863. 

Nwm^)er8f Thwaites. 

Orm.=OrmtUum, R. M. White. 2 vols. Ox- 
ford, 1852. 
Oro8,=:^Oro8itt8, Bosworth. London, 1859. 

Panther, Grein, i., 233 : Ex. 855. 

Pharao, Grein, ii., 850=A Fragment, Ex. 468. 

Phoenix, Grein, i, 215 ; Ex. 197. 

Paalma, Grein, ii., 147. 

Thorpe. Oxonii. 1835. 

Spelman. Londini, 1640. 

Surtees Society. London, 1843-44. 
P. T. S.=Popular Treatises of Science. T. 
Wright. London, 1841. 



R. 0'.=Robert of Gloucester. Th. Heame. 

London, 1810. 
Bebhxthn, Grein, L, 237 = A Fragment, Ex. 

865. 
ReinUied, Grein, ii., 137=Riming Poem, Ex. 

852. 
Riehthqfen, K. von., Altfl:iesisches Worter- 

buch. Goettingen, 1840. 
i2tdd2e« = RaeUel, Grein, it, 869; Ex.470, 

etc 
Rieger, Alt- und angels&chsisches Lesebuch. 

Giessen, 1861. 
Ruine, Grein, L, 248=The Ruin, Ex. 476. 
Runenlied, Grein, ii., 851. 

Salomon und Saturn, Grein, ii, 854 ; J. M. 
Kemble, for the ifilfric Society. London, 
1848. 

Satan (Crist und Satan), Grein, i., 129. 

Schmid, Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen. Leip- 
zig, 1858. 

Screadunga Ang.-Sax,, K. G. Bouterwek. El- 
berfeldae, 185a 



Seafarer (Seefohrer), Grein, i., 241. Ex. 806. 
Seelen. Reden der, Grein, L, 198=A departed 

Sours address to the Body, Ex. 867. 
Somner, Dictionarium Sax.-Lat-Angl. Ac- 

cesserunt jElfrici abbatis grammatica Lat- 

Sax. Oxonii, 1659. 
St, B.=St. Basil. See Basil. 
St, O. See GiUMdc 

Thorpe, B., The Anglo-Saxon version of the 

Holy Gospels. London, 1842. See also 

AnaXe^a and LL, 
Thwaites, Edw., Heptateuchus, Liber Job. et 

evangelium Nicodemi, Historise Judith 

firagmentum. Oxonise, 169& 
Traveler*8 Song=Fictoi<^=The Scop*8 Tale, 

Grein, L, 251, Ex. 81& 

Vercellenais Codex. Se« Codex Verc. 

Mannli pyrde, Grein^ i., 207 =0n the various 
Fortunes of Men, Ex.827. 

WalfiseTi, Grein, i., 23.'5— Whale, Ex. 860. 
Wanderer, Grein, i., 23S ; Ex. 286. 
Wid=Vtd8id. See Traveler's Song. 
Wunder der achopfung, Grein, L, 213= The 
Wonders of the Creation, Ex. 846. 



V prefixed, marks a root ; — prefixed, marks a suiflx » - suiflxed, marks a prefix or stem ; 
+ suffixed to the number of a page or section means otuL the following, elsewhere + means 
together with: < or > is placed between two words when one is derived from the other, 
the angle pointing to the derived word ; < may be read from, > whence; = means equiv- 
alent to; : means akin to; over words Hidicates that they are to be treated in some re- 
spect as one. 

LANGUAGES OFTENBST MENTIONED. See page 3. 



i4.-<9.=Anglo-Saxon. 

Celtic 

Danish. 

Dutch. 

English. 

French. 

Friesic. 

German. 

Gothic. 

Greek. 

^.=High. 

Indo-European. 



Irish. 

Italian. 

L.=Low. 

Latin. 

Lettic 

Lithuanic 

3f.=Middle. 

Norman. 

Norse. 

O.rrOld. 

O. /fVMW.=01d Friesic. 

0. H. ^.=0^ High German. 



O. iv:=01d Norse. 

O. -&=01d Saxon. 

P. iS.=Parent Speech. 

Romaic. 

Romanic 

Sanskrit. 

Saxon. 

Scandinavian. 

Semi-Saxon. 

Slavonic 

Swedish. 

Welsh. 



GRAMMATICAL HELPS. 



JSyWc.— Grammar, iu Somner*8 Dictionary. 
Becker^ K. F.— Organism. Frankf. a. M., 1841. 
Benfey^ TA. — Qriecliiaclies Wurzellexilcon. 

Berlin^889,1842. 
BenfeyyTK — ^Kti^^sAi Grammar. London 

and Berlin, 1863. 
Bopp, i^. — vergleichende Grammatik. 2 

Ans^be. Berlin, 1857-61. 
.8opp,i^.— GloBsarium SauBcritnm. Bd. ter- 

tia. Berlin, 1867. 
BoswwtJit j:— Tlie Elements of the Anglo- 
Saxon Grammar. London, 1823. 
Bomoorthy J.—K Dictionary of tlie Ang.-Sax. 

Language, etc., etc., with the Essennals of 

Anglo-Saxon Grammar. London, 1838. 
BouUrwek. K. W. —Die Vier Evangelien in 

alt-nordnnmbrischer Sprache. Gmtersloh, 

1857. The Introduction has a learned dis- 

cossion of the Northumbrian dialect 
CkHdf F, Cr.— Observations on the Langnage 

of Chancer and Gower. Hem. Amer. Acad. , 

1862,1866, and in Ellis's Early English Pro- 

nnnciation. LondonJL869. 
Corasen, Fl—Eritische ^itrSge znr lat For- 

menlehre. Leipds, 1S63. 
Coraaen.W,—VebeT Aus8prache,yokalismu8 

nnd Betonnng der lat. Sprache. Leipzig, 

1859. 
Crot^f ^.— Greek Grammar. 4th edition. 

Boston, laiS. 
Cii,rtiu8y G^eor^.— GmndzQge der griechischen 

Etymologic. 2 Anflage. Leipzig, 1866. 
Curtiu9t (^org, — De Norainnm Graecomm 

formatione. Berlin, 1842. 
CurtixtBt &eor^.— Griechische Schnlgramma- 

tik. 7 Anflasre. Prague, 1866. 
De Vere, M. .Sc^Ze.— Outiines of Comp. Phil. 

N.Y.,1853. Studies in English. N.T.,1866. 
IHf^enbiUih. I/.— Vergleichendes Worterbuch 

der gothlschen Sprache. Frankfurt a. M., 

1861. 
Dietrich, Prof. Fr.,in Haupt*s Zeitschrift 
Diez, JP*.— Grammatik der Romanischen Spra- 

chen. Bonn, 1856-1860. 
Elstob, MizcLbeth.— The Rudiments of Gram- 
mar for the English-Saxon Tongue, first 

given in English, etc. , etc London, 1715. 
.^mifZIer, jL.— Lexicon Anglosaxonicum cum 

STKOPBi oBAiiMATioA. Quodlinb. et Lips., 

1851. 
FotolerfW.C—The English Language. N. 

Y.,1864* 
Orein, C. W. Jf. — Sprachschatz der angel- 

sachsischen Dichter. Cassel and Gdttin- 

gen, 1861-18C4 
Gretn, C, W, M. —Ablaut, Reduplication, etc 

Cassel and Gottingen, 1862. 
Qrinvm, J".— Deutsche Grammatik. Gottin- 
gen, 1819-1840. 
Grimm, J".- Gesch; der deutschen Sprache, 

Leipssie, 1853. 
Guest, ^—English Rhythms. Lond., 1838. 
Hadley,J.—A Greek Grammar for Schools 

and Colleges. New York, 1864 
Hadley, J.— A brief History of the English 

Language, in Webster's Dictionary, edition 

Hdldem4x.n, 8, 8. — Analytic Orthography. 
Philadelphia, 1860. 



Harkneea, A.— A Latin Grammar for Schools 

and Colleges. New York, 1866. 
Haupt, ir.--Zeitschrlft fiir deutsches Alter- 

thum. Leipzig, 1841-f . 
Heune, IT— Kurtze Laut- und Flexionslehre 

der altgermanischen Sprachst&mme. Fa- 

derbom, 1862. 
Hickea, G'.— InstitutionesGrammaticse Anglo- 

Saxonicse et Mceso-Gothic®. Oxonise, 16S8. 
Holtzman, A.—Veher den Umlaut. Carls- 

ruhe, 1843. 
Holtzman, ^.— Ueber den Ablaut. Carls- 

ruhe, 1844. 
Klipetein, L. F,-^A Grammar of the Anglo- 
Saxon Language. New York, 1853. 
Koch, C. JP*.— Historische Grammatik der en- 

glischen Sprache. Weimar. 1863 ; Cassel 

and Gdtting., 1865 ; and is still unfinished. 
Euhn, ^dal&.— Zeitschrift fur vergleichende 

Sprachforschnng auf dem Geoiete des 

Deutschen, Griechischen undLateinischeu. 

Berlin, 1852+. 
Kuhn, Adalb,—Beitrlige zur vergleichenden 

Sprachforschnng auf dem Gebiete der ari- 
. schen, celtischen, und slawischen Sprachen, 

herausgegeben von Knhn und Schleicher. 

Berlin, 1858-I-. 
LcUham, R, G.—The English Language. 4th 

edition. London, 18551 
Liining,H.—'Die Edda. Mit altnordischer 

Grammatik, etc Zurich, 1859. 
ifo^tener, jEkI— Englische Grammatik. Ber- 
lin, 1860-1866. 
MaraJi, G. P.— The English Language and its 

early Literature, l^w York, 18(>2. 
MoMmann, H, F.— Ulfilas. Mit eprachUhre, 

etc Stuttgardt, 1857. 
Meyer, I«6o.--yergleichende Grammatik der 

Sriechischen und lateinischen Sprache. 
erlin, 1861-1865. 

Mailer, Max. — Lectures on the Science of 
Language London, 1861. 

Mailer, Max,— Second Series. London, 1864. 
'* ** A Sanskrit Grammar for Be- 
ginners. London, 1866. 

Pott, A. K— Etymologische Forschnngen 
auf dem Gebiete der Indo-Germanischen 
Sprachen. Lemgo,18334-. 

Eaak, Erasmus.— A Grammar of the An^lo- 
Saxon Tongue, etc Transl. from the Dan- 
ish by B. Thorpe. Copenhag., 1830 ; Lon- 
don, 1805. 

Rumpeitj H. J?.— Deutsche Grammatik. Mit 
Riicksicht auf vergleichende Sprachfor- 
schnng. Erster Theil. Berlin, 1S60. 

Schleic?^, Aug, — Compendium der ver- 
gleichenden Grammatik der Indo-German- 
ischen Sprachen. Weimar, 1862; 2d ed., 
1866. 

Schm^eUer, J, ^.— Heliand oder die altsSchs- 
ische Evangelien-Harmonie. Mit Worter- 
buch und Grammumtik, Hon., Stuttg., et 
Tubing8e,1840. 

8chubert, ff.— A.-S. Arte Met Berlin, 1870. 

Somner, See Anglo-Saxon Texts. 

Whitney, W, !>.- Language and the Study of 
Language. New York, 1867. 

Wilson, H. H. — Sanskrit Grammar for early 
Students. Lotidon, 1341. 



INTRODUCTION". 



1. During the fifth and sixth centuries, England was conquer- 
ed and peopled by pagans (Saxons, Angles, Jutes, etc.) from the 
shores of the North Sea ; the center of emigration was near the 
mouth of the Elbe. The conquerors spoke many dialects, but 
most of them were Low German. Missionaries were sent from 
Rome (A.D. 697) to convert them to Christianity. The Roman 
alphabetic writing was thus introduced, and, under the influence 
of learned native ecclesiastics, a single tongue gradually came into 
use as a literary language through the whole nation. The chief 
seat of learning down to the middle of the eighth century was 
among the Angles of Northumberland. The language was long 
called Englisc (English), but is now called Anglo-Saxon. Its Au- 
gustan age was the reign of Alfred the Great, king of the "West 
Saxons (A.D. 871-901). It continued to be written till the col- 
loquial dialects, through the influence of the Anglo-Norman, had 
diverged so far from it as to make it unintelligible to the people; 
then, under the cultivation of the Wycliffite translators of the Bi- 
ble, and of Chaucer and his fellows, there grew out of these dia- 
lects a new classic language — the English. 

2. The spelling in the manuscripts is irregular, but the North- 
umbrian is the only well-marked dialect of the Anglo-Saxon, as 
old as its classic period (10th century), which has yet been ex- 
plored. The Gospels and some other works have been printed in 
it. The common Anglo-Saxon is sometimes called West-Saxon. 

3. After the period of pure Anglo-Saxon, there was written an 
irregular dialect called Semi-Saxon. It has few strange words, 
but the inflections and syntax are broken up (12th century). 

4. The former inhabitants of Britain were Celts, so unlike the 
invaders in race and speech, and so despised and hated, that they 
did not mix. There are in the Anglo-Saxon a handful of Celtic 
common names, and a good many geographical names : the rela- 
tion of the Celtic language to the Anglo-Saxon is like that of the 
languages of the aborigines of America to our present English. 

A 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

5. Tho Anglo-Saxon was shaped to literary use by men who 
wrote and spoke Latin, and thought it an ideal language ; and a 
large part of the literature is translated or imitated from Latin 
authors. It is not to bo doubted, therefore, that tho Latin exer- 
cised a great influence on the Anglo-Saxon : if it did not lead to 
the introduction of wholly new forms, either of etymology or 
syntax, it led to tho extended and uniform use of those forms 
which are like tho Latin, and to tho disuse of others, so as to 
draw the grammars near each other. There are a considerable 
number of words from the Latin, mostly connected with the 
Church ; three or four through the Celts from the elder Romans. 

6. There are many words in Anglo-Saxon more like the words 
of tho same sense in Scandinavian than like any words which we 
find in the Germanic languages ; but the remains of the early dia- 
lects are so scant that it is hard to tell how far such words werd 
borrowed from or modified by the Scandinavians. Before A.D. 
900 many Danes had settled in England. Danish kings afterward 
ruled it (A.D. 1013-1042). Their laws, however, are in Anglo- 
Saxon. The Danes were illiterate, and learned the Anglo-Saxon. 
Of course their pronunciation was peculiar, and they quickened 
and modified phonetic decay. It is probable that they affected 
the spoken dialects which have come up as English more than the 
written literary language which we call Anglo-Saxon. 

7. The other languages sprung from the dialects of Low Ger- 
man tribes are Friesic, Old Saxon, and, later, Dutch (and Flem- 
ish), and Piatt Deutsch. The talk in tho harbors of Antwerj), 
Bremen, and Hamburg is said to be often mistaken by English 
sailors for corrupt English. These Low German languages arc 
akin to the High German on one side, and to the Scandina- 
vian on the other. These all, with the Mceso-Gothic, constitute 
the Teutonic class of languages. This stands parallel with the 
Lithuanio, the Slavonic, and the Celtic, and with the Italic, the 
Hellenic, the Iranic, and the Indie, all of which belong to the 
Indo-European family of languages. The parent speech of this 
family is lost, and has left no literary monuments. Its seat has 
been supposed to have been on the heights of Central Asia. The 
Sanskrit, an ancient language of India, takes its place at the head 
of the family. Theoretical roots and forms of inflection are given 
by grammarians as those of the Parent Speech, on the ground 
that they are such as might have produced tho surviving roots 
and forms by known laws of change. 



INTRODUCTION. 



remains. 



8. The following stem shows the order in which these classes 
branched, and their relative age and remoteness from eaeh other. 
At the right is given the approximate date of the oldest literary 
The languages earlier than these remains are made out 

like the Parent Speech ; that is, 
roots and forms are taken for the 
language at each period, which 
will give the roots and forms of 
all the languages which branch 
from it, but not those peculiar to 
the other languages. 

A. Indo-Earopean. Parent Speech. 

1. Indie. B.C. 1500. Sanskrit Vedas. 

2. Irania B.C. 1000. Bactrian Avesta. 

3. Hellenic. Before B.C. 800. Greek. 

4. Italic. B.C. 200. Latin. 

5. Teutonic. 4th Century. Moeso-Gothic 
Bible. 

G. Celtic. 8th Century. 

7. Slavonic. 9th Century. Bulgarian 
Bible. 

8. Lithuanic. 16th Centurv. 




9. The following stem shows the manner in which the lan- 
guages of the Teutonic class branch after separating from the 
Slavonic. The Gothic (Moeso-Gothic) died without issue ; the 
Low German is nearer akin to it than the High German is. The 

branches of the Scandinavian (Swedish, 
X Jc Danish, Norwegian) are not represented. 



A. Teutonic. Theoretic, 
rt. Gothic. 4th Century. 
6. Germanic. Theoretic, 
c. Scandinavian. 13th Century. 
</. High German. 8th Century. 
e. Low German. Theoretic. 
/. Friesic. 14th Century. 
g, Saxon. Theoretic. 
h, Anglo-Saxon. 8th Century. 
». Old Saxon. 9th Century. 
k, Piatt Deutsch. 14th Century. 
/. Dutch. 13th Century. 




PAET I. 



PHONOLOGY. 



10. Alphabet. — The Anglo-Saxon alphabet has twenty-four 
letters. All but three are Roman characters : the variations from 
the common form arc cacographio fancies. P 1> (thora), and P p 
(w^n), are runes. B d (edh) is a crossed d, used for the older 1>, 
oftenest in the middle and at the end of words. 



Old Forms. 


Simple Forms. 


Roman. 


Namei. 


X a 


A 


a 


A 


:i 


ah 


je 8B 


M 


02 


/V, 


as 


ri 


B b 


B 


b 


B 


b 


bay 


E c 


C 


c 


C 


c 


cay 


D b 


D 


(1 


D 


tl 


day 


D « 


D 


d 


Dlldh • 


edh 


e e 


E 





E 


c 


ay 


F F 


F 


f 


F 


f 


ef 


^ Z 


G 


0" 


G 


g 


gay 


pfth 

9 


H 


h 


II 


h 


hah 


I 1 


I 


• 

1 


I 


• 

1 


eo 


L 1 


L 


1 


Ti 


1 


el 


CO m 


M 


m 


M 


111 


em 


N n 


N 


n 


N 


n 


en 





O 








o 


o 


P p 


V 


P 


P 


P 


pay 


R n 


R 


1* 


R 


r 


er 


8 r 


S 


s 


S 


s 


es 


T c 


T 


t 


T 


t 


tay 


7x>\ 


P 


1> 


Til 


th 


thorn 


U u 


U 


u 


U 


u 


00 


F P 


P 


p 


( VV yw \ 

\ (W) (w) f 


wcMi • 


X X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


ex 


Y y 


Y 


y 


Y 


y 


ypsilon 



Some of the German editors use Ji for se, ae for je, e for e derived from 
i, 6 for ce, ce for d^, j for i when a semi-vowel, and v for p. Now and 
then k, q, v, z get into the manuscripts, mostly in foreign words, and uu 
or u for p. The Semi-Saxon has a peculiar character for j (?). 



SOUNDS OF LETTERS. 



. Abbreviations.— The most common are ^ = and, ^ =I)aet 
{that)^ X = odde (or), and " for an omitted m or n ; as, ]^a=^am. 

12. An Accent (-^) is found in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, 
.but in none so regularly used as to make it an objective part of 
'an Anglo-Saxon text. It is found oftenest over a long vowel; 
sometimes over a vowel of peculiar sound, not long ; seldom, ex- 
cept over syllables having stress of voice. Sometimes it seems to 
mark nothing but stress. Most of the English editors represent 
it by an acute accent ; the Germans generally print Anglo-Saxon 
with a circumflex over all single long vowels in the stem of 
words, and an acute over the diphthongs, as broder, fre6nd. In 
this book, to guide the studies of beginners, a circumflex is used 
over all long vowels and diphthongs, and the acute accent ( ' ) over 
vowels only to denote stress. For accented consonants, see § 19. 

13. Punctuation. — ^The Anglo-Saxons used one dot {-) ^t 
the end of each clause, or each hemistich of a poem, and some- 
times three dots ( :• ) at the end of a sentence. Modern point- 
ing is generally used in printed text. 

14. Sounds of Iietters. — Vowels: 

i like i in dim. 



a like a in far. 
a " a " fall. 



& 






a 



a 



glad. 



a " dare in New 
England. 



C( 



(( 



let. 



e in the breakings (not diph- 
thongs) ea, eo, ea, eo, very 
light. 

e like e in theT/, 



i 
o 

A 

o 
u 

y 



cc 



deem. 

whoUy^ 

holy, 

fuU. 

fool, 

dimy but with the 
lips thrust out and rounded. 
(French u.) 
;^ same sound prolonged. 



cc 



cc 



cc 



cc 



cc 



ee " 
o " 
o 
It 

00 

^ 



cc 
cc 
cc 
cc 



Unaccented vowels are like accented in kind, but obscure. 

The consonants have their common English sounds ; but note 

i (rzj) before a vowel, like y. 



c like k^ always. 

ch " kh in loork'hoiise, 

cp " qu, 

d " d in do, 

d " th " other^ smooth, 

g " ^ " go, always. 

h very distinct. 

hp like wh in New England. 



s like s in so, 

t " « " to, 

1) " th " thin, 

p " %o, 

pi, pr, and final p nearly close 

the lips. (German w.) 
x like ks. 



2 i 



Q PHONOLOGY.— CLASSES OF VOWELS. 

15. Accent. — ^The primary accent in pronunciation is on the 
first syllable of every word : br6d'-er, brot/ier ; un'-c<id, uncouth. 

The first syllable is mostly the root, or a prefix defining it : but prefixes 
of verbs and particles are relational. See ^ 41, 4. 

Proof of accent comes from alliteration, rhyme, the mark (^ 12), progres- 
sion, and other phonetic changes. 

Exception 1. Proper prefixes in verbs and particles take no primary accent; 
such are &, an, and, aet, be, hi, ed, for, ful, ge, geond, ia, mis, 6(t, of, ofer, on, 
or, td, {)urh, un, under, pi(t, pider, ymb, ymbe : an-gin'nan, begin; aet-gad'ere, 
together; on-gekn'j again. So some parasyntheta ; onsseg'ednes, «acrf/!ce. 

(a.) But parasyntheta from nouns, pronouns, or adjectives, retain their ac- 
cent: and'-sparian<and'sparu, answer; in'-peardllce<in'-peard, adj., in- 
ward; ed'nipian<ed'nipe, renewed. Such are all verbs in and-, ed-, or-, 
found in Anglo-Saxon poetry ; many adverbs in un-, etc. 

(i.) Many editors print as compounds adverbs + verbs, both of which re- 
tain their accent. Such are those with aefler, bl, big, efen, eft, fore, forCt, 
from, fram, hider, mid, ni(ter, gegn, ge&n, gen, td, up, id, pel. 

Exception 2. The inseparable prefixes &-, be- (bi-), for-, ge-, are unaccent- 
ed : d-lys'-ing, redemption ; be-gang', course. (Parasyntheta from verbs.) 

A secondary accent may fall on the tone syllable of the lighter 
part of a compound or on a suffix : o'-fer-cum^-an, overcome; heof- 
on-steor'-ra, star of heaven; h'^r'end'e^ hearing; leds'tmg^ljing. 

16. Phonology. — Classes of Vowels. 

Pmmaby Vowels : — a (guttural), i (palatal), u (labial). 

Shobt Vowels :— a, se, e, i, o, u, y. (Open, a, se, e, o ; close, i, u, y.) 

Long Vowels: — d, 6, 6, i, 6, % y. 

Diphthongs : — ea (ia), eo (io), ie. {Dialectic, ai, ei, eu, oe, 6e, oi.) 

Breakings: — (g-sc-row), ea (ia), eo (io), ie, ea (ia), eo (16), i6. 

(hrl-r-row), ea (ia)<a, eo (io)<i, ie. 

a-umlaut. f-umlaut u-umlaut 

a, u, oa, eo, a, 6, tl, ca, eo, 
e, y, y, y, », e, y, y, y. 

PfiOGBESSiON : — Precession — 

Descending. let term. Ascending. 

a-series: — e i, u a, ae, o a, ^, c 6 
i'Series: — e i t a 

u-series: — e o u eo, <i ca 

Conteaotion: — from a-!-a, ea+n, oa+u, co+a, eo+c, eo+u, 
(Reduplication, to u, a, ca, c6, eo, c6, 

^^^•^ from i+a, u+a, u+a, u-fi, u-f o, u-f-6, 

to eo, o, 6, u, o, 6. 



Umlaut: — from i, u, 
to e, o. 



a, 1, 
(o)ea, eo. 



CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. 



Summary of Phonetic Groups, 



A-Gboup. 
Weaker. Stronger. 

i 6 


Weaker. 


I-Gboup. 

Stronger. 

i i 


Weaker. 


[J-Gboup. 


stronger. 


e 

as 


ib 


C 


&,& 





^ 


e y 

ca a 


a 


c y 
eo 




y 




e& ea, 6 


tl 


A 

o 








u ft 


Ablaut:— present 
jBooi5a:— i, e, eo. 


Preterit Sing. 

a, SB, en. 


HuraL 

a, &, e 


Participle. 

e ; u, 0. 




" a: — 1, e, eo. 


a, se, ea. 


n. 


U, 0. 




" i:— i. 


a. 


i. 


1. 




" u:— eo, <i. 


e^. 


u. 


o. 




" a: — a, ea. 


6. 


A 

0. 


a. 




17. Classes of Consonants, 




Gutturals . 


Mutes (Exi 
Smooth. Middle. 
Surd. Sonant 

• eg 


•LOBIYX). 

Rough. 
Surd. Sonant 

kh gh 


Continuous 
Spirant 
Surd. Sonant 

h 


CONSONA 

Nasal. 
Sonant. 

^ 9 


.MTB. 

Liquid. 
Sonant 


Palatals. . . 










• 

1 






Linguals.. 














l,r 


Dentals. . . 


. t d 


th 


dh 


S,J) 2,d 


n 


(n) 


Labials . . . 


• P 


b 


ph 


bh 


f,hp v,p 


m 


(m) 



NbtaUe Consonant Combinations. 

Guttural : — el, en, cr, cp, gl, gn, gr, hi, hn, hr, hp. x=cs, gs, hs ; 
cg=gg; ht>ct, gt. 

Dental : — tr, tp, dr, dp, l)r, l)p, so, ser, sl, sm, sn, sp, spr, st, str, sp. 
Labial : — pi, pr, bl, br, fl, fr, pi, pr, mb, bb. 



Gemination from i : — bb < bi, cc < ci, dd < di, bb < f i, eg <gi, 
ll<]i, mm<mi, nn<ni, ss<si. 



pt, ht, lit, mn, ntst, st, st, 
pd, cd, hd, fn, ndst, sd, sd. 



Assimilation: — &&^ ff, ss, ss, ss, tt, 
from dj), bf, ds, ds, sr, id, 

Common Changes: — d, f, g, g, h, h, r, r, t, t, p, p, p, x, x, 

from d, b, i, h, g, c, s, 1, d, d, g, h, ii, gs, lis. 



8 



18. Indo-European Vowel System, 



Parent Speech \ 



a 



Sanskrit 
Hellenic 




1 
i 

■ 

1 

i 

X 



u 

a 

u 

a 

V 



1, ai 



61 



u 



n, au 



ti? 



ai 

A • 

ai 

A 

e 

A • 

ai 



ai, 

ci, 
oi, oe, ii 



au 

&u 

A 

o 

au 

av, cv, ov 



i ) u ) ai, 83 ) au, 6 I 

of of ci,i,6f a \ 



ei 



A • 

ai 



a 



lU 



A 

au 



j For short vowels, see Summary of Phonetic Groups^ p. 7. 
Anglo-baxon . -j ^^^ ^^^^ vowels, see next table. 

Teutonic Long Votoels. {Short vowels unshiftecL) 



Gothic c 

Old Saxon ... a 

Friesic 6 

Anglo-Saxon . & 

English ee 

Old Norse ... a 

Old H. German a 

German a 



6 


A • 

ai 


au 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6, a 


a 


A 

o 


a 


A 

ea 


00 


6, oa 


ea 


A 

o 


ei 


au 


no 


6, ei 


6, on 


u 


6, ei 


0, au 



ci iu, (1? 

t in, ie, A 

t ia, <1 

1 CO, % a 

t ee, ou 

1 io, % A 

1 ill, io, A 

ei eu, ie, au 



h 



19. Indo-European Consonant System. 

Parent Speech k g gh t d dh p b bh 
Sanskrit . k, kh, k', 9 g, g' gh, h t, th d dh p, ph b bh 
Hellenic . . . . ic y 

Italic c, q g h 

Goth. & A..S. h(g) k(c) g 
O. H. German h(g) k(ch) g(l 

'P. Speech n n 
Sanskrit . n, n n, n 
Hellenic . y 
Italic ... n 
G.&A.-S. n(g) 
10. H. G. . n 



r Z ^ IT p <f> 

t d d(f, b) p b f (b) 

J)(d),d t d f p b 

d z t f(v,b) f b(p)J 



V 

n 
n 
n 



m 
m 

in 



r 
r 

9 
r 



m r 
m r 



1 
1 
X 
1 
1 
1 



j 8, sh=s (s') 

j Sir 

h h g s(z^, r u, V, p 
s(r) 



V 
V 

/ 

V 



J>g 



w 



GrimrrCs Law. 

1. From Parent Speech to Anglo-Saxon, or from Anglo-Saxon to OldH. 
German^ or from Old H. German to Parent Speech. — Change each smooth 
mute to its rough, rough to middle, middle to smooth. 

2. From Anglo-Saxon to Parent Speech, or from Parent Speech to Old 
H. German, or from Old H. German to Anglo - Saxon. — Change each 
smooth mute to its middle, middle to rough, rough to smooth. 



CHANGES OP SOUND. 9 

20. Changes of Sound. 

I. Variation : exchange of one sound with another. 

1. Euphonic : through the influence of other sounds in 

the same word or phrase : 

(a) Qualitative : through influence of the kind of . ., . 

sound which follows, or precedes rAssimllatioiL 

(a) Change of vowel through influence of t, ^^^simUation. 

«, or a in the following syllable . . . Umlaut. 

(b) Change of vowel through influence of con- 

sonants Breaking. 

(c) Change of consonant through influence 

of t, y Assibilation. 

(d) Change of consonant through influence 

of other consonants. 

(b) Quantitative: through the weight of sound 

which follows or precedes Compensation. 

(a) Change of quantity or quality. 

(b) Change of accent. 

2. Accentual: through influence of accent Gravitation. 

(a) Strengthening accented syllables in a certain 

way Progression. 

(b) Weakening unaccented syllables Precession. 

Here also may be placed as appendix. 
Changes in root vowels which, in the Teutonic 
languages, have come to distinguish tenses of 
the verb Ablaut. 

3. Mimetic : through influence of other like words : 

(a) Conforming to other words, in declension, con- 

jugation, etc Conformation. 

(b) Simulating etymological relations Simulation. 

(c) Sundering, bifurcation, dimorphism. 

4. Etymologic: uninfluenced by other sounds in the 

same language Lautverschiebung, Shifting. 

II. Figuration: change of form without change of sense, by dropping, add- 

ing, or changing the order of sounds. 

1. Ih^opping: Apothesis. 

(a) Beginning a word Aphaeresis. 

(b) Ending Apocope. 

(c) Within : 

(a) Vowel before a vowel . Elision. 

(6) Vowel before a consonant Syncope. 

(c) Consonant or syllable Ecthlipsis. 

2. Adding: Prosthesis. 

(a) Beginning a word Prothesis. 

(b) Ending Paragoge, Epithesis. 

(c) Within Epenthesis. 

o. Changing the order of letiet'S Metathesis. 



10 LAWS OP LETTER CHANGE. 

IIL Contraction : drawing together vowel sounds to avoid the hiatus. 

1. Complete: 

(a) Within a word SynaBresis. 

(b) Between words Craais. 

2. Incomplete: a partial rhythmic union, so that the two 

vowels serve as one syllable in poetry : 

(a) Within a word Synizesis. 

(b) Between words Synalceplia. 

Zaios of Letter Change. 

1. A vowel may assitnilato a vowel by umlaut. § 32. 

2. A vowel may change to its breaking before /, r, A, or p, 

m, /, and after c (5c), g^ or p. § 33. 

3. Between two vowels a surd may change to a sonant or a 

mute to a continuous. § 35, 3. 

4. If a surd follows a sotiant, gemination of the surd is 

produced. § 35, A, 

5. If a surd precedes a sonant, the sonant is changed to a 

surd of the same organ. § 35, £. 

6. A mute before another consonant may change to a con- 

tinuous of the same organ. § 35, 4, h. 

7. Before n a surd or mute may change to its cognate nasal. 

§ 35, 4, c, 

8. A vowel may change to a consonant of the same organ 

to avoid the hiatus. § 36. 

9. Between two vowels a continuous may change to a 

mute. § 36, 2. 

10. One of two contiguous mutes may change to a continu- 

ous, one of two continuous to a mute. § 36, 3, 4. 

11. A consonant may be dropped and the preceding vowel 

lengthened by compensation. § 37. 

12. A vowel may be dropped and the preceding consonant 

doubled by compensation. § 37, 2. 

13. Gemination, when final or next to a consonant, is simpli- 

fied or dissimilated. § 27, 5. 

14. Apothesis is found of a syllable of inflection, and of an 

unaccented stem vowel final ; before a vowel ; before /, ?i, 
r; d, d, St; c, g, m^p, and other consonants. § 44^6. 

15. Ecthlipsis is found of c?, ct^ 5, st^ before st; of 7i before d^ 

/, s; of d, g^ //, ^,p, mostly between vowels or before a 
liquid. § 47. 



VOICE.— SHORT VOWELS. H 

16. Epithesis, epenthesis, and metathesis are used ibr 

euphony. § 49-61. 

17. SynSBresis may occur after ecthlipsis of g or h, or the 

change of p to u. § 62. 



21. Every classic speech is an ideal ; the folks at home do not 
speak it. "We have no direct description of the pronunciation of 
Anglo-Saxon ; but we have Greek text written phonetically with 
Anglo-Saxon characters (Hickes, Pref., xii.-f), and know that they 
were sounded nearly like the corresponding letters in the Latin 
of the missionaries. These characters represent only the most 
striking varieties of sound, and those vaguely. There must have 
been very great diversity in the folkspeech. The view given in 
§ 14 is general or ideal, as seems suited to a practical manual. 
An examination of the laws of the language, and its relations to 
other languages, will suggest further remarks. 

22. Voice. — Breath is made sonant by vibrations of the vocal 
chords — ligaments which may be stretched across the wind-pipe. 
The quality of a vowel depends on the general shape of the cav- 
ity containing the vibrating column of air. For a, the tongue lies 
flat ; for i, we breathe or blow into a narrow-necked bottle ; for 
u, into a bottle without a neck. 

23. Short Vowels. — ^The simple vowels are a, ^, n. Pure a 
may be gradually changed to ^, if the tongue be slowly raised to- 
ward the palate ; to i«, if the lips be slowly closed. Between a 
and i are a?, e; between a and u is o; between i and u is y. 
The vowel sounds shade into each other like colors. 

In any word or stem the same short vowel is found in all the 
Teutonic tongues, and any changes are explained by umlaut, 
breaking, or other phonetic laws working within the language. 

a, 2dm — In Anglo-Saxon a is found before a single consonant 
followed by a, o, w, e<ia; before m, w, and in some foreign words. 
Before m, w, it also suffers assimilation to o: man^mon; before 
a consonant combination beginning with ^, r, A, it breaks to ea : 
sealm^ psalm ; before a syllable containing ^ or e < % i-umlaut 
changes it to e : hladan hle{de)8t^ to load ; u-umlaut changes it 
to ea : bealuy bale ; in other situations, words having a in other 
languages show a regular shifting of a to a? / thus, in monosyl- 
lables ending in a single consonant : bseCy back ; in polysyllables 
before 'a single consonant followed by e: ba^cere, baker; before 



12 LONG VOWELS. 

consonant combinations, especially those beginning with f or a : 
cnrft^ craft. In the folkspeech the sound of a must have varied 
through the shades of sound from a in father nearly to a in hat 
on the one side, and to o in hot on the otlier. Accented d often 
changes in English to the sound of a in jiame, through progres- 
sion; i-umlaut, or shifting : macian > mdken > make. 

e. — This is i-umlaut of a : temian^ tame ; a-nmlaut of i : help- 
an<root hilp^ help ; or a light toneless sound which may be the 
ghost of any sound out of which the blood has ebbed through 
gravitation : ffife^ Gothic gibds, gibdi^ giba^ gift. The same word 
is sometimes written with (b and e, or ea and e : dmg^ deg^ day ; 
seah^ scA, saw. In the folkspeech the sounds varied from nearly 
a drawling dd (as in ddrth^ earth), through e in met^ to the light 
sound of German final e. French mute e. 

i. — ^This simple sound holds its ground well; but a-umlaut 
sometimes changes it to e : pifed^ weaves, pi. pefad; u-umlaut 
and breaking both change it to eo : lim^ limb, pi. leomu ; feohte^ 
fight. It exchanges in writing with y, and sometimes with ea : 
miht^ m^htj meaht^ might. Perhaps an a-element was in some 
words creeping in, as in English long i (=(J+e), cnihty Northum- 
brian cnaihty knight. 

O- — This is treated as u-umlaut of a, or a-umlaut of w, or an 
assimilation of a by m or 91 : rodor, Old Saxon radur, heaven ; 
citron^ coren < coran, chose, chosen ; comb, comb. In folkspeech 
it varied from o in not to nearly ii in full, 

U, y. — ^Like ^, u holds its ground. It changes in writing with 
o on one side, and y on the other ; and probably varied in folk- 
speech from u in mU to nearly the French te. y is i-umlaut of ti 
and ea, sometimes u-umlaut of e, exchanging with eo. It was a 
favorite letter with the penmen, and is often found for ^, and 
sometimes for e, le: cyning, king; eald, yldest, old, oldest; 
ceorl > cyrlisc, churlish ; lydeiiy leden, Latin ; gyst-sele, gsest-ade, 
guest-hall. 

24. Long Vowels. — ^Two like short vowels uttered as one 
sound make a long vowel : aa = a, ii = 1, uu = tl. 

Long vowels are produced by compensation, progression, and 
contraction. 

A long sound is, however, different in quality as well as quantity from 
its short. The anticipation of the double utterance affects the position of 
the organs. A given long vowel may, in fact, arise from the coming togeth- 
er of unlike vowels : rifidfAev from Ttfidofttv ; nor do two like vowels always 



LONG VOWEL& 13 

give their long : Greek «« give «, oo give ov. The Anglo-Saxon long vow- 
els vary in kind (Quality) from their short ; a prolonged is not exactly a, nor 
e prolonged, exactly e. We give the long mark, therefore, whenever the 
quality of sound is that of the long letter, though the vowel may be unaccent- 
ed, and the sound obscure. 

Proof of length is found in accent (§ 12) and gemination in the 
mannscripts ; presumptive evidence is also found in the origin 
and relations of vowels, and the analogy of other languages. 

That a letter is not accented is no proof that it is not long ; but when one 
is abundantly marked in good manuscripts, it must be held long. The pro- 
nouns mS, J)S, h^ are abundantly marked, and therefore we give them as 
long, though analogy is perhaps against it. These words, however alliterate 
in poetry, fall in with a general law as to accented open syllables which has 
a plain physiological basis, and the corresponding words are long in English, 
and were long in Latin. 

Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long, except enclitics and 
proclitics, which are really affixes or prefixes to other words. 

a corresponds in part to Gothic ^, in part ^to Gothic di, and 
has oflenest passed into English d : Gothic hdhn-, Anglo-Saxon 
Mm, home, Germ, heim; mpd, d, etc., it is progression of a. It 
varied through d in far, wall, Ger. mahnen, nearly to d in home. 

A corresponds to the same Gothic letters as d, but comes into 
English with the so-ind o^ ee: Gothic sdi-, Anglo-Saxon ssb, sea, 
German see. It is i-umlaut of d, and simple shifting also, which 
may be stopped by a following m, n : hdte, hsbt{e)st, h&t{ecE), call, 
callest, calleth. 

e is i-umlaut of 6: fdt,f^t(e), foot, feet; simple shifting of 
ed'>^: h^an, hear. It springs also from contraction of old re- 
duplications, from lengthening of open monosyllables : m^, me ; 
M, he; p^, thee; and from compensation: p^n<ipegn, thane: 
perhaps here also g^<iger, ye; pS<Cpec, thee; and other such 
pronouns. It likes m or n after it, and in such cases may stand 
for an original d or sb. It varied in folkspeech from nearly e in 
there to e^ in the^, with the final y-sound (ee) pretty plain. It 
goes over to ee completely in English. (Progression.) 

i corresponds to the t of other languages. It has risen in 
English under the accent to the sound of d + i (§ 38, 1) : bitayij 
bite ; drtfan, drive. It exchanges in the writing with ^, and 
must have sounded much like it. 

6 corresponds to Gothic 6. It springs from contraction of 
three a -elements, or two a -elements and a w- element: fd. 



14 DIPHTHONGS.— NORXnUMBRIAN VOWELS. 

Aan >/<:^n, catch ; gefeohan^gefeSrij rejoice; from progression: 
mdna^ Old H. German mdnOy moon ; sdna^ Mid. H. German sdn^ 
sooD. It had the sound of o in tone^ with a tendency in a labial 
direction, which has brought it to English oo. § 38, 1. 

u corresponds to ii in other dialects. It is often strengthened 
from tt under the accent : pit^ thou ; nitj now ; sometimes springs 
from compensation : milct, Gothic munps^ mouth. It changes in 
English under the accent to ou : hUs^ house. (Progression.) 

^ is i-umlaut of t2, of €^, and oied: rnHs^ ni]^s{e)^ mouse, mice; 
ip^e < root ledg^ lie ; hpr{i)an < root hedr^ hear. § 38, 1. 

25. Diphthongs. — ^Two unlike vowels heard in one syllable 
make a diphthong. The forms ea (*a), eo (lo), te, are generally 
called breakings ; ed^ id, ed^ id, i^, are often true diphthongs, and 
then they differ etymologically from breakings. For Breakings, 
see § 33. 

ea, ia = Gothic duy- d^>^d> ed. It is found in many po- 
sitions : final ; before r, A, w, w, p : /red, lord ; tedr, tear ; hedh, 
high ; dredm, dream ; ledn, loan ; hredp, brow. It is also found 
as a <7-5C-breaking of d : gedfon, gave ; scedn, shone. It is an 
unstable combination, tending to d^ English ^ or to ^ > English 
ee, as more or less of the 6-sound works in. The prevailing set is^ 
on the whole, to ^ .• stedp, st^p-Sin, steep. ' 

eo, id = Gothic iit. It is also an assimilation of e, t, by p or 
I: tredp, Gothic triva^ tree ; /edl, Old H. German /tla, mud ; ap- 
parently also by A, g/ but in these cases a change of A, g, to p 
may be supposed : pthaji ^pedn, depart ; frig, fred, free. It is 
a peculiar progression from i final (perhaps here also a labial 
sound is to be added) : bed, Old H. German hi, bee. It often 
also springs from contraction, especially of the reduplication, ex- 
changing with ^. It exchanges in writing with id. It is found 
often for ed. It changes to H: sUpan, sup; siXcan, suck. It 
must have had a peculiar sound or sounds — an unstable combi- 
nation, tending to w > English u in sup on the one side, and to 
^> English ee on the other. The prevailing set is, on the whole, 
to ^. A similar sound is produced by ^-5C-breaking from d: seed, 
shoe ; but the e is lighter. 

ie is used for ed, ed. 

26. Northumbrian Vovirels. — a is often used where An- 
glo-Saxon has ea, sometimes where it has e, i, eo, u, 

89 ihterchanges with ea : ml, eaU, all, all ; m for e is abundant ; 
e for €& frequent ; oe for e frequent. Assimilation of wo < «re, 



V 



CONSONANTS. 15 

trw< w, is found: wosa^ Anglo-Saxon pesan^ to be; wutta^ Aw- 
glo-Saxon piVan, to know; also uKil: «t<(/*, Anglo-Saxon $ilf^ 
self; sidfer^ Anglo-Saxon seolfor^ Gothic siluhr^ silver. 

a is often written aa; it exchanges with ^; is a progression 
of a, ea, before liquids, sb is found written aae. e is seldom 
i-umlaut of ^, is used sometimes for ed (lautverschiebung), oft- 
ener for vb^ Gothic ^, oftenest for ed. 6e is i-umlaut of 6^ or 
represents Anglo-Saxon ^ not umlaut. 

ea interchanges with eo, a favorite sound which displaces 
sometimes Anglo-Saxon 6, L ea interchanges with e6, io for 
ed is frequent ; ea for (Jb. There are found ai for % ei for ^ or 
i^, €u for 6^, and oi. 

27. Consonants. — ^The stream of breath is stopped in speech 
in three main ways : by contact between the root of the tongue 
and the palate (a round surface against a hollow one), the tip of 
the tongue and the teeth (a sharp against a flat surface), and the 
upper and lower lips (two flat surfaces). If a sonant breath be 
stopped, the sonant letters, g guttural, d dental, h labial, are pro- 
duced. If we blow instead of breathe, a slight change is made 
throughout the vocal organs : viz., the glottis is thrown open, the 
chords no longer sound, and the shape which the organs take at 
the places where they meet and part is varied : hence the smooth, 
surd letters, c{k) guttural, t dental, p labial. These are mutes. 
If the breath be not wholly stopped, continuous letters, i guttu- 
ral (palatal), d and English z dental, (English v) and p labial, are 
made ; or, if the stream be blown, h guttural, Jb, «, dental, /*, hp^ 
labial. If, when the breath is stopped, the veil be raised which 
separates the nose from the pharynx, the resonance of the nasal 
cavity gives n in ng guttural, n dental, m labial ; / and r are 
trills. Each consonant stands for two sounds : viz., the closing 
of the organs, ap; and the opening of the organs, ^:)a. For a 
fourth kind of stop, see Assibilation, § 34. 

1. A stop of the first kind, which will pass for a g^ may be made any 
where from the very root of the tongue forward to the middle of the mouth. 
Some nations make their g in one place, some in another. Further for- 
ward it becomes impossible to stop with a humped tongue, and the tip comes 
into play. This may be touched, so as to make a <?, any where from the 
front ^'-stop, or even further back, to the meeting of the teeth. Just where 
g and d run into each other is i consonant (English y). Some tribes count 
gutturals and dentals as all one. The Sandwich Islanders have to be taught 
to tell c from <, and possibly the Roman populace may have had a similar 
habit. See Assibilation, ^ 34. 



16 GUTTURi\XS. 

2. h,p, d,fs are pronounced as spirants, but are, historically, representa- 
tives of cA, tht dhj phf which were once pronounced as separate letters (e. 
g.f ck as kh in work-house), and hence are called rough or aspirate mutes, 
a name retained in historical grammar by their representatives. See Tabic, 
^ 17. 

3. r is described as a trill of the uvula in the Northumberland burr, and 
of the tip of the tongue in English and German ; / as a trill of the side 
edges of the tongue No trill is heard in English in America. In r the tip 
of the tongue is raised and moved slightly while the breath is poured over 
it. In I the tip is raised to the dental stop, and the breath issues freely be- 
tween its sides and the cheeks. 

4. Gemination is the doubling of a consonant. Physiologically it arises 
from an analysis of a consonant by which the sound made in closing the stop 
is united with the foregoing vowel, and that made by opening is united with 
the following vowel. Or it arises from combining two complete consonants, 
i. e., shutting and opening the organs twice : bacA;-A:itchen. The last is sel- 
dom heard in English. Historically it springs from gravitation (^ 38) or as- 
similation (^ 35). It is most common with liquids and 8, A real gemination 
can not occur at the beginning or the end of a word, nor before a second 
mute, nor is it easy after a long vowel. For the orthographic rule in Anglo- 
Saxon, see ^ 20, Rule 13. Double g is written eg, double /, bb, 

5. Dissimilated Gemmation, — When gemination of a nasal (m, n) would 
occur before I or r, the trill calls for so much breath thatr we drop the nasal 
veil, and that changes the latter half of 7n into h, of n into d. In some 
other cases a continuous consonant or vowel is dissimilated for force of utter- 
ance : ss^st, mm^mp, nn^nt, i^ig, u or p'^up, are found ; spindel 
<^sptnl ; timber<Cttmr, Goth, timrj an. §^28,36,81. 

28. Gutturals (Palatals) : c^ </, /i, z, n, c has given place in 
English before e, «, y, to k (a graphic change merely) or to ch 
(Assibilation, § 34). This ch appears in late manuscripts, and the 
assibilation was doubtless begun in the folkspeech earlier; but 
the new sound does not show in the alliteration, and should not 
be given for Anglo-Saxon c. The assibilation of fic> English sA, 
is excluded for similar reasons, cf^ht, §36; c^>cc, § 37; 
c^=:^<7, §37; sc = aj, § 51. 

g comes into English as g in go, give ; as dg in edge (Assibi- 
lation, § 34) ; as y in youth. It stands in the place of^* (= En- 
glish y) of other languages in three places: (1.) Beginning the fol- 
lowing words : g^, ye ; gedr, g^r, year ; gedra, yore ; gedc, yoke ; 
gedgud, youth ; gedl, yule ; geo7id, yond ; geong, young ; gesc, 
yes ; gist, yeast ; git, yet. Compare Sanskrit juvan, Latin jure- 
nis, Gothic jugg, German Jimg, Norse 'Cl7igr, Anglo-Saxon geo9ig, 
iu7ig, English yozmg. 



DENTALS. 17 

(2.) Within words in the place of i {=j) before a vowel in in- 
flection : nerian = nergan^ to save ; inserted : Itifte = lufige^ love ; 
ge inserted : eardian = eardigean^ to till. 

(3.) Final for i: hiizzzhig^ they. 

All these changes seem natural if g in these yrords be pronounced as the 
EngUsh y. It is certain that these xvords were at all times often so pro- 
nounced : we find iung in Anglo-Saxon as well as geong, nerian as well as 
nergan. But words like geong alliterate abundantly in Anglo-Saxon poe- 
try wit)^ words beginning with g hard, and not with other kinds of words be- 
ginning with to, ta, or another vowel ; while in Norse the words beginning 
with i, j, aUiterate only with vowels. It seems certain, therefore, that this 
ge sounded more like a hard g than like e or i before a vowel, which was 
nearly the English y. It is better to accept the fact that a guttural breath- 
ing was inserted between the vowels of lufie by those who wrote lufige, than 
to soften out the ^ to try to simplify the phonology ; g and j run into each 
other. Words in g hard in Anglo-Saxon run into y in Old English, and re- 
turn tp g in English : forgitan^ foryeten^ forget ; gifan^ yeven^ give ; geaU 
yatBi gate, etc. These are dialectical variations, but real differences of 
sound. In Anglo-Saxon g had such sounds as in modern. German. 

h represents the guttural rough {ch) and the simple breathing. 
They were both in the folkspeech originally ; both are now given 
in the dialects of England. The guttural is not, however, recog- 
nized as separate in alliteration or otherwise in the literature of 
the Anglo-Saxons any more than in the English, apd may be omit- 
ted from the literary, though not from the compt^rative grammar 
of both. It is sounded in initial A/, An, hr, hyg, h >jp, § 35, 
3 ; A < ^, § 35, 4, ^ ; ht < ct^ § 36, 3 ; h dropped. Apocope, § 44 ; 
Ecthlipsis, § 47. x producing breaking = ?is. 

i consonant goes into </, from the most forward utterances of 
which it is distinguished by being not so tight a stop. It is found 
sometimes, especially in foreign proper names, alliterating with g, 
and should then be pronounced like g. 

XL in we, ng (Goth. Greek gg)^ is the English guttural nasal, 

29. Dentals {LinguaU) : t^ J, J[>, ef, «, /, r^n. t < e^, § 36, 
5 ; <t(t^% 35, J$; at < sd; t < J, Assimilation, § 35. 

d for d between two vowels seems to indicjite a disinclination 
to begin a syllable with d: ld<,ld; dd<^di^ § 37: d and p are 
not uniformly used in any of the manuscripts ; there were cer- 
tainly two sounds, as in English. The uniform use of jb beginning 
words and d elsewhere is calligraphic, not orthographic. The 
real sounds may yet be made out; compare §§ 194, a; 41, (3). 
English surds indicate A.-Sax. surds, unless they spring from otiicr 

B 



18 LABIALS.— NORTHUMBRIAN CONSONANTS. 

dialects than those which had most influenced the Anglo-Saxon. 
Assimilation by ^, § 35 ; breaking by Z, r, § 32. 

r <«, § 41 ; apocope of r, § 44 ; metathesis of r, § 61. 

8 and z undistinguished, but see § 189, h. n, Ecthlipsis, § 47. 

30. Labials : jt>, h^f^p^ m. p begins only words of foreign 
origin, b changes to /in the middle and end of words, exqept 
mb and hb < hi. The Old Saxon, Friesic, and Norse have the 
same tendency to change the middle mute labial b to the contin- 
nous f in the middle of words, i. e., not to close the mouth tight- 
ly between two vowels. The Old Saxon and Friesic have both 
surd and sonant continuous forms,/ and English v. This Anglo- 
Saxon/is written w {v) sometimes {Jdiuade^ B., 1799), and it has 
changed in English to v : heauod^ heafod^ head ; heofon^ heaven ; 
pidf^prdfds^ wolf, wolves. The folkspeech had a sonant contin- 
uous labial, and it may be distinguished in the weak verbs. See 
§ 189, b. The runic p is like the English w, but must have varied 
in the dialects as it does now in England. In initial _pZ,pr (often 
parasitic), and at the end of words, it must have been spoken 
with a nearer approach to closing the mouth. Bede represents it 
in Latin by vu^ the Normans by gu; the parasitic v, g plainly in- 
dicate a vigorous utterance. It changes to u when final and pre- 
ceded by a consonant : bealu^ genitive bealpes^ bale. Latin u and 
V were the same letter; the present separation of them was com- 
pleted only in the 18th century, w is of German origin ; it had 
come into common use in Semi-Saxon. Assimilation of j> and m, 
§ 35, 2 ; mm < me, § 37, 2. 

31. Northumbrian Consonants: 

(1.) Gutturals. — c and g interchange: finger^ fincer^ finger; 
dringes, he drinks; ce and/?; getreiiad -=. getryccad ; C^h^ 
c^ch^ see h, g assimilates a preceding e or ^ to ei: deign^ 
Anglo-Saxon pegn^ thane ; weig^ Anglo-Saxon peg^ way ; in such 
cases there may be ecthlipsis of g: maedfen, Anglo-Saxon mseg- 
den, maiden ; or ^ > A ; ffteih, Anglo-Saxon fftig, fifty ; g<.p: 
drtga, Anglo-Saxon pripa, three; g and i consonant have the 
same relations as in Anglo-Saxon, h. — Prothesis of h is found 
in hedld, old, etc.; often before I and r : hlddia, to lead; hroue, 
row ; apothesis in Idfe, Anglo-Saxon hldf, loaf, etc. Ecthlipsis 
between vowels is the rule, and occurs elsewhere. c>A and 
<7> A, with a change of the h to ch, are common at the end of 
words : Anglo-Saxon mee > meh^ mech, me ; occasional within 
words : micil, mihil, michU, much. Beda uses ct for ht. 



EUPHONIC CHA^iGES.— UMLAUT. 19 

(2.) Dentals. — t for d is found: heafot^ head; apocope in 
second singular of verbs : sliepes (M^ sleepst thou. Apocope of 
d is common : Tuelen < hielend^ savior ; assimilation of Id: mor 
nigfaUice^ manifold. There is no p ; d and d interchange: 
dagds^ dagds^ days ; brddoTy brddoVy brother, Ecthlipsis of d 
occurs when the pronoun dtt^ thou, agglutinates with its verb: 
sprecestu for sprecest dily thou speakest. d final changes to s: ^ ^ ^g 
cuoedas <cuoedady they se^y. d';;>z: ^eser^, baptist. Liquids, — ^^^t^ 
Apocope of n is the rule in the infinitive, and frequent elsewhere; 
ecthlipsis before d^ /, «, as in Anjglo-Saxon. Metathesis of r is 
more common than in Anglo-Saxon; ecthlipsis occura in by- 
gen < hyrgen^ tomb ; epenthesis in efem^ evening, and its com- 
pounds. Metathesis of 1 and of n occurs. 8 < df, see over. 

(3.) Labials. — b suffers apocope: dum^ dumb, etc.; b<if: 
feber^ Anglo-Saxon fefor^ fever, i^u and vb: diouly dioubol, 
Anglo-Saxon deofbl^ devil, where u is perhaps English v. For 
p are written \i^ \m^ w. Initial p before w, and sometimes oCy is 
left imwritten : tdfz=zuulf^\7o\i\ oeg =:iDoeg^wSiy. Prothesis is 
found : woxo, ox ; and epenthesis : suundet'^ sunder. Initial hti^ 
«w, do not contract with a following vowel, as in Anglo-Saxon, 
except the parts of cuma^ cuman^ come. Ecthlipsis of w occurs 
before oe: coed^ quoth; and between two vowels; final it be- 
comes a vowel, or drops, or changes to ^. 

The manuscripts are late, and the whole aspect of the dialect 
indicates a revolutionary period of speech. 



EUPHONIC CHANGES. 

VARIATION. 

32. Umlaut is a change of vowel through the influence of 
a, i > ^, OB u^ in the following syllable. 

The conception of a sound tends to put the vocal organs in a position to 
utter it. We conceive the later sounds in a word while yet speaking the 
former ; hence the tendency to utter a sound between the two. No umlaut 
shows in Gothic. Old H. German has most a-umlaut ; Norse, u-umlaut. 

(l.) 2L-umlaut, — ^The conception of a coming a aflfects the ut- 
terance of /, so as to produce the intermediate sound 6 / so it 
changes utoo: hdpan < root hilp^ help ; boga < root bug^ bow. 
It sometimes changes i to eo : nid^ neodan^ neath ; leofad^ live. 



20 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— B^BEAKING.—ASSIBILATION. 

Vumlaut chaDges a, &, 6, u, ea, eo, ty e&, ed, 
to e, A, 6, y, y, y, % % f, 

», «, are between a and t ; o is from a (^ 38) ; y is between u and t ; ea, 
eo have parasitic u (^ 33) ; «a, eo haye radical u (^ 38) ; and when the um- 
laut was established u was the effective sound in all. For examples, see 
^^ 807, 211, 208, 204, 208 (2), 208 (6), 206, 208 (3), 206. When an old t 
is lost, its umlaut is called concealed: f6t,fei(i), foot, feet, ^ 84. Umlaut 
stopped in secondary forms, whose primary have it, is ruckumlautf ^ 189, d, 

(3.) xtrunUatU, — ^A comiDg u often changes aio ea (ia) (nearly 
o in Bound), itoeo (io) for iu: becdUy Old H. German balOy bale; 
beaduy O. H. German JBadu-^ battle ; meolucj O. H. German miluCy 
milk ; aeofim^ Gothic sibiaiy seven. 

33. Breaking is the change of one vowel to two by a conso- 
nant 

The consonants most difficult to make, the trills /, r, and the gutturals c, 
gy h, are often accompanied by an involuntary sympathetic movement of 
other parts of the organs, which produces what may be called a parasitic 
sound — ^the lip semi-vowel u, /?, or the palatal t. Americans hear the para- 
sitic t in the Southern cear for car, gearden for garden ; the u in hear, leer. 
The ^-«c-breakings are produced by a parasitic t>e, the A-/-r-breakings by 
a ti>o, a. The A-/-r-breaking ea oflenest stands where there should be 
umlaut e<^a, or shifting a?<a, and the a of ea represents the parasitic sound. 
Labial assimilation has the effect of u ; sometimes of t by conformation. 
Analogous effects are traced here and there through all languages. Compare 
^^ 34^35, 2,^50. 

(1.) 1, Tf hy oflenest before a consonant, break foregoing a to 
ea (ia), i to eo {to) : sealnij psalm ; eamiy arm ; Tdeahtor^ laugh- 
ter; (second consonant dropped), €aZ < ^o//, all ; m^ar<mearhy 
mare; (single h dropped), sledn <, sleahauj slay; meokj milk; 
early earl ; leoht^ light. For ea^ eo, sometimes ie occurs. 

(2.) m,yf,Py and w-umlaut have the same effect, § 35, 2, a; § 32. 

(3.) g-8C-breaking has a slight *-sound between c (sc), ^, or 
p, and a vowel after it: cea«^< Latin castruniy camp; seedy 
shoe; geadoTy together; {peota<pitay wise man). It may be 
found before a, o, e, <j, ^, ^. 

34. Assibilation is the assimilation of a dental or guttural 
with a following i-sound. It gives rise, among many striking 
facts, to a fourth set of letters, made by turning the inverted tip 
of the tongue up to the hard palate, § 27. Such a stop, when 
blowing, produces tsh {fch in fetch) ; when breathing, dzh {dg 
in edge) ; if the stop be not complete, it produces, when blowing, 
8h in shaU; when breathing, zh {zi in glazier). 



EUPHONIC CHANGES.— ASSIBHiATION. 21 

1. Historical. — ^These Bounds are not recognized in the Parent Speech, 
Latin, Greek, Gothic,^ or other most ancient alphabets; and hence, though 
they are now found ahnost all the world over, they are generally represented 
by combinations of the earlier letters, and treated as compound consonants. 
They seem as a matter of fact to have been contrivances to take the place 
of certain difficult combinations of the simpler sounds. Among the Indo- 
European languages, the Slavonic have most assibilation ; the descendants 
of the Latin come next. 

It was common in the folkspeech of Rome ; ci interchanges with H be- 
fore a, o, Ui in the oldest remains of Latin. It is not certain whether this 
springs from a dialectic adoption of the imperfect articulation common every 
where among children, or from some peculiarity of the Roman populace, e.g.^ 
one like that of the Sandwich Islanders (^ 27, 1). When the Germans were 
sifted over the Romanic regions, the chaos of language favored the assibi- 
lations, and they spread in various modifications over Europe, as far as the 
Romanic speech had influence. 

The English has the following : 

Dentals, — Xi^tsh: Anglo-Saxon /<?/ta»> English /eteA; Latin ques- 

tionis > English question, 
Latin natura > English nature, ( English u=i+u,) 
ti> *A : Latin nationis^ English nation, 
6i^dzh: Latin io/u^Wt^]> English soldier; Latin modulo- 

tionis'^ English modulation. 
8i> sh : Latin pensionis > English pension ; Latin securus'^ 

English sure, 
si (= zy)^zh : Latin thesaurus > English treasure, 
si^zh: Anglo-Saxon grasian > English graze ^grazier. 

Gutturals, — ci > tsh : Latin caslrum > Angltf- Saxdn ceaster > English 

Chester ( Win- chester) ; Anglo-Saxon fecian^fetian > En- 
glish fetch, 

oiy> sh: Latin <?ceflnttj> English ocean. o>j: Jjatin ci- 
vt/i5> English civil, 

see ^ sh : Anglo-Saxon scacan ^ sceacan y> English shake. 

BCi'^s: Latin «c2>n/ta]> English science, 

elL'^dzh: Anglo-Saxon ecg (stem e^)>English edge; Latin 
generis > English gender. 

gi>y; Gothic gards: Anglo-Saxon ^eflr<f> English yard. 

i ^ dzh : Latin iocus ^ Italian gioco ^ English joke. 

The beginnings of the following are in Anglo-Saxon : sc before a and 
has often changed to see in the oldest manuscripts : sceacan for scacan, shake. 
The sound of sh for sc in O. H. German first appears in the eleventh cen- 
tury, and afterward rules in High German. As for the Low German, sh is 



22 EUPHONIC CHAKGEa— ASSIMILATION. 

not yet in Duteh, but in Pktt-Deutach it has become comtaDn as in English. 
There is no indication in the alUterstion that ace ia proDouDced eh, not can 
it be received as current literary speech. In the Anglo-Saxon of the elev- 
enth century, ch for c begins to appear: chUd<^eiid, child. This is also 
oatside of the literary speech, and springs from foreign (French) influence. 
The other changes are still later, and more purely Romanic in their source. 
The only Geitotan assibilation is $h, and that is later than classic Anglo-Saxon. ■ 

S. Phtbio LOGICAL. — (a.) Aisiiilation of Dentals. — t-|-i: Hon in ques- 
lion. Trying to sonnd to as one syllable tends to change i to y. In f the 
tip of the tongue is pressed to the upper gum, and the voice blown ; in y tho 
tip of the tongue ia dropped to the lower gum, and the middle is humped up 
toward the palate, and the voice breathed. In ttix the lip is inverted and 
turned up to the hard palate, and the voice blon'n. This ia a compromise in 
two points of view, — as to the place of Iha stop (between the (-stop and the 
y-stop), snd aa to the Idnd of stop (inverted tongue against hard palate — a 
roundish against a flatish surface ; see ^ 27) ; but it is not a mechanical re- 
sult of an attempt to go rapidly through t-\-y; it is a quite new way to make 
a sound which the ear will accept as a substitute for the two. The explana- 
tion of d-i-i Uoldier) Is the same, except that tho voice in d and in (&A is 
breathed instead of blown. The explanation of $-|-i {pension), and of z-\-i 
(grazier), is the same as that of t-\-i and d+i, except that in these last 
the stop is not complete either in blowing s and sh, or breathing z and zh. 
In the change of ace to sh, the C goes to h, and only gives strength to the 
compromise of s -|- y. 

(_b.) The English Assibilation of Gutturals, as though denials, springs 
from defective articulation. The root of the tongue never works as easily 
as the more flexible tip. Children say, and Anglo-Saxon children said, Ian 
for can, tin for cin ; and chin Ctshm) is a not unnatural compromise between 
tin and cin. When the organs are placed for y, or i, or e, the hack of the 
mouth makes the narrow neck of a bottle, ^ 33, and it is hard to raise the 
root to make a c (,k) stop. Hence c (k) before y, i, e, is always unstable ; 
and hence a child will learn to say can before cin, and will be more likely 
to compromise on chin than chan. The most natural result, however, of tiia 
difficolty of making this stop is to make an imperfect atop, and give the aspi- 
rate h, ch, instead of C (i), and this tendency has prevailed in the Germanic 
tongues. From this aspirate a foreign influence easily leads to the asaibi- 
lated palatals sh, zh, etc. Aphceresis of g takea place in geard > yard, 
compare ^ 38 ; a paraaitic d (dj) precedes ■', j in Latin words : possibly a 
gnttural g preceded in Italian the present sound of gi as dzh, in gioco<^ 
Latin iocuf, Joke; Gioiic<Latiu love, Jove. Latin proper names of this 
sort alliterate abundantly in Anglo-Saxon poetry with words in g hard. ^ 38. 

35. Assimilation is the act by which letters make each other 
alike. It includes breaking and umlaut, aa well as a^sibilatioD. 
Other clianges of this kind are called assiniilatioD in a narrower 




EUP1I015J1C CHANGES.— assimilation; 28 

(1.) A vowel may assimilate with a vowel, (a.) Umlaut, § 32. 

(b,) The vowels become the same : peorod^ pered, crowd ; pu- 

dupe^ vidua^ widow ; pelerds, peolords^ Gothic vairilOj lips ; 7ial- 

kis^ neellses < neaHes <,ne + ealles^ not at all. 

(2.) A consonant assimilates a vowel. Consonants of each or- 
gan tend to change adjacent vowels to the vowel of that organ. 

{a.) LahidU put the mouth in such a position that it turns vow- 
el sound to or toward w. The strongest is p. It produces 

a change of pa, pa, (pe), pi, pi, ap, ip, 
to o ; 6 ; (po, u) ; peo ; pu, u ; eap ; eop : 

cpam^ cpdmon > coniy cdmon^ came ; Northumbrian posa, Anglo- 
Saxon pesan^ to be ; pita y-peota^ wise man '^piht ^puht^ whit ; 
d^dp^ dew ; tredp^ Gothic triva^ tree. Compare § 62. Before m 
(n), sometimes a>o, i^eo ; before/ (jo, b), a^ea, i>eo: eamb> 
comb; him^heom ; eq/br>Latin ajoer, boar; ^iya>^6q/a, giver ; 
compare § 32 ; -am^^m^ § VI, ft. Note also the diphthongs, § 26. 
The gutturals c (sc), g, place the organs so as to call out a 
parasitic i-sound (breaking, § 33), while h, and the lingitals 1 
and r, especially when followed by another consonant, had a burr 
(i^sound), which brought a preceding i to eo (§ 23), Northum- 
brian u: silf^sulfy § 26. For %>e6 before A, ^, see § 25. 

In Latin I brings in u most, — ni, b, p, /, sometimes : nebula, vc^eXi} ; 
spatula, airara^ri ; Hecuba, 'Exuprj, The dentals bring in i : machina, lift- 
Xavtj ; Mastnissa, Mnaavdatnig, The r likes e before it : camera, Ka/iapa ; 
cineris<ictnis, 

(3.) A vowel assimilates a consonant, (a.) Assibilation, § 34. 

(b.) Between two vowels a surd may change to a sonant, or 
a mute to a continuous ; A>^, «>r, (t=p>d^ gyp, hp>p, by/: 
sldTiy sMgoriy I slew, they slew ; ceda, curon, chose ; cp«^, cpmdon, 
quoth ; bUgian, bdpian, to dwell ; habban, hafad, have, haveth ; 
for seah, s^e, sdpCy saw, § 197. 

(4.) A consonant assimilates a consonant. This occurs in An- 
glo^axon mainly when, by composition, inflection, or apothesis, 
two consonants are brought together which can not be easily 
pronounced in the same syllable. The most common case is the 
coming together of a surd and sonant. One can not breathe and 
blow at once. 

(a.) When surd and sonant letters are brought together, the 
surd assimilates the sonant. 



24 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— DISSIMILATION. 

A. If the surd follows the sonant, a gemination of the surd is 
produced. In this way jff\ ss^ ssj are sometimes produced from 

bf, dsy ds: offrian K^laXhn oh-^fero^ of- 
fer ; hlUB < htSda^ bltdsj bliss. And by simplifying gemination 
( § 2 7, 5 ), dst^stj dst>8t: cpidst > cpist^ quothest ; hledst > 
hleat^ loadest. 

Exception (1). dp is often written dd^ according to the ortho- 
graphic rule that d is always to be used for j!> within a word : 
6d pe^ 6ppe^ 6dde^ or. (2). ndst changes to ntat^ according to the 
analogy of case JB, through the influence of the n^ which supports 
the d; gs > C5=aj, a favorite letter ; m^ > tw, § 130, c, 

B. If the surd precedes the sonant, the sonant is changed to 
the nearest surd of its own organ. Thus, 

erf, Arf, pd^ fd^ sr^ sd^ sd^ td^ 
to cty ht^ pty ftj 8Sy sty sty tt: 86cde>86cte>8dhte{%dQ)y 
sought; 8tSpde> st^tBy erected; drif{e)d ^diiftydriYethy § 194; 
pisreypissCy of this ; cysdc^cyste^ kissed ; cpsd^cpst^ chooseth ; 
gritde^gr^ttej greeted. After this analogy, g8^c3=x, nd8t> 
ntst: ag8e>axej ashes; stendst^stentst^ standest. 

And by simplifying gemination (§ 27, 5), final td^t^ stdyst: 
blitd>blitj sacrificeth; birstd'^birsty h\xrsteih; and after a con- 
sonant : ihtde'^^htey persecuted. In st^ss in piste'^pissey wist, 
the 8 is strong enough to take an explosive over to its continuous. 

(5.) An explosive consonant before another consonant may 
change to a continuous of the same organ. , 

1. The explosive is a complete stop, and hence it is not easy to make any 
sound but 8 after it in the same syllable. 
3. This fact may work Assimilation or Dissimilation, ^ 36, 3. 

gd^hd; g8t>hst: belge^ bUhst^ bilhd, to be angry; ng stands. 
C8<h8: dc8ie>dhsie,B.ski cd>hd: s^cdf>5^M, seeks, Rask. 

(c.) Before n a surd or an explosive may change to its cognate 
nasal; fwymn^ g^^^ff' nefne^nemne^ unless; stefn^stemn^ 
stem; gefrignan^ gefringan^ to inquire. Compare (a) and (6) 
above. The veil is raised for the n an instant too soon, §§ 27, 28. 

36. DisHiimilation.— -(1.) A vowel may change to a conso- 
nant to avoid the hiatus with another vowel; «*>^, t/>p; ne- 
rian^nergan^ to save; lufian'^lufigari^lujigeany to love; beaXu^ 
genitive bealpesy bealvpes^ baleful. Compare § 27, 6. 

(2.) Between two vowels a continuous sometimes changes to a 
mute ; d'^d: prdd, pridon, I writhed, they writhed, ? § 35, 8, b. 



EUPHONIC CHANGES.— COMPENSATION. 25 

(3.) The former explosive sometimes changes to a continuous 
of the same organ. § 36, 4, 5, 2. hd^fd^ cf^htj gt^hty tty>8t: 
liahban^ hsefde^ have, had; sdcte^sdhte^ sought; dgan^ dhte^ own, 
owned; m6tde^mdtte^m68te^mu'&t\ pittey>pi8tey wist. 

(4.) One of two continuous may become explosive; A5>jb = 
cs? (§ 28, h) : feaXy Old H. German fahsy hair ; Id^M: bealdy 
Gothic hd^8^ bold ; Id seldom occurs : feld^ falleth ; seeJd^ house. 

(5.) The former sonant becomes a surd in ddy^{td'^)t (§35, 
B) in the third singular of verbs (Conformation) : stend(t> stents 
standeth. 

(6.) Successive syllables. — ^In Latin and English, -al and -ar in- 
terchange to keep ^ or r from successive syllables : steUaVy solar^ 
liberal^ literal; so coerulean<C€€elum. The former assibilation is 
often smoothed in America : pronunciation^ § 34. The former 
aspirate is not smoothed in Teutonic as it is in Greek. 

37. Oompensation. — (l.) A consonant is dropped and the 
preceding vowel lengthened at the same time. 1. Before <^,/, «, 
with ecthlipsis of n, a change of a, ^ t, w, y, to ^, ^, ^, ii, p : tdd^ 
Old H. German zand^ Latin dent-is^ tooth ; sdft^ Old H. German 
scnftiy soft ; gds^ Old H. German kans^ goose ; dder^ other ; sdd^ 
sooth ; hdsuy company ; so genMan^ spid^ std^ftf^ User^ cdde, iXde^ 
mitdy hiXsly pd. 2. With ecthlipsis of g^ mostly before n : p^gn^ 
p&n^ wain ; pegn^-p^n^ thane ; regnigy-r^nig^ rainy ; pign^ptn^ 
food ; fsBgr >f&ry fair ; sa^gde > s^de^ said ; ligd > Ud^ lieth ; see 
tdde'^eSdCj went. 3. With apocope of c, g^ A, r: mecym^, me ; 
J!)ec >/?^, thee ; hig^hed {?)y they ; feoh^fed^ fee; g^ {<ger)y 
ye; m^ (<W26r), to mo; p^ {<per)y io thee; p^ (<jper), we. 

(2.) A consonant is doubled and a following vowel dropped at 
the same time ; i is dropped with gemination of a preceding 5, e, 
dyfy g^ l^ ^j ny 8 : habian'^habbany have ; recian^recean^ to rule; 
bidian^biddanyto\yi^\ «pc/2an>^e&^aw, to sleep; ligian^lic-^ 
gan^ to lie ; telian'^teUany to tell ; fremian^fremmany to frame ; 
dynian > clynnan^ to clang ; cnysian > cnyssan^ to knock. 

(3.) After a long root syllable neuter -u drops, and i of stem 
'ia weakens to €, or drops: sician'^ s^ean^ s^can^ to seek. 

1. Speech naturally runs in pulses ; a certain length of time and a certain 
volume of sound is pleasantest between the pauses or accentual beats. The 
tendency of speech to preserve this rhythm by lengthening the remaining let- 
ters when one is dropped, or shortening all letters when a new letter is added, 
is called Compensation, and the name is extended to all adjustments of quanti- 
ty and accent which restore the rhythm after the adding or dropping of letters. 

2. In the pronunciation of Latin according to the English method, an ac- 



26 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— GBAVTTATION. 

cented vowel in any syllable before the penult is shortened in sound, no mat- 
ter what may have been its original quantity ; while such a vowel in the pe- 
nult has the long sound. The same law prevails in the Romanic portion of 
English: brief y briefer ^ brev'-ity ; admire , admi'-rer, mir'-acle<t mirac- 
ulous. The whole body of words conform to what was tlie fact in the larger 
number of Latin words. It shows that a long accented syllable followed by 
two unaccented is more than the natural length of the rhythm. This force 
of compensation is not so plain in the Anglo-Saxon portion of English, and 
we do not know enough of the pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon to trace its ef- 
fects with accuracy. A word with an affix sometimes has a lighter vowel than 
the kindred word without one : Pegn, servant, pignen^ maid-servant ; bera, 
bear, biren^ bearish ; but the change may be (almost) always explained from 
assimilation of some kind. Unaccented syllables show compensation. ^ 46. 

3. When more voice than two short syllables follows an accented syllable, 
the old accent oflen moves forward, or a second accent is given : admire, 
admird'-tion; mir-acle^mirdc-ulous; leg'-ible, leg'-tbit-ttt/. This law 
is to be seen most clearly in the Romanic portion of English. 

4. Compensation acts in connection with Gravitation. ^ 38. 

38. Gravitation is the tendency of sounds to accentual cen- 
ters. It is seen in the lengthening of accented syllables, and the 
lightening and final disappearance of unaccented syllables. It 
goes on in all languages. 

A, Vowels. — Rule I. Progression, — ^Under the accent the 
simple vowels a, *, w, lengthen by prefixing a and d. 

Mixed vowels and breakings move to their latter element ; diphthongs ea, 

eo, and all whose former vowel is long, move to their former vowel : e (fl+0» 

>i; <? (a+M)>ti; y (w+0>»> ^a> ea^a, 6; eo, eo>w, 6; diphth. ca>e, 

etc. ; eo<t, ea<jiUy oflen go to e, %^ 203, 204, 41, 33. 

(a.) Accentaal effort opens to the o-ehape the neck of the bottle shaped for i or u, 9 22 ; 
too mnch a weakens to u or i; afuOxMU, 6, etc. ; «o<i, eo, are in unstable equilibrium. 

Rule II. Precession, — In an unaccented syllable the progres- 
sion of simple vowels is reversed ; also a goes to o, i«, or ?, then 
to ^; i goes to ^y w to o and ^/ ^ disappears. 

(1.) In the Parent Speech were the following series : 

a, a+azzzdy d+a=zda. i, ae, di, u, aw, du. 

In Anglo-Saxon the following series are found : 

Descending. Ist term. Ascending. 

Orseries ; 5 i, u a, «, o a, i^, ^ 6 

irseries: e i la 

i^series: § o u eo, tl ea 

Ascending: ^ nam '^ndmon^ they took; hrdder (Sanskrit 
bhrdtd^ Latin frdter)^ brother ; ^Uegy Idgon^ Ubgon^ they lay ; 



EUPHONIC CHANGES.— GRAVITATION. 27 

scdW^ shone ; y'«c*w> sc^nan^ scdn^ shine, shone ; '^lug^ Udgan^ 
ledg^ lie, lied; ^ 8uc';;:> sHcaUy «e<:^, suck, sucked; «c^n> shine 
^English tz=d+i) ; wt2«> mouse (English ouz=zd+u) ; tMy>teei]\ 
(c6=C); td(t "^ tooth (oo^zii) ; hpran^hea,T {ea=t)i m^5>mice 
{p>t>d+i); bealdy>h6\di 6a/>all; scedtan';;^ shoot; bedm^ 
beam; 5€<^>bee. 

Descending: ^luf^lufCde^ Ivf^dde^ luf'ude^ lufede^ loved; 
ptdgal^ptdgil^ ptdgd^ wide spiread ; landsceap^ landscipe^ land- 
scape ; Apri'lis^ A'preliSy April ; (Gothic marei^ Old H. German 
mart) mere^ mere (sea) ; (Sanskrit madhu) meodw^meodo^ Old 
English m^{7^>mead. Here also belong many forms of verbs 
now accented, but formerly unaccented : hinde^ hundenK, ^hand^ 
bind, bound; for a fuller explanation of which, see Ablaut^ 158 ; 
also nearly all the affixes of declension and conjugation, for which 
see Etymology, as referred to in the Index. 

(2.) The changes in the Anglo-Saxon series may be compared with Rules 
I. and II. and changes in other languages given on page 8, ^ 18 : a>a?, o, 
lautverschiebung as in Greek and Latin ; d>^, ^, same ; da>du (Rule I.) 
>6 (Greek and Latin); ai>% Rule I. (Latin); di>d. Rule I. (Greek); 
au^fX (Rule I., Latin) ; aw>^w (Rule I. Greek tvY^ed by a-umlaut in 
stems of verbs and nouns, and by conformation elsewhere (^ 33, 40), San- 
skrit has 6, Friesic ia ; 4w > 4» > d» > ^d metathesis to breaking to con- 
form with ed (Friesic d) . The descending series already shows itself in San- 
skrit in changing atou and i; i and u to ^ was not yet in Gothic. See 
^ 23, e. In Latin and the Romanic part of English, a in open syllables 
goes to i; before r, to e; in close syllables, to e; before I, to u; e oflen 
goes to if but before r or in close syllables it remains ; facio^ efficio, efficient ; 
pater, Jupiter ; pario, aperio, aperient ; damno, condemno, condemn ; salto, 
exsulto, exult ; lego, (^t/i^a, diligent ; tnfero, infer ; correctum, correct. (Lat- 
in accent originally on the prefix. ^41,4.) 

(3.) The changes from Anglo-Saxon to English take a new start, and are 
wholly analogous to the original series of the Parent Speech. 

(4.) The first lengthening of ^ and u by progression is called guna (mas- 
culine strength), a term of Sanskrit grammar ; the second is called vriddhi 
feminine increment). 

(5.) The various kinds of assimilation and sound-shifling work together 
with progression ; the result of the whole upon the vowel system of the An- 
glo-Saxon is shown in the summary on page 7. 

-5, From Gravitation also springs (a) the gemination of a con- 
sonant ending an accented syllable : the common cases have been 
mentioned under Compensation (§ 37) ; (b) also the dropping of 
consonants in unaccented syllables, and some weakenings, § 41, 5. 



28 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— MIMETIC CHANGES.— SHIFTING. 

30. Ablaut. — See Etymology. 

40. Mimetic Ohanges are those occurriog through the in- 
flaoDce of other words. § 158. 

1. Conformation, — The words of all languages show a disposition to con- 
form in inflection to the majority. The Anglo-Saxon nouns have gone over 
to a single declension in English ; and the strong verbs, one after another, 
go over to the inflection of the weak. 

3. Simulation. — ^The feigning a connection with words of similar sound is 
an important fact in English and other modern languages : asparagus >spar' 
row grass. It probably had just as full play in ancient speech, but its effects 
can not be so surely traced. See carC'Cm, ^ 229 ; fr&, ^ 254. 

3. Bifurcation is the separation of a word into two : borne, bom ; truth, 
troth; toake^ watch; flour, flower ; balsam, balm. There are hundreds of 
words in English produced by this kind of fissiparons generation. Where it 
is produced by a foreign word coming into English in different ways, it has 
been called Dimorphism : ration, reason, 

4. The law of contrast also operates to sunder different words of similar 
sound, especially if one of the words have odious associations : grocer < 
grosser; cucumber Kcowcumber; boiKbile, 

41. Shifting {Zautverschidmng) is a change of sound not due 
to other sounds in the language. Changes in climate or modes 
of life, mixing nations of different stocks, ease of utterance, and 
more obscure causes, affect the adjustment of the vocal organs to 
the mind, and so shift the speech of nations. The current corre- 
sponding sounds in several of the Indo-European languages are 
given on page 8. 

(l.) Vowels. — ^There was a gradual weakening of the vowels in 
the ancient languages. The Sanskrit a shifts to a, e, o, in Greek, 
and to a, 6, ^, o, Uy in Latin ; u shifts to o ; i to ^. Ease of ut- 
terance and consonant assimilation work together for close vowels. 

This movement is modified by assimilation, compensation, and gravitation, 
but in long periods the shifting is plain ; a Weakened vowel can seldom be 
found in Sanskrit where the full form is in Greek or Latin. The short vow- 
els are not found to shift in comparing one Teutonic tongue with another. 
The movement of the long vowels is found on page 8. Within the Anglo- 
Saxon we have referred to this shifting in speaking of a>a3, a>o, ^> ^, 
iB>^,ed>^,e6'> t, ea>e, eo>e. 

(2.) Consonants to Vowels. — ^In the table, ^'>e, v>w, are noted in 
Anglo-Saxon ; they occur also in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, etc. \l^u and 
Z> e are common in the Romanic languages : Latin co/Zt/m > French col > 
cou, neck ; Latin planus > Italian piano, plane. Compare ^ 35, 3, b. The 
movement is sometimes reversed, as when a nation moves northward, or 
northern peoples mix with a vowel-speaking race : Anglo-Saxon g^i, ^ 34. 



EDPHOHIC CHANGES— SHrPTDIG. 29 

(3,) CoiTsoNANTS TO CoNsONASTs. — Regular shifting ia to weak- 
er consonants : gutturals to palatals, labials, dentals ; smootli to 
middle; rough to middle. Surd to sonant, muto to coatinuons, 
§ 35, 3, 6. 

A. Shifting to a co-ordinate consonant — (a.) One Bmooth mute 
to another : Xvko^, Latin lupus, woli^ (b.) One middle to another : 
yKvKvc (metathesis), Latin dulcia, sweet, (c.) Rough to rough. 
((/.) Spii-ant to spirant : geseah, geaepen, saw, seen (§ 35, 3, b) ; fj/ii, 
Latin semi, (e.) Liquid to liquid : Latin minus, Gothic asihia, 
Anglo-Saxou esol, ass ; German kind, Anglo-Saxon cild^ child ; 
Latin prunu7n, Anglo-Saxon pluma, plmn. These shiftings are 
occasional, or dialectic. 

Ji. Shifiing to another consonant of the same class: 

(a.) Grimm's Law, lautverschiehung by eminence (see § 19). 
With the progreaa of the Teutonic tribes northwestward they 
came to use for each smooth mute the corresponding rough, for a 
rough the corresponding middle, for a middle the corresponding 
smooth. This first shift is believed to have been completed dur- 
ing the third century ; and here the Gothic, the Anglo-Saxon and 
other Low Germanic, and the Scandinavian languages rested. 

The High German went on, and shifted in the same way a sec- 
ond time ; so that since the seventh century it stands in the same 
relation to the other Teutonic languages that they do to the rest 
of the Indo-European family. 

GoxrtTEALs: k(c)>ch(h)>g? (h): 1.^1. caput, A.-Snx. heaf- 
od,he^i,0.'H..Ger.houpit; ch(h)>g>k: Lat. Ao»io, A.-Sax. 
^(jna, man, O.H. Ger. /romoy g>k(o)>oh(Il) : Lat. e^o, A.- 
Sax. w, I, O.H. Ger. z'A." Dbntalb: t>th, dh>d: Lat. /j-cs, 
A.-Sax.J!)rt, three, O.H.Ger. rfn/ d>t>th?(z)i hat. dentis, 
A.-Sax.fM, tooth, O.H.Ger.za7i(?/ th(Lal.f)>d>t: e^p,Lat. 
/erffl,A.^a!c. deiir, deer>0. H. Ger. fi'or. — Labials: p>f>l3? 
(f): hat. pedis, A.-8ax.fdt, foot, O.'S.GeT. fitoz; b>p>f: 
Lat. cannabis, A.-Sax. henep, hemp, O. H. Ger. hanaf; f > b>p : 
'Ls.t. f rater, A.-Sax. brSder, brother, 0. H. Ger. ^uodar. 



(a.) The cLaD|{e oT rintsh mntn 
Uthoaulc, CslUc, Bud not tnfreqi 
DBS of parasitic h) le occaeloi 
Irteb. That of™ 



In Si 



mlctSIt is a rcgnlur weakening In Baclrlan, SIbtodIc, 
1 in Greek and LaUn. Tbot of siioQth to rougk ifi\e 
ikill, Fsrslau, Greek, Lathi, and nbundanl In Old 
pecnllnr to the Teutonic, ai " 



to IiRBr forelgnera nae It freely Id talking Englleb. GormsDi and 
Cells nee more enrd breath and lees luiiiant than we. Their g.b.d ma heard ai k,p,t, 
Ihelr *, p, t aa atplralea. "K(h)il] the poje," Bays Flnollen (Hen. v., it., T). Thl« snggBBta 
the hypothBBis thit CultB adopted the ppeech of invadhig Teutons, that their Celtic proniiii- 
clntlon of it as heard hy the Tcntona became current, and that cllmalie influcncee and u!- 



80 FIGURATIOX.— APH-a:RESIS. 

llteration made the chaDge thorough. The Teutonic instinct for preserving distinctions 
helped, since, when the rough weakened to middle, they would incline to change the old 
middles to preserve the correlation. There are many exceptions to Grimm's Law : 1. A 
letter is often fixed by combination with another: d \n nd. Id; t ia at, htf/L 2. Rough kJi, 
ph, often early changed to continuous h, /, and rested, S 27, 2. The whole shifting of the 
High German gutturals and labials is thus disturbed. The corresponding letters, as oftenest 
found, may be seen in 6 19. 

(b.) Other cases of shifting may be i > g, h > g, strengthen- 
ings in Anglo-Saxon and elsewhere ; g > h, d > 8, 8 > r, d > 1, 
b>f > V, common weakenings. Most of the cases in Anglo- 
Saxon have been referred to in §§ 35, 36. 

(4.) Accent. — There are three systems of accentuation : Ist, 
the grammatical^ in which the accent is given to that syllable 
which last modifies the general notion, i. e., to the afiSxes and pre- 
fixes of inflection ; 2d, the rhythmical^ in which the accented syl- 
lable is determined by the nutfiber and quantity of the syllables 
in the word ; 3d, the logical^ in which the accented syllable is the 
first of those expressing the main notion, i. e., the root syllable or 
a prefix of composition defining it. The earliest Indo-European 
languages are least straitened by any one system ; but the first is 
in its greatest vigor ; the Sanskrit acute may be given to any 
part of a word. The Greek and Latin came under the rhythmical 
influence, and in the classical time used the acute only on one of 
the three last syllables. The Teutonic languages became alto- 
gether logical, § 15. This shifting of accent is a fundamental fact 
in the explanation of Ablaut and many other phonetic facts in 
Anglo-Saxoti and all other Indo-European langunges. 



FIGURATION. 

42. The dropping of sounds is mostly connected with gravita- 
tion (§ 38). Adding of sounds without change of sense is rare; 
but the shifting of accent (§ 41, 4), or the handing over a word 
to a race with different habits of speech, or even the bringing to- 
gether by syncope or ecthlipsis of diflScult combinations of let- 
ters occasionally calls for euphonic additions. Prosthesis is most- 
ly gemination (§ 27, 4), or parasitic (§ 33), or conformation with 
similar words in which the added letter is significant. Metathesis 
is mostly euphonic and dialectic. 

43. Aph8Bre8is is found of unaccented e, ge; of o in en; of 
h in A/, hriy hr^ and elsewhere ; of p in pl^pr^pu: bisceop < Lat. 
episcopus^ bishop ; pistol < Lat. epiatola^ epistle ; gdtc > like ; 
gecldddd > j/clad > clad ; cne(5>knee; hldf^ lonf; hnappung 



APOCOPE.— SYNCOPE.— PROTHESIS.—EPENTHESIS. 31 

> napping ; hraefn > raven (§ 31) ; ymn < Lat. hymnus^ hymn ; 
pli^ > lisp ; prdtan^ root. 

44. Apocope is found of all syllables of inflection. The vow- 
els go to ^ and drop ; c and r in the pronouns, and g^ A, m, w, «, 
may drop. See Declension and Conjugation. 

45. Elision is found of the stem vowel €, ^, and of final e when 
two words arei drawn together : secean > s^auy seek ; pergian^ 
per^aw, damn; c/ymayi> c^ynnaw, clang ; Mtoi<5e+^tow, but; 
ndn <ne-\- dn^ none ; ndbba^i < ne + habban^ not have ; ^jiB5 < 
7ie +psRSy was not. 

46. Syncope is found of an unaccented stem vowel before 
ly n, r; less often before c?, <ty8t; sometimes before c, g^ m^p^ 
and other consonants ; oftenest when the consonant is followed 
by a syllable of inflection : engel^ englds^ angel, angels ; heofon^ 
heofnesy heaven, heaven's ; pinter^ pintres^ winter, winter's ; 
dem{e)dey deemed ; haef{e)sty hsBf{e)d^ hast, hath ; mimeO wiwwc, 
monk; hdlig^ hdiges,' holy ] md(t{u)my gem; pid{e)p$y widow; 
cpiC^cuCy quick (?). Syncope often brings on ecthlipsis. 

47. Ecthlipsis is found of J, <t, ^, st^ before st; of n before 
dyfy s; of dy g^ A, t,p, mostly between vowels or before a liquid : 
hle{d)st, loadest ; cpi{d)st, quothest ; cy{8)sty choosest ; bir{st)sty 
burstest; for n, ^, § Si ; fedper (Gothic ^t?y or), four; pegn> 
p8ny thane ; fredgan^ fredn^ to love ; tedhan'> tedn^ tug ; 7ier{iy 
est, savest; niUan>ne-{-pilla7iy to be unwilling. Mostly assim- 
ilation and gemination. 

48. Frothesis is found of A, i consonant (y), and p by blun- 
der (§31). Apparent pro thesis of ft, g^ ge^ w, Sj is found in An- 
glo-Saxon or English, but probably springs from conformation 
with the many words beginning with fte-, by, ge-, together, dn, 
an, ilSy out: nieltany smeUan^ melt, smelt; nadder, adder; Ned, 
Edward ; Nanny, Anna. So in the French: espace <Lat. spa- 
tium^ space; conforming with words beginning with Latin ex-: 
eclore, exclure KJj^t. eonclaudo, excludOy exclude. Real prothesis ^f ^uy^^ 
is pretty common in Greek : o^pvc (Sanskrit 5A?*l2), brow ; aon/p, " 

star. . - /j* y 

49. Epithesis is found of ^; of b after m; of d, t, after n, ^, 
r; of t after «, and n after a vowel. Those pf ^ and n are con- 
formations of declension and inflection, which see : lam{b), lamb ; 
tyran(t); len(d); moul(d); affor(d); mids(t); betpux{t) yhetwixt; 
'S{t) second singular of verbs. See § 27, 5. 

50. Epenthesis is found of a vowel between two consonants, 
e. g., e before r; 6, o, t^, before m, n, p; of g^ w, p, between 






82 METATHESIS.— CONTRACTION. 

vowels ; of d after w, I (especially followed by / or r) ; of ^ after 
s; of n before g, 8, d; oN between a consonant and following ^; 
of r before «, th^py and after t, d, g ; of ft between m and /, r, or 
a short vowel; of /> between ra and n, «, or t: me^<Lat. wic- 
^rwm, meter ; bdsom < ft(^^m, bosom ; glUnian > glisten ; ftea/(o)- 
petf, bale's ; meoluc < meolc^ milk (Latin mulgeo^ Greek d/xeXyui, 
Sanskrit wir/;') ; lufi{g)an^ love ; ^(/6(n)4, gifts' ; Man > Mgan^ 
Mpariy inhabit (§§ 221, 224, e) ; punor >punder^ thunder; bal{d)' 
samj balsam ; glisnian > glisten ; nihtegaUj nightingale ; e(n)- 
sample ; Sarmende < Lat. Sarmatce ; myrt(l)e ; cMe > could ; 
A<:^, hoarse; ^a^fw>swarth; co(r)poral < French cap{>ra/<c<yp, 
chief; cart(r)idge; part(r)idge; chal(d)ron; ftr^c^rwma > bride- 
groom ; timber (Gothic timrjan)^ timber ; n^ol > nimble ; sco- 
Umbos kJjuU scolymosy a thistle; nemne'> nenijpne (Chaucer), 
name; glim(p)se; 6m€^(^>empty. § 27, 6, 33. 

51. Metathesis is found of hp > toh^ ep^ps^ gn > ng^ ns > 
suj 8C>Xy 8g>x; of a vowel with a following / or r when a 
mute precedes ; of a vowel with a preceding I or r when a mute 
precedes : liptt, white (graphic only) ; psespe^ psapse^ wasp ; pegn^ 
peng^ thane ; d^nsian^ ds^nian^ cleanse ; fsc ^fix^ fish ; dacian^ 
dxian^ ask ; axe (Gothic azg^f), ashes ; beorhtj bryht^ bright ; idel^ 
idle (graphic) ; grses^ g^rs^ grass ; 6de^ ousel (rare) ; so iman^ 
rinnauj run. 

CONTRACTION. 

52. In the Teutonic languages the hiatus is not generally avoid- 
ed by contraction, but by elision or epenthesis ; or it stands. 

(1.) Synseresis is found in Anglo-Saxon after ecthlipsis of g or 
A, and the assimilation of p to ti. 

When unlike vowels meet, a mixed sound is produced in which 
the open vowel predominates : 4, o, d, with another vowel be- 
come 6; Uj e, lengthen the preceding vowel ; i drops; a+a=r4/ 
w+a=o/ t-\-a=ie6 (e breaks): /<iAan >/(^n, take ; g€feohan> 
gefedn^ rejoice ; gefeoJie > gefed; tedhan > tedn^ tug ; fredgan > 
fredn^ love ; cpdmo9i > cudmon > cdmon, come ; /leger >f^r^ 
fair ; sdpl^sdul, soul ; epic > cuic > cmc, quick ; sleahan > sledn, 
slay ; cpam > com > c6m^ come ; pthan ^pedn^ gi'ow. 

(2.) The reduplication contracts with the root of verbs; ^+dj 
^+ed^ &+6^ give ed^ which shifts to ^/ ^-f-a, ^+€a, ^+^, con- 
form. See Inflection, § 159. 

(3.) For traces of synizesis, synaloepha, and other contractions 
in Anglo-Saxon poetry, see §§ 509, 510. 



PART IL 



ETYMOLOGY. 



I. DEFINITIONS. 

53. Etymology treats of the structure and history of words. 
It includes classification, inflection, and derivation. 

54. A Word is an elementary integer of speech. It has a 
mixed nature : it is thought on one side, and sound on the other. 

55. Motional and Relational. — ^An analysis of the words 
of the Indo-European languages gives two kinds of significant 
sounds: (1) those connoting qualities: e. g., of acts, as eat^ sity 
goy hnowj love; of substances, as wet^ redy quick; (2) those con- 
noting relations: e. g., of space, time, subject, object; as hercj 
thercj then^ me, he. The first are called notional; the second, 
relational. 

56. Radicles are elementary relational parts of words. They 
are generally single sounds — oflenest a consonant sound. The 
labisds connote subjective relations oflenest; the dentals, object- 
ive and demonstrative ; the gutturals, interrogative ; the nasals 
often connote negation; the vowels, oftenest simple limitation. 
Radicles are found (I) as the essential part of words which de- 
note relation (prepositions and adverbs) : i^p, up ; b-^, by ; o-f, 
of; ixxridy with; «-t, at; t-(^, to; J)-^r, there; l^wnne^ then; 
sp-<:^, so; hp-i^r, where; hp-«nne, when; (2) of words which de- 
note pers6ns or things directly as having the relation connoted 
by the radicle (substantive pronouns) : m-^, me ; J)-t^, thou ; h-^, 
he ; s-€<^, she ; (3) of words which define, as having certain re- 
lations, objects denoted by other words (adjective pronouns) : 
ra-tn^ mine ; J)-fn, thine J J)-ie^, that ; sp-t^c; such ; hp-a^, what ; 
(4) united to roots to form stems, see § 58 ; (5) united to stems 
of nouns or pronouns as factors of relation (case -endings or ad- 
verbial affixes) : smideBy smith's ; leafdBy leaves; Atm, him; p^j 
there ; pa7inaXLy thence ; see § 60 ; (6) united to stems of verbs 
as factors of relation (inflection endings): €om, am; lt{/iaBt, 
lovest ; lufia-dy loveth. 

57. A Root is an elementary notional syllable. A few are 

C 



34 CLASSIFICATION.— DECLENSION OF NOUN& 

formed by onomatope from noises ; hring^ riog ; hda^ hoarse ; a 
few from sounds naturally expressive of feeling: hkah40T^ laugh* 
ter ; p6p^ whoop ; or vocal gesture : st^ whist ; ^^o-nd ; some are 
a growth from the radicles, and descriptive primarily of being or 
motion in the direction or mode connoted by the radicle : tnnian, 
to go in ; t2dan, to put out ; y/>-pan, to open (=raise up) ; /aran, 
to fare (=go/or^A) ; most roots are the expression of an adjust- 
ment of the mind and vocal organs to each other, according to 
which the mind in a certain state tends to put the vocal organs in 
a given state. 

The diffusion of the roots and radicles through all the Indo-European lan- 
guages, and their perpetuation from the earliest ages through such complete 
changes of the superficial appearance of these languages, shows that there 
must be some stable adjustment of mind to organs in this &mi]y of nations. 
A comparison with other races shows that it is an extension and modification 
of a less definite adjustment belonging to the original constitution of man. 

58. A Stem is that part of a noun to which the historical case- 
endings, or of a verb to which the personal endings and tense 
signs were affixed. Sometimes it is a root, but generally it is 
formed from the root by one or more relational suffixes : -/man, 
think>stem man, man; '/^bear>stem su-nUy son; -^luf^BiQxn 
Ivfia > htfiariy to love, lufigende^ lover. For case-endings, see 
§60. 

IL CLASSIFICATION. 

69. The parts of speech are the Noun (Adjective), Pronoun 
(Article, Numeral), Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, alid 
Interjection. 

III. NOUNS. 

DECLENSION. 

> ^ 

60. A noun has different forms (cases) in different relations in 
the sentence. The variable final letters of a noun are its case- 
endings; the rest is its theme. 

61. The case-endings in Anglo-Saxon mark the relations of 
(1.) Six cases : nominative^ genitive^ dative^ accusative^ vo- 

cative, instrumental. 

(2.) Three numbers: singular (one object), plural (more 
than one), dual (two). 



CASE-ENDINGS. 85 

(3.) Three genders : maaculinej feminine^ neuter, ' 

62. In the Parent Speech there is only one set of case-endings, 
as follows :' 

Slnoulab. Flukal. Duau English Eqititauekt. 

Nominative .... s ) — ^Nohiinative (no 

>• sas '\ sign^. 

Vocative (Stem) ) ( a — Nommative In- 

( dependent. 

Accusative am ams ) — Objective ( no 

sign). 

Genitive as 8&ms ) — ^Possessive 's, or 

-„_ of with the db- 
^^® jective. 
Locative i svas ) — ^in with the ob- 

jective. 

Dative ai ) —to or for with 

> bhjams ^ the objective. 

Ablative at ) ( uv - —from or out of 

> bhjams with objective. 
Instrumental (1) a I Khig ) ) by or with with 

Instrumental (2) bhi ) J objective. 

63. The endings are formed from the radicles (^ 56), and are plainly con- 
nected with pronouns and prepositions in Sanskrit, and other languages. 

(a.) The nominative 8 is connected with the demonstrative and article: 
Sanskrit sa, sd, tat ; Greek 6, i), to ; Anglo-Saxon se, seoj p&t. It is used 
only with masculine and feminine nouns, and is a quasi article, as if, in An- 
glo-Saxon, se cyning (the king) were written cyning-se^ cynings. (For 
the use of the article to mark a subject, see Greek Grammars : Crosby, ^ 487, 
4 ; Hadley, ^ 535.) A neuter t (tat) is early found. 

{b.) The accusative m appears in the Sanskrit mdm^ md, me ; amat this, 
etc. ; a vivid conception of any suffering object is expressed by the same 
sound which is used for one^s self as suffering object. 

(c.) The genitive 8 is connected with the demonstrative sa, Anglo-Saxon 
se, and marks personality hke the 8 of the nominative. The prepositions 
and adverbs of this radicle ofltenest mean with, together: Sanskrit saha, 
sam, sa, etc., corresponding in use with Greek ovv, Latin con, Anglo-Saxon 
ge. So the genitive 8 marks a personal adjunct, then any adjunct. The 
original form was perhaps sam, which shows in the plural. 

((/.) The locative i appears as in in the pronoun (Sanskrit tasm-in, in 
that), and is connected with the preposition in; tlie plural svas is formed 
on another pronoun : Sanskrit sva, Latin se, Greek e, self. 

(e.) The dative ai is connected with abhi, by, as appears from the pro- 
noun, Sanskrit tu-bhjam, Latin ii-bi, to thee, and from the plural bhjams, 

(/.) The ablative t is connected with the demonstrative ta, the, and its 
force in prepositions and adverbs may be seen in Sanskrit, Gothic, Anglo- 



36 PHONETIC DECAY. 

Saxon utf out of; the Umbrian tu, tOj out of; Latin -tus (caBlitus, from 
heaven). YariationB of the dental radicle are also found in Latin -de, unde, 
whence ; inde, thence ; Greek -Oiv, from, etc. 

(g,) The instrumental d is from the demonstrative radicle a, and bhi from 
the labial radicle : Sanskrit bhi ; Greek -^i ; Anglo-Saxon ^t, by (^ 63, e). 

(A.) The plural sign is 8y and is to be connected in sense with the prepo- 
sition samy together withj mentioned in connection with the genitive. This ' 
is strengthened by insertion of the pronominal am in the genitive adms, and 
the dative and ablative bhjdms. The dual is a lengthening of the plural. 

(t.) The genitive singular and nominative plural are head-cases. 

64. Phonetic Decay. — Sounds whose meaning is not vividly felt 
come under the influence of gravitation (^ 38) : they weaken, blend, and at 
last slough away. When tribes speaking different dialects mix, the case- 
endings are half caught, and decay is quickened. By this process the Indo- 
European languages have been losing their inflections. As it goes on, di- 
versity of declension arises, two causes of which may be mentioned : 

(1.) Different Endings of the Stem, — Some stems end in a vowel, others 
in a consonant. Under the operation of euphonic laws each stem has its 
own effect on the endings. The Comparative Granmiars discuss the effect 
of many different stems (Schleicher gives fifteen sets of paradigms). In the 
Teutonic languages the vowel stems have held the original case-endings 
most firmly, and are called strong ; the stems in n are called ^7eak ; other 
consonant stems conform (^ 40), or are irregular. 

(3.) Gender. — (a.) Names applied to females use long vowels and liquids; . 
they melt away the strong consonant endings, and attain vowel or liquid end- 
ings. Again, all words having such endings tend to assume the habits of fem- 
inine names throughout, and become grammatically of the feminine gender. 

(b.) The separation of neuter from masculine is not so thorough-going. 
No special form is needed to distinguish inanimate things as acting, or as ad- 
dressed ; hence the nominative and vocative are not distinguished from the 
accusative. We take inanimate things in the lump ; hence neuters tend to 
use no plural sign, or to use an ending like the feminine singular, as an ab- 
stract or collective form : Greek, Latin, -a ; Anglo-Saxon, -Uj etc. Latin 
neuters plural frequently become feminine singular in the Romance lan- 
guages ; Greek neuters plural take a singular verb. The neuter is a mascu- 
line wdth the activity out ; the Sanskrit grammarians call it kltva, eunuch. 

(c.) Gender has two aspects : (1) it represents a tendency to use different 
sounds for relations to males from those used for similar relations to females, 
or to inanimate things ; (2) it represents the tendency to couple together 
words (nouns, adjectives, and pronouns) agreeing in their terminations. 
From the first point of view there can be but three genders ; many lan- 
guages have but two ; some have none. From the second point of view 
there may be as many genders as there are sets of terminations ; some lan- 
guages have none ; some, e. g., the Congoes and Caffirs, have many. 

(ff.) There was originally no sound as a sign of gender in the Indo-Euro- 
pean Parent Speech. It is denoted, however, in the earliest remains by long 



DECLENSIONS.— RULES J'OR QENI?EB. 



87 



vowels, especially d^jd^ty for feminine nouns ; by -^ in the nominatiye for 
some neuters, and indirectly by other case-endings. It has been a constant 
force, showing itself more and more through all the changes of the language, 
and in the Anglo-Saxon affords a natural subdiyisioi^ of the case-endings. 

65. There are two classes ofDedensions of Anglo^axon noons: 
(1.) Strong: those which have sprang from vowel stems. 
(2.) Weak : that which has sprung from stems in an. 
There are four declensions distinguished by the endings of the 
Genitive Singular : 

Declension]. Declension 2. Declensions. Declension 4. 

68 6 a an 



66. SUMMARY OP CASE-ENDINGS. 











Strong. 






Weak. 

A 




• 


Uasc. 


Dbol. I. 
Neat. Maac 


Neat. 


Decl. IL 
Feminine. 


D«OL.^II. ' 

liasc Fern. 


r ■ ^ 

Dk3L.IV. 
Ifaac. Fem. Neat. 


Stem 


a 


a 


ia 


ia 


k 


i 


u 


an 


an 


an 


SiNGUIiAB. — 




N,& F. 


— 


- 


e 


e 


a 


- 


a 


a 


e 


e 


G€n 


es 
e 

6 


es 
e 

6 


es 
e 

e 


es 

e • 
e 


e 

e 

ii,e 
e 


e 
e 

e,- 
e 


k 
k 
a 
k 


an 
an 
an 
an 


an 
an 
an 
an 


an 


Dot. 


an 


Ace. 


• 

e 


Inst.,,.. 


an 


Plukal. — 


















-^r— 


— ^ 


jv:,^., & V. 


48 


a 


&a 


B 


&,e 


e^k 


U, 0, & 




an 




Gen, 


& 


k 


k 


4 


a,en& 


a,ena 




ensL 




D,&Intt..., 


HTH 


um 


HIP 


nm 


um 


urn 




nm 





A few masculines of Decl. 1st have some forms from i-stems or u-stems, 
^^ 86, 93. 

67. Gender. General rules. For particulars, see §§ 268- 
270. 

1. Strong nouns. All masculines are of the first or third 
declension ; all feminines of the second or third ; all neuters of 
the first. 

2. Abstract Nouns have their gender governed by the term- 
inations. In derivatives the feminine gender prevails. 

3. Compound Nouns follow the gender of the last part. 

4. Masculine are names of males ; of the moon ; of many weeds, flow- 
ers, winds ; man, guma, man ; veland ; mona, moon ; mear, horse ; Jfom, 
thorn ; hlbstma, blossom ; pind, wind. 

5f Feminine are names of females ; of the sun ; of many trees, rivers, 
soft and low mnsical instruments : cpen, queen ; cu, cow ; JElf-pryde ; sunnu, 
sunneitmn; ac, oak; i^anudie, Danube ; A/»t>//&, whistle ; hearp€,h2kT]^. 



38 DECLENSION FIRST.— A-STEMS. 

6. Ni;,UTER are names of wffe, child ; diminutives ; many general names ; 
and words made an object of thought : /yf/*, wife ; beam, did, child ; mwgden, 
maiden ; grsBs, grass ; ofet, fruit ; com, com ; gold, gold. 

7. Epicene Nouns have one grammatical gender, but are used for both 
sexes. Such names of mammalia are masculine, except of a few little timid 
ones : tnus, mouse (feminine) ; large and fierce birds are masculine ; others 
feminine, especially singing birds : nihtegale, nightingale ; large fishes are 
masculine, small feminine ; insects are feminine. 

68. Cases alike. — (l.) The nominativo and vocative are al- 
ways alike. 

(2.) The nominative, accusative, and vocative are alike in all 
plurals, and in the singular of all neuters and strong masculines. 

(3.) The genitive plural ends always in & or ena. 

(4). The dative and instrumental plural end always in um 
ipri). The instmmentals are etymologically datives, except -^, -^. 

DECLENSION I. 
Stem in a. Genitive singular in es. 

69. Here belong Masculines, — monosyllables, derivatives in 
I, m, n, ryp>u'>Oj 6&, rdj <?, ct, t^ nd^ stj ocy A, ng^ 6, ere; Neu- 
ierSy — ^monosyllables, often with fte- or ^e- prefixed, derivatives 
in I, w, r,p>u'>Oy d, t, h, e, incle, * 

70. — ^I. Case-endings from stem a + relational suffixes. Nom- 
inative in — . 

Masculine. Neuter. 

Stem pulfa, v}olf. scipa, ship. 

Theme pulf. scip. 

SlNGULAB. — 

Nominative . . pulf, a wclf, * scip. 

Genitive pulfe«, of a wolfy wolf* 8. scip6^. 

Dative pulfe, to or for a wolf scip^. 

Accfuaative.. ,. pulf, a wolf scip. 

Vocative pulf, O^wolf scip. 

Instrumental. . pulfS, by or with a wolf scip^. 
Plural. — 

Nominative . . pulf<j«, wolves, scipt^. 

Genitive ...... pulfd, of wolves, scip(;2. 

Dative pulfwm, to or for wolves, scipt^m. 

Accusative , . . pulf<fe, wolves, scipti. 

Vocative pulf<fo, 0, wolves, scipt/. 

Instrumental, . pulft^m, by or with wolves, scipt^m. 



COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY. 39 

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. -Gothic. Old Saxon. OldKoree. 
Stem. , i ^^*» «Viro, equo, yalfa, walfa, Alfa, 
\harse. hone, horse. toolf. loolf. wolf, 

SCTGUIiAB. — 

Nominative., i^ra-a iirvo-s eqaa-6 vulf-s wolf W-r 

^ . . * , (tffiro-to ) . ,« f wulba-fl ) 

^"^^^^ ^^^* IWovf ^^ ^^-» iwulbe^ f ^-» 

Dative &9v&-j-a cinry eqa6 vulfa wulba, e iklfi 

Accusative... d9va-m iWo-v eqnu-m vulf wolf {kit 

Vocative 69v» Vmre eque vulf {Notnin.) (JVomw.) 

Instrumental &9v4 c^nro-^t (il&to(.) (^Dative.) wulbu (Dative,) 
Plural. — 

Noml&ative.. ^^va-sas Xtnro-i equ (e-i-s), i vulf6-8 inrulbo-s, i-s ^a-r 

Genitive icva-n-^m 'iwirwv \ ^^^'^ \ vulffi wulb6, & Alfa 

(equo-rum) ^^^^ 

Dative &9v^bl^a8 (Locat,) equi-s vulfa-m wulbo-n, u-n -j 

Accusative... &9va-n(8) 'iinro-vg equ6s vulfa-ns wulf6-s, a-s Alfa 

The Old High German has wulfy wulfesy wulfa, wulf, wulfu ; wulfa, wulfo^ 
wulfumj^ulfd. The Old Friesic h^s fisky fish-is ('es),fisk'a (-h'^), 
fisk; fisk-ar ('d)yfiska, fisk-um (-on, -emjyfisk'ar (-a). 
For Parent speech, add the endings in ^ 62 to the stem. 

71. Changes in Endings, ^^ 38, 64. (a.) The stem-vowel -a in Gothic 
and Anglo-Saxon does not blend with the terminations as in Latin and Greek, 
but drops. This declension is thus become analogous to the Latin and Greek 
consonant declension (Third) ; compare the singular genitive and plural 
nominative, and see voifuv, homen, ^ 95, a, and proper names, ^ 101, b, 

(&.) Case-endings. For original forms, see ^ 62. 

Singular. — Nominative -a is weathered, ^^ 62, 64. Genitive -as'^-es, 
precession, ^ 38. Dative -ai>-a>-c, precession, § 38 ; sometimes -e> — ; 
hdm^ home ; dxg^ day. Accusative -am^ — , ^^ 62, 64. Instrumental 
-a>e, § 18, or a-Mi> Lithoanic, Slavonic -fl-mi> O. H. G. -«, Goth, e 
(in hviy sviypij hvadre, etc.)> A. S. -e, §^ 62, 63, 251, II., b, 

PlnraL — Nominative a-*(a)*> -as has farther precession to -fl*> -e5> -s 
in late A.-Saxon and English. Genitive -(^)am(5)> -a, ^ 64. Dative 
-bhja(m)s'^ -mjas^ -mus^ -mr^ -m ; bh'^m nasalizing the labial as in 
Lith. and Slav, -mus^-mu ; -arn^ -um^ labial assimilation, ^ 35, 2, a ; pre- 
cession to -071, -en is found. Accusative -ans'^ ^ds, compensation, ^ 37. • 
(c.) This declension has best preserved the original case-endings, and has 

transmitted to English the possessive and plural signs. 

72. Neuters differ from masculines in this declension in having no proper 
plural sign, ^ 64. Their plural ending is -a in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and 
Gothic ; -u in 0. Sax.,0. Fries., and A.-Sax. ; — in 0. H. Ger. and O. Nor. 

(a.) The earlier -a is sometimes found in A.-9ax. (North.) ; -o is com- 
mon ; sometimes the -m drops, precession, § 38 ; fidera (u), wings ; brimo (ti), 
waters ; gebedu, gebed, prayers. For -ra, -ru, in a>gra, eggs, see § 82. 



40 



STBONG NOUNS.— DECLENSION L 



73. STRONG NOUNS.— DECLENSION L 

8. Shifting. 
daga, m. fataf n. 
day. vat. 

dwg fsRt 



2. Long monosyllables. 

Stem — porda, n. 

word. 

Theme . . . pord 
Singular. — 

JV.,A., 4" F. pord 

Gen pordea 

Dat pordt 

Inst pordh 

Plural. — 

N,,A,, 4" V, pord 

Gen pordk 

D. 4* InsL». pordum 



dsBgea 

dsBge 

dxgh 

m 

dag^ 



fiBt 

fates 

fate 

fath 



4. U-nmlaat. 
hliday n. 
slope. 
hlid 



fatM 
fatk 
dagyissL fatxaxi 



hlid 
hlidea 
hlide 
hlidh 

hleodvL (-t-) 
hleodk (-}-) 
hleodum (-t-) 



5. Gemination. 
torrojia. speUa,n. 
tower. speech. 
tor spel 



tor 
torres 
torre 
torrh 

• 

^ori'ds 

torrt 

torrwm 



spel 
spellea 
spelle 
spells 

spel 

spellt 

spellum 



6. Syncope. 

Stem. . . . tungoht m. tungoloy n. 
sta];. star. 

* 

Theme. . . tungol tungol 

Singular.— 
N,, A,, <!jf V, tung'Ol, 'Ul^ -cZ, -/ 

Gen tung'Olesj -u/es, -e/es, -/es 

Dat. tung'Ole, -w/e, -c/e, -le 

Inst tung'Ol^j 'Ulhj -el^j -Zd 

Plural. — 

(m. tung'Olks, -ulkSf -c/As, -Iks 
N.yA., <Sf F.|j^ tung'OlM, -oly -ul, -el, 4 

Gen tung-olk, "Ulk, -elk, -/d 

D, 4-L .... tung-ol\im, -u/um, -e/um, -lum 



7. Stem in 

bedga, m. 
ring. 
bedg 

hedges 

hedge 

bedg^ 

hedgka 

hedgk 
Ihedgum 



8* Stem in -ha. 

tnearha,m, hdha,m, 
horse. hough. 
mearh hoh 

mear(h)ig,' hoh, ho 
meares hos 
meare ho 

meart ho 



meark& 



hoB 



meark hok 

mearum hoMm. 



9. Stem in -pa. 
Stem .... hearpa, m., grove. 
Theme... hearu 
Singular. — 
JV.,il., 4" V. hear-Uj -o 

Gen hear-peSy^upes^'OpeSi-epes 

Dat hear^-pe, "Upe, ^ope, -epe 

Inst hear-p^, "Up^, -op^, ^epk 

Plural. — 
N.^A.tdfV, hear'pkBj-upkSy'OpkSf'epks 

Gen hear-pk, -upky -opk, -epk 

D, dfL .... hear-pxan, -u/mm, -opam, 

•'epxxai 



cneo/»(2, n.,knee. 
cneop 

cneopj cneo 
cneo-pes, -s 
cneo-pe, - 
cneO'P^, - 

cneo-pu, 'P, - 
cneo'pk, cned 
cneo'pmn, -um, -m 



10. Stem+er. 

sBg, plur. «ger 

ag 

sBgea 

age 



ag-ev-u, -ru 
ag-er-k, -rk 
SBg-ei-um, -rum 



STRONG NOUNS.— DECLENSION I. 41 

74. (1. Common fonns.) Like pulf decline strong masculines not here- 
after otherwise described : dd, oath ; d^t V^t^ > ^^^^^ stone ; cyning^ king ; 
recelsj frankincense ; hldford^ lord ; sndp^ snow, etc. Like scip decline 
strong neuters not hereafter otherwise described : col^ coal ; dor^ door ; geaU 
gate ; gehod, bebod, bidding ; gebed, prayer ; gebrec, crash ; gemet, measure ; 
gefeoht, ^hty etc. 

(a.) Derivatiyes in -cuf, -«<; -eU sometimes drop pleural -da: monad, months; hxled, 
heroes ; fxtels, bags ; so those in -r and -nd, ii 87, 100. 

(&.) For datives in -4 genitives in -end^ see §S 98, 94, 88, e. 

le.) Stem •«- is sometimes inserted conforming with stems in 'ia: fiaeeda^Jlacda, 
fishes, S 85. 

(d.) Themes in -«e may suffer metathesis, especially in the ploral: ftse, Jiaeda^fixdSt 
fishes ; tuae, tiixda, tasks, S 51. 

75. (2. Long monosyllables, nenter, ^ 37, 3.) Like pord decline neu- 
ter monosyllables long by nature or position : bdut bone ; beamy infatit ; fyr, 
fire ; god, good ; hors, horse ; ledft leaf; leod, song ; speord, sword ; /n/*, 
wife, etc. 

76. (3. Shifting, ^^ 23, 41.) Like da^g or /^/ decline monosyllables 
with root «<a : — ^masculine craeft, craft ; gsest, guest ; A/'a?/, whale ; mseg, 
son ; p^, path ; stsEf^ staff; — ^neuter bsec, back ; d^, bath ; fsec, space ; 
frsBdf fringe ; iZsJ, blade ; crxt, cart 

(a.) The shifting of a to « is stopped in the plural by the assimilating force of the 
A or u of the ending, 6 85^ 1. 

77. (4. U-nmlaut, ^ 32, 3). Like hlict decline brim, water ; gehlid, 
inclosure ; lim, limb, etc. This umlaut is only occasional. 

78. (5. Ghemination, ^ 27, 5.) Stems having gemination simplify it 
according to Rule 13, ^ 20 ; Ml, billes, ax, etc. 

79. (6. Syncope, ^ 46, 37.) Syncopated may be words ending in an 
unaccented short vowel before a single consonant : — masculine engel, angel ; 
ealdoTj elder; dryhten, lord; monad, month; heorot, stag, etc.; — neuter 
setel, throne ; yfel, evil ; bedcin, sign ; tdcen, token ; leder, leather ; pundor, 
wonder, etc. ; — ^masc. apd neut. heafod, head ; seg^n, sign, etc. 

80. (7-8. Stems in -ga and -ha.) For g'^h and A>^, see ^^ 41, 3, b, 
118. For ecthlipsis of h, see ^ 47. For contraction hods^hos, see ^ 52. 
Like mearh decline febrh, pliir. neut. feorh, beings, etc. Like hoh decline 
feahy n. fee, pi. n. feo ; hreoh, pleoh, etc. ; and with a similar contraction, 
stems in a long vo^vel : ed, eds, river ; s^, s&s, sea, etc. See ^ 100. 

81. (9. Stems in -pa.) Like beam decline ealu, n., ale ; mealu, n., meal ; 

etc. Like cneop decline treop, n., tree ; Peop, m., servant, etc. 

<a). After a consonant p final shifts to u>o; and before a vowel may have qnasi- 
gemination in up; this u may then have precession to o>e. Similar are Sanskrit 
8U7Uive8<«unu, son; O. H. Ger. i7a2ai0e8<iNi{u, hale. 

82. (10.) Stems strengthened by -er^ ^ 228.) Like mg decline cealf, 
calf; did, child ; lamb, lamb. 

(a.) A similar interchange of stem -a with -era is found in O. H. Oer. -ira, kelh, keUh 
it, calf, O. Fris. kindr^uMi, children, honHxr, horns. The -er sometimes comes into the 
slDgolar: lom&er, a lamb. 



42 



STRONG NOUNS.— DECLENSION I. 



83.-r.n. Case -endings from 
stem -ia+relational suffixes. 

Stem . hirdia, m., rlcia, n., 

ah^herd. 
Theme bird. 

SiNGULAB. — 

Nbm. hirde 

Oen. . . hird^a 

Dojt,., hirde 

Acc„, hirde 

Fbc. . hirde 

Inst.., hird^ 
Plubal. — 

Nom. hird<:^ 

Oen,., hivdd 
' Dot... hirdt^m 

Ace... hirddtf 

Voc... hird<:^ 

Inst... hirdi^m 



84. — in. Case -endings from 
stem -i+ relational suffixes. 

byri, m., f5ti, m., mani, m., 



realm. 


son. 


foot. 


mctn. 


rfc. 


byr 


fdt 


man 


rice 


byre 


f6t 


man 


rice« 


byre« 


Mes 


manner 


lice 


byre 


fSt, fOte 


men 


lice 


byre 


f»t 


man 


lice 


byre 


f»t 


man 


ric^ 


byr^ 


fSt, f5tl 


men. 


rlcw 


byre, -ds 


fSt, %\,ds 


men 


rlcd 


byrd 


md 


msjind 


x\Qum 


byrwm 


fStwm 


manuum 


r!cw 


byre, -ds 


fSt, f&ids 


men 


rlcw 


byre, -ds 


|gt, f5tc^ 


men 


lict^m 


hyrum 


ittum 


mannt/m 



88,0. Latin, O.Lat Gothic Gothic Gothic O.Sax. O. Norse. 

Stem filio, m., huja, m., hair^ja, m., kni^a, n., bir^jai m., heija,m., 

son. army. shepherd. kind. shepherd. army. 

Sing.— 

JVom.... fSlia-8,fili(8) haiji-6 haSrdei-s kuni birdi her-r 

Gen. ... filii, fHi haiji-s hairdei-s knnji-s hird-je-8, -eas her-s 

Z>£tf.....fili6 haija hairdja ktt^ja hird-je, -ea her-i 

ilcc..... fili-am,fili-m hari baSrdi kuni hirdi her 

Voc fiU hari hairdi kuni hirdi 

Inst.,.,. hirdja 

Plubal. — 

iV. ^F.filii haij6-s hairj6-8 konja Idrd-jd-8(neut.-i)he]:ja-r 

(7en.....filionim,filiiimhaij^ hairdjS kaiij6 hird-j6, -e6 heija 

D. 4" I*, filiis haija-m hairdja-m kunja-m hird-ja-n herju-m 

Ace filios harja-ns hairdja^xis kunja hird-jd-8(neat-i)heija 

When a single shprt syllable precedes the stem -^a, Gothic masculines 
follow harja^ otherwise hairdja. The 0. H. German has hirti^ hirtes, hirta^ 
hirtif hirtu ; hirtd, hirto, hirtum, hirta ; neater kunni, kunnies (kunnes), 
kunnje {kunne)^ kunnU kunnju^ (kunnu) ; kunnii kunnjo (kunneo, kunno), 
kunnjum {kunnum)t kunni. The O. Friesic retains of this declension only 
a nominative e<^ja. For changes in endings, see ^^71, 72, 85. 

84, a. The comparative grammar of the i-stems is reserved for the fem- 
inine forms, ^^ 88, 89. The plural -4b conforms with the a-stems. 



STEMS IN lA, B, ND. 43 

85. {Stem in ia.) — ^Like hirde decline masoolines in -e and -ere : 
bercj barley ; efe, oil ; ege, awe ; encky end ; m^ sword ; spenge^ 
sponge ; jftreond^cipej friendship ; fiscere, fisher ; huntere^ hunter. 

Like rice decline strong neuters in -e and diminutives in -inde: 
ptte^ punishment ; yrfej heritage ; Udincky a little joint ; rdpindej 
a little rope, etc. Most neuters originally in ia conform with 
pordy or are now masculine. 

(a.) The -e of the singular nominative, accusative, and vocative is by 
precession from -ia. In the earlier forms a stem -e<-i is occasionally 
found elsewhere : hirdeds'^hirdds, hirdedy>hirddf hirdeum^hirdum ; me- 
ced'>mecd, etc. The i has sometimes a quasi - gemination to ig, ige, the 
g or ge representing an opening of the organs from the t-position (^ 28, 2 ; 
* 27, 5) : here (Gothic harfis), herigds, herigeds, hergds, etc., hosts. 

(b.) Many words originally in -iat which have dropped the nominative -tf, 
and are declined Uke /m//*, are seen to have i-umlaut or other assimilation 
when compared with other languages : rec^rece (Old H. German rotich), 
smoke; so some t-stems: gssst, gest, gyst, gist ; jfiui, gystds, giestds, etc, ; 
gastd, etc., guest (Gothic gasts; plur. gasteis^ ^ 89). 

86. {Stem in i. §§ 89-91.) — ^Few remains are found of mascu- 
lines in -i. Byre; hite^ bite ; dryre^ fall ; hete^ hate ; sde^ hall, oc- 
cur ; cym% coming, h{is a plural ; some ?a-stems conform : pine^ 
friend ; hsde^ man ; hyge^ mind ; mere^ sea. Like Jyyre decline 

' ledde^ men, and compounds of -pare (called by Grein fem. plur. 
of /6^(?, people, />an^, state, but which seem quasi-adjectives like 
Latin Momani) : burh-pare^ citizens ; Cant-pare^ Kentish folks ; 
names of peoples : Dene^ Danes ; Udmdne^ Romans. 
Umlaut — JA^iQfdt decline tdd^ tooth ; and see § 91. 

87. {Sterna in -r and -nd.) 

SiNGULAB. — r-stem. nd-stem. 

Nom,yA.y& V.hrtior. fednd. 

Gen brddor. fedndes. 

Dat. <k Inst . . . br^der. fe6nde. 
Plueal. — 

Nbm.^ A.y Jb V. brddru, brddor. f^nd, fednd, -as. 

Gen. brddrft. fednda. 

Dat. <& Inst... . brddrum. fedndum. 

The changes dXoi^a to 6, and e6 to ^, are i-umlaut concealed. $ 32, 2. 
These irregulars conform to the t-stems. $ 91, 4, 5. For others, see ^ 100. 

The Gothic has brSpar, hropr-s, hropr^ hrdpar ; plur. (like u-stems) hro}- 
jU'Sf brdjMT-e, brdjMr'U'fn, hropr-u-ns. The other Teutonic tongues show pe- 
culiar forms (often undeclined) in their r- and nc?-stems. See ^ 100,/. 



44 



DECLENSION IL (FEMININES). 



Stem in a or i. Genitive singular in e. 



88. — 1. Case -endings from 
stem &+]^elational suffixes. 

Stem . . . ^ gifa, gift. 

Theme... gif. 

SiNQULAB. — 

NbmincUive, . gifw. 

Genitive gife. 

Dative gife. 

Accusative . . . gifw, gife. 

Vocative gifw. 

Instrumental. gife. 
Plubal. — 
Nominative,, giftJ, gife. 
Genitive . . gif<^, gifewd 

Dative, . . . gifwm. 

Accusative . . . gifK!^, gife. 

Vocative ., gift^, gife. 

Instrumental, gifwm. 

88. — 1 (o). Sanskrit. Greek. 

Stem. i ^"' 

( mare, 

SiNonuiB. — , 

Kominatiye.. i^pr^ 



II. — Case-endings from stem 
i+ relational suffixes. 

d&di, deed, 
d&d. 

d&d. 

d£de. 

d£de. 
d&d, d&d^. 
d&d. 

d&d^. 

d&d^, d&id, 

dMd. 

d&dum. 
dMcj d&id, 
dMcy d&dd, 

dibdum. 



room. 



Latin, 
eqoa, 
mare. 



Ctothic. Old Saxon. Old Norse, 
^ba, g6ba, giafa, 

gift. gift. gift. 



Xfifpa 
Xiapa- 



giba gSba 



giof 



( equa-es "^ 

Genitive d9va-j-a8 x^P^'Q \ equari > ^b6-s •^ ^ y giafEui 

C eauBB ) • ge a 



equa 

equa-es 

equapi 

equsB 

"-'--- {^u) ^'"'i ^ ) ^:^ 1 ss } «^^^("> 

Accosative... i^va-m x^P^'^ equa-m giba 

Vocative d9v6 X'*^P^ ^^^^ 8^^* 

Infltmmental &9va-j-a (Dot.) (Ahlat.) (Dot.) 

Plubal. — 

equBB 

3va-8 <. equ»-s 



ggba 



giof 



(Nomin.') (Nbmin,') 
(Dative.') (Dative,') 



Nominative, 



geba 
ggbo-n-o 



giafa>r 
giafa 



limitive.. j ^^^-r X-pat | T» I gibb-s 
( i9va-8 ( equars ) 

Genitive j , ^7*"? 1 X^P^" equ^-ram gib6 

( a9va-n-am ) 

Dative i9T4.bhja. (LoccU.-) i^V^l gib6-m { f^?""" j 8!°^-" 

^ • C equis > C g6bo-n C gidfo-m 

Accusative... d9V8irS X*^P^"C equa-s gibo-s ggba gia&-r 

The Old High German has geba,geb6 {d),geb6 (u),geba,geba; gebo (a), 
geb6n6,geb6m,geb6 (a). The 0. Friesic has &mg,jeve; ^^lux.jevajevend 
(jeva)fjevum (on),jeva. 



STRONG FEMININES. 46 

{b.) To the 1st class belong all feminines in u. They are few : 
faruj journey ; lufu^ love ; sceamu^ shame ; acdlu^ school ; pracuj 
revenge j compounds in -paru {burh-paruj state, etc.). 

(c.) For the Parent Speech, add the endings in ^ 62 to the stem. Grav- 
itation has carried away all the consonants from the Anglo-Saxon case-end- 
ings except the m of the dative plural, which is a nasalizing of the original bh 
(§ 71, i) ; n in gifend is euphonic epenthesis (§ 60), as in Sanskrit, a con- 
formation with the weak form in an; m in gifum (gifdm) assimilates the a 
(^ 35, 2, a). The plural -d suffered precession in late Anglo-Saxon to -a, 
then to -6, which in English drops. The original -d is retained in the para- 
digms as the classic sound. 

(d.) Plural -e is a conformation with the i-stems, influenced also perhaps 
by the Latin. In the sixth century, Latin a?=e ; -m, -s were silent. 

(e.) Root a sometimes suffers shifting to -2B, or even i-umlaut to e, before 
-e: sacu, strife, genitive sssce; pracu, revenge, dative prace, prsRce^ prece, 
etc. ^^ 41, 32. 

(/.) Here also are placed nouns in -0<-i^ undeclinable in the singular, 
from adjectives : yld-u, -o, -e (eld, age), plur. yldu, -o, -e, ylda, yldum ; plural 
nom. and ace. in a is found : yldd (Gieio), yrmdd, miseries. So isedelo, nobil- 
ity ; br^do, breadth, etc. The plural is rare. Similar words in Gothic are 
weak : manag-eins (multitude), -cin, -cin, -ei, plur. manag-einSi-eino, -eim^ 
-eins. 0. H. German has -in for -ein ; 0. Saxon has strong forms. The 
A. -Saxon words conform with the a-stems. ^ 40, 1. 

(g.) For durUf door ; &, law ; beo, bee ; ed, river ; silb, sea ; forms from 
ta-stems, etc., see ^ 100 ; for Northumbrian forms, see page 49. 

89.— (88, n.) Stem in i. 

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Ootliic. Old Saxon. Old Norse, 
g^ ( 4vi, ofi, ovi, anstai, ansti, asti, 
1 sheep, sheep, sheep, love, love, love, 

SlNGULAB. — 

Nom &vi-8 5ft-c ovi-s anst-s anst ast 

Gen &v3-&8 opt-oc ovi-s anstai-s ansli, ensti 4st-ar 

Dat &vj-ai Loco^i-i Zoc. ovl anstai ansti, ensti ' &8t-u 

Ace 4vi-m o ft-v o ve-m anst anst ast 

Voc hsk opt (Nom) ifiist (Nom,) (Nom.) 

Inst &VJ-4 (Dative,) Ahl, ovfe(d) (DaHve.) * (DaHve.) (Dakve,) 

Plural. — 

Nom. & Voc. &yaj-as 5pt-«c oy^ anstei-s ansti, ensti asti-r 

Gen &yi-n-am ^pt-wv ovi-um anst& anstj6, enste-6 &st« 

Dat dvi-hhjas Zoc.opt-w ovi-bus ansti-m anstju-n, enstju-n ast-nm 

Ace avi-s op(-ac ov^ anstl-ns ansti, enstt &sti 

The O. High German has anst^ ensti anst, ensti anst, anst ; ensti, enstj-6 
ensteo, ensti-m, ensti. The Old Friesic has ned, nede, nede, nede; neda, 
neda, ned-d, nedi''m<jiedem, -urn, -on, neda, Masc. and neut. t-stems were 
common in the older tongues ; but few masc. survive in A.-Sax. ^^ 64, d ; 86. 



46 



DECLENSION n.— I-STEMS. 



90. — ^IL Case-endings < stem i + rel. suffixes. Nominative in — . 
Stem. . 1. d&diy deed. 2. pynni,/un. 3. beadpi, battk. 



Theme 

Singular 
Nbm. . 
Gen. . . 
Dat, . . 

Ace. . . 

Voc, . . 
Insi. . . 

Plubal. — 

J^om. . 
Gen. . . 
Dat. . . 
Ace. . . 
Voc. .. 
Hist. •»• 

Stem. 
Theme 

SiNGULAB 

JVom. 
Gen, . 
Dat. . 

Ace. . 

Voc. . 
Inst. . 

Plural. — 

JVom. . 
Gen. . . 
Dat. . , 
Ace. . . 
Voc. . . 
Inst. . . 



I 



d&d. 

AM. 

AMe. 

A&ie. 
d&d, 
AMe. 
d&d. 

d&de. 

AMe {d). 

A&Ad. 

A&Aum. 
AMe {d). 
A&Ae (d). 

A&Aum. 



4. bdci, book. 
bdc. 

bdc. 
b6c6, 
bSe. 

b6c 

b6c. 
bfic. 



b^c. 

bdcd. 

bdct^m. 
b6c. 
b^c^ 

bdct^m. 



pynn. beadp (u, o), beadup. 



I 



pyn. 
pynne, 
pynne. 

pyn> 

pynne. 
pyn. 
pynne. 



\ 



beadu (o). 

beadp6, beadape. 

beadpe, beadupe. 
beadu (o), 
beadpe, beadupe. 
beadu (o). 

beadpe, beadupe. 



pynne {d). beadpe (d)^ beadupe (d). 

pynn(i. beadp(!2, beadupe:^. 

pynni^m. beadpt^m, beadnpt^m. 

pynn6 {d). beadpe (<l), beadupe (d). 

pynne {d). beadpe {d)^ beadupe (d). 

pynnt/m. beadpi^m, beadupi^m. 



5. mdsi, mouse. 
m^s. 



6. ceasteri, city. 
ceaster, ceastr. 




\ 



m^s. 

mt&d. 

m^st^m. 
m^s. 
m^s. 

m^sum. 



ceaster. 

ceastre. 

ceastre. 
ceaster. 

ceastre. 

ceaster. 

ceastre. 

ceastre (d). 

ceastr<!^. 

ceastrt^m. 
ceastre {d). 
ceastre {d). 

ceastit^/n. 



91. To the 2d class belong all feminines ending in a consonant: 
they aro simple monosyllables ; derivatives in -e^ -en, -ery -ung ; 



STRONG NOUNS (FEMININES). 47 

-niSj -nes; -es; -oc ; -oct^ -ud^ d; p-; nearly all strong feminines 
conform. 

{a.) The feminines of the first Sanskrit declension are a-stems and 
i-stems. 

(&.) The apocope of stem i in the singular nominative, accusative, and 
vocative, is the effect of gravitation (^ 38). That short roots retain the stem 
vowel {gifUf etc.)» while long roots drop it {d&d, etc.)* shows compensation 
(^ 37). Compare the feminine of the strong adjectives. 

(c.) The singular accusative -6, the plural nominative, accusative, and 
vocative -d, and dative -um^-vn^ are conformations with the 1st class. 
Mo, 1. 

A. (1. Common Form,) — ^Like d&d decline words of this de- 
clension ending in a syllable long by nature or position : <2r, honor ; 
Mn^ prayer ; Wr, lore ; r6d^ cross ; pund^ wound ; pyrd^ fate ; ge- 
aamnungj assembly ; so also ideSy woman, and some other words 
in a short syllable. 

(a.) Except words like hoc and mus (4, 5), and like eld, cleo (^ 100). 
(Jb.) Many have sometimes -d in the dative : some originally -u stems re. 
taining it, others conforming — words in -ung oftenest. ^ 93, u 

B. (2. Oemination,) — ^Like pyn decline words of this declen- 
sion ending short in a consonant : ben^ wound ; blis^ bliss ; hen^ 
hen; byrgen^ sepulcher; gPmen^ csve; prtniSf trinity, etc. 

(3. Semivowel Gemination.) — ^Like beadu decline feminines in 
jp>u (§ 30) : gearuy gear ; sceadu^ shadow, but sceade, sceadd are 
found ; r^^M, providence ; seonu^ sinew. 

(a.) Except syncopated forms like ceaster, and a few like dstd. 
(b.) For ther simplification of gemination /»ynn>/^n, see ^ 20, Rule 13. 
(c.) The u o( vp is made in closing the organs top (^ 27, 5). It may 
suffer precession to o>e (§ 38). Final p>tt is shifting (^ 30 ; 41, 2). 

C. (4, 6. Umlavt,) — Like bdc decline brdc^ breeches ; gds^ goose. 
Like mils decline lUSy louse; for cd^ cow; burh^ borough ; turf^ 
turf, see § 100. Note also ddfUor^ speoster^ mdder. 

(a.) The changes in the roots of doc, mus, etc., are i-umlaut concealed: 
bec<b6ci (Old Saxon boct), ^ 32, 2. 

D. (6. Syncope.) — ^Like ceaster decline syncopated words of 
this declension : they end in an unaccented vowel before Z, w, r, 
or sometimes other single consonants (§ 46) : sapel^ soul ; stefen^ 
voice ; lif^^ liver ; meoluCj milk. Unsyncopated forms occur. 

E. For forms from *a-stems ; hand^ hand ; niht^ night ; piht^ 
whit, see § 100. For Northumbrian forms, see page 49. 



48 



DECLENSION III. (U-STEMS). 



92. STRONG NOUNS (MASCULINES). 

L SeaScaaea in a Vowel, — Genitive in a. (Declension III.) 

Case-endings < stem u + relational suffixes. Nominative in u. 

Feminine hand (hand) is added. 

Stem 1. sanu, son, 2. handu, hand. 

Theme .... sun. hand. 
SiNGULAB. — V ^ •" V — -^ 

Nominative, . sunt^. hand. 

Genitive sund hand(j. 

Dative 6un<l, sunu. hand<:^, hand. 

Accusative . . . sunt^. hand. 

Vocative sunt/. hand. . 

Instrumental, wxnd, handc!^, hand. 
Plubal. — 

Nominative, , sunu (o), sxmd, handd 

Genitive i ^"" 'vd r handd. 

( sunena. ) 

Dative sunt/m. handt^m. 

Accusative , , , suni/ (o), sund handd 

Vocative sunt^ (o), ^xxnd, handd 

Instrumental, sunt/m. handt^m. 

93. To the third declension belong sunu ; pudUyW ooi\ magu^ 
servant : and bregu^ prince.; headu-^ fight ; heoru^ sword ; lagit^ 
lake; meodu^ mead; salu^ h9X\\ sidu^ custom, and a few others, 
fo'und mostly in the singular nominative and accusative, and in 
composition. 

(a.) r^his declension corresponds to the Latin second in so far as it con- 
tains those m&sculine nouns which have their head-cases in a vowel, and so 
is a complement of declension second. In its original stem it corresponds to 
the Latin fourth. ^ 101, i. 

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon. Old Norse. 

^^ ( sunu, vixv, fhictu, sunu, sunu, sonu, 

Stem i ^ »x 

K son, corpse, fruit, eon, son, son. 

Singular.— 
Nominative.. s^ii-s vIkv-q fmcta-8 smiu-s 8miu,-o son-r 

Genitive.... sAnv-ds viKV-oc fiructA-s sunau-s \ \ c sona-r 

smiJe-B > 

Dative ftom ( stbi&u ) , (fructu-i> ^,^^^ (sunu, -o,) ^ . 

Locative.. . (. siindv-i) ( fructu > .( smije > 

Accusative... siimi-m viKv-v fhictu-m sunu sunu, -o son 

Vocative sii'no vtKv {Nomin^ sunau, -u (A^orotn.) (Nomin,) 

Instrumental. siinii-n-& (Dot,) (Ablat,) (^Dative,) sunju (Dative,) 



STRONG NOUNS (MASCULINES). 49 

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon. Old Norse. 

^ < snnu, vEKv, fractu, sunu, sunu, 8onn.# 

( son. corpse. fruit. son. son. son. 
Plural.^ (siinav-as> 

Nominative, -j . , r vticv-es, fructd-s sunju-s suni syni-r 

Genitive stnt^-n-koi vsKv-tov fructu-um suniv-6 snnj-o, -eo son-a 

Dative silnii-bhjas (^Locat.') fmcti-bus sunu-m sonu-n ^ sonu-m 

Accusative., i . . r vsKv-ag fractd-s sunu-ns snni sonu 

The Old High German has sunu (0), sunes, sunju (sunu), sunu (0), sunju 
{sunu) ; suni, sunjo, sunim (sunum), sum (u). The u-declension is near- 
ly extinct O. Fries, sun-u (a), -a -a, -u; -ar (-a), -a, -um^-ar (-a). 

{b.) Gravitation has carried away all the consonants from the Anglo-Saxon 
case-endings, except the -m of the dative plural, which is a nasalizing of the 
original bh. ^ 38. , 

(c.) The Gothic du of the genitive and dative singular is a progression 
from u (sunu-as'^sundu-as^sundus), ^ 38, 1. The Anglo-Saxon <^ nearly 
resembles it, and is retained in the paradigms as the classic sound, though it 
sufferied precession in later times. 

(d.) The instrumental sund, handd are dative forms. 

(e.) The plural -w>-0 is precession : it is found also in the singular. 
^ 38, 1. 

(/.) The plural -d and -end conform to the second declension. 

(g.) Note the umlaut and shifting in the Old Norse : 5>r, t^>0, W>y. 

(h,) Hand conforms almost wholly to the first declension. 

(t.) Some words originally u-stems retain the forms of this declension in 
single cases, especially in the singular dative -d, and plural nominative, ac- 
cusative, and vocative -u : feldd, field ; fordd, ford ; sumord, summer ; pin- 
trd, pintru, winter ; dura, door. Some words of other stems conform in the 
same cases : peoruldd, world ; gebroctru, brothers ; dohtru, daughters ; mo- 
dru, mothers ; gespeostru, sisters ; feminines in -ung. 

{k.) For irregular forms ofpudu, magu, hand, etc., see § 100. 

94. NORTHUMBEIAN. 

Feminines, Declension II. — In words of the First Class -a is found for 
Common Anglo-Saxon -u or -e. Feminines sometimes have -es in the geni- 
tive singular and -ds in the plural, and then may pass for masculines. 

Singular.— iVbm. geffl. Plural.— iVbm. gefa^. 

Gen.. geies{aes). Gen., gefend. 

Dat.. gefa. Dat.. gefum. 

Masculines, Declen. I. and III— Here a for u is found : suna for sunu ; 
' also the complete descending series of W: suno, sune, sun, sun. ^ 38, 1. 
Nouns strong in Common Anglo-Saxon often have weak forms or mixed 
strong and weak forms in Northumbrian. The genitive -end abounds. 

D 



50 



DECLENSION IV.— AN-STEMS. 



^ 96. WEAK NOUNS. 

Case-endings < stem an + relational suffixes. — Genitive in an. 

(Declension IV.) 
1. Mabottlinbs. 2. Femimines. 8. Neuters. 



Stem 



•■{ 



Theme 

SiNGULAE.— 

Nbm, .. 
Gen, • • . 
Dot. . . • 

./x.CC% . . • 

Voc, . . . 
Inst, , , , 
Plubal. — 
Nbm, , . 
O&n, . . • 
Dot, . . . 

jtLOC, , • • 

Voc, . . . 
Inst, . . . 



hanan, 
cock. 
ban. 

hana. 

hanan. 

hanan. 
hanan. 
hana. 

hanan. 

hanan. 
hsLAend, 
hant^m. 

hanan. 

hanan. 
hanz^m. 



tungan, 

tongiLC, 

tung. 

tnnge. 

tungan. 

tungan. 
tungan. 
tung6. 

tungan. 

tungan. 

tungend. 

tungt^m. 
tungan; 
tungan. 

tungwm. 



eagan, 
eye, 
eag. 

edge. 

eagan. 

Qkgan. 
edge, 
eage. 

eagan. 



eagan. 

esLgend. 

ekgum, 
eagan, 
ekgan, 

ekgum. 



CONTBACTS. 

tdan, 
toe, 
XL 

tae, td. 

tdan, tan. 

tdan, tan. 
tdan, tdn. 
tde, td. 

tdan, tan. 

tdan, tdn. 

taend, tdnd. 

tdw/n. 
tdan, tdn. 
tdan, tdn. 

iSLum, 



To the weak declension belong certain monosyllable themes, 
and derivative themes in -ig, -/, -m, -?i, -r, -«, -p^ all adding -a or 
-e in the nominative. 

(a.) Stems in -an are of the third declension in Latin and Greek. 

Sanskrit. 

stem j ^""^' 

i. Stone, 

SmauLAB. — 

Nominative. ^m& 

Grenitive .... ^man-as 

Dat < Loc ^man-i 

Accusative.. a9m^n-am 

Vocative. . . . ^man 

Instmment. ^9man-& 
Plubal. — 

Nominative. di9m&n-as 

Genitive i.<}m&n-km 

Dative ^9ma-bbjas 

Accusative. d9man-as 

The Old High German has hanv, hanin, hanirij hanun ; hanun, hanon-o, 
hano'tn, 0. Fries, sing, hona ; plur. hon-a, 'ana{'Ona), -vm, -a. 



Greek. 


Latin. 


Gothic. 


Old Sax. ( 


Old Norse. 


vroifikv, 


homen, -i, 


hanan, 


hanan, 


hanan, 


shepherd 


man. 


cock. 


cock. 


cock. 


TTOlfATIV 


homo 


hana 


hano 


hani 


'TTOtfUV-Og 


homin-is 


hanin-s 


hanun 


hana 


iroifikv'i 


homini 


hanin 


hanun 


hana 


TTOlfikv-a 


homin-em 


hanan 


hanun 


hana 


(Nomin.) 


(Nomin.) 


hana 


(Norn.) 


(Norn.) 


(Dative.) 


(Ablat.) 


(Dat.) 


(Dat.) 


(Dat.) 


iroifikv-iQ 


homin-ds 


hanan-s 


hanun 


hana-r 


troifikv'Otv 


homin-am 


hanan-S 


^anon-o 


hana 


(Locat,) 


homini-bus 


hana-m 


hanun 


honu-m 


'TTOifiiv-ag 


homin-es 


hanan-s 


hanun 


hana 



WEAK NOUNS. 51 

(b.) The singular case-endings are sloughed off; and, in the nominative, 
n of the stem. In the genitive plural, d has held its ground, and gravitation 
has modified the stem: «>€>--: arena, dmdy honor. The dative. has 
ecthlipsis of n (^ 47), and assimilative precession of am to um (^ 35, 2, a). 
' (c.) Feminines in Gothic strengthen to d the a of the stem -an through- 
out, and the d of the case-ending of the genitive plural. In Anglo-Saxon 
all genders agree ; hut feminines in the nominative, and neuters in the nom- 
inative, accusative, and vocative, for final a take e (Precession, ^ 38). 

(d.) The stem in an was mostly masculine, but has been going over to 
the feminines in the Teutonic tongues (^ 67,2). 

(e.) The same peculiar gravitation vtrhich has brought the short a-stems 
to the form of consonant stems in declension first, has here produced a new 
declension by sloughing away the endings and stem. This new declension 
has been adopted by the Teutonic nations as their favorite for secondary 
formations having the force of an adjective used as a noun, and for definite 
adjectives ; and it has in the Teutonic tongues a historical and logical im- 
portance coordinate with the strong forms. In English the Norman -^join- 
ed with "S of the Anglo-Saxon first to kill it, and oxen, with the irregular 
children, brethren, is almost its only memorial in current speech. 

96. Like hana decline all weak nouns in -a: hana^ death; 
C6m;pa, soldier ; c?ro/?a, drop ; ^wma, man; hunta^hxxuiQv \ mdnay 
moon ; oxa, ox ; prmcca^ exile ; nafela^ navel ; hodma^ covering ; 
geongra^ disciple; egesa^ awe; rxspa, general; gerrvaca^ mate. 
Some remains of stems in -ian are found : preccea ^precca^ ag- 
l^bcea^ monster, etc. 

97. Like tunge decline all weak nouns in -e: hyme^ mail; 
eorde^ earth ; heorte, heart ; sunne^ sun ; syrce, sark ; puce^ week ; 
hMfdige^ lady ; f&mixe^ woman ; nsedre, snake ; pudupe, widow. 

(fl.) Except the four neuters (^ 98). 

(b.) Now and then forms are found in -can for -an, either remains of 
stems in -ian, or conforming to such stems : cyrice, cyricean, church. 

98. Like edge decline edre^ ear ; lunge^ lungs ; clype^ clew. 

99. Like td decline he6^ bee, hedn, etc. ; and masculine yreaa> 
fred, freaan ^fredn^ lord ; tpeoa > tpe6, tpeoan > tpedn^ doubt. 

Northumbrian. — {Weak Kouns,) 

Final -n and -m drop. The a of -an often suffers precession in tlie 
masculines to or e, in the feminines and neuters fo u, o, or e. Nouns 
weak in Common Anglo-Saxon have often strong forms, or mixed strong 
and weak in Northumbrian : noma (nama), name, genitive noma, nomes. 
By comparing pages 49, 61, it will be seen that the Northumbrian forms 
vary irregularly between forms older than the Common Anglo-Saxon and 
others modified by gravitation and conformation almost as much as the En- 
glish. See page 19. 



62 IRREGULAB NOUNS. 

100. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

Such are without case-endings (Indsclinable), or without 
certain cases (Defective) ; or they vary in gender (Heteroge- 
neous), in stem (Metaplasts), in case-endings (ELetebocutes) ; 
or they are remains of dead declensions (Rdiquice^ Relics) ; or 
are disguised by phonetic changes (Ceyptoclites). The same 
noun may belong to several of these classes. 

(a.) Indeclinable are many nouns in -t<>0 (^ 88, /) : asdelu^ f. no- 
bility ; hatu, f. heat ; heahdu, f. highth, etc. ; and &, f. law ; bed, bi, f. bee, 
pi. declined. 

(6.) Defective. — ^Without the plural are most proper, abstract, and ma- 
terial names: JElfred; strengdu, f. strength; gold, n. gold. Sometimes 
the plural has a change of meaning : ig, rites ; giftd (u), nuptials ; leode, 
men? -parCf men? Without the singular me fideru, n. wings; Jirds, m. 
men ; frastpe, f. ornaments ; gearpe, f. trappings ; geatpe, f. equipment ; ge- 
hrodor (u), m. brothers ; gespeostor, f. feisters ; gespeoru, n. hills ; getimbru, 
n. building ; lendenu, n. loins ; niddds, men ; -paran, -paras, -pare, m. citi- 
zens ; pelerds (-a), m. f. lips. 

(c.) HeterogeneouB. — Masculine and Neuter are deofol, devil ; dogor, 
day ; feorh, life ; frid, peace ; gepanc, mind ; God, m., plur. godds, m., 
godu, n. God, idols ; gym, distress ; heafod, n. head, plur. sometimes heaf- 
das, m. ; heap, heap ; hilt, hilt ; holt, holt ; raaced, house ; iungol, star ; p&l, 
weel ; pesten, waste ; pom, spot ; polcen, cload ; brim, sea ; cealf, calf. 

Feminine and Neuter are &bylgd, offense ; wdelu, sing, f., plur. n. nobil- 
ity ; &fest, envy ; gepeaht,QO\xvLSt\ ; gift, dower ; grin, snare ; liget, light- 
ning; peostor, n., peostru, f. darkness; p&d,p&de, weeds; piht, whit. 

Masculine and Feminine are &rist, resurrection ; bend, bond ; hearg, 
grove ; list, art ; nedhpest, f. m. vicinage ; s&, sea ; s&l, luck ; str^l, arrow ; 
sper, colunm ; peard, watch ; pelerds (-a), lips ; leod, f. a people, plur. m. ? 
leode, men ; paru, f. state, plur. -pare, m. ? citizens (^ 86) ; est, love. 

Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter are pred, throe ; psestm, growth. 

(d.) Metaplasts. — Forms from stems in -ta, -ian, mix with others: 
plencu, f. pomp, plur. gen. plenced ; c&g, f. key, plur. nom. csbgid ; fisc, m. 
fish, plur. nom.^ceo^ ; l&ce, m. leech, plur. nom. l^eds; cirice, f. church, 
plur. nom. ciricean. From u-stems : duru, pudu, magu, like sunu (^ 92), 
also gen. dure f pudes, plur. nom. pudds, magds ; hand, etc. (^ 93, i). To 
some stems -er is added : mg, egg ; cealf, calf; cild, child (^ 82). Stems 
with and without quasi-gemination (^^ 81, 91) : sceadu, f. shadow, dat. scea- 
dupe, sceade ; frt, freb, m. freeman, plur. nom. frige, freo. Metathesis : 
fisc, m. fish, plur. Tiem..fixds, Many conforming regulars, and heteroclites, 
are metaplastic 

(c.) Heteroclites. — Many heterogeneous strong nouns (1) with Mascu- 
line and Neuter endings: God, m. God, plur. m. Godds, n. Godu; heafod, 
n. head, plur. n. heafodu, plur. m. heafdds, (2) With Feminine and Neu- 



IRREGULAR KOUNS. 53 

ter endings : &fest^ envy, gen. n. &fesies^ pi. nom. f. sefeste ; gift, f. dower, 
plur. nom. f. giftd, n. giftu; grin, snare, inst. grine, grine, plur. nom. grind, 
grinu, (3) With Masculine and Feminine : bend, bond, plur. nom. bkndds, 
'd, -e; s^, sea, gen. s&s, s^; pelerds, -d, lips. Many themes have both 
weak and strong forma : heofon, heofon-e, heaven ; sunn-u, sunn-e, sun ; 
'par-ds, 'par-an, men ; but such are given as different words. Some mix : 
c^g, f. key, gen. csbgan, dat. cabge, plur. nom. c&gid, dat. c&gum. 

(/.) Relics of the r-stem are brodor, hiothei (§ 87); modor, mother; 
dohtor, dsiughiei ; speostor, aistei ; gebrodor, gebrodru (dual?), brothers; 
gespeostor, sisters ; fxder, father, sing, indecl. has also gen. and pi. forms of 
Declension Third ; of the nrf-stem are feond, fiend (^ 87) ; freond, friend ; 
and (compound) participial nouns : ymb-sittend, neighbors, plur. nom. ; fold- 
buend, farmers ; plur. nom. sometimes in -ds, gen. -rd, like adjectives ; of 
other consonant stems : neaht, f. night, gen. nihte, nihtes, generally adverb- 
ial, plur. nom. niht ; piht, f. whit, plur. nom. (:piht, Grimm ) pihtd, pihtu^ 
pihte; burg, f. borough, gen. byrg, by rig; man, man (^ 84). 

(^.) Cryptoclites. — The most common obscure forms spring from 

1. Concealed umlaut. See, for paradigms, boc, book ; mus^ mouse (^90) ; 
fbt, foot ; man, man (^ 84) ; broder, brother ; feond, fiend (^ 87) ; like are 
brbc, breeches ; gos, goose ; tod, tooth ; lus, louse ; mus, mouse ; cu, f. cow, 
gen. cus (Rask), dat. c^, ace. cu, plur. nom. c^, eye (cus, Rask), gen. ciindy 
dat. cum ; burg, burh, f. borough, gen. byrig, burge, dat. byrig, byrg, plur. 
nom. byrig, gen. burgd, dat. burgum; turf, f. turf, dat. tyrf; modor, dohtor, 
speostor; freond, friend. 

2. Quasi-gemination of semi-vowels : paradigms of beadu, battle (^ 90, 
3); here, host (^ 85, a). Like are frxtupe {a), frastpe {a), f. plur. orna- 
ment ; gearpe, f. plur. trappings ; geatpe, f. plur. equipment ; nearu, f. nar- 
rowness ; r&su, f. providence ; seonu, f. sinew ; melu, n. meal ; ealu, n. ale, 
etc. ; and fri, freo, m. freeman, plur. n. frige, freo ; pine, m. friend, plur. 
nom. pinds, pine, gen, pind,pinid,pinigd,piniged,dQX.pinum,^cc,pinds,pine, 

3. Apothesis and Contraction — words in w>0 indeclinable (^ 100, a). 
bi, beo, f. bee, sing, indeclinable, plur. nom. beon, gen. beond, dat. beoum, 
eld, f. claw, plur. nom. cldpe, dat. clam. [beom. 
dry, m. magician, dat. dr^, plur. nom. dr^ds, gen, dryrd, 

ea, f. river, gen. ed, &, eds (m.), dat. ed {ie, Rask), plur. nom. ed, eds (m.), 

dat. earn, 
feoh, feo, n, fee, gen. fei>s, dat. feo ; plur. nom. feo, gen, feona, fed 

C<C.fe6hd): so hreoh, pleoh, peoh, etc. 
hoh, ho, m. hough, gen. hos, dat. ho, plur. nom. hos, gen, hod, etc. 
hrdp, hr^p, hredp, hrd, hred, n. sing, and plur. nom. ace. voc. body, corpse, 

gen. hr&s{<^hr&pes), plur. nom. hr&pds, dat. hr&pum, 
morgen, m. morning, plur. gen. morgend, morgnd, momd, 
ssb, m. f. seaj gen. s&s, s&pe, s&, dat. s&, s&pe, plur. nom. s&s, f^, dat. 
seo, f. pupil, gen. seony sedn. sugu, su, f. sow, d. siie, [s&m, s&pum, 

treop, treo, n. tree, gen. treopes, plur. nom. treopu, tripu, treop, treo, 
Jn-ed, f. m. n. throe, indeclinable, plur. dat. predum, predm* 



54 PROPER NAMES. 

101. PROPER NAMES. . 

(1.) PflBSONS. — Names of women in -u or a consonant are 
strong^ those in -e or -a are weak. Declension IL^ d-stem: Begu, 
Freaparu; i^^w.* Beadobild, Hygd, and most others. Declen- 
sion IVn : Blene, Eve, Ada, Maria, etc.^ from foreign names ; 
PealhJ)e6(p), dat. PealhJ)e6ii (§ 99). 

Names of men in -u, -e, or a consonant are strong^ those in -a 
are weak. Declension IIL^ Vrstem: Leofsunu? Declension Z, 
a-stem: uElfrfid, Be^pulf, Eddmund, Sigemund {gen. also Sige- 
raunde<mund,/*. Hask) ? Poland, and most other strong nam^es; 
«ync()pa^(?;.EcgJ)e6(p), gen. EcgJ)e6pe8, EcgJ)e6es, etc.; Ongen- 
J)e6(p); Grendel, gen, Grendeles, Grendles, etc.; HrMel; ia- 
stem: Ine, Hedde, Glslhere, Pulfhere, Eddpine, Godpine, aiid 
others from 'here and -pine ; "umlaut 7iot found: Hereraan, dat. 
Ileremanne. Declension IV, : uEtla, Becca, and many others. 

(a.) Foreign names sometimes retain foreign declension, or are unde- 
clined, hut are generally declined as above ; those in -as, -es, -us do not 
often increase m the genitive. Those from Latin -us, Greek -oc, of the 
second declension, sometimes drop their endings and take those of the 
Anglo-Saxon first: Crist (<Chri8tus), Cristes, Criste, c/c. In less fa- 
miliar words -us oftenest stands in the nom. and gen,, but sometimes the 
Latin and Anglo-Saxon forms mix throughout: Petrus, gen. Petrus, Petres, 
Petri, dat. Petro, Petre, ace. Petrus, Petrum ; so -as and -es : Andreas, gen. 
Andrews, dat. Andred, ace. Andrews, Andream ; Her6d6s, H6r6des, Herdde, 
H6r6d-em, -6s, or -e. 

(^.) In Gothic these Latin and Greek rtames of the second declension are 
regularly given in the u-declension : Paitrus, gen. Paitraus, dat. Paitrau, 
ace. Paitru (^ 93, a). The Anglo-Saxon genitive Petrus may he a relic 
of the u-declension. 

(2.) Peoples. — Plurals in -ks and -e are strong, in -an weak. 
Declension Z, a-stem : Brittas, Scottds, etc. ; ia-stem and i-stem : 
Dene, gen. Den-sl, -i^, -iga, -gek (§ 85, a) ; Romdn^, etc. Declen- 
sion I VI : Gotan, Seaxan, etc. 

27ie singular is oftenest an adjective in -isc regularlxf declined: 
Egyptisc msin, J^gyptian man; Egyptisc ideB, £^yptian woman; 
^& Egyptiscan, the Egyptians, etc. Sometimes kn Brit, a Briton. 

Often is found a collective with a genitive, or with an adjective, 
or compounded: Seaxn& J)e6d ; Filist^& folc ; Cald^& cyn ; Ebr^a 
per&s; Sodomisc cyn; R6m-pare (§ 86); Nord-men (§ 84, ^),etc. 
Foreign names are treated as are names of persons. 

(3.) Countries. — A few feminine names are found: Engel, 
England ; Bi^jrten, Britannia. Oftenest is f<mnd the people's 



SUMMARY OF CASE-ENDINGS. 55 

name in the genitive with land, rice, ^del, etc.y or in an oblique 
case with a preposition : Englfl land ; Sodom^ rice ; on E^st-En- 
glum ; of Seaxum ; on Egyptum. Foreign names are treated as 
are names of persons. 

(4.) CmEs. — Names found aloTie are regularly declined accord- 
ing to gender and endings : R6m, /. R6me ; Babylon, n, Babylo- 
nes ; Sodoraa, m, Sodoman. Oftenest they are prefixed undedined 
to burg, ceaster, pic, diin, hslm, etc.: Lunden-pic, R6ma-burg, etc.; 
or the folk's name in the genitive followed by burg, ceaster, etc.^ is 
used: Cald^^ burg. Foreign names treated as names of persons. 

102. WEATHERING OF CASE-ENDINGS. 

(1.) Anglo-Saxon: Strong. Weak. 

i ^ \ I ^ » 

Mascitlini. I Neuter. | ykh. I Mabo. I MAsa Fkm. Nwt. 

Dbol. L I Dbcl. L I DxoL. IL | Dxol. m, | Dxol. IV. 

Head-casea ia a coDsonant. j Head-cases in a yoweL j Uead-caaes in "an. 

Stem aiai aia& i n ananan 

SiNOULAB. — 

N.&V. - e e - e u - u a e e 

Gen. es 68 es es es e e a an an an 

Dat M... eeee.e e e k ananan 

Ace -ee - en^eOi- n anane 

Inst 666 66 e e & an an an 

Plubal. — 

N.,A.,&V. as as e, &s u,- u &,e e,& n,o, & an 

Gen & a a a & a,en& &,en& en& 

D. & Inst, . . um nm nm nm nm nm um nm 

(2.) Layamon: 

SiNGULAK. — • 

N.,A.,&V. - e,en - e e, -, en e e, en 

Gen. es es es es e, -, en, es e, es en,e,es 

D.&Inst,.. e,en e,en e,en e,en e, -, en e en,e 

N.,A.,&V. e8,en,e e,-,e8,en e,en,e8 e,en,es en,e,e8 

Gen. e,ene,en,es e, en, es e,en,ene,e8 en,e8 en,ene,enen 

D.&Inst.... cn,e,e8 en,e,es . iBn,e8 en,e8 en,e 

Here is precession of all the vowels to e (^ 38) (a is found here and there) ; 
(2), shifting of m to n (^ 41, i); (3), a conflict everywhere between s and 
n, the weak and strong form. In the earlier manuscript n most abounds, 
in the later s. Norman influence, § 95, e. 

(3.) Orkvlvu.— Singular, N.,A.,V.,D.,L alike; Genitive -ess. Plural, 
all cases alike in -ess. Singular dative -e is found with prepositions in a 
few phrases, and Plural genitive -e (Northern dialect). 

(4.) Chaucer instead o/ -ess has -es or -s: king, kinges; lover, lovers. 
The last form brings us to Modern English. Irregular forms having um- 
laut (§ 100,^), or plural -en (§ 95, e), or indeclinable from r-stems or neu- 
ters plural (^ 100,/), are found in Chaucer, and a few still survive. 



56 



ADJECTIVES.— INDEFINITE DECLENSION. 



IV. ADJECTIVES. 

IJ M DEFIJJI T E AND DEFINITE DECI.ENSIONS. 

103. An adjective in Anglo-Saxon has one set of strong and 

one of weak endings for each gender. The latter are used when 

the adjective is preceded by the definite article or some word 

like it. Hence there are two declensions, the indefinite and the 

definite. 

104. — I. 77ie Indefinite Dedenaion. 

Case-endings < stem a, a, or i -f relational suffixes. 

Masculine. Feminine. Neuteb. 

^ ( blinda, blindsl, blindi, blinda, 

" ( blind. blind. blind. 

Theme . blind. blind. blind. 

SiNGULAB.— — , — — , — ^^v^ 

iVbm. .... blind blind (t/) blind 

Gen blind€5 blindre blindcs 

Dat hliudum blindre blindwm 

Ace blindn« blinde blind 

Vbc blind blind (i/) blind 

Inst blinds blindre blinds 

Plural. — 

Nbm blinds. blinds blindt^ 

Gen blindr<:^ blindr<^ blindre^ 

Dat, blindwm blindwm blindwm 

Ace blinde blinde blindt^ 

Vbc blinde blinde blindw 

Inst blindwm blindwm blindwm 

(a.) In other Indo-European languages the adjective is declined like the 
substantive ; in the Teutonic it follows the pronominal declension. This 
has been explained by supposing a composition in the Teutonic between the 
adjective stem and a pronoun (in Sanskrit jas, jdf jad, a relative) which it 
is suggested must have been in the Teutonic Parent Speech jis, ja, jata ; 
jis, jizosy jis ; jamma^ jizai, jamma ; jana, ja, jata ; je, jizaif je ; plural, 
jaiij6s,ja; jize,jiz6,jize; jatm; jans^ jos^ ja^^LH^h&ve had a demonstra- 
tive sense. Whether there has been a composition with a particular pro- 
noun, or a conformation to the pronominal declension, must, in the absence 
of decisive phonetic demonstration, be decided from the meaning ; and the 
fact that this is the indefinite form, and is not used where the sense calls for 
a demonstrative, weighs heavily against composition with a demonstrative. 

(&.) We give the demonstrative pronoun from which comes the definite 
article : 



THE PRONOMINAL DECLENSION. 



57 



Stem, 


Sanskrit 


Greek. 


TiatJn. 


Gothic. 


A.-Saz. 


0. H. Ger. 


Masculine . . . 


sa,tA 


' 1 rf 

TO, 0, O 


to (is-to) 


sa, f2L, fi 


8a,]}a 


de,di 


Feminine . . . 


8a,ta 


a,Ta 


ta 


sa, f2L, fi 


8a,]}a 


di,de 


Neuter 


ta 


TO, 


to 


fa, Jji 


fa 


da,de 


Singular. — 














Nominative^ 














Masculine. . . 


sa 


o, 0-e 


te (iste) 


sa 


se 


de-r 


Feminine . . . 


Bk 


V 


ta 


sd 


se6 


di-u 


Neuter 


ta-t 


t6,'6 


tu-d 


ba-t-a 


Jjffi-t 


da-z 


Genitive, 








s 


J 




Masc. & Neut. 


ta'-sja 


TO-IO, TOV 


tins 


]?i-s 


bffi-s 


dg-8 


Feminine . . . 


ta'-sj-^s 


Ttj-e 


tius 


bi-z6s 


l3ffi-re 


de-ra 


Dative, 


• 












Masc. & Neut. 


ta'-smdi 


Ttf 


ti 


fa-mma 


fa-rii 


dg-mu 


Feminine . . . 


ta'-sj-M 


Tj 


tl 


fi-zai 


i 

tje-re 


de-ru 


Accitsative, 










J 




Masculine . . . 


ta-m 


t6-v 


tu-m 


fa-n-a 


» Jjo-ne 


de-n 


Feminine . . . 


ta-m 


rffv 


ta-m 


fd 


fd 


di-a 


Neuter 


ta-t 


TO, O 


tu-d 


fa-t-a 


tffi-t 


da-z 


Instrumental, 










J 




Masc. & Neut. 


t6'n-a 


(Dat.) 


(Ablat.) 


fe 


te,lpf 


du, di-u 


Feminine . . . 


ta'.j-a 


(DatO 


(Ablat.) 


(Dat.) 


(Dat.) 


(Dat.) 


Plural. — 














Nominative, 














Masculine. . . 


td 


Toi, ol 


ti 


]3ai 


fa 


di-e 


Feminine '. . . 


t^-s 


Tat, ai 


tae 


fds 


fA 


di-6 


Neuter 


t6 


TO. 


ta 


fd 


ft 


di-u 


Genitive, 














Masc. & Neut. 


te'-s'^m 


TUtV 


td-rum 


))i-z6 


fd-rd 


de-r6 


Feminine . . . 


t4'-sdm 


TCL-iaV, TUiV 


tcl-rum 


fi-zd 


fd-rd 


de-rd. 


Dative, 














Masc. & Neut. 


t6'.bhjas 


{Locat.) 


tis 


fai-m 


f a-m 


^ di-em, 
C dem 


Feminine . . . 


t^'-bhjas 


(^Locat.) 


tis 


fVLi-m 


fd-m 



(c.) Peculiar Forms. — Nominative singular neuter t, a radicle, hav- 
ing the same relation to ta which masculine 8 has to sa (^ 63, a). Geni- 
tive feminine singular -re^Csjds: 7*<5 (^ 41,3,6) ; e<ijds (^ 70,6) : the 
inserted sj<^smt<^sma<C^sa'ma, this-here. Dative m<jnma<C.smdi shows 
ecthlipsis of s, gemination, apocope (^ 38, B; ^ 44) : the inserted sm<^sma, 
as before. Dative 're<^sjdi; r<is, etc., as in Genitive. Accusative -ne 
<ina, precession; M<77i (^ 41,3); a, euphonic epithesis, which prevailed 
as a law in Gothic. Plural nominative pd, Gothic J5)^</ai<^/a-waj 
(emphatic i inserted) ; compare Greek and Latin nouns in ^ 70. Genitive 
pd-rd has r< 5 (Hi, 3, h), and -d (Gothic ^, 6) as in nouns. The Old 
Sax. endiqgs are like the 0. H; Ger., the Norse like the adjective (^ 107). 

(d.) As compared with the article, the Anglo-Saxon adjective has apocope 
of neuter -t; has feminine singular -w, neuter plural -u, plural -e, like strong 
nouns ; euphonic epenthesis of e^ in dative -urn. ^^ 44, 40, 50. 



68 ADJECTIVES.— THE DEFINITE DECLENSION. 

105. — II. 27ie Definite Declension. 

Case-endiDgs < stem an + relational suffixes. 

Masculine. Femhone. Neuter. 

Stem., hlindaxiy blincL blindan, blindan, 

Theme blind. blind. blind. 

Singular. — >-.-r^-^ v-^v^^ s-^v^^ 

Nbm.,.. se blinda. seO blinde. })8et blinde. 

Gen J)8BS blindan. J)&re blindan. J)8BS blindaw. 

Dat J)am blindan. })ffire blindan. J>am blinda?2« 

Ace })one blindan. {)& blindan. |)set blinde. 

Vbc se blinda. seo blinde. J)aBt blinde. 

Inst J)^ blindan. J)»re blindan. J)^ blindan. 

Plural. — ^ v ^ 

JVbm. ... J)^ blindan. 

Gen J)§,ra blindend. 

Dot J)am blindwm. 

Ace J)^ blindan. 

Voc J)£i, blindan. 

Inst J)i,m blindwm. 

106. — Theme ending /Short {Boot Shifting). 

Stem.. glsidsLy glad. glad^, gladi. glada. 

Theme glad > glsBd* glad > glsed. glad > glsed. 

JVbm — glaed. gladw. glsed. 

Gen glades. glaedre. glades. 

Dat gladi^m. gldddre. gladz/m. 

Ace glaedne. glade. glsed. 

Voc glaed. gladw. glsed. 

Inst glad^. glsedrc. glad^. 

Plural. — 

Nbm.... glade. glade. gladw. 

Gen glsedre:^. glsedr<^. glsedr<:?. 

Dat gladt^m. gladwm. gladwm. 

Ace glade. glade. gladw. 

Voc glade. glade. gladw. 

Inst. .... gladt^m. gladwm. gladwm. 

In the Definite Declension it has 'y/glad throughout, and agrees 
wholly with blind. 



STRONG AND WEAK DECLENSIONS. 59 

107. — Strong: 
SiNOULAR.— Masculine. Femininb. i Neuter. 

Oofhic. O.Sax. O. Norse. | Goth. O.-Saz. O.None.| Gotii. O. Sax. O.Nona 

jVbm... blind-5, — , -r; -a, — , — ; (-oto), — , -^ 

Gen.,,, blind-is, -as, -s; -aizSs, -aro, -rar ; -is, -as, -s, 

Dat..,, hlmd-ammaf'Umu, -um; -a/, -aro, -rif -amma, -umv, -ti. 

Acc,„, blind-ana, -011(0), -an; -a, -a, -a; (-aid), — , -f. 

Inst,,. blind-(Z)a^) -t2, (Dat.); {Dat.){Dat.) (Dat); (Dat.) -iJ, . -ti. 
Plural. — 

Norn.,. blind-a>, -a(-e), -ir; Ss, -«(-«), -ar; -a, (-«), — . 

Gen, ,. hlvad-aizS, -arS, -rd; -aizd, -ar6, -rd; -cdze, -drS, -rd. 

D. & I. blind-aim, , -«», -um ; -aim, -tin, -tiwi ; '-aim, -un, -um. 

Ace.,.. blind-on», -a(-6)i -«; -^*> -^(-«)> -«»•; -<'> (-«)f — . 

Weak : 
Singular. — 

Norn... blind-o, -o(-a)» -»; -^> -<*» -«; -^» -o, -«. 

G^cn.... blind-in*, -tin, -a; Sns, -tot, -«; -tB«, -un, -a. 

Z)tx/.... blind-in, -tin, -a; Sn, -un, -u; -in, -un, -a. 

Ace.... blind-on, -un, -a; Sn, -un, -u; -6, -a, -a. 

Inst.... h\ind.(pat.)(Dat.) (Dat.)-, (Dot.) (Dot.) (Dat); (Dot.) (Dot.) (Dot.) 
Plural. — 

Norn.,, blind-an», -tin, -ti; Sns, -un, -«; -6na, -un, -u. 

Gen..,, hWnd-anS, Snd, -u; Snd, -6n6, -u; -anS, -6n6, -u. 

Z).&/. blind-am, -un, -«; -6m, -un, -u; -am, -un, -u. 

Ace.,.. blind-an«. -tin, -«; -6ns, -un, -u; -6na, -un, -u. 

In Old High Gennan the adjective has the same strong endings as the defi- 
nite article (§ 104, b). The weak form has Masculine plinto, -in, -in, -un ; 
plur. -un, 'onot -dm, -un : Feminine plirita, -un, -un, -un ; plur. -un, -ono, 
'6m, -un : Neuter plinta, -in, -in, -a ; pi. -un, -ono^ -6m, -un. O. Fries, has 
strong endings like A.-Sax.,but dat. -a(-c) ; weak forms like its noun. § 95. 
(a.) The Indo-European languages generally have no separate forms for the 
definite adjective ; but the Slavonic and Lithuanic have. In them it springs 
from composition between the adjective and demonstrative ja (^ 104, a) : 
Slavonic dohryj (good), dohraja, dohroje, 

from dohras+jas, dohrd-{-jd, dohrat-^-jat; 
Ang.-Sax. goda -f- se, gode -f- seb^ gbde -\-psBt. 
Grimm suggests that the Teutonic adjective is compounded in a similar way 
with the demonstrative jdtn (that), English yon. Heyse suggests a compo- 
sition with an, one. The Teutonic weak declensions form one whole with 
those of the an-stems in other Indo-European tongues : as to form, all are a 
growth from one stem. This stem is a secondary formation by means of the 
pronominal affix -an. The force of this affix may be illustrated by compar- 
. ing it with the pronouns join, an ; many nouns with it are rendered in En- 
glish by an adjective -f- one : pasdla, poor one ; prxcca, wretched one ; pana, 
defective one, etc. ; but to call the adjective a compound with either is likely 
to mislead. Compare the explanation of affixes in ^^ 56, 63. 



go ADJECTIVES. 

As to the logical and historical value of the weak declension, see ^ 95, c. 
It may give a profound insight into the Teutonic mind to notice here that its 
fundamental classification of objects is into those made definite to thought 
and those not so. 

108. The weak form is used when the adjective is preceded by 
the definite article, or by a demonstrative or possessive pronoun, 
or piersonal pronoun in the genitive, always with comparatives, 
often with vocatives, instrumentals, and genitives, § 362. 

(a.) For masculine present participles, see ^ 119. 

109. Like blind decline adjectives ending in a long syllable, 
participles present, weak participles past, superlatives, and adjec- 
tive pronouns : fasst, fast ; gdd^ good ; hdty hot ; heard^ hard ; 
hsehhende^ having (§ 119) ; gehdlgdd^ hallowed; hdtdst^ hotest; 
mtn^ mine. See § 110, a. 

110. With the endings of glmd decline adjectives with a final 
short syllable and strong participles past : eadig^ blessed ; hseden^ 
heathen ; fseger^ fair ; brocen^ broken. 

(a.) The -u of the feminine singular oflenest, and of the neuter plural 
often, sufiers precession to -o> -e> — , especially in derivatives. It drops 
pretty regularly after a long syllable. (^ 109; 91,^). A few once t^-stems 
hold it : heard, keardu > hearde (Gothic hardus), bard. 

111. {Shifting, §§ 73, 41). — Like glad decline short ^lonosyllables 
with root a >£B: d^r, bare; 6/^c, black; Arie^, ready; kps^, vfhetied; last, 
late ; smsel, small ; spasr, spare ; pasr, wary. 

(a.) The shifting is stopped by a following vowel, even by e which is 
from a, and ^<id. The nouns {dxges) have shifted further; the ad- 
jective has throughout held stronger than the noun by the old forms. 

112. {Gemination, § 78). — Rule 10, ^ 20, for simplification of gemi- 
nation applies : grimi grimmesy grimre, grimmum, grimne, etc., grim. 

113. {Syncope, §§ 46, 79).— Polysyllables in -ig, -ol (ul, el), -en, -or 
(cr), and others liable to syncope, may drop the last vowel of the theme 
when the ending begins with a vowel : fasger, fair, fsegru, but fsegeme ; 
hdlig, holy, hdliges^ hdlges, hdligan^ hdlgan, etc. 

114. {Stems in -ia, § 83). — Some adjectives once in -^a have e<^a 
in the cases usually without endings : blide, blithe ; gen. blides, blidre,blides, 
etc. ; rarely before the endings : ice, eternal, eceum, Scum. So decline ad- 
jectives in -6 and present participles (^ 119). 

(a,) Some show i-umliut when compared with other words: grene 
(O. H. German gruoni), green; sefte {soft), soft; strenge {strong) 
strong. ^ 32, 2. 

(J).) Some show compensative gemination: midde<C^mid (Gothic 
midis, midjia), middle. ^ 37, 2. 



PARTICIPLES.— NORTHUMBBIAN ADJECTIVE DECLENSION. 61 

115. {Themes in -1). — Such may have dissimilation into ig before the 
case-endings : fri^ free, gen. friges ifrigrey etc. The g is the parting of the 
organs afler taking the t-po&ition. ' ^ 85, a, 

116. {Themes in -e6).-^Such may drop the vowel of case-endings: 
freOi free, gen. freos, freore^freos, etc. § 80. 

11 Y. {Themes in -py -u > -O, § 81 ; 91, B). — Such may drop^ 
final after a vowel : hl&y blue, gen. hl&pes. After a consonant p final shifts 
to u^o; and before a vowel may suflfer quasi-gemination to vp: fealu, 
fallow, fealupet etc. (§ 27, 5). This u may suffer precession to > 6; /ca- 
lope,fealepey etc. § 38. 

118. Themes in -h, § 80). — Such may drop h final or before a close 
ending, and before a vowel change it to g, or drop it and contract : hedhf hed 
(Gothic hauhs, O. H. German hoh), high. 



SiNOULAB. — 

Norn, hea(h) hea(h) hea(h) 

Gen. hea(ge)s hear© hea(ge)s 

Dat. hea(g)um heare hea(g)um 

Ace. he&no hea(ge) hefi,(h) 

Voc. hea(h) hea(h) hea(h) 

Inst. hea(ge) he&ro hca(ge) 



Plural. — 

Nom. hea(ge) heft(ge) he&(gu) 

Gen, hcara hed,ra he^r^ 

Dat. hea(g)am hea(g)am hea(g)um 

-4cc. hea(ge) hea(ge) he4(gu) 

Foe. heag(e) hea(ge) he&(gu) 

//is^ hea(g)am hea(g)um hea(g)am 



The spelling of such words is irregular in the manuscripts. Sing. nom. 
heh, accusative hedhne, hednne, plur. dat. hedhum, are found. 

119. Paeticiples. 
The participles have both declensions. §§ 103, 109, 110. 

(a.) Present participles in the strong forms without endings have -e like 
ia-stems (§ 1 14) : gifende, giving. 

(J>.) Masculine present participles used substantively may take strong 
forms after the definite article: J)d Udende or lidend^Xho^e sailing; pdrd 
t/mb'Stttendrd, of those dwelling around. (§ 100,/.) 

(c.) The strong singular accusative of the participles is often (wrongly) 
spelt without -n : gecoren€<C^ecoren'ne, chosen ; scr%d:end'{n)e\ coming. 

120. The declined infinitive (gerund) is often found in the da- 
tive : t6 faranne^ to fare. 

121. Northumbrian Abjective Declension. 

The strong declension is like Common Anglo-Saxon. The instrumental 
in -^ is very rare — the dative takes its place. The plural nominative is 
often in -o, perhaps an older form than -e : compare Old Saxon -a and pre- 
cession, ^ 38 ; perhaps merely an irregular conformation with weak forms. 
The weak declension drops -n, and is otherwise like that of the weak sub- 
stantive (p. 61). 



62 ADJECTIVES.— COMPARISON. 

122. COMPABISON. 

Comparison is a variation to denote degrees of quantity or 
quality. It belongs to adjectives and adverbs. 

(a.) In Anglo-Saxon it is a variation of stem, and is a matter rather of 
derivation than inflection ; but the common mode of treatment is convenient. 

(b.) The suffixes of comparison were once less definite in meaning than 
now, and were used to form many numerals, pronouns, adverbs > preposi- 
tions, and substantives, in which compared correlative terms are implied : 
either^ other, over, under, first, etc. 

(c.) Anglo-Saxon adverbs are in brackets : (spkte), 

123. Adjectives are regularly compared by suffixing to the 
theme of the positive -ir^-er or -dr for the theme of the com- 
parative, and 'ist > -est or -dst for the theme of the superlative. 

The Comparative has always weak endings and syncopated 
stem. 

The Superlative has both weak and strong endings. 

Adverbs are compared like adjectives : the positive uses the 
ending -c, the comparative and superlative have none ; -ir drops. 

Strong^ s]^idy strenuous ; spldra; spidust. 
Weaky se splda ; se spldra ; se spiddsta. 

Adverb^ (spide) ; (splddr) ; (splddst). 

a 

(a.) These suffixes in the Parent Speech were comparative -fans, superla- 
tive -jans-ta'^ista, combinations of emphatic dental radicles (^ 56 ; 126, a) : 

Sanskrit Greek. Latin. Gothic O. Saxon. O. Norse. 

• rmah, fuy^fui, mag>m&, mak>ma, mik>me, mik>mei, 

{great, great, great, great, great, great, 

Cowipar. mih-l-jas /i«-^oi/ (-jon) ma-jor, -jus ma-iz-a mS-r-o mei-r-i 

Superl, m^h-is'tha fiky-caro-v (see§126, 2») mi-ist-s mS-st mei-st-r 

The 0. H. German has me-ro, me-ist-er, Anglo-Saxon md-r-a, m^st, 

(b.) In Anglo-Saxon %r<ijans, the i<^j, r<Cs are shifting (§ 41, 2, d); 
dropping of an, apocope from gravitation (^^ 44, 38). 6 in -or and -ost is 
compensative progression from an (^^ 37, 38) ; the same form is in Gothic, 
Old Saxon, Old H. German. Old Norse has a for d, A further precession 
took place in -ir, -or, -ist, -ost, of ^>6> — , and of <^>(i>a>t/>e> — 
(^ 38). In Gothic, s has not shifted ; so pyrsa, worse (^ 129). 

(c.) The superlative -ta is suffixed to the theme of the positive in nu- 
merals: Sanskrit s'as'-thd, sixth; Greek Trpw-ro, first; Latin quar'to,io\aikk; 
Gothic ahtU'da-n, eighth ; Anglo-Saxon Jtrid-da, third. ^ 139. 

124. {Umlaut, § 32, 2). — The affixes -i> > -er and -ist ^ -est 



ADJECTIVES.— RELICS. 63 

may work i-umlaut, changing 

a, a, ea, e4, eo>o, 6, n, ii, 
to e, », y>e, y, y, 6, y, f: 

langy long ; lengra (leng) ; lengest 

Strang^ strenge (§114, a), strong; strengra; strengeat, 

eald^ aid (§ 33), old ; yldray ddra ; yldeat^ eldest 

hedh^ hedy Mh^ high (§§ 118, 25) ; h^rra, /iphra^ Mrra^ hedhr 

ra; h^h8% Mhst^ hedhst^ hedhesty hedgdsty and as nedh, 
nedhy nihy nigh (§§ 118, 25) ; n^ra (n^r), nBra {nedr)^ nedrra 

(nidr) ; n^st (p>t> iS)^ n^hst^ nedhst^ and as Jiedh, 
feoTy (feor)y (fyr)y far; fyrra; fyrrest. 
geong^ young ; gyngra {y > i) ; gyngest (y > {). 
«eeor^, short ; scyrtra; scyrtest. 

{sdfte) s^fie, soft (114, a) ; aeftra (s^ft) ; softest. [125, 129. 

^^^ (i^> ^> 6^y ; ^^^« (^<^i {P^{^^9 ^) ; i^^«^ edddst See §§ 

125. {Shifting^ § 110). — Root a>a3 of short monosyllables 
shifts to SB miless the next syllable begins with a vowel ; such 
words may also have forms with i-umlaut (§ 124) : 

glaedy glad ; glsBdra, gledra; gladSst, 
hrwdy ready ; hrsedra^ hredra; hradSst. 
hpsety whetted, keen ; hpxtra; hpcUdst. 
paar^ wary ; psarra; pardst, 

126. Relics are found of forms from Parent Speech Compar- 
ative -ra^ 4a^a^ Superlative -ma, -ta-^ma. Of the comparative, 
only pronouns, adverbs > prepositions, and the like : <^-<^, ol^er ; 
hpa^-dery whelJier ; i^, ere ; «/-^, after ; hi-dery hither ; of-er^ 
over; unrder^ under. Of the superlative: for-ma^ first; hin- 
demOj hindmost; inn-emOy inmost; la^t-ema^ latest; med-emdy 
midmost; nid-emct, nethermost; ^td-ema^ latest; iU-emOy utmost; 
and others with double comparison. §§ 127, 129. 

(a.) Parent Speech -tara. Forms on an, that, and ka, what, En^ish 
other, whether: 
Suukrift. Greek. Latin. GoUuc: O. Sazoo. Anglo-Sazan. O.Xocae. 

an-tar4 i-Ttpo{c) al-ten](8) an-^ar(a-) &-dar (V-der ann-ar 
ka^tara «o-T«po(c) n-tern(8) hTa-|>ar(a-) hne-der hp«-der hr^-rr 

The O. H. Grciman has anderoj other ; hwedar, whether. This is a com- 
mon form for the adjectire in Sanskrit, the most common in Greek ; in 
Latin and Teotonic only as in Anglo-Saxon. Latin, in-^er, between ; 
dex'tery right ; sinis-ter, left. ^ 122, b. 



64 ADJECTIVES.— DOUBLE COMPAKISON.— HETEROCLITEa 

(i.) Parent Speech 'tna^ -ta-ma. Forms on pra, fore; sep, seven; 
hin, hind : 

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. OotUc O.Saxon. Ang.-Saz. O. Nor. 

pra-tha-m4 irpo-/*o(c) pri-mu(8) fru-ma for-mo < J^^^ ( frum- 

sap-ta-m4 «/3-^o-;*o(c) sep-tu-mu(8) hin-du-ma hin-de-ma 

The 0. H. German has frumi, first. This is a common fbnn in Sanskrit ; 
in Latin, suffixed to Comparative jans^is (^ 123, a), it makes the regu- 
lar 'issimo <^iS'timo by assimilation (^ 35). After I and r it is suffixed 
to the theme and assimilated : facil-limo, easiest ; pulcher-rimo, hand- 
somest. In the other languages it is found only as in Anglo-Saxon. For 
numerals, see ^ 140. 

127. Double Compakison is found chiefly with relics in -dery 
-er, and -m (§ 126) : i^, ere, ^e^-er^ Sr^ ^^-est; sef4ery mfter-ra 
'^wftera^ wf-ter-mest (Rask), sef-tem-est; Iws^ less, laM-say Ises- 
dstj -est; for-ma^ fyr-m-est^ and see § 129. 

(a.) Accumulation of signs of comparison is a striking fact through all the 
languages. (1.) Repetition of the suffix for emphasis: -raroc < ra-ra, reg- 
ular Greek superlative ; Irish ma-ma ; O. H. German bezeroro, more hetter 
(Shakespeare) ; ererera, more sooner, etc. ; Parent Speech ta-ma (§ 126, b), 
(2.) New suffix after Relics (§ 126) : Gothic af'tu-m-is-ta ; Anglo-Saxon 
spf-te-m-eS't ; aftermost =q/'+^a+ra+ma+yan*+^fl, a heaping of radicles 
which illustrates their force as signs of comparison (^ 123, a). Emphatic 
double comparison abounds in early English : Shakespeare has more braver, 
more fairer , most best, most boldest, most unkindest, etc. 

(Jb,) The English superlative ending -most in aftermost^ and the like, is 
simulation of a connection with most, ^ 42, 2. 

128. Heteeoclitic forms abound from themes in -ir and -^r, -ist^ 
Sst : sUy good ; -ra^ -la^ (s^ ; — est, -dst; rice, rich; rices% ricdst;^ 
glved, glad ; glsedra, gledra, etc. (§ 125). Some have themes with 
and without double comparison: Uet, late; hetra; latdst, late- 
mest; std, late; ddra {std, 8id6r) ; std-dsty -est^ -mest, 

129. Defective are the following. Words in capitals are not 
found. 

(1.) Mixed Hoots: 

Positive. Compaeattve. Superlative. 

, j god ) , ,x j betera,betra,§ 124 betst,bet6st,-ast 

^^^^' ( BAT ) ^^^^ ( bsettra, § 125 (bet) (betst) 

(yfele) C pyrsa, (pyrs), ( pyrst, pyrresta, 

bad, ] poor [ < % 123, b \ (pyrst),(pyrrest) 

( sffimra, § 124 s&mest 



DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES.— DECAY OF ENDINGS. 



65 



Positive. 
areat ( ™icel Wmicle) 
^^i Vela f(fela) 



COMPAfiATIVE. 



SUPERLATIYE. 



1 



m»st,§124; 123, a 



mara, (ma) 
( L^s (Goth. /a«i;«) l8essa(l8es),§35,-S ( Ises-ast, -est, -t 



(2.) From Adverbs of time and place (compare §§ 126, 127) : 



ever, 
ere 






j (ffir)>^rra, ) 

( («er-6r, -ur) ) 



ser-est 



ver^ ) A 
, erst, ] ^'^ 

after- j af-, aBf-=of, ) . « v ^ j aef-tem-est 

y^ard, \ sefterpeard ) ^""^"^^''^ ^ ^*^^^^ ( after-mest, § 127 

else^ (elles) (ellor), elra 

fore^ forepeard, (fore) fyrra 

far, feor, (fyr) fyrre, (fyr) 

forth, ford:peard,(ford:) (fiird-dr, -ur) 



j for-ma > (fyrroest). 



Z7iner. 
mid. 



(hindan) 

innepeard, (in) 

. , j middepeard, ) 
' I (mid) ) 

7iorih i noi^^epeard, ) 

^^^^' ( (nide) ) 
tipper, tlfepeard, (up) 



mnera 

(nord-6r) 
( nid-ra. 



fyrst, friima, § 61 
fy rrest (eo>y) 
j (furd-um), 
( ford-m-est 

j hinduma, 

( hinde-ma, §126,^ 

inne-ma, (-m-est) 

l-ema (-uma?) 
-est 



j med-eir 
( mid-m-i 



nord-m-est 
j nidema, § 126 



( (nid-6r,-er(i>eo) (nide-m-est (i>eo) 
IS [yf(e)-m-e8t.il24 



outer, Atepeard, (At) ^tra,(utt6r.<lt0r) | J^^^™"'^*^^^^^^ 
So sttdemest, edstemest, pestemest, south-, east-, west-most. 



Decay op Endings. — (1), Declension: Layamon, strong, sing. masc. 
— , -es, -en, -ne ; fern. — , -re, -re, -e ; neut. — , -es, -en, — ; plur. -e, -re, 
-en, -e; but w, s, r may drop. Weak, -e, -en, as in § 102. — Ormulum, 
strong, sing. — , plur. -e. Weak, -e. — Chaucer, monosyllables as in Orm., 
others undeclined. — Shakespeare, no declension. 

(2), Comparison: Layamon, Ormulum, -re, -est, — Chaucer (= Modern 
English), -er, -est. 

E 



66 



PRONOUNS. 



V. PRONOUNS {Helational Names, § 66). 
130. Personal Pronouns {Relational Substantives). 



2. thou. 

1,6 
l>ec, 1>6 

l,a 

1,0 

cOper 
e6p 
copic, cop 

A 

cop 

git 

incer 

inc 

A. imcit, line incit, inc 

V. git 

/. UDC inc 



Sing. — l.Z 
X. io 
G. mill 
I), nio 
- 1 . mcc, nio 

V. 

/. ni6 

Plural. — 
N, p6 

6r. HscTy HrQ 
D. Us 
A. ilsic, Us 

V. 

L tis 

Dual. — 

^v: pit 

G, uncer 
D, line 



3. 7i<?, 

U 

]iis 

liini 

hino 

]iim 



lico 
hiro 
liiro 



it 

Lit 
Lis 
Lini 



Lie, Li, Leo Lit 



hire 



Lim 



Lie, Li, Leo Lie, Li, lieo Leo, Lie, LI 

Leora, Lyra lieora, Lyra Leord, Lyra 

Lim Lim Lim 

Lie, Li, Leo Lie, Li, Leo Le6, Lie, LI 



Lim 



]iim 



Lim 



Smo. NoM. 
P. Sp. .. i-8, i-ja, i-t 

Latin ... i-s, ci&, i-d 

Gothic,, i-s, si, i-ta 

0. Sax., hi, siu, i-t 

0. n. G. i-r, siu, i-z 



Gknitivk. 
i-8ja 

ejus 

is, izos, is 

is, ira, is 



8m, iru, IS 

f bans, hen- 
O.Norse nann,hon, — •< 



ans, hen- > 
nar, — j 



Pics. NOH. 
aj-as 

ii, en, ea 

eis, ij68, ija 

8ia, sia, sin 

8x6, tibf sia 



(a.) Other Forms. — (1 and 2), pi/t; gyt; ungc; uncer not found; us- 
sery ussic. (3), i>y (bad spelling) : hys^ hyt^ etc. ; i>eo, i>ie (break^g, 
^ 33): heom, plur. (sing, prose) hierdi hiene; l>y (bad spelling): hy ; hi 
> hig (dissimilated gemination, ^ 85, a ; 27, 5) ; io for eo ; id, e^, for e6 (or- 
thographic) : hiord, hio, hed. Nom. sing. fem. hie, hi, inst. sing. masc. heo 
<^hy in heo-dseg (Latin hodie), to-day; hird (not in Grain) '^heord. 

Northumbrian for final c has h, chy sometimes g : ih, ich ; meky mechj 
mehe ; usih, usigy etc. ; for final ^ thus : gs^y gee, gie, etc. ; woe=uoe=^p€; 
user'^urer; for eoper appear iwevy iuere, iuerrxy iurra(e) ; for eop appear 
iuhy iowhy iouhy iwh, iu, ou; for eopic appear iuihy iuighy iwih. Third Per- 
son : for heoy hie appear hidy hixy hiu; hire^hir; for heord appear heardy 
hiordy hiard. 

(b.) The pronouns are clusters of radicles, some of which lure beyond 
the Indo-European family ; the c {k) of ic and of Hebrew andki have been 
claimed to be plainly from the same radicle ; so the dental of ^, thou, and 
Hebrew attdh, the guttural of Ke and Hebrew hu\ the nasal of me and He- 
brew dnoki. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



67 



(c.) The mode of growth from the radicles in the Indo-European family 
m:^y be studied in the following : 



Sing. — Sanskrit. Greek. 

Norn.., ah4m lyiit 

Gen.,,, ma-ma (me) Ifiov 

Dai.... ma-hjam(mS) tftoi(.Loe.) 



A CC. • • • 

Voc. ... 



ma-m, ma 



IflS 



Latin. 

ego 
(mei) 
mibi 

md 



Gothic 
ik 

(meina) 
mi-s 
mi-k 



O. Sox. 

ic . 

(min) 

mi 
mic, mi 



O. II. O. • O. Norso. 



ih(ihha) 
min 
mir 
mih 



ek 
min 
mer 
mik 



r .A 

ma-ja 



(loc.) 



Inst..., 

Plural. — 
Norn... asm^', vajam 
Gen..,, (asmakam)nas 
Bat,.,, asma -bhjam, nas 
Ace... ' asman, nas 

Dual. — 
Norn... uvam 
Gen,... ava-j68, nan — — — 
D,&I, ava -bhjaim, nau vuttv 
Acc„„ avam, nan v^, vm 



J {Ahlot.) \ 
4m6-d, m^r 



{Dal.) (Dot.) {Dat) (Dat.) 



tfflUJV 
tffUV 

f'tfiae 

Viii, VUJl 



nos 



veis 
nostrum (tri) (nnsara) 



n5-bi8 
n6s 



nnsiB, nns 
unsiSj una 



vi-t 

Qgkara 

ngkifl 

Qgkis 



wi, w6 
^scr 

iiB 

wi-t 

uncer6 

unc 

unc 



wir 
unsar 

una 
ansih 

(wi-z) 
unchar 
(uncb) 
(uncb) 



vcr 
\h (v6r) 

68S 
t>BB 

vi-t 
okkar 
okkr 
okkr 



In Sanskrit there are seemingly five themes : (1), ma, me ; (2), aha < 
ma+ga (-^a>Sansk. -ha, -^Afl=Greek -yt (lyw-7€)=Gothic 'k(c) is an 
emphatic enclitic). (3), Plural, t?fl<ma, labial shifting, ^ 41, <&; (4), 
a-sma <ma+*ma=I+he = we. (5), Dual, d-va <Cjna+dva =I+two = 
we two. Nas J ndu, from masm-\-, mdv-\-, in oblique cases. 

Anglo-Saxon ic<imaga by aphaeresis of m (^ 43), shifting of a>^' and 
^>c (^ 41 ; apocope, ^ 44). mtn<jntna, a possessire adjectirc -na: ma 
<^m€r (compensation, § 37) <Cmir (-r dative sign, as in adjective, ^ 104, c) : 
me<Cm€c, § 37 (-c same as in ic; e<idm^ precession, ^ 41). Pli/ral ; 
p€<ip€r (compensation, ^ 37) </n> (shifting, ^41); -s^srna (afjocojic, 
§ 44) : user <ivns'€rdf us<iuns (^ 37) <imuns (^ 43) <.mans (^ 41; 
<^masm (metathesis and dental assimilation, ^^ 61, 36) ; -ra, genitive 
ending, ^ 104, c. Dual: pitK^pi+tpa, we two; uncer u a variation of 
uTiser; s=h>kCcy. Sanskrit sma=?rkVni hma; h<ik (shifting, ^ 41), 
In uncitj -t as in pit. 



(J.) Sdcg- — Ssnfkrft. 


Gredt 


Utto, 


CMhk. 


0«tesmL 


o,ira 


0,5f, 


Xam... tva^m 


TV, df 


t6 


yu 


tlm 


dil 


1^ 


Gem,,,. tiv» (t^) 


Ttoio, aw 


(tei) 


(f«iiu) 


rtbla) 


(4J«) 


);ln 


Dai..,. t«:,-bhjam(tT^,tfc) 


9ci{Loc.) 


HAA 


fU 


tbl 


4if 


1^*^ 


Aec.... tTMi^tva 


rifCi 


a 


r* 


tlik,tfal 


4ili 


tik 


Vcr. ... iXcmimatwe.} 


iNbm.} 


(Som.) 


(>'<>«,) 


Cv-wi,) 


CAW,) (fffm,) 


lust tra^ja 


iLocS) 


AlL\kJi,ik 


(,DrU.) 


ilMtt,} 


(fm.) 


(i><rf,; 


Plural. — 














Xbm.^ jai'aii', joysam 


hfiOc 


rU 


j«l 


lAl^ 


Ur.ir 


«r,j;4W 


Gfm..^ (jas'Mlcaa)vas 


i>pS0W 


rtttgrnmOUf) 


izwtg% 


Hrsr 


iWMT 


r<*f 


Dat,^. 'ja»tmab^^m,Ta§ 




rUUi 


fzvte 


l« 


im 


r?r 


ACC.*^ JVSCMBf V9S 


vpac 


rU 


fzvte 


te 


Mk 


r<' 



68 PRONOUNS.— REFLEXIVES.— POSSESSIVES. 

Dual. — SuMkrlt Greek. Latin. Gothic O.Sazod. O. H.G. O.N. 

Norn,,, jav4m <r^ci,<r^ai« (ju-t) git 0^^) it, fit 

Gen..., Javi-jos, T&m igqara (incerd) (inchar) ykktr 

/>.&/. jav&'-bl:^4iii,Tam (r^wiv igqis inc (inch) ykkr 

Ace,.,, jav&'m, yam a^fC^i IgqU inc (inch) ykkr 

Radicle stem in Parent Speech, tu<C.tva; plural, tu+sma=thou and he; 
dual, tu + dva = thou + two = you two. Anglo-Saxon, pu^tu (shifting, 
^ 41) ; €6p<^iup^iu (quasi-gemination, § 117) =ju<^tu, irregular soften- 
ing of t. Compare assibilation, ^ 24. Other forms like those of ic, 

(e.) Three stems show in the third person, t, hi, sia. The Anglo-Saxon 
alone has hi throughout. In English, she and they, their, them have come 
in from the demonstrative (^ 133) At/>it; its is a late formation. The 
third personal pronoun is a weak demonstrative. In the cases not given 
above, each language uses the endings of its demonstrative given on page 57. 

131. Reflexives aro supplied by the personal pronouns with 
self (self), or without it. Self htis strong adjective endings like 
blind (§ 103) ; in the nominative singular also weak self a: ic self 
ic selfa, myself; mtn sdfes, of myself; m^ selfum^ m^ selfne^ etc. ; 
pH selfa^ thyself, etc. ; M self a, himself, etc. 

(a.) Sin is the possessive of an old reflexive si, se (§ 132, h). Self, Gothic 
silha, is used throughout the Teutonic tongues: ^Csi-^-Qibf), life, soul ; so 
Sanskrit dtmdn (soul) and Hebrew nephes' are used as reflexives. 

(b.) Silf is found in Anglo-Saxon : '^ self (a) (a-umlaut, § 32, 1), seolf, 
siolf (breaking, ^ 33), sylf (graphic variation). Demonstrative selfan is 
found : Py selfan dxge, the same day (^ 133). 

132. PossESSiVES are mtn,pin^ sin, iXser^ Hre, edper^ uncer^in- 
C€T. They have strong adjective endings (§ 103). Those in -er 
are usually syncopated (§ 79). User has assimilation of r>5 
(§ 35, B), 

Sing. — Plur. — 

Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Masc. & Fern, Neut 

N, ftser tlser ftser (usere) ftsse (a) dser 

G, (Clseres) ^ses (iiserre) tsse (iiseres) iisses (iiserr&) iiss& 

D, (iiserum) iissum (Iiserre) tlsse (iiserum) ftssum (ftserum) iissum 

A. dseme ((Isere)usse ftser (ft8ere)<isse iiser 

V. ilser Aser dser (ftsere)ftsse tlser 

I. (tisere) dssd (ftserre) tsse ((Isere) <isse (tiserum) dssum 

Northumbrian has usenne <iuseme, usrd. lire is a syncopated form of 
user, 

(a.) They have the same themes as the genitives of the personal pro- 
nouns. Analogous forms are found throughout the Indo-European family : 



PRONOUNS.— DEMONSTRATIVES. 69 

mine, thine, his, our, your, of us two, of you two, 

Sanskrit, madija tvadi'ja STadija asmadija jas'madrja — - — — '• — 

Greek..,, ifioe aoe og rifiktip-og if/urtp-os vmrep-oc afpmrsp-og 

Latin.,., meus tuus sous noster Tester 

Gothic... meins ])eiDs seins unsar izvar ugkar igqar 

O.Saxon min thin sin iisa iwa unca inca 

O.Norse minn finn sinn varr ySarr okkar ykkar 

0. H. G. miner dinSr siner unsarer iwarer 



The n {mei{n)s) and r {unsa{r)) have been thought variations of Sanskrit 
dental d (ma(d)i'ja), but see ^ 130, c. Fries, min, thin, sin, use, unser, etc. 

(Jb.) Sm is from obsolete se (self) found in Gothic, Old Saxon, etc., de- 
fectWe like Latin se, Greek £. It does not cover the full meaning of the 
possessive of the third person ; hence in Low German dialects the forma- 
tion of new possessives : English, his, her, their, its, etc. 

133. Demonstratives. 

Definite Article. 

1. that and the. \ 2. this, 

ITom. se seo J)aet J)es J)e68 J)is 

Gen. J)8es J)ffire J)8es J)i8se3 J)isse J)isse8 

Dat. J)am, J)aBin J)^re J)am, J)aem ^issum })isse J)issam 

Ace. J)one J){i l)aet J)isne J)ds J)is 

Voc. — — 

Inst. J)^ J)^re ]}f, l)e J)5's J)isse J)^s 

Nom J)a J)as 

6^671 J)ara, J)^ra J)issil 

jC>a^ J)^m, ])ffim J)issum 

^cc J)^ J)a8 

Foe 

Inst J)dm, J)^m J)i88um 

(1. 56.) — Other Forms : sing. gen. pes, pdre, pdraf 6aX. pdm, p^em, pan. 
Pan; 2icc. psene, pane ; inst. pi; p\uT. gen. peard,d9.t. pan, pon. Northum- 
brian : sing. nom. de ; did, diu, dy ; diet. Compare Old H. German, ^ 104, 
and Old Saxon thte ; thiu ; that. Add nom. sio, sia for sea. 

(a.) The changes of stem a to £B and o are the common shiftings 
(^ 41, 1). The lengthening of the stem in the feminine singular and 
throughout the plural was to be expected (^ 64, 3 ; 88, c). The O. Norse 
had sing. nom. sd, su, pat ; gen. pess, peirrar, Pess ; dat. peim, peirri, 
pvi ; ace. pann, pd, pat ; plur. nom. peir, pasr, pau ; gen. peirta ; dat. 
peim ; ace. pd, pasr, pau. O. Fries, thi, thiu, thet ; thes, there, thes, etc. 



70 PRONOUNS.— RELATIVES.— INTERROGATTVES. 

(b,) For forms in oUicr languages and discussion of case-endings, see 
^ 104. Ileyne gives paira, pdim only as masculine, but p&rd boca, ,^21- 
fric, 3, 114 ; jN&ra pingdy ib. 2, 130 ; see pinn in Grein. 

(2. l)C8.) — Other Forms: without gemination of « in masculine and neu- 
ter, ^i5C5, pisuniy pise; i >y : pys^ pysscs^ pyssc, etc. ; sing. nom. f. pios; 
gen. and dat. f. pisere^pisrc, pisscrc ; dat. pisson, pissan, piosum ; inst. m. 
and n. pis^ pise^ pisse adjective form, (^(>5=0. Saxon pius; Grimm, Ett- 
mUUer, Hcyno — examples given are all false readings); plur. nom. ^^; 
gen. piscrd, pisserd, Nortuusibrian : sing. nom. ttics, ttius, dis ; gen. and 
dat. f (tiFsserj disser ; dat. m. dassum ; ace. diosnc, da^ dis. 

(a.) Pes is an emphatic demonstrative from pa+sja. In Gothic, the 
same force is obtained by affixing -uh (Latin -ce, -que : hi-c, quis-que). 
In the other Germanic tongues analogous forms to pes are found : O. 
Saxon sing. nom. these, the-su (t?iius), thi-t; gen. the-sas, the-saray 
' the-sas; dat. ihe-sumu, thc-saru, thc-sumu; ace. the-sanj the-sa, thi-t ; 
inst. n. thius; pi. nom. ace. the-sa, thius ; gen. the-saro; dat. the-^sun; 
0. H. G. di'Se-r, etc. The Anglo-Saxon has lost all the sja except -^ in 
the nominative. In pissc, pissd there has been syncope and assimila- 
tion of r^^, as in usse,ussd (^ 132); in pisses SLndpissunij gemination 
of 3 through gravitation. The genitive and dative masculine are writ- 
ten pretty regularly with gemination of 8 — not always. 

(3.) TlCypylCy spylc: ylca^ same, has only weak forms; pyk^ 
spylcy such, have only strong. {y=:zi=€.) pys-licypyHiCj strong. 

(a.) Ylc<Cy+lic; y<^i, demonstrative he; -//c, like; so ^y-/ic, analogous 
to Latin td-liSj Greek rrj-XiKoCf Sanskrit td-dr'ks'a; spy-lie, Gothic sve- 
leiks, etc., English such, 

(4.) Sdfy see § 131. (5.) Same, adv. same, Sanskrit jyron, sama 
{sa + ma)y Greek o/io-c, Latin simi-Hsy Gothic, Old Saxon aaina^ 
Old Norse sanv-r^ Old H. German samo, 

(6.) Geondy adv. yon, Gothic i^xon, jCtiiis^ that (§ 255, a). 

134. Relatives. — (1.) 5C, seo^ psety who, which, that, is de- 
clined as when a demonstrative (§ 133). (2.) pe used in all the 
cases, both alone and in combination with se, sed^ pa3t, or a per- 
sonal pronoun, is indeclinable. (3.) spd^ so, used like English as 
and Old German so in place of a relative, is indeclinable. 

135. Inteeeogativks are hpdy who; JipsBcter^ which of two; 
hpylcy haitCy of what kind. They have strong adjective endings; 
hpsRcter is syncopated (§ 84.) 



PRONOUNS.— INDEFINITES. 



71 



Sing. — Masc. 
Nom, hpa 
Gen, hpaes 



DaU 

Ace, 
Voc. 
Inst. 



hpam 
lipone 

hpam 



Fern. Neat. Masc. Fern. Neut 

hpset Sanskrit, ka-s ka ka-t 

hpses Greek... «o-c>iroc>7ro-^i,iroi;,etc. 

lipam Latin . . . qui-s quae quo-d 

hpaet Gothic hvars hvu hva 

O.Saxon hue hua-t 

hpy O. Norse, hva-r liva-t 



Other Forms : d^t. hpaem^ hpan^ hpon, hpdm^ hp^m ; ace. hpmne ; inst. 
hpi, hpig, hu, . Northumbrian : hudt hu&, huxtd, huxd. 

(a.) For shifting of the stem radicle, see ^ 41, B; for case-endings, ^ 105. 
(b.) Hpaed^r <^hpd, comparative form, § 126, a. Hpylc <Chp$ + lie hke 
hylc<ipy+lic^ § 133, 3, a. (y ==»=:e.) . O. Fries, hwa — hwet. 

136. Indefinites. 
(1.) The Indefinite Article lN<dn^ one. ' 



Sing. — 


Masc. 


Fem. 


Neut. P 


LUE. — M.,F.,N. 


Nom. r. 


, an 


A 

an 


an 


ane * 


Gen. . . 


anes 


aure 


anes 


anr<:^ 


Bat. . . , 


anum 


anre 


VLUum 


knum 


Ace. . . , 


, annc, &nne 


ane 


A 

an 


dne 


Voc. . . , 


. an 


A 

an 


an 


ane 


Inst. . . , 


. an^ 


^ure 


an^ ^ 


anvm 



A weak sing. nom. ana, dne{a\ dne, is also found, and undeclined forms. 
The vocative and plural mean sole, sorpe, etc. See the numeral a;?, 
^ 137, a. 

(fl.) So also decline ndn, none. 

(2.) .j^ig^ any (dn + ig), and n^ni{/^ none, are strong. (3.) 
sicm^ some, one (akin to same^ § 133, 5), is strong. (4.) The no- 
tional substantives man (man) andpeA^ (whit) have become pro- 
nouns in certain uses; for their declension, see §§ 83; 100,/. 
They simulate pronominal stems. Compare English one^ whit 
(wh), thing (th), § 40, 2. Compounds of piht f. and n. are neu- 
ter : dpiht, dpyht^ dpuht > duht > dht^ dpihty aught ; n&piht, 
naught. Eal (all), manig (many), strong, /et!^ (^ew), sing, indec. 
pi. strong (§ \\1),fela (much), lyt^ hpon may be added. 

(5.) Compounds of hpd^ hpsecter^ -lic^ decline like the simples : 

(a.) From hpd: ge-hpd, e^ch^ every ; ^g-hpd (a+^ff+^/?a), every; elles- 
hpd (Lat. ali-quis), any ; spd-hpd-spd, spd-Jipxt-spd^ v^hoso, whatsoever ; hpxi- 
hpugu, 'Iipigu, 'hugu (Lat. cum-que, ^ 133, 2, a), anything. Gehpd has fem. 
gen. d^t. gshp&re, gehpdre (gehpore ?),:ind masc. forms as feminines. 



72 DECAY OF PRONOMINAL ENDINGS. 

(b.) From hpaxter (^ 135, d): d-hpa^er (any one)>fl/jrfer>acfor, opder^ 
oiicr, other, either ; nd-hpasder (neither) >fw/»rf!pr, nopder, noder ; ge-hpmder^ 
cither ; ^g-hpaxCer (d+ge+hpasdcr)^s^gderj either ; spd-hpader-spd, which- 
soever. 

(c.) From Itc (§ 133, 3, a) : gc-hptlc, -hpelc^ -hpylc^ any body ; Ag-hptlc 
(d+ge+hpi/+Hc, ^ 135, b), whoever ; hpUc-hugu, hpilce-hugu^ any one, any- 
thing ; spd'hpdc-spdi whosoever ; pys-ltCf pus-lic, pyllic^ py-lic, of this sort ; 
iilc (d+ge+ltc), each, all : aj/c, c/c, ylc, 

(d.) Analogous compounds are found throughout the Teutonic tongues, 
and to many through most of the Indo-European family. 

137. Decay op Pronominal Endings: — 

(a.) Personal. — Layamon and Ormulum have Anglo-Saxon forms, also 
Lay. tc> fcA> Orm. t, Chaucer sometimes ick, ik, Pd > thou, late Old En- 
glish (§ 38,-4,1) ; ^e>Lay. ^e>ye ; co/>> Lay. !jou>you. HI, hed, kit: 
sing. fem. nom., Ang.-Sax. chronicle (A.D. 1140-f ) 5c<g> Chaucer sche'^ 
sh6, Northern O. Engl, scho (O. Sax. sid, O. Norse 5u), Lay. ^eo, ^e, Orm. 
^hd; M7>0rm. iW, it; dat.>acc. Lay. Aim, Aire > Chaucer hire (monosyl- 
lable) > her ; plur. nom. ace. Lay. J)eo, J)aie, Orm. nom. pe^ > they ; gen. 
Lay. heore, hire, Orm. pe^re Qieore), dat.>acc. Orm. pe^ym {hemm^'^ 
them (^ 130, e) ; Aer, Atr, here (their), hem (them), are still in Chaucer. 

(J.) Possessives. — Lay. mm>mt>my,^m>j^l>thy, sometimes before 
a consonant; other endings like adjectives, ^ 129 +• 

(c.) Demonstratives, — ^The definite article in Layamon retains its declen- 
sion, except dat. rrO>n and precession of d'^a'^o^e; but indeclinable pe 
grows more frequent, and in Orm. is established as in Modern English. Pes 
changes like the adjective (§ 129+) : plur. j^a*>j^cw> those (§ 38, A, 1). 
Ormulum sing, piss (this), plur. pisse (these) ; and sing, patt (that), plur. pd 
(those). Chaucer tAi«, plur. /Ae^g; ^Aa^, plur. ^Ao. 

(rf.) Relatives, — Layamon pe^ pat throughout, also fem. and plur. j^> 
Peo; Ormulum patt (=that) throughout, as in English now. For the change 
of who, which to relatives, see Syntax. 

(g.) Interrogatives, — Layamon whd (y>wd),whesy wham (^wdm)jwhdn 
C^wdn)j neuter whset; Ormulum whd, whds, dat. ^ ace. whamm, whatt; 
O. Engl. dy>d, Hpilc, hpasder, like adjectives, § 129 +. 

(/.) Indefinite an in Layamon is declined throughout, sometimes also 
nom. dn^d, and oblique cases one, Ormulum has only masculine endings; 
d, a, frequent. Chaucer no inflection, an > a, as now. 



NUMEBAL& 



73 





138. NUMERALS. 




Cardinals. 


Orhxiluh. 


Ordinals. 


Symbols. 


1. an 


an 


' forma (fruma,&resta] 
\fyrsta,§129 


'}'• 


rtpegen, tpa, tu 
I <tpa 


1 twa 


6d:er 


II. 


3. J)rl, J)re6 


J)reo, J)r^ 


J)ridda 


in. 


4. fedper 


fowwerr 


fe6perda (feCrda) 


IV. 


5. fif 


fif 


flfta 


V. 


6. six 


sexe 


Bixta 


VI. 


7. seofon (syfone) 


' se(o)fenn, 
. (-ffne) 


1 seofoda (-eda) 


VII. 


8. calita 


ehhte 


eahtoda (-eda) 


"V 111. 


9. nigon (-en) 


ni:jbenn 


nigoda (-eda) 


IX. 


10. t^n, ten 


t6ne, (tenn) 


1 te6da 


X. 


11. endleofan (ellefne) 


endleofta (eo>u, y, € 


XI. 


12. tpelf 


twellf 


tpelfta 


xn. 


13. I)re6t^ne 


J)ritt^ne 


I)re6te6da 


N 1 1 1. 


14. fe6pert^ne 




fe6perte6da 


XIV. 


15. fift^ne 




flfte6da 


XV. 


16. sixt^ne 


sextSne 


sixte6da 


XVI. 


17. seofont^ne 


/ 


seofonte6da 


XVTT. 


18. eahtat^ne 




eahtateCda 


XV 111. 


19. nigont^no 




nigonte6da 


XTX. 


20. tpentig 


twennti^j 


tp^ntigCda 


XX. 


21. an and tpentig 




r an and tp^ntig6da 1 y y • 
I tp^ntig6da and forma J ■"'^^' 


30. l)rltig, J)rittig 


l)rittii: 


J)rltig6da 


XXX. 


40. fe6pertig 


fowwerrLi:j 


fe6pertig6da 


XL. 


50. flftig 


fiffti^ 


flftigfida 


L. 


60. sixtig 


sexti^ 


sixtig6da 


LX. 


70. hundseofontig 


seofennti:j 


hundseofontigoda 


LXX. 


80. hundeahtatig 




hnndeahtatig6da 


T-XXX. 


90. hundnigontig 




hundnigontig6da 


xc. 


>»»cr°"'} 


hunndredd 


hundte6ntig6da 


c. 






/^an and hundte6nti- 


) 


101. hund and dn 




) g6da 

1 1-knv«^4-«%Av^4-i/vA^n OT^/7 


>GI. 



forma 



74 



ETYMOLOGY OF CARDINALS. 



Cardinals. 
110. luindcudlcofaDtig 
120. hundtpelflig 
130. hiiiid aud l)rittig 
200. tpa liund 
1000. l)dsend 



Ormulum. Ordinals. Symbols. 

liundcndleofantig6da CX. 

hundtpelftigoda CXX. 

hund and l>ritig6da CXXX. 

tpa hundtcontigoda CC. 

l><isenndo {not found,) M. 



(a.) The order of combined numbers is indicated by the examples. The 
substantive defined is oftencst placed next the largest of the numbers. 

{b,) Combined numbers are sometimes connected by edc (added to) or and 
governing a dative : pridda edc ipentigum =: 23d ; sometimes by the next 
greater ten and pana^ Ixs, or butan : ones pana ptittig^ thirty less one ; Ipd 
Ixs XXX^ two less than thirty ; XX bvtan an, ^ 393. 

(c.) For hund' from 70 to 120, see ^ l.'JO, e ; indefinites, § 136, 2. 

{d.) The unaccented syllables often suffer precession, sometimes syncope, 
often cacography. 



139. ETYMOLOGY.— CARD 



Parent Sp. 

1. ai-ua? 

2. dva 

3. tri 

4. katvar 

5. kankan 

6. ? 

7. ? 

8. akta 

9. navan 
10. dakan 



SanBkrit. Greek. Latin. 

6'ka ^ '" 

dva 

tri 



iiQ<ie'V-Q oi-nos>unu8 
clfo duo 

Tpeig<iTpl tres<tri 

k'atva'r j ^ , 'c \ quatuor 
pank'an wivTc quinque 



B'as' 

saptan 

as't'aa 

, ( Ivy it 

navan < ,» 
C ve\ 

da9an 



eirra 

OKTIjJ 

vvea <^ 

. ^^ 
ZiKa 



} 



sex 

septem 

octo 

novem 
decern 



INALS. 

Gothic. 

ai-D-s 

tvai 

J)rei-s 



fimf 
saibs 
sibun 
ahtdu 

niun 
taihun 



O. SazcML 
6-11 

ta^-na 
thri-a 



fif 
schs 
sibun 
ahto 

nigun 
tehan 



O. Nor^e. 

ei-nn 

tvci-r 

J)ri-r 



fidvor fiwar fi6r-ii* 



sex 

siau 

atta 

nlu 
tiu 



Sanskrit. Grccic Latin. Gotliic. 

11. 6'ka-da9an er-^f/ca un-decim ain«lif 

12. dva>da9an SMeKa dao-decim tva-lif 

13. trajo-da^an Tpi<TKai-deKa tre-decim brija-taihun 
20. (d)vim-(da)9ati (S^^tl-Koai (d)vi-ginti tvai-tig-jus 
CO. trim-9dt Tpta-Kovra tri-ginta freis-tig-jus 
70. sapta-(da9a)ti i(3Bo/jiri'KOVTa septuo-ginta sibnn-tchnnd 



Old Saxon, 
ellif 
tue-lif 



tu6n-tig 

thn-tig 

ant-sibanta 



Old Norse. 
eUifu 

to-lf 

]:rettian 

tUrttilg-U 

Jjria-tig-i 
sio-tigi 



100. -9ata 



t-KaTOV 



(taihun-tehund) C(ant-tehmita')) (tia-tiu 
-centum I . |{^^^^ ^j, 



(hund ) (hund 3 (hund-rao 

120. (JQ^ 100+20. The great hundred not used.) (tvalif-tehund) (ant-tueliffa) tolf-ti-u 
1000. sahasra xiKio-i xnillia ];^sundi thusundig J'usnnd 



ETYMOLOGY OF CARDINALS. 75 

(a,) The numerals are clusters of radicles, some of which lure beyond the 
Indo-European family. 

1-10. — An (one) < pronominal stem i'^ai-na'^ Sansk. ena, that ; eka 
(e'(na)ka)l § 130, b, c. Dva (two), dental radicle for addition, § 56. Tri, 
tar, fem. tissar (titar), three < dental radicle ^ + emphatic T; compare its 
force in comparison, § 123, c, and in '^tri, to go further. Katvar, fem. kata- 
sar (Jca-tatar^ four, =^a«cA:a, one) + (;?flr i<itar^ titar, three) : the sym- 
bols for four are composed of those for one and ^Aree in Sanskrit and kin- 
dred alphabets, also in Egyptian. Kan-kan (five) is a reduplication indi- 
cating the completion of one (ka<iekd) count — one hand. For reduplica- 
tion as a sign of completion, see Greek Grammars : Crosby, ^ 179 ; see fur- 
ther below. Aktan (eight) is ak (one) -{-superlative -ta (^ 123,c),the highest 
count of fingers. Nayan (nine) is akin to Sansk. nava-Sj Greek vi^o-g, Latin 
novU'S, Gothic niu-ji-s^ Ang.-Sax. nipe, new, now, <Cntt, pronominal stem of 
interrogation, negation, stimulation ; nine begins a new quaternion. Dakan 
(tenX rfra-^an = 2 X 5. 

(Jb,) Well-marked identity with the Semitic numerals has been claimed in 
e'ka, Hebrew ek'ad; s*as\ Hebrew s'es\ six; saptan, Gothic sibun, He- 
brew s'ebcif seven. It has been said that s'es'=s'e'\-s'e=3-{-3, and s'eba= 
5'e+(ar)Ja=3-{-4 ; the -tan in saptan being a superlative, as in a^^an, fin- 
ishing the count of possibly a week. Kan in kan-kan is also like Hebrew 
kam-es\ five. The original stem for five has been also thought to be pan- 
kan, and to be from Sanskrit pant, hand. 

(c.) The shifting and gravitation in coming down from the Parent Speech 
is generally regular, §^ 41,38, tables in ^^ 18, 19 ; 7c>jt>>/*, § 41, 3, AyB; 
i^ig, quasi-geminatioii, § 27, 5. 

(d.) 11-19. — Endleopan <,dn + leofan < tihan (Lithuanic, lika\ ten ; 
<;2>e, precession, § 38 ; nl'^ndl, dissimilated gemination of n, the last part 
of which changes to d from the dropping of the nasal veil to send breath for- 
ward for I (^ 27, 5 ; 50) ; t(<C.d)^l, unusual shifting : 'Odvatrevc'^ Ulysses ; 
dingud^ lingua (§ 41, b) ; /*«>»?)>/*, shifting as in katvar^ fidvor^ four; 
kankan^^ finf, five, etc., ^ 41, 3, A, 5; i^eo, breaking, § 33; 35,-2, a. 
TpELF < tpd + leofan = 2 + 10 ; ihreo-tyne, 3 -f 10, etc., are plain. 

(e.) 20-120.— Tdentig <Jpegen (twain) -^-tig^Cdakan (ten), 2X10: shift- 
ing, ^ 41, 3, A. Similar are the forms in -tig up to (hund)tpelftig=il2X 10, 
the great hundred. 

60-120. — With the forms in -tig from three-score to the great hundred is 
joined hund. Gothic tehund (Latin -ginti, Greek -icoVri, Sanskrit -gati) < 
dakanta <Cdakan (ten) + -ta superlative, as in saptan, aktan : shifting, § 41, 
3, A ; nt'^nd, instead of nd, through influence of n ; a>^, progression to 
d and shifting, § 18 ; a>w, precession, § 38. The Gothic has sibun-tehund 
= 7 X 10, taihun-tehund^ 10 X 10, etc. The Anglo-Saxon form was once 
hund-seofonta (decade seventh), like Old Saxon (K)ant-sibunta, The -ta 
changed to -tig through conformation with the smaller numbers, and hund-, 
whose meaning bad faded, was retained as a sign of the second half of the 



76 DECLENSION OF NUMERAL& 

great hundred ; when counting by the common hundred, it is omitted : an 
hund manna and seofontig^ 170 men. 

(/} 100-1000. — Hund, Atim/rf</< Parent Speech dakan-dakanta, which 
would shift in Anglo-Saxon to tihun-tihund (^ 41). It has gravitated to 
hund^ hundred ^hundare (Latin centuria) -{- ^» &s in eored^ legion ; eopedf 
herd, etc. 1000 is expressed by so different words in the different tongues 
that no common origin can be found, and hence it is believed not to have 
been in the Parent Speech. The Lithuanic, Slavonic, and Teutonic, how- 
ever, agree: lAih, tukstanti; S\&y * tusantja; Goih. p&sundi^tuk'^dakan 
(ten) + santi < kanti > hund (hundred) = 10 X 100. 

140. Ordinals arc superlative forms, except 6der^ second. 

(a.) Fruma, /orma, first, see ^ 126+ ; oder^ second, ^ 126, a; 'da^ 'to, 
-da are all shiflings of superlative -ta, ^ 123, c; -teoda is a repetition of 
te6da<^t€dnda (tenth) ; -tigoda, Friesic -tigosta, O. Norse 'tugasti, O. H. 
German -zugosto (no examples in Gothic or Old Saxon), has conformed to 
the smaller and more frequently recurring numbers in -teoda. The substan- 
tives hund and pusend had not developed ordinals in Anglo-Saxon. 

(6.) The formation of ordinals is similar in principle throughout the Indo- 
European family. 

Declension. 

141. Cakdinals. — 1, dn^ is declined, § 136. 

N'.,A,,V. 2,tpegen tpa tu<tpa 3, J)rl (-y, -ie) l)re6 ]^re6 (-id, -id) 

Gen tpegra, tpegtl J)re6r§i 

D.^Inst,. tpam>tpffini J)rlm (-^m) 

Like tpegen decline hegen^ hd^ hu^ both. 

4-19. — Cardinals from fedper to tpelf^ and from pre^-tpne to 
nigon-tpne, are used as indeclinable, but are also declined like <- 
stem nouns of the First Declension (^yre, § 84), oftenest when 
used as substantives : nom. ace. voc. fedpere^ gen. fedperd, dat. 
inst.fedperum. Such forms of eahta are not found. T^ne<te6n, 
umlaut, § 32, 2. 

{a.) Those in -tyne have also sometimes a neut. nom. and ace. in -w]>-o, 
or -a; fiftyn-u, -o, -a (fifteen) ; preoteno (=thirteen). (^>f >€.) 
(d.) They are quasi-adjectives like Dene, ^ 86. 

20-120. — Forms in 4ig are declined as singular neuter nouns: 
pHtig (thirty), gen. pritiges ; or, as adjectives, have plural gen. 
-rd, dat. -urn : prUigrd^ prUi^um. 

100-1000.— Jwm?, n., is declined like pord^ § 73 ; hundred and 
pUsend, like scip, § 70 ; ^Ipttsend-u, -o, -e, -a (Psa. Ixvii, 17), § 393. 



THE VERB. 77 

142. OsDiNALS have always the regular weak forms of the ad- 
jectire, except 6der (second), always stroDg. iDdefiDites, § 136, 2. 

143. Mn.TiPLiCATiTES are found io -feald (fold) : anfeald^ simple : tfir 
feald, two-fold ; fusend-mUlwnj thoosandfoldly. 

144. DisTsimmTES may be expressed by repeating cardinals, or by a 
datiTC : seofon and seofam, seren by seren ; hi tpam, by twos. 

145. In answer to how often, numeral adyerbs are used, or an ordinal or 
cardinal with sid (time) : ^ne, once ; tpipa (ipiga), twice ; Jtripa (Jnga), 
thrice ; friddan side, the third time ; feoper sSdum, four times. 

146. For adrerbs of dirision the cardinals are used, or ordinals with dsel: 
on freoj in three (parts) ; seofedan d^, serenth part. 

147. An ordinal before healfQoaM[) numbers the whole of which the half 
is coonted : he psts /a tpa gear and pndde heodf, he was there two years 
and (die) third (year) half ^21 years. The whde numbers are usually un- 
derstood : he nesode ntgonieode healf gear, he reigned half the nineteenth 
year= 181 years. A similar idiom is used in German and Scandinarian. 

148. Sum, agreeing with a numeral, is indefinite, as in English : sume 
ten gear, some ten years, more or less ; limited by the genidre of a cardinal 
it is a partitiTe of enuneoce : eode eahta sum, he went one of eight:=with 
seren attendants or companions. 



VERB. 

149. The notion agnified by a verb root may be predicated of 
a snbject or nttered as an inteijection of command, or (2) it may 
be spoken of as a substantive fact or as descriptire of some per- 
son or thing. In the first case proper verb stems are formed, or 
auxiliaries nsed, to denote time, mode, and voice ; and suffixes (per- 
sonal endings) are used to indicate the person and number of the 
subject : thus is made up the verb proper or finite verb. In the 
second case a noun stem is formed, and dedined in cases as a sub- 
stantive or adjective. 

loO. Two Voices. — The active represents the subject as act- 
m^ the pa^nve as afiected by the action. The active has inflec- 
tion endings for many forms, the passive only for a participle. 
Other passive forms bdp this participle with the auxiliary verbs 
earn (zm),^e^n,p€sajt,pe€rdan. 

(n.) The middle Toiee represents the subject as zSeeted by its own aetioo. 
It is erpreased in An^o-Sazoo by adding pronouns, and needs no puatdigam, 

151. Six Modes. — The indicative states or asks about a fiict, 
the subjunctive a possibility; the imperative commaods or lu- 



78 



VEllB .—CON JUG ATION.— CLASSES. 



treats ; tho infinitives (and gerunds) are substantives, the parti- 
ciples adjectives. Certain forms of possibility are expressed by 
auxiliary modal verbs with the infinitive. They need separate 
discussion, and are conveniently called a potential mode. 

152. Five Tenses. — Present^ imperfect, future, perfect^ pluper'- 
feet. The present and imper'fect have tense stems ; the future is 
expressed by the present, or by aid of sceal (shall) or piUe (will) ; 
the perfect by aid of the present of habban (have) or, with some 
in transit! vcs, be67i (be), pesan or peontan (bo) ; the pluper'fect 
by aid of tho imperjfect of /tabbauy be6n, pesan, or peordan, 

153. Two Numbers, sinr/iUar and plural, 

154. Three Persons, ^rsf, second, and third. 

155. Stems and Themes. — A tense-s^em is that part of a verb 
to which tho signs of mode, person, and number were added in 
that tense. Tho verb-5^em is that to which tho tense signs were 
added. The theme of any part of a verb is so much of it as is un- 
changed in the inflection. For roots, § 57. 

156. Tho Principal Parts are the present. i?ifinitive, the im- 
perfect indicative first persons, and tho passive participle, 

157. Conjugation. — Verbs are classified for conjugation by 
the stems of the imperfect tense. 

Strong Verbs express tense by varying the root vowel ; weak 
verbs, by composition. Strong verbs in the imperfect indicative 
singular first person have the root vowel unchanged, or changed 
hy progression or by co7itraction. The vowels rre 

Composition, 
VI. 

+ de>te 



No change. 
Conjugation I. 

a > (SB, ea) 



Progression. 
II., III., IV. 

A A A 

a, ea, o 



Contraction, 
V. 

A ^ A 

eo>e 



158. Further subdivision gives the following classes. The Roman nn- 

merals give Grimm's numbers. We arrange in alphabetical order of the 

stem vowels of the imperfect. 

Strong. 

Imperfect Sing. Plur. 

a(>iB,ea) &(>&,^) 
a(>»,ea) u 



C! 



Ruot 
Vuwe]. 



1, X., XI. 

2, XII. 
VIII. 

IX. 
VII. 



3, 

4, 
6, 



a 
a 
1 
u 

A 

u 



Preaeat. 

i(>e,eo) 
i(>e,eo) 

K 
1 . 

CO, A 

a(>ea) 



ca 
o 



1 
u 

A 

o 



PaniTe Faztieiple. 

e,u>o 

n>o 

1 



o 
a 



e6>e 



6, I.-VI. a>ea,&,ea,lb,6,6 

Weak (§§160, 165, ci). 

7, affix -ia > -io > -c > — + ede >de > te 

8, affix -o > -a ; -ia > -igc, -ie + odo 



e6>& 



a>ea,a,ea,&, 



H-ed>d>t 
+6d 



GROWTH OP ABLAUT. 



79 



' (a,) The variation of letters in the five first classes is called Ablaut ; it 
sprang from gravitation (^ 38) and compensation (^ 37). Its beginnings may 
be seen in the other Indo-European tongues, plainest in Sanskrit. Sanskrit 
grammars have ten conjugation classes; the present stems are, \,'^-\-a; 
2. -y/; 3. Reduplicated V 5 4. V+i^* b.^/-\-nu; 6. -\/-f a'; 7. -y/ with n 
inserted; 8. '\/+m; 9. V+^^j 10. '\/+fl;a. Anglo-Saxon strong verbs 
correspond to the first or sixth class, a few to the fourth ; weak verbs to the 
(4th ?) and tenth. Sanskrit reduplicated preterites (perfects) are formed all 
alike from the root by prefixing its first letters. 

Presents. 



Sen9e. Hoot. Conj, 
throw, kar C. 
sit, sad C. 8id-&'mi 

knotc, go. k'it, i 1, 2. k'4't-ami, 6 -mi 



Sanekrit, Greek. 

kir-ami; tir-a'mi<-/tar, C, step over, 

%Z,-oftat 
il-fii 



show, dl9 C. di9-a mi. Causal base de'9-aja BuK-vufii 

know. badh 1. b6'dh-^i irevO-ojiai 

bend. bhag' 6. bhag'-^'mi, Cazts, base bho'g'-aja tpivy-to 

war, yaks' 1. v4ks'-&mi 



Latin. Gothici. 

efid-eo j sit-an 

* 

i-ro ^ 

dic-o j teih-an 
-iol 



fiiff 



biag-dn 
vahs-jan 



Sense, 
extend. 

*dt 

do. 

bind. 

S3e. 

xhovs. 

bend. 

tcax. 

break. 

bake. 



Perfects J> Anglo-Saxon Imperfect. 

I Sanskrit 1 Greek. I Latin. r Gothic. 

Root. Conj. ring. Plur. J Sing. Plur. | Sing. riur. J Sing. riur. 

tan 8. ta-t^'n-a if' \ '\ j Ti-Ta(y)-Ka, -Kaiiev tc-tin-!, -imu8 than thcn-ura 

sad 6. ea-e&'d-a eSd-ima s6d-i, -imua Eut 8ct-um 

kar 8. (Pres.) lax-C'mi kor-m&s; tu-tur-jii'm<;-y/tar, step over. 
l3andh 9. ba-'bdndh-a ba-bandh-imd — 



-iinua Eat 

-} 



vid 

dip 

bhug' 

vaka' 

bhrag* 

bhag' 



2. (vi)ve'd-a 

C. di-dc'(-a 

C. bu-bhfi'g'-a 

1. va-v4kfl'-a 



(vi)vid-mA 
di-dip-imi 
ba-bhng'-imd 
va-vaks'-imd 



foid-a 
»re-^eiry-o, 



Greek Present fpijy'Wfu 
Greek Present ^7-a> 



?-ppft»7-a, 



ri<T-iiev 
-afxcv 

-a/xcv 



vld-i, 



ng-i 



frCg-i, 



band bund-nin 
-imua vMt vit-mn 

taih t(a)ih-um 

-imus bdug bug-um 

v6h8 vohs-uni 

-imus 



Ang.'Saz. bac-an; boc, boc-on. 



(h.) The Sanskrit passive past participle in -na is accented on the aflix, 
L;nd the root in Teutonic has precession like the imperfect plural. § 175. 

(c.) Roots in a have conformed to the analogy of the Sanskrit Sixth Con- 
jugation Class, those in i and u to that of the first. Since accent opens the 
organs, the open a must be most varied by its absence (i.e., by precession), 
the close i and u by its presence — progression. 



(d.) Comparison op Ablaut : 

FmsT Conjugation, -y/a. 



5, c ; i & a 



Sanskrit i; 

Gothic .. i ; a, & ; i & u 

0,Sax„ i>e;a, a; e&n>o 

O.Norse i>e; a, a; e&u>o 

0,n,G, i>e ; a, a ; e & o 



i; a,u 

i; a,u 

i>e; a,n 
i>e>ia; a,n 
i >e ; a, u 



a 

u 

u>o 

u>o 

u>o 



2si> CoTij., Vi. 
^; 6,i; i 

• A • • • 

ei; ai, i; i 
1 
1 
ei>6, i; i 



e,i; 
ei,i; 



A 





ra; 



Od Conj., -/n, 
6,u; 
an,ii; 
iu>io>u; 6, u; 
iu>io>u; au, u; 
in>io>(i; ou>6,u; o 



u 
u 
o 
o 



Forarn Conjuoatiox, Va or a. 
Creeirj; w, w; rj, Goth, a; 6, 6; a. 0,8,&0,IT,G. a; 6>uo, 6>uo; a. O.N, a; 6,6; a>e. 



80 COMPARISON OF ABLAUT.— CONTRACTION. 

(e.) In Sanskrit these vowel changes have no meaning, but are mostly 
mechanical results of the accent : yet, as the place of the accent depends on 
the weight of the prefixes and suffixes in which the meaning resides, the 
vowel changes come to be signs of this meaning, and, as the prefixes and 
suffixes decay, the sole signs of it. The vowels are the vehicles of emotion 
and harmony ; to make them signs of relation fuses thought and feeling, and 
gives power for oratory and poetry. The Teutonic races, like the Semitic, 
found this fusion congenial, and in the earliest Gothic the ablaut is already a 
fundamental law of the language. Physiology teaches that progression may 
spring from accent, that precession may take place in unaccented syllables 
of course, and in accented syllables from compensation or shifting : compar- 
ison of Anglo-Saxon and English proves these possibilities to be important 
facts in the history of language ; the Sanskrit verb shows that, they are the 
facts from which sprang Ablaut. ^^ 37, 38, 41. The changes of the i-roots 
and tz-roots are established in Sanskrit ; those of the a-roots are only occa- 
sional in the present even in the sixth class, and that class is small. It 
seems, then, that a-roots of the Sanskrit sixth class were drawn to ablaut by 
conformation with t-roots and ti-roots, and that a-roots of the first class con- 
formed after ablaut was fully established, except such as attained the Fourth 
Teutonic Conjugation, where the whole perfect conforms in progression to 
the singular 6^d» 

(/.) In Gothic, the present, the imperfect plural, and past participle have 
the same precession or progression as in Sanskrit (^^ 18, 38). The imper- 
fect singular has a second progression in the second, third, and fourth conju- 
gations, because it has gravitated to a monosyllable. 

{g.) The ^ of imperfect plural tenimd is from ani, a compensative drop- 
ping of 91 and lengthening of a, the result of which is modified by i — a 
process in which we may see how umlaut and contraction run into each 
other. 

(A.) Imperfect plural and past participle t^< a is in liquid and double con- 
sonant roots. The first consonant is almost always a liquid. The effort for 
the two consonants takes the place of accent in part. For the assimilating 
effect of m, n, /« r, see ^ 35, 2. In Sanskrit, also, a goes to u in connec- 
tion with r, m, n. 

(i.) In Anglo-Saxon and the other Teutonic tongues the changes from 
Gothic ablaut are explained by umlaut, breaking, and shifting. O. Fries., 38. 

159. CoNTEACmON. — Roots incapable of progression kept the redupli- 
cation till after the accent had shifted to it (^ 41, 4) and it had taken pro- 
gression (Gothic ^ < di) ; and in Anglo-Saxon they had contracted the re- 
duplication and root to a uniform ed or ^. 

(a.) Such roots are those in a+two consonants, and in vowels hav- 
ing the second progression (^ 38). Add, also, a few in Gothic ^, ai , 
perf. di'6 : let-an (let), Idi-lot; lai-an (blame), /ai-Zo. Hence Grimm's 
Conjugation Classes from the vowels of the present and (im)perfect : 



CONTBACTIOX.— COMPOSITION. 81 

Pres. Perl Prea. Pert Pres. Pttf. Prea. Perf. 

Gothic.,. (!)&+, ai^; (2)41, 4i-ai; (3) in., ^i^n; (4)^ M4; 

0.iSflx<Mi(l)a+, ie>§; (2)6, ie>S; (3) 6, io>ie; (4) a, ie>d; 
0.iVor5e(l)a+, e; (2) ei, d; (3) an, io; (4) a, e; 

O. £r. G. (1) a +, ia ; (2) ei, ia ; (3) ou>6, io ; (4) &, ia ; 

Ang.Sax. lr)fi-\-, e6>e; (2) a, e6>d; (3) cO, e6>e; (4) »>e, ed<d;J 

Pres. Perf. Prea, Perf. Pres. Pert! 

{Gothic... (5) w, id^; (6) ^ &i-6; (— ) 6, lii-^. 

O.Saxon 6>uo, io>ie. 

O.Norse 6, %. 

O.H.G. no, io. 

Ang.Sax. a+p, eo+p; »>e, e6>d; 6, e6>e. 

(6.) Traces of the process of contraction are found in O. H. German 
and in the following Anglo-Saxon words : 

Gothic haldauj hold, perf.hdihald; O.H.6. haltan, heialt>hiaU>htalt. 

Gothic j^ttfofi,. strike, ^erf. stdistdut; O.H.G. stSzan, stirdz (r<.8t)'^gteo2, stioz. 

Gothic ^'toi, call, ^erf. hdihdit ; A.~Sax.. hdtcm, hehtKh&hdt. 

Gothic r^dan, rede, perf. rairoth; A.-Sax. r^bdan, rt6rd<^r&r6d. 

Gothic Utan, let, perf laiUt; A..Sax. i&tan^ b&rt (r<l, § 41, 3, A)<ls^ 

Gothic Idikan, leap, perf IdOdik; A.-Sax. Mcanj le6lc<l&ldc. Il6t. 

— A.-Sax. on-dr&daaiy on-dredrd, dread. 

The repeated consonants weaken, and finally fall out and let the vow- 
els together. In the Anglo-Saxon relics the first root consonant is saved 
by metathesis with the root vowel. These contractions at first gave 
rise to several different vowels and diphthongs found in O. H. German. 
Conformation in analogy with ablaut has brought them to a uniform e^ 
or ^ in Ang.-Saxon. ^ 52. O. Fries, presents a, e^e, a^o^e; perf. t, e. 

* 160. Composition. — Derivatives form the imperfect by suffixing to 
the verb stem de<idide, imperfect of don, do : lufd-de= did love. 

(a.) This formation is conunon to, and peculiar to, the Teutonic 
tongues. Two suffixes of derivation appear in Anglo-Saxon verb stems : 
4a>ie>i>e>^ (Latin 4, Cohj. IV.), and -<^>(4 u)>e (Lat- 
in -d, Conj. I.), both from an original -ajoy Sanskrit Class Tenth, Greek 
pure verbs. 

Gothic na^'an, save; nasi-da, p\uT. nasi-dedum : salhon, sbIyb ; salbo-da, 

salho-dedum. 
O. Sax., nerjan, save; neri-da, neri-dun: scawo-n, see; scawo-da, scawo- 

dun. 
A.-Sax. nerian, save ; nere-de, nere^don ; sealfian, salve ; sealfo-de, -don.. 
O. Fries, nera, save ; ner(e)-de, ner{e)-don ; salvja, salve ; salva-de, -don* 
O.Norse telja, tell ; tal-da, tcl-dum : kalla, call ; kalla-da, kollu-dum. 
O. H. G. neryan, save ; neri-ta, neri-tumes : salpon, salve ; salpo-ta, salpo- 

tumes. 

Gothic and O. H. German have also a stem in -^2, -^, corresponding 
to the Latin Second Conjugation. 

F 



82 TENSE STEMa— PERSONAL ENDINGS. 

(b.) Derivatives in Sanskrit have only a periphrastic perfect, one 
form of which has kar (do) as its auxiliary enclitic ; the Greek passive 
first aorist is compounded with 6e=de (^ 168) ; the Latin first, second, 
and fourth conjugations compound with fui (bc)>-ri, -ui: amd-vi^ 
doc(e)uij audt'vi. 

161. Tense Stems. — The present stem suffixes a or ia to the root. 
The imperfect is from the old perfect, which repeated (reduplicated) the 
root. The Parent Speech had also an aorist stem prefixing to the root a 
demonstrative radicle called the augment, and an imperfect prefixing a sim- 
ilar augment to the present stem. Other tense stems were formed by com- 
position, as n future with as (to be) or bhu (to be). 

162. Mode Suffixes. — The indicative and imperative suffix the per- 
sonal endings to the tense stem ; the subjunctive prolonged the stem to ex- 
press doubt or hesitation by suffixing to it a for present contingency, ia or i 
for past contingency or desire (the optative mode). The Teutonic subjunc- 
tives are from the optative. 

163. Personal Endings are from the same radicles as the personal 
pronouns. ^ 130. 



[NOULAR. 






Plural. 






Ist Person. 


2d Person. 


3d Person. 


Ist Person. 


2d Person. 


3d Person 


ma, 


tva>ta, 


ta, 


ma+ta, 


ta+ta, 


an+ta, 


me. 


thou. 


this, he 


I+thou. 


thou -^ thou. 


he+ke. 



The Sanskrit, Greek, and Gothic have a dual. ^^ 61,2; 165, c. 

The usual phonetic decay has been modified by two main causes : (1) dif- 
ferent weight of the tense stems, (2) different mode suffixes. It will be dis- 
cussed in connection with the paradigm of a strong verb. 



164. First Conjugation. 

Active Voice. 

niman^ to take. 

Pres. Infinitive. Imperfect Sing., Plur. Passive Participle, 
niman; nam, namon; numen. 

Indicative Mode. 
Present (and Future) Tense. 

SiNOULAB. 

ic nime, I take, 

J)tl nime^^, thou taJcest, 

h§ nime^, he taketh. 



Plubal. 
p6 nimatf, we take, 
g6 mmatty ye take, 
111 mmad^ they take. 



FEBSONAL ENDINGS.— PRESENT TENSE. 



83 



165. Present tense, Vnftni; tense stem, nama, Sanskrit not yet iden- 
tified with the others, though put with them by Pott, Benfey, Diefenbach ; 
Latin -emo in ad-imo, etc., also put here by Bopp, Diefenbach. 



Singular. — 














Fftrent Speech. 


Sanskrit 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Grothic. 


0. Saxon. 


0. Norse. 


1. nam^mi 


n^m&-mi 


vsfua(-fii) . 


emo- 


nima- 


nimu> 


nem- 


2. nama-si 


nama-si 


( vifMttg ) 


emi-s 


nimi-s 


nimi-s 


nem-r 


3. nama-ti 
Plubal. — 


nama-ti 




cmi-t 


nimi-^ 


nimi-c? 


nem-r 


1. namSrmasi 


namdr-mas 


VBflO-lKV 


emi-mns 


nima-m 


nima-c? 


nemu-in 


2. nama-tasi 


n^ma-tha 


vkfu-re 


emi-tis 


nimi-^ 


nima-(2 


nemi-(f 


3. nama-nti 


nama-nti 


( Vift0-VTI>1 


[emo-nti>l 

1 ^ ( 


1 

'• mmsL-nd 


mmsird 


nema 



i vsfio-vai J^emuni j 

O. H. Ger. nim^u^ -is^ -it ; plur. nem-ames^ -atf -ant, O. Fries, like A.-Sax. 
A.-Saz. plur. may be -un, -urn, ^ 212 ; before a subjt., -6, and see ^ 170, c. 

(a,) — 1. -ina>-m»>-m> — is gravitation, ^ 38 : -m is found only 
in com, earn, am ; beom, be ; Northumbrian geseom, I see ; gedoam > 
gedonif I do; also (m>7i) cuedon, I quoth, etc. 2. -tva]>-ta]>-ii> 
-si (lingual softening, § 41, b) >-*>-5i (lingual strengthening, ^ 49) : 
-5 is found especially in Northumbrian before du: spreces du^ speak- 
est thou. 3. -ta>-^*>-^ (gravitation, § 38) >-rf (shifting, ^ 41, a). 
Northumbrian -5<-ef,;^ 31,2; 41, &; same in plural; so in 0. Norse 
-(f > -s > -r. Plural. — 1 . -mata > -masi (as in 2d sing.) > -m (grav- 
itation, ^ 38) > -d (conformation with 2d and 3d person, ^ 40, 1). 2. 
-tata> -tasi (as in 2d sing.) > -t (gravitation, § 38) > -d (shifting, § 41, 
a). 3. -anta > -nf i > -«? (gravitation,^ 38, and shifting, § 41, a). 

(Jb.) Stem ending a>c or t, rare o, w, -, § 38. ynam^nim (ablaut, 
§ 158). The common a-umlaut of nim^nem in the O. Saxon plural is 
stopped by m. « Labial assimilation t>co>y is found, ^ 35, 2, a; 23. 

(c.) The Sanskrit has dual forms, -vas, -thasy -tas ; Greek, — , -tov^ 
'Tov ; Gothic, -i7{w> -6*, -ts, — , § 130. 

{d.) Weak verbs suffix the same endings to the stem ia or 6, ^ 160 : 

Gothic . nas-^a, -/w, -jip; -jam^ -jip, -jand: salb-o, -o*, -op; dm, -dp, -ond. 

^ o J • J ' J ' J i8C3.w-6n,'6s,-6d; 1,2,3, -odor 

O. Sax. neT'ju,'is,'td; -jad, -jad, -jad : i " j 

A,-Sax, ner-ie, -est, -ed; -iad, -tad, -tad: (8ed\f-ie,(-ige),-ast,-dd; 1,2,3. 
O. Fries. ner-e,-(i)st,-(i)th; 'ath,-ath,-aih: i -iad or -ig(e)ad. 
O. Nor. tel, — , -r, -r; -jum, -id, -ja: kaU-a, -ar, -ar; -um, -id, -a. 

O.H. G. nei-ju, -is, -it ; -james, -jat, -jant : salp-om, -6s, -6t ; -omes, -ot, -onL 

Anglo-Saxon has ta>»c>c> — in the singular, ta>a in the plural: 
6 has been driven outby.ta (conformation, ^ 40 ; compare O.Saxon) ex- 
cept in singular second, and third o>a>a, ^ 38. The i in tc and ia 
often has dissimilated gemination to ig, ige. ^ 85, a. See ^^ 183-186. 



84 



STRONG VERBS— INDICATIVE. 



SiNOULlK. 

io nam, I took. 

1><1 ndme, thou tookest. 

hd nam, he took. 



Imperfeot. 

Plural. 
p6 ndmon, vse took. 
g& D&mon, ^6 took. 

Future. 
I shall or trt// take. 



io sceal (pille) niman. 
1><1 sceal^ (pil^ niman. 
hd sceal (pille) niman. 



Transitive Form. 
SiKO. I have taken, 

io hsebb^ numen. 
{><1 hfle&^ (haf(i5^) numen. 
h6 hsefc^ (hafiJef) numen. 

Plur. 

p6 habbadf numen. 
ge habbotf numen. 
ht habbo^ numen. 



SiNo. ^ ^^^ taken, 

io hsefde numen. 
J)ii hsefc^es^ numen. 
hS hsefe^ numen. 

Plur. 
pe hsdfdon numen. 
g^ hsefc^on numen. 
hi hsefc^on numen. 



p6 soulon' {piWad) niman. 
go Bculon (pillac^) niman. 
hi sculon (pilla^) nijnan. 

Perfect* 

Intransitive Form. 
I have {am) come. 
io eom cumen. 
J)ii ear^ cumen. 
ho is cumen. 

p6 sind (sindon) cumene. 
g^ sind (sindon) cumene. 
hi sind (sindon) cumene. 

Pluper'fect. 

/ had (was) come. 

io pa3s cumen. 
J)tl pffire cumen. 
h6 pses cumen. 

pe pffiron cumewe. 
g^ pffiron cumene. 
hi pffiron cumene. 



Other Forms: namfnom; namon, -an (a^o) ; sceal, seel; scul^on, •'Un, 
-an; sceol-on, -un, -an; pille, pile, pilt (i'^y); hxbhe, hebbe, habbe, 
haf-a, -ti, -o; hafest; hsefed; hwbbad; eom, earn; is, ys; sind, sint, 
sindan (i > y, ie, eo), ear-on, 'Un, For eom may be used peorde or 
beom ; for pass, peard (^ 178). 



IMPERFECT INFLECTION, STRONG AND WEAK. 



85 



166. Perfect Stem nornam^ Latin theme emAm^tra, 

SiNGULAB. — 

Parent Speech. Sanskrit Greek. 

1. na-nam-(m)a na-nl'm-a ve-vsfi'TjKa 

{na-n&n-tha, '\ 
iia-iiim-i-tha> I ve-vifi-rjKag 
n^m-i-th& J 

ve-VB/jt-rjKe 



3. na-iiam«(t)a na-nam-a 

Plural. — 

1. na-nam-masi nem-i-ma 

2. nariiam-tasi n^m-4 

3. na-nam-anti n^m-us 



TAtin. 


Gothic 


0. Saxon. O.Norse. 


^m-i 


nam 


nam nam 


^m-(i8)ti 


nam-4 


n&m-i nam-{ 


em-it 


nam 


nam nam 



ve-vefi'rjKaixev ^m'imus li^m-um nam«un nam-tem 
ve'VSft-riKaTi ^m-(is)tis n^m-up nam-«fi n4m-tMf 
ve-v€fi'fiKdat ^m-(er)ant n^m-u» nam-tm narn-u 



O. H. G^, nam, ndm-if nam ; ndm-umes, -ut, 'Un. O. Fries, endings are 

like Ang.-Saxon, nam^nom, 
A,'Sax, PLURALS have sometimes -um (^ 196), often -un, and see ^ 170, c. 

(a,) The feduplicatioa sets at work compensation (^ 37, 4), and all 
the singular endings are lost except in the second person a vanishing 
-e < -i. 0. Sax. and O. H. Ger. have -i < Sanskrit -i-tha, and a stem 
like the plural. Gothic and O. Norse have -K^-tha and the singular 
unchanged stem ; -t is found in sOme Anglo-Saxon preteritive verbs : 
scealt, etc., ^ 167. Weak verbs in Gothic have -5<-M <-f, like the 
present, and it is found in Anglo-Saxon, oflenest in the new imperfect 
of preteritive verbs: cunnan, ivap. cudes ; so /^^^ej, observedst ; brohtes, 
broughtest ; sealdes, gavest, etc. (^ 168) ; and in Northumbrian ; weak 
verbs generally strengthen the -s > -st like the present. 

PLURAL.-^m>n is shifting (41, h); the second person conforms with 
the first and third. Sanskrit -i-, Gothic -w-, connecting vowel, inserted 
for euphony ; -u- > -o-, precession, § 38. 

167. Future. — Sceal is a preterito-preseht, ^ 212; pille is irregular in 
the singular after the same analogy, § 40 ; niman is the infinitive. For the 
history and use of these periphrastic forms, see Syntax. 

168. Perfect and Pluperfect. — Hasbbey.m^eif, hmfde, is a weak 
verb, ^ 183 ; eom, imperf. pass, is irregular, § 213; numen is the past parti- 
ciple. For history and use, see Syntax. 

Weak Imperfect haefde<i'\/haf'ia+de (^ 160), 



Gothic 

Infinitive, nasjan, 

did. saved. 

Su?o. — dida nasi-da 

did^ nad-d4s 

dida nasi-da 

Plur. — d6dum nasi-dMom 

dMo^ nasi-dMo^ 

dMun nasi-dMun. 



O. H. German. 



taon, 
did. 

teta 
tati 
teta 



nei^an, 
saved. 

neri-ta 

neri.t6« 

neri-ta 



Xktamh neri-tum^ 



tatan. 



neri-tu^ 
neri-tofi 



O. Saxon. 

nerjan, 

sewed. 

neri-da 

neri-dotf 

neri-da 

neri-da» 
neri-dun 
iieri-dan 



Ang.-Sax. O. None. 



don, 
did. 

dide 

dide5< 

dide 

didon 
didon 
didon 



telja, 
told, 

tal-da 
tal-dir 
tal-di 

tol-dom 
tol-dnr^ 
tOl-^u 



86 



STRONG VERB.— SUBJUNCTIVE. 



169. Subjunctive Mode. 
Present Tense. 



SiHGULAB. 

io nime, (if) I take. 
\!t mme^ (%f)t?iou take. 
h6 nime, {if) he take. 



Plural 
p6 nimen, (tf) toe take. 
g6 nimen, (if) ye take. 
ht nimen, (if) they take. 



io D&me, (if) I took. 
'pA nftme, (if) thou took. 
h6 D&me, (if) he took. 



Imperfect. 

p6 n&men, (if) toe took. 
g6 nkmeriy (if) ye took. 
ht nllmen, (if) they took. 

Future. 
{If) I shall {will) take. 



io Bcjle (pill6) niman. 
J>tl scyle (pill^) niman. 
h6 scyle (pill^) niman. 

Transitive Form. 
Swo. (V) I ^^^ taken. 

io hsebbe numen. 

J)ii hsebb^ numen. 

h6 hsebbe numen. 
Plub. 

pd hsebbe/^ numen. 

g6 hsebben numen. 

hi hsebben numen. 

Sing. (V) ^ ^^ taken. 

io hsetde numen. 

J>ti hsdfde numen. 

hd hsef{^ numen. 
Pluk. 

p^ hsefc/en numen. 

g^ hsefden numen. 

hi haefc^en numen. 



p6 scylen (pillen) niman. 
gS scylen (pillen) niman. 
hi scylen (pillen) niman. 

Perfect 

Intransitive Form. 
(If) I have {he) come. 
io s^ cumen. 
J)<1 si cumen. 
hS si cumen. 

pS s^n cumene. 
gS sin cumene. 
hi sin cumene. 

PluperYect. 

{If) I had {were) came. 
ic p^re cumen. 
J)ii p^re cumen. 
h§ p^re cumen. 

pe p&ren cumene. 
g^ pffiren cumene. 
hi pffiren cumene. 



Other Forms : scyle, scyl-en, -on, -an, -e (y>», w, eo);h^ben, habban, 
hahbon ; st, stn (i> ^, ie, eo, ig) ; p&r-en, -an, -on (^ > e). For st may 
be bed, pese, peorde ; for p&re, purde. ^179. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



87 



[§ 168. — Continued from page 86. j 
Sanskrit da'dha-mi <i^dhdi Greek rUOti-fu, does not occur as an inde- 
pendent verb in Gothic, and the form is supplied by comparison. The 
reduplication has given rise to a secondary stem, Sanskrit dadh, Gothic 
dad, O. H. Ger. tat, from which the plural and second singular are form- 
ed with the ablaut of the first conjugation. For second singular -s, see 
§ 166. In haf'ia-de^hsefde, ia drops and -^a shifts (^ 41). 

170. Subjunctive Peesent < Optative Stem nama-i (§ 162). 



Parent Sp. 


Sanskrit. 


SiNO. — 1. namai-m 


n&m^j-am 


2. namai-s 


n4in^ 


3. namai-t 


nam^t 


Plub. — ^1. iiainai«mas 


ndme-ma 


2. namai-tas 


ndm4-ta 


3. namai-nt 


ndmej-us 



Latin, 
em^m 
em^s 
em^t 

em^mas 

em4-tis 

em^nt 



Gothia 



nimau 

nimai-f 

nimai- 

nimai-f»a 

nimai-^ 

nimai-na 



O. Sax. 

nimS 

nim^ 

nim^ 
nim^ 
nim^n 



O. Norse, 
nemi 

nemi-r 

nemi 

nemi-i7» 

nemi 



Greek. 
vifioi'fii 
VBfioi-g 
vkftoi- 

vkfioi-fiev 
vsfioi-re 

vkflOlt'V 

O. H. Ger. neme, neme-s, neme ; neme-mes, -t, -n. O. Fries, nime throughout. 
The Latin serves as a future ; emem is archaic. 0. Sax. has d=e: niman. 
The PLURAL in Anglo-Saxon ends often in -an > -an, -on > -en > -e, 
§^ 18, 38. Before a subject pronoun -e is used, 

(fl.) The long stem ending has worked like the long vowels of femi- 
nine nouns (^ 64, 2) ; the singular is weathered of the personal endings. 
Plural m>n is shifting (^ 41, 6), and the second person conforms with 
the first and third (^ 40, 1). 

(b.) The accent in the Sanskrit is the same as in the present indica- 
tive ; and hence the root vowel is the same ; but the stem ending works 
a-umlaut whenever there is umlaut in the plural indicative ; m stops it 
in Saxon niman. 

(c.) The plural subjunctive endings (especially -an) are sometimes 
found in the indicative of auxiliaries, of prseteritive presents, and of im- 
perfects, most of which have a subjunctive force. §§ 151, 40. 

171. The Subjunctive Impeefect (Optative Perfect) Stem 

nanam-{-jd> n^jd (§ 166). 



Sanskrit. 
Sing.— 1. nSmja-m 

2. n^mja-s 

3. n^ja-t 



Greek. 
ve'V£fi(fjK6)irj-v 
vt'VtuijiKoyiri'Q 



Gothic. 


0. Saxon. 


O.Norse. 


O.H.Ger. 


n^jau 


nami 


n»mi 


nam! 


nAmjei-« 


nami-« 


n«mi-r 


nami-« 


nemi 


nami 


ns^mi 


n&mi 


nSmei-ma 


nami-n 


nsemi-m 


nami-W« 


nemei-^ 


nami-n 


n&mi'd 


namt-< 


n^mei«na 


nami-» 


n&mi 


nami-» 



Plur. — 1. nSmja-ma ve-VEfJuCijKoyTj-fJLiv 

2. n6mj£^'-ta ve-vfiJi(riKo)iTj-T€ 

3. nSmjus vt-vefiifiKoyirj-cav 

The Sanskrit is an uncommon form from the Vedas. The accent on the 
ending leaves the root to the same changes as in the plural of the im- 
perfect indicative. Anglo Saxon stem t> c is precession ; the personal 
endings as in the present subjunctive. Conformation with the present 
brings in the ending -an, -on ; for -e, ^ 170. O. Fries, nome, throughout. 



88 IMPERATIVE.— NOUN FORMS. 

172. Imferattye Mode. 

SiNO. Flur. 

2. nim, take. nimad^ take. 



173. iNFINinVE. 

niman, to take. 

Pbesent Pabticiple. 
nimendey taking. 



Gerund. 
to mmanne^ to take. 

Past Participle. 
uume^i, taken. 



174. Imperative Stem nama. 

Sanskrit Greek. Gothic O.Saxon. O.Nonw. O.H.G. 

Smo. — ndma vkiu, Latin erne nim nim nem nim 

Plub. — n&ma-ta vkfu-rif Latin emi'td nimi-^ nima-d nemi-^ nema-< 

Plural -tata >ta>t {^28)>d (shifting, ^il,a). O. F. = A. Sax. 

175. Noun Forms. 
1. Infinitivo nam -\- ana; 2. Gerund. 110111+ ana -{-ja. 

^ _^. (n&m-anaj-a) (V8u-eiv<-evai\ . 

1. I>tttffe.,.< „„ . M ^or./v N >mm-an nmi-an nem-a nem-<m 

t (§79,a) 31 (§70,a) ) 

2. (§ 120), ndm-anija, Latin em-endo, 0. Saxon nim-annia>-anna. nem-eime 

Z. Pr.Part, n&ma-nt \ f" ^. J nima-n<f(a)-» nima-nd nemiufkf-t nema-n<-i 

( i/at. eme-nt-is) 

A, P. Part. Cbhug-n& ) (r«ic-vo-v(5om)\ . fga-nom- 

n1 „ N H ^ - ?numa-w-« numa-n numi-nn <^ ^ 

{Strong,) \ (bent) } I do-nu-m (^gi/0) i aa4r 

''iWe^,)\''<''>^^ TeSJta^ }nasi.^(a). (gi.)neri-<i tal^i-r giuneri^ 



(a.) The dative case ending is gone in Teutonic infinitives. § 38. 

(b,) Gerund -enne^-ende (^ 445, 2, n7i>n«?, § 27, 5), so in O. N. ; M. 
H. Ger. ; Friesic, O. Sax., and O. H. Ger. have a genitive nim-annias, 
-an-nas {-es) ; nem-ennes ; and M. H. German has gen. nem-endes, 

(c.) To these stems of th6 participles are added suffixes contained in 
the case endings. ^^ 104-106. 

(d.) The Greek verbals in -t6q are not counted participles (Hadley, 
261, c). Only weak verljs have -da, -da, in Teutonic. Few verbs have 
the participle in -na in Sanskrit ; only relics are found in Greek and Latin, 
but all the strong verbs use it in Teutonic. 

(e.) Weak stems in -ia and -0 have i, c, ig or igCj before -aUf -anne, 
*end, § 165, d, 

176. Periphrastic Conditional Forms. 
Potential Mode. 

Modal verbs magan, cunnan, motan, durran, pillan, sculan, pUan^utan, 
may, can, must, dare, will, shall, let us. 



PEUrPHBASTIC CONDITIONAL FOBMS. 



89 



Present Tense, 



Sing. Indicative Forms . 
mxg, can, mot, dear 
meaht, canst, most, dearst 
mxg, can, mot, dear 

Plur. 

mdgon, cunnon, moton, dur- 
ran 



nitnan. 



Subjunctive Forms. 

msbge, cunne, mote, durre ^ 
msbge, cunne, mote, durre 
m&ge, cunne, mote, dmre 



' niman* 



m&gen, cunnen, moten, dur- 
ren, utan 



gjjjQ^ Imperfect Tense, Indicative Forms. 

meahte, cude, moste, dorste, polde, sc{e^olde 
meahtest, cudest, mostest, dors test, polde st, sc^e) oldest 
meahte, cude, moste, dorste^ polde, sc(je)olde y niman. 

Plub. 
meahton, cudon, moston, dorston, poldon, sc(e)oldon 



Imperfect Tense, Subjunctive Forms-. 

Smo. meahte^ cude, moste, dorste, polde, sc{e)olde 
Plur. meahten, cuden^ mosten, dorsten, polden, sc(ji) olden 

Gerundial Form. 
I am to take = I must or ought to take or be taken. 

Plur. 
pe sind 



} 



ntman. 



Sing. 
ic eom 

J)u eart )- to nimanne, 
he is 



ge sind }• to nimanne. 
ht sind 



177. Otheb Peripheastic Forms. 

1. eom (am) + present participle. 

Present....*..! eom, eart, is; sind nimende. 

Imperfect pses, p&re, pses ; p&ron nimende. 

Future heom, hist, hid; heod nimende. 

sceal pesan nimende. 
Infinitive Future... beon nimende. 

2. d6n (do) + infinitive, § 406, a. 



Other Forms: meaht, meahte, QiQ.^ea'^i)', mdg-on, -urn, -un, -an Ca>&y, 
meahte s ; meaht-on, -um, -an, -en, -c (§^ 166, 170); can, con; const; 
cunn-on, -un, -an ; cudes ; ^uc^on, -an, -en ; mot-on, -um, -un, -an, -en ; 
mot-en, -an, -e ; most-es; most-um, -on, -an ; durre {u^y^-, durr-on, 
-an; dorst-on, -en; poldes ; pold-on, -um, -un, -an:, -e; sc{e)oldes; 
sc{e)old-on, -un, -an, -en, -e. Forms of eom, peorde, and hebm inter- 
change (§ 178). 



90 



CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICK 



178. Passive Voice. 
Indicative Mode. 

Singular. Plural. 

Present and Perfect, / am taken or have been taken. 



io eom* (peord^) numen. 
})ii ear^ {peovAest) numen. 
he is (peordee/) num^n. 



p6 Bind{on) {peorAcut) unmene. 
g6 sind{on) (peordocf ) num^n^. 
bt sind{on) (peordo^^) numene. 



Past and Pluperfect, / was taken or had been taken. 



io p&s (peard) numen. 
J^a p&re (purde) numen. 
L6 p&s (peard) numen. 



p6 pAron (purdon) numene. 
gd p&ron (purdon) numene. 
bt p&ron (purdon) numene. 



ic be6(m)* nume^i. 
J>ii'bi«^ numen. 
U bie^ numen. 



Future. 
1. / shall be taken, 

p^ be6<^ numene. 
g6 be6£^ numene. 
bt be6e^ numene. 

2. I shall or will be taken. 



ic sceal (pille) bedn numen. 
f^a sceaU (pilO be6n numen. 
b6 sceal (pille) bedn Jiumen. 



p^ sculon (pillodf) bedn numene. 
gt sculon (pillatf ) bedn numene. 
bt sculon (pillatf ) be6n numene. 



Perfect, 7 Aare been taken. 



tc eom geporden numen. 
Jfu eart geporden numen. 
he %s geporden numen. 



pe sind(on) gepordene numene, 
ge sind(on) gepordene numene, 
hi sind{on) gepordene numene. 



Pluperfect, / had been taken. 



tc pxs geporden numen. 
pu p&re geporden numen, 
he pxs geporden numen. 



pe p&ron gepordene numene, 
ge p^ron gepordene numene, 
hi p&ron gepordene numene. 



Sing. 
ic (J)il, hd) bed numen. 



179. Subjunctive Mode. 
Present. 
(^If) I be taken, 
Plur. 



pd (ge, hi) beon numene. 



* The forms of peorde, eom, and beom interchange. 



PERIPHRASTIC CONDITIONAL FORMS. 



91 



Past. 
ilf) I were taken. 



Sing. 
ic (J)ii, h^) pjBW numm. 



Plur. 

p6 (gS, hi) p&rm nxxmene. 



180. Impesativs Mode. 



SiNo. Be thou taken. 

pes })ii mxmen, 

181. Infinitive. 
bedn numen, to he taken. 



Plub. -Sc ye taken, 

pesot^ gS nam^n^. 

Paeticiple. 



182. Peripheastic Conditional (§176). 

Potential Mode. 
Present Tense, 

Subjunctive Forms. 

m&ge (&c.) 
m&ge (&c.) 



Sing. Indicative Forms. 

mmg (&c.) 

meaht (&c.) 

mag- (&c.) ^ beon numen^e), 
Plur. 

mdgon (&c.) 



m^^^e (&c.) y Jgon numen[€). 
m&gen (&c.) 



Imperfect, 



Sing. 
meahte (&c.) 
meahtest (&c.) 
meahte (&c.) 

Plur. * 
meahton (&c.) 



^eon nt<men(e). 



meahte (&c.) 
meahte (&c.) 
meahte (&c.) 

meahten (&c.) 



iffdn nttmen(e). 



For icon (infinitive) is found />e5a» or peordan. The forms interchange of 
ieo, 5t, />eje, peorde; of p&re, purde ; of pes, bed, peord, Bist, bid (i>y) ; 
^eo, ^eo(f (eo<io). iBlfnc*s grammar has indie, pres. eom, imperf. pass, 
fut. bed, perf. />»» fulfremedlice (completely), pluperf. pa^ gefym (for- 
merly) ; subjunctive for a wish/pres. bed gyt (yet), imperf. p&re, pluperf. 
p&re fulfremedlice; for a condition, pres. eom nu (now), w^xf.psss, fut. 
bed gyt (yet); imperative st; infinitive beon. 



92 



CONJUGATION OF WEAK VEEBa 



183. WEAK VERBS.— (Conjugation VI.) 

Active Voice. 



Pees. Infinitive. Isipeef. Indicative. 
nenan, save; nerede; 
h^ran, /lear; h^rde; 
lufta/i, iove; IvSdde; 


Fassivb Fabtioiplb. 
uered. 
h^ved. 
{ge')lvSdd. 


Indicative Mode. 
Present (and Future) Tense 
/ save, hear, love. 


(§165,c?). 



SiNOULAB. 

ic nene, h^re, lufige. 
J)tl nerest, hfreat, lufdst. 
he neret^, hfrecty lufdd. 



Flubal.. 
p6 neriact^ hfrcut, lutiad. 
g(^ neriad, hfrad, IvSicut. 
hi heriad, h^rcut^ lutiad, 



Imperfect (§§ 160, 166, 168). 
I saved, heard, loved. 



ic neredfe, h^rcfe, \vS6de. 

J)il uQvedest^ hfrdest^ Ixifddest. 

h& neredey hfrde, IvSdde. 



p6 neredoriy hyrdbn, lufddon. 
g& neredoriy hfrdoriy lufSdoii* 
hi neredon, hfrdoriy Ijofddon* 



ic sceal (pillc) , 

l)ti 8ceal« (pilO y ' ^ 

he sceal (pilk) ^ ^"^*^^- 



Future (§167). 
I shall (will) save, hear, love. 

p6 sculow {piilad) \ nerian^ 
g^.sculoT^ (pillar^) vh^aw, 
hi sculoT^ (piilad) ) lufian* . 



Perfect (§ 168). 



Transitive. 

I have saved, heard, loved. 
Sing. 

ic hsebbe ) , i a i 

^t h^fst, hfifdst { neref, h^ec?, 

h^ hs^fdy h^idd ) ^^*^^- 

Flub. 

pe habbotf \ 

gd habbatf [• nerec?, h;^rcc?, lufM 
hi habbat^ ) 



Intransitive. 
/ have {am) returned. 



ic QOm 



J)ti ear^ >• gecyrrec?. 
he is ) 

pS ^ind (sindpn) \ 

g6 sind (sindon) >• gecyrrecfo.' 

hi s^n(? (sindon) ) 



la, iga, igea, ga interchange, and ie, ige, ge: o>(a, w)>plur.'e. For va- 
riations of auxiliaries and endings, see corresponding tenses of strong verbs. 



CONJUGATION OF WEAK VERBS. 



93 



PluperTect (§ 168). 



Transitive. 

I had saved, heard, loved. 
Sing. 

ic htBide ^ 

J)tl hs&idest > nexed^ h^rec?, \\ki6d. 

Plub. 

p6 hddfdon \ 

gd Yiddidon y nercJ, lafred^ \\xi6d. 
hi hddidon ) 



Intransitive. 
I had (was) returned, 

ic pses J 

J)A pare >• gecyrrec?. 

h^ pSBS ) 

pe p^row J 

g^ pseron >• gecyrr^. 

hi p&roT^ ) 



184. SuBJUNcnvB Mode. 

Present (§ 170). 

(7/*) J 5flUff, Acar, love. 



IG 



SiNGtJLAB. 

J)^ > nerie, h^re, lu%e. 
h^) 



Plural. 

g& > nerien, hfren, \afiffen. 



ic 



} 



Imperfect (§ l7l). 

(7/*) I saved, heard, loved. 

p6 



I)il >• nerecfo, hfrdcy InWde. 



g^ [• nerecfew, h;^rdfe7i, lufiJcfen. 
hi 



ic scyk (pillc) . . , . 
t)ti Bcyk (pill6) y ' -y 

h6 scyk (piUc) ^ ^^^*'*''- 



Future (§167). 
(If) I shall (will) save, hear, love. 

p6 scylm (piU^Ti) ) 
g^8cylm(piUm)f^^^«,^'?^^^^ 
hi scykn (piUm) ) «^>l«f^«^- 



Perfect (§ 168). 



Transitive. 
(If I) have saved, &c. 
Sing, haebbe ) nerec?, hfred^ 
Plur. haebben j lufd^c?. 



Intransitive. 
(7/" /) have (be) returned. 

1 [ gecyr^.). 



Pluper'fect (§168). 



(If I) had saved, &c. 
Sing, hsefde ) neret?, h^rec?, 
Plur. haefdcw ) Intdd. 



(If I) had (were) returned. 
^T^ [ gecjTred{e). 



94 CONJUGATION OF WEAK VERBS.— WEAK FBESENTS. 

185. Impebatiyb Mods (§ 174). 
Save, hear, love. 



SiNO. 



Flub. 



2. nerCy b^r, lu{d. neviadj h^rcut^ Ixifiad* 

186. Infikitivb Mode (§ 175). 

To save, hear, love. 
Present. ncrian>ncrigany neriffean^ ucvffan; h^ran; lafuin> 

lufigofiy luUffean, 
Gerund. 16 nertanne, hj'ranne, lufianne. 

Participles. 
Saving, hearing, loving. 

Present, neriendej hfrende^ hxiigende. 

saved. Jieard. loved. 
Past.... nerecZ, h^recZ, (^e-)laf<^{f. 

187. The special periphrastio forms and the whole pasuve 
voice of weak verbs are conjugated with the same auxiliaries as 
those of strong verbs (§§ 176-182). 



188. PRESENTS (Weak). 

(a.) Like nerian inflect stems in -ia from short roots : derian^ 
hurt; Aegean, cover ; Aegean, hedge ; «cena/i, apportion ; spynafij 
speer ; sylian^ soil ; punians thunder, etc. 

ip) But many stems in 4a from short roots have compensa- 
tive gemination of their last consonant where it preceded % — 
(throughout the present, except in the indicative singular second 
and third, and the imperative singular) ; c^>cc, di>ddyfi>hb^ 
giycg^ liyU, etc.; indicative Ucge {<legie)j lay, kgesty Uged; 
Ucgad {<legiad); subjunctive lecge^ lecgen; imperative lege^ 
lecgcut; infinitive lecgan; part. pres. lecgende; part, past Uged, 
So reccan^ reach; hreddan^ rescue; habhan^ have; aeUaUy give; 
teUan^ tell ; fremman^ frame ; dynnan^ clang ; dippan^ dip; cnys- 
sariy knock ; settauy set, etc. 

(c.) Like hpran inflect stems in -ea > -€ > — from long roots : 
d^lariy deal ; demaii^ deem ; heKJepariy leave ; m&nan^ mean ; 
aprengan^ spring ; styrman^ storm ; cennan^ bring forth ; cyssan^ 
kiss, etc. Infinitives in -ean occur: s^c-ean^ § 175, e. 



SYNCOPATED IMPERFECTS (WEAK). 95 

(d,) Like lufian inflect stems showing -6 in the imperfect : 
drian^ honor ; beorhtian^ shine ; cleopian^ call ; hopian^ hope. 
Past participles have rf, h^e; gegearp-6d^ -dd^ -edy prepared. 

189. SYNCOPATED IMPERFECTS (Weak), 

(a.) Stem -e < -ia is syncopated after long roots : ctg-an^ call, 
cig-de ; c?.^on, deal, dsalrde; d^m-an^ deem, dSmrde ; drtf-an^ 
trouble, dr|/-cfe/ j^df-an, feed; A^f^aw, heed; A^r-izn, hear ; Isbd- 
an^ lead ; he-labp-auy leave ; msbn-an^ mean ; npd-an^ urge ; r^c^ 
an, read; sp^d-an^ speed; ^67i^-aw, spring, ^eng-de; hdem-an^ 
burn, ha^mrde; styrm-an^ storm ; so sep^ and «6p-<e, showed. 

(5.) Assimilation. — ^After a surd, -t? becomes surd (-^). (Surds 
JO, ^, c (aj), 55, A, not /* or « alone, §§ 17, 30) : r^p-an^ bind, rve,})' 
te ; b^t-ariy better, Mt-te; gret-an^ greets gret-te; m^t^n, meet, 
mtt-te; drenc-an^ drench, drenc-te; Ipaxm^ shine, Ipx-te; but Ips- 
an^ release, Ips-de; fps-an^ haste^ j^5-c?e/ >^-aw, rush, ri^-de, 

(c.) Dissimilation. — ^The mute c becomes continuous {h) before 
-t : t^c-ariy teach, t^hrte; ^an^ eke, ^Jv-te and ^C'te^ 36, 3. 

{d) RtJCKUMLAUT. — ^Themes in ecg ; ecCy eU; enc^ eng; tc; ycg^ 
ynCy i-umlaut for acg; acCy all; anCy ang; 6c ; ucg^ unCy may 
retain a (>aJ/ ea ; o); <^/ w>o in syncopated imperfects (§§ 
209-211): Ucgariy lay, U^gde; reccaUy rule, reahte; epeUaUy kill, 
cpealde ; pencariy think, pohte ; hrengaUy bring, brohte ; r^cauy 
reck, rdhte; bycgqn y buy y bohte ; pyncariy seemy pohte. 

(e.) Gemination is simplified, and mw>?7i (Rule 13, page 10) : 
ce/in-aw, beget, cen-de; clypp-auy clip, clip-te; cys^-an, kiss, cys-^e; 
dypp-auy dip, dyp-te ; ^ht-ariy pursue, ^hte ; fyU-ariy fill, fyl-de ; 
gyrdrariy gird, gyrde ; hredd-ariy rescue, hredde ; hyrdurhy harden, 
hyrde ; hyrt-ariy hearten, hyrte ; hseft-<iny \Aady' hsefte ; lecg-ariy 
lay, leg-de; merr-any mar, mer-de; mynt-ariy purpose, mynte; 
nemiirariy name, nem-de; rea^aw, rest, reate; riht-ariy right, Hhte; 
scild-aiiy guard, acilde; smd-ariy send, aende; spiU-arty spill, ^U- 
de; sett-ariy set, sette; still-any s^^ringy stil^de ; stylt-auy stand as- 
tonished, stylte ; pemm-any spoil, pem-de. 

(/.) EcTHLiPSis occurs {g) : c^gauy call, c^gdCy cide. See § 209. 

190. Past Participles are syncopated like imperfects in verbs 
having rtlckumlaut, often in other verbs having a surd root (§ 189, 
b)y less often in other verbs : seHaUy give, sealdCy seald; ge-s^-ariy 
seek, ge-sdhrtCy gesdht ; aett-auy set, settCy seted and set; send-aUy 
send, sendCy sended and send; hedny raise, heddy raised. 



ILLUSTRATIOSS OF UMLAUT AND ASSIMILATION. 



IDl. Phksents. — ISustratiojie of VmlaiU. 



Conjapitioi. 


(I) 


(I.) 


(I.) (in.) 


(HI.) 




drepan. 


cnmcm, 


beorgtrw, seflfa/t, 


crefipan, 




strike. 


come. 


guard. shove. 


creep. 


Sdto.— 1. 


drepe 


cum« 


beoi^e Bcilfe 


creope 


2. 


(drip(e)sr 


( cym{e)*( 


( byrbsf ( scjf(e)« 


j orJp(e)8( 
( oreape«( 


(drepefl* 


[ avxaest 


\ beorge«((y)( sc11fes( 


3. 


(drip(e)rf 


( cymWrf 


(byrhrf (acyl^O'*C')jcrtp(«)'^ 


(drepei^ 


( cxaaed 


( beorgerf{y)l scllferf 


I credpet^ 


Plub,— 


dreparf 


cwmad 


beorgarf BCllfarf 


cre6pad 


Conjugation 


.. (TV.) 


(IV.) 


(V.) (V.) 


(V.) 




faran. 


bacara. 


fcallan, l&can, 


grSpoj), 




/ore. 


ioAe. 


/off. kap. 


grow. 


SlKG.— 1 


fare 


bace 


ftralle lace 


grCpe 


2. 


(fer{e)«* 


(beo«( 


( fela! ( \&cst 
(fealloX (lacM* 


(grSpw* 


tfaresf 


t bacesf 




(fer(e}rf 


(beet? 


I Ma ( ifec(c)rf 

t feallerf \ IScerf 


(grSprf 
igrfiperf 


■ 


tfared 


1 bao€(Z 


Pj,de. — 


fari7(^ 


\>3.aait 


feallfuf laccK^ 


gropSKf 




192. Bhistraiions of AssimUtUion. 




Conjngation 


... (10 


(I-) 


a-) a.) 


a-) 




etan, 


tredan, 


bin dan, cpedara, 


Icsan, 



eat. tread. bind. quoth. colkct. 

Sing. — I. ete trede binde cpede. leae 

iit(«)s( J tri(de)a2 ( bin{t)»i ( cpiai ( Yist 

eUst l trede«* ( hindeat \ cpedest \ lesest 

cited, it ( trit J bint ( cpid ( lisi 

■ {eted ( trederf{i) ( bindec^ 1 cpeit«/ I leserf 

Plde. — etotf treddt^ bindot^ q^edatt lestuf 









CIV.) (UI.) 




Conjagation 


(I.) 


(m.) 


Blean< fle6ii< 


(I.) 




beFBtan, 


leogara, 


sleahan, fleohan, 


liogon. 




burst. 


lie. 


«%. ^. 


lie. 


SlKO.— 1 


berate 


lefige 


Blea fleS 


liege 


2. 


fbirst 


( \fhst 
\ leogest 


\t^:^f}<'^-' 


J lig.< 


Iberstes* 


i licgatf 


3 


fbirst (et?; 


ll^hrf 


iitis^n"^- 


i li(c)gerf 


(berste*^ 


t \s6ged 


Pr,uE.— 


berstoi^ 


\eogad 


.lea* SoSif 


licgarf 




VARIATIONS OF THE PRESENT INDICATIVE. 97 

Vaeiations op Present Indicative. 

193. Stem -i > -6 in the singular second and third p.erson works 
on the root vowel differently from -a > -€ of the other persons. 

(1.) Root i is here unchanged, while other forms have a-um- 
laut (^>e), § 32, or breaking (i>eo), § 33: drepan; steorfan^ 
starve, steorfe^ 8tirf{e)st^ 8tirf{e)<ty steorfact; but y, not «, is usu- 
ally found with eOy and often incorrectly with e, 

(2.) Here is i-umlaut of a, ea, eo, u, &, 6, est, e6, il, 

to e, e(y), y, y, &, ^, ^f), f, f: 

bacan, feallan^ sleahan > sledn^ heorgan^ cuman^ Idcan^ grdpan^ 
hledpariy credpan^ BcOfcm. § 32. 

(3.) Here is shifting of a > » ; faran; a>e\s rare. § 41. 

194. Stem -^>-e of the singular second and third person is 
often syncopated in strong verbs and weak verbs of the first class. 
Then Variation of root vowel remains. 

Assimilation of consonants follows, 
Gemination is simplified: etan^ td^t (§ 35, B) ; 
tredan^ dst > st (§ 35, -4), rftf > t (§ 36, 6) ; bindariy ndst >nt8t > 
nst (§ 35, A)y ndd> nt (§ 36, 5) ; cpedan, dst > st (§ 35, -4), d^> 
d (§ 20, 13) ; lesan^sstyst (§ 20, 13), sdyst (§ 35, B) ; berstan^ 
stst > st, std> st (§ 35, B) ; ledgan, gst > hst, gd > hd (§ 35, B) ; 
drifan, drive, drtf{e)sty drtf{e)d or drift (§ 35, B). 

(a.) The ending of the third person -d (-p) was a surd (jt) when these 
changes were established (e. g. dtf^t). Gothic grammars give -p, but -d 
is often in the manuscripts ; Old Saxon grammars give -d, but -th is oflen 
found. English has uniformly 'th = -p. In Gothic, any dental + a preced- 
ing dental = st; + a preceding labial z=ft ; + a preceding guttural = ht, a 
law which illustrates the frequent appearance of final t in Anglo-Saxon. In 
Anglo-Saxon folkspeech there was doubtless variation in the sound of this 
ending, as in Gothic and Old Saxon ; in syncopated forms it was surd after 
surds : crypd (p), creeps ; drincd (^), drinks ; sonant after sonants (rare) : 
bringd, brings (z) ; but the predominant sound was always surd, as in Gothic 
and English. Compare Hget for liged, lietb. * 

(i.) Of the three forms given of the singular second and third personf , the 
syncopated (dripd) is the common prose form, the unsyncopated, unvaried, or 
varied by i-umlaut {driped, hyrged) is more frequent in poetry, the yaried 
by a-umlaut (dreped) is a later conformation with the other personf . 

195. Verbs from roots in -h contract (§ 52) : $kdn<, sleahan/ 

196. Stems in 4a with compensative gemination hold it cxcq>t 



98 



SUMMAUY OF VAKIATIONS IN CONJUGATION. 



in tho indicative singular second and third — Bometimes tbrough- 
oat; but the imperative singular has -€ (§§ 188, b; 199; 207, d) : 
licgan < ligiaji^ lie, imperative Ugc. 

197. Variatiox in Strong Imperfects. 



cpcdan, 


8lcahan> 


scahan > 


cedsan, 


quoth. 


slean, day. 


scon, see. 


choose. 


Sing.— cptcd 


slOh (//) 


seah 


cefts 


cp&de 


sloge 


s&ge, sapo 


cure 


cpa»(t 


slOh {g) 


seah 


ce&s 


Plur. — cp&don 


slogoa 


s&gon, sapon 


ouron 


Part. — cpcdcn 


slacgcn 


scpcn, scgen 


coren : 



rf>c?(§30,2); A>^(§30,2); fi>r (§ 35,3,ft) ; h>pinsdpe 
(Gothic aaihvan) is really hp^p (§ 35, 3, ^). So inflect Udan^ 
ld<ty Udoriy sail, etc. (§ 205); seddan^ seddy sudorij seethe, eta 
(§ 206); tedhy tuge<te6hany tug; freOsan^ freeze (frore) ; for- 
ledsariy lose (forlorn) ; hredsan^ rush ; pesan^ be, p. p. pesefij etc. 
(§ 206). 

198. Summary of Variations in Conjugation. 

(a,) The root vowel may take five forms : 

(1.) Throughout tho present except the indicative singular sec- 
ond and third persons. 

(2.) In the indicative singular second and third persons. 

(3.) In the imperfect singular first and third persons. 

(4.) In the other forms of the imperfect. 

(5.) In the passive participle. 

(b,) Consonant assimilation works mainly on the indicative sin- 
gular second and third persons, and on the weak imperfects and 
passive participles. 

(c.) We give the present indicative singular first, second, and 
third persons, the imperfect indicative singular first person and 
plural first person, and the passive participle. 

(d,) Only the varied syncopated forms of the present indicativo second 
and third persons are often given ; the other regular forms generally occar, 
hut may he easily supplied (§ 193, d). Any variation of vowel, or assimila- 
tion of consonants, which has been given in the phonology, and is here re- 
corded as found in any verb, may be looked for with any similar verb. The 
variations of the imperfect plural -on (^^ 166, 170) are not given. The final 
root consonants determine the arrangement, — ^labials, dentals, gutturals. 
Vowels in parenthesis after a word are variations of its root vowels. 



FIRST CX)NJUGATION.— VARIATION. 



99 



First Conjugation, -/a. 

199. — I. Roots endiDg in a single consonant not a liquid: 

Ablaut (i; a, a; i)'>Ce; sb^^; e); i>eja-umlaut; a>»,a>^>e, shift- 
ing (^§ 158, 32, 41) ; (y, ie) < i, bad spelling, is frequeiit ; Variation of con- 
sonants, ^ 194. La3ramon and Ormulum hold the Ang.-Sax. ablaut, though 
with varying spelling ; in Old English it is broken up, especially in the im- 
perfect, where both numbers at last are alike. English ablaut (ee, ea ; a, a ; 
ee, ea)=i{t; a oi e; »)• ^^^ <^^ (^0» eaten;' for stem$ with ^-breaking 
and in -ia (t; a, a; i) : bid, bade, bidden; e^t, progression (§ 38) ; ie'^e, 
shifting (^ 41). Most of these verbs vary in English from their type in con- 
formation with the forms in ^ 200, and with weak verbs. 

Past. Past. 

( ((?), § 200. } 
spefen, sleep. 



Imdioatitb Fbesent. Impebf. Simg. Plus. 

let 8d. 8d. 

drepe, drip{e)st, drip{e)d (p) ; drxp, dr&pon ; 



pefen, 

eten, 

freten, 

meten, 

cneden, 



weave, 
eat. 
eat up. 
mete, 
knead. 



I 



ireden, tread. 



cpasd, cp^don ; 
IsBSf l^son ; 
-nses, -n&son ; 
pass J p&ron ; 



cpeden, 

lesen, 

-nesen, 



quoth. 

gather. 

recover. 



ge-pesen, be 
sprecen, speak. 
precen, wreak. 



spefe^ spifCe^st, spif(^e)dQ, f) ; spasfy sp^fpn ; 
pefe, pif{fi)stypifle)d (A ; />»/> P^fP"^ («) ; 
ete, it(e)st, it ited (y, ie, e) ; «^, &ton ; 
Jrete, frit (c) st, frit frited ; frxt, fr&ton ; 
mete, mit(e)st, mit; msetj m&ton; 

cnede, cni{jde)st, cnit; cnasd, cn&don; 

trede, trist trides, trit trided} ^. , ^ - , 
^ . V r trasa, traeaon: 

(y,«e,e); 

cpede, cpist, cpid{y) cpeded; 

Use, list, list ; 

ge-nese, -nist, -nist ; 

(pese, pesest, pesed) rare ; 

sp(r)ece («), spriest, spricd (J^) ; sprasc, spr^on ; 

prece, priest, pried {p) ; prase, pr&con ; 

pege, pigst Qist), pigd (hd) ; pasg (h), p^gon (a, e) ; pegen, carry. 

breee,5ee ^ 200; hpete, vfhet ; pede,hind; */ccc, stick, are doubtful; so also 

(fitan, arripere; hnipan, collabi ; gipan, hiare ; screpe,8cnL]^e; p€de,wed), 

^-breaking: i>{ie^io^eo>y)\ a>ea>e,d>edyt §§33,35. 

gife (ie, &c.), gifst, gifie)d (f) ; geaf (m, e), gedfon (e) ; gifen, give. 
for-gite (ie, &c.), -gitst, -git; -geat (as, e), -gedton (e) ; -giten, forget. 

A-breaking : i>eo,a^ea> e. §§ 33, 35. 

seohe (seo), sihst, si(K)d (y^eci) ; seah, s&gon (e), sdpon ; ge'Sepen,'g', see. 
ge-feohe (-feo), -fihst, •'fi(K)d; -feah (e), -f&gon ; -fegen, rejoice. 

Stems in -ia (compensative gemination, § 196), no a-umlaut,or late. 
The imperative has -c ; frige, site, but plur. picgead occurs. 

fjSe,fnS<^e)st(Mf),frig{e)dX f,^gj^ j^f'^'f^l inquire. 

(na,p) ; ) i v^» ss), ) 

liege, ligst, lig(e)d(t), lid (p) ; lasg, l&gon (a, e) ; ligen, lie. 



100 FIBST CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 

ImncAim Fbiuht. 
lat Sd. 8<L iMFBr. SncGw Plus. Par. Past. 

Picge, pigstj pig{e)d (hd)\ peah{pah\ p&gon{dJ)\ pigen, take. 
sitte, silCe^stj sit ; sat^sAton; ge-seten, mX, 

biddet bi(d€)st, bit ; bmd^b&don; beden, bid. 

Add fecge,feah, fetch ; spritte^ sprout ; Qdicce^ blame ; snicce, sneak)? 

200. — ^n. Roots ending in a single liquid : 

Ablaut (t; a, a; w)>(t (eo, y) ; 0,6; u) (e; w,&; o); »>(eo, y), a>o, 
a > 0, m-assimilation ; t > e, u > o, a-omlaut ; a>«, a>^, shifling; i>eo, 
a>ea, r-breaking ; e0>y, i-umlaut : (», ea)>e, shifUng. ^^ 158,35,33,41. 

English ablaut {ea; a or 5; o): steal, stole, stolen; ea, a, ^ 199; o 

lengthened in the past part., conformation in the imperfect. 

* 

nime (eo, y), nim(e)st, nim(e)d; nam (o), ndmon (o) ; numen, take. 

cpimey>\ cim(e)st \ cimie^d > cpam(o)\ cpdinon(o)\ cumen\ 

cume } cymCe)st) cym(e)d ) com ) comon ) (y), > 

cpele, cpilst, cpild; cpxl, cp&lon ; cpolen, kill. 

ge-dpele, 'dpilst, 'dpild ; -dpxl, -dp&lon; -dpolen, exr. 

hele, kilst,hild; hsd,hMon; holen, conceal.. 

hpele, hpilst, hpild; hpasl, hpMon; hpolen, sound. 

stele, stilst, stild; stml, st&lon; stolen, steal. 

spele, spilst, spild; spsel, sp&lon ; spolen, sweal. 

bere, birst (y), bird (y) ; bser, b&ron ; boren, bear. 

scere (eo), scirst (y), scird (y) ; scasr (ea, e), scsbron ; scoren, shear. 

tere, tirst, tird (y) ; tasr, t&ron ; toren, tear. 

C'pporen^ 

ge-Ppere, -Ppirst, -Ppird; -Ppser, -Pp&ron ; } -puren >weld. 

{,-Pruen,} 

brece, bricst, bricd(py; brasc, br&con; brocen, break. 

201. — III. Roots ending in two consonants, the first a nasal: 

Ablaut (i; a,u; w) ; i^y, bad spelling, is frequent; a>o, nasal assimi- 
lation (^^ 158, 35) ; variation of consonants, ^ 194. 

Final gemination is often preserved. Unsyncopated forms are very com- 
mon (^ 194). English ablaut (i; a or u; u) : swim, swam or swum, swum; 
but stems in -nd have progression (?; ou; ou)=di; du; du) : find, found. 

hlimme, hlimst, hlimd; hlam(o), hlummon-; hlummen, sound. 

grimme, grimst, grimd ; gram (o), grummon ; grummen, rage. 

spimme, spimst, spimd; spam (6), spummon ; spummen, swim. 

climbe (^ 36), climst, climd; clamb (omm), clumbon ; clumbdn, climb. 

ge-limpe, -limpst, -limpd (p) ; -lamp, -lumpon ; -lumpen, happen. 

ge-rimpe,'rimpst, -rimpd(p'); -ramp, -rumpon; -rumpen, rumple. 

brinne Cbeome, ^ 804), brinst, > ^^^^^ j^„^^^ , ^^^^^^^ ^^^ 

brind; > 

on-ginne, -ginst, -gind; -gan, -gunnon ; -gunnen, begin. 



FIRST CONJUGATION.— VARIATION, 



101 



b-linne, linst, lin{ni)d; Ian, lunnon; 

rinne (jeorne, § 203), rinst, rind; ran, runnon ; 
sinne, sinst, sind; 
spinne, spinst, spind; 

pinne, pinst, pind; 



san, sunnon; 
span, spunnon; 

pan, punnon ; 



lunnen, 
runnen, 
sunnen, 
spunnen, 



stinte, stin(t)st, stint; 
printe, Jfrin(t^st, print ; 
binde, bin(f)st, bint; 
finde, fin(t)st, fint ; 
grinde, grin(f)st, grint; 
hrinde, hrin{t)st, hrint ; 



slant, stunton; 
prant, prunton ; 
band {6), bundon; 
(funde)fand (o), fundon ; 
grand, grundon ; 
hrand^ hrundon; 



spinde, spin(t)st, spint; 

pinde, pin(t)st, pint; 
pinde, pin(f)st, pint ; 

evince, crincst, crincd(p)', 

d-cpince, -cpincst, -cpincd (P) ; 

drince, drincst, drincd (p) ; 
for-scrince, ^scnncst, -scrincd ) 

since, sincst, sincd (p) ; 
stince, stincst, stincd (p) ; 
spines, spincst, spincd (p) ; 
brings {cge), bringst, bringd; 

clinge, clingst, clingd; 



spand, spundon; 

pand, pundon ; 
pand, pundon ; 

crane, cruncon; 



'Cpanc, 'Cpuncon; 

dranc, druncon ; 

'Scranc, -scruncon; 

sane, suneon; 
stane, stuneon; 
spanc, spuncon; 



cease. 

run. 

think. 

spin, 
(fight 
l(win). 

stint. 

swell. 

bind. 

find. 

grind. 

push. 

spunden, i/ v 

^ . (.(swoon). 

punden, swell. 

punden, wind. 

(yield 
cruncen, -ii . v 
((cringe). 

{go out 
(quench) 
druneen, drink. 

'Scruncent shrink. 



punnen, 

stunten, 
prunten, 
bunden, 
funden, 
gfunden, 
hrunden, 



suneen, 

stuncen, 

spuneen. 



sink, 
stink, 
toil, 
bring. 



brang (o), brungon ; brungen, 

, (wither 

elungon, \^^^^^^ 

(fall, 
crungen, < ' 



cringe. 
•frungen, ask. 
go. 

grungen, \ . 
° ° ' (cringe. 



clang, elungon ; ' 

eringe(cg€),cring(e)st,ering(e)d; erang(o), erungon; 

g€-fringe,'fring{e)st,-fring{€)d; -frang, -frungon; 
geonge ; gang, gungon ; 

gringe, gring(e)st, gring(€)d ; grang, grungon ; 

singe, sing(€)st, sing{e)d ; sang (o), sungon ; sungen, sing. 

springe, spring{e)st, spring(e)d; sprang (o),sprungon; sprungen, spring. 
stinge, sting{e)st, sting{e)d; slang, stungon; stungen, sting. 

spinge, sping{e)st, sping{e)d; spang (o), spungon ; spungen, swing. 
ge-pinge, -ping(e)st, 'Ping(e)d; -pang (o), -pungon ; -pungen, grow. 
pringe, pring{e)st, pring(e)d; prang (o), prungon; prungen, throng. 

(Ppinge, Pping(e)st, pping(e)d; Ppang, Ppungon ; Ppungen), {^^^tiam. 

pringe, pring{e)st, pring(e)d; prang {o), prungon ; prungen, wring. 
Add jcn'mme, shrimp ; «/mcan, slink ; slingan,Blmg, 



102 



FIRST CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 



202. — IV. Root in two consonants, the first g^ or three con- 
sonants with metathesis of r ; 

Ablaut (i ; a, u; ti) > (c ; a*, u; o)\ i>e, tt>o, a-umlant (^ 32) ; a> 
:r>f, shiding () 41). Umlaut and shiding stopped by n. ^^ 200, 201. 



IMPBEP. 8l»U. PlCI. 



Fait. Fait. 



f L J *. broden, ore- > braid. 
Sbrudon ( ^^^,9 J 



iMDicATin Pmiirr. 
Int. ad. Sd. 

hrcgde \ hrcgdesl \ hregdcd \ brxgd 
brede > bri{i)st ) brit ) brwd 

stregdc} strigdesi} strigded} 3tra*gd 
strcdc i stn(t)st ) strit } strwd 

fnne J frinst ) fnnd ) fran )'' '' 

bcrstCy birst, birst{ed) (iV) ; bxrst^ burston ; borsten^ 
Pcrsce, pirscestf pirsced; pxrscy purscon; porscen, 



> strugdon strogden 



) strew, 
sprinkle. 



I ask. 



burst, 
thresh. 



203. — V. Root in two consonants, first a trill (I or r) : 

(a.) Ablaut (t; a, u; u)'^{e; ea, u; o); i'^e,uy>o, a-umlaut (^ 39) ; 
<i>ca (l-breaking, § 33) >eo (irregular spelling), or pea'^peo, p-assimila- 
tion (^ 35) ? Unsyncopated forms in e are common : helpest, helped, En- 
glish ablaut (e; a,e ox 5; o); ea>a or e, shifling, ^ 38, A ; J, ^ 200 ; but all 
imperfects have become weak: help; {halp, help, holp), helped; (holpen), 
helped. 

beal, bullon; bollen% bellow. 

healp, hulpen; holpen, help. 

dealf, dulfon; dolfen, delve. 

mealtt multon; molten, melt. 

spealt{eof),spulton; spolten, die. 
teald, tuldon; tolden, cover up. 

medic, mulcon; molcen, milk. 

bealg{h), bulgon; bolgen, be wroth. 
fealg {h), fulgon ; folgen, go into. 

Cspolgen "J 
spelge, spilgst (hst), spilg{e)d(Jid) ; spealg (h), spulgon ; < {spelgen, ^swallow. 
Add d'Selce (c>co, ed), sulk. L Koch), 3 



belle, bilst, bild; 

spelle, spilst, spild; 

helpe-, hilpst (e), hilpd(p) ; 
delfe, dilfst, dilfd; 
melte, miltst, milt; 
spelte, spiltst, spilt {i^ie,y) ; 
be-ielde, 'iil{t)st, -tilt; 
melee, milcst, milcd (p) ; 
beige, bilgst (hst), bilgd (hd) ; 
felge, filgst (hst), filgd (hd) ; 



^-breaking, i>ie'>y (§ 33) ; i>e is also found, a-umlaut, 

§§32,194,^. 

gille (e, ie, y), gilst (ie, y), gild (ie, y) ; geal, gullon ; gollen, yell. 
gilpe (ie, y), gilpst (ie, y), gilpd (p) (ie, y) ; gealp, gulpon ; golpen, boast. 
gilde (ie, y), gil(t)st (ie, y), gilt (ie, y) ; geald, guidon ; golden, pay. 



SECOND CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 



103 



204.— (J.) Before r (and A) : 

Ablaut (i; «,«; M)>(eo; ea,«; o); »>co, a> ea, breaking (§33); «>o, 
a-umlaut (§ 32). After labials {p, m, p), eo may go to u (§ 35, 2) ; y for i 
abounds. Unsyncopated broken forms prevail : peorpest, peorped. Vowels 
brought before r by metathesis often r^in their old umlaut: rinne^ime ; 
hrinne^hime ; bersce, perste (§ 202). English like (a) ; go >g, § 38, A. 

georre, gyrst, gyrd; gear, gurron ; gorren, whur. 

eome (i,y), ym{e)st (i, eo), ym{e)d\ {earn) am (o), > ^^^^ ^^ 

(t, co) ; } umon ; > ' ' 

heome (i, y), heom{e)st (y), Jeor7i(e)(f ) icam (5am) (o), ) ^^^^^^ j^^^ 

(y); J humon; ) ' 

meome (m), mymst, mymd; 
speome (u, o), spymst, spymd; 
peorpe (u, y), />yrp5^ /'y/y^ (^) ; 
ceorfCf cyrfstf cyrfd; 
deorfe, dyrfst, dyrfd; 
hpeorfe (m, a,y), hpyrfst, hpyrfd; 

steorfe, styrfst, styrfd; 



meam, mumon ; 
speam, spurnon; 
pearp, purpon ; 
cearf, curfon; 
dearf, durfon; 



momen, mourn. 

spomen, spurn. 

porpen, throw. 

corfen, carre. 

dorfen, sujOfer. 



hpearff hpurfon ; hporfen, return. 



speorfe, spyrfst, spyrfd(t); 
peorde (w, y), pyrst, pyrd(ed) ; 
beorce, byrcst, byrcp ; 



stearf, siurfon; storfen, jj^g 

spearf, spurfon; sporfen, cleanse. 

peardi purdon ; porden, become. 

bearc, burcon ; borcen, bark. 
speorce, spyrcst, spyrcd (p) (sporced) ; spearc, spurcon ; sporcen, faint. 
beorge, byrgstXhst), byrg(e)d(hd); bearg(h),burgon; borgen, guard. 
feohte, fyhtstf fyht ; feaht, fuhton ; fohten, fight. 

205. Second Conjugation, ^L 

Ablaut (t; a; i; i); i'^y, »>^> bad spelling; 5c-breaking or A-breaking 
d>ed (i>iof), i>e6 (§ 33) ; a>^, shifting. English ablaut (f; 5; «) = 
(at; 6; i); t^di, d'^6, progression (§ 38) : drive, drove, driven. 



dptne, dptn(e)st, dptn(e)d; 
gtne, gtn(e)st, gtn(e)d; 
hrtne, hrtn{e)st, hrin(e)d; 
hpine, hpin{e)st, hptn(e)d; 
seme, scin{e)st, sctn(e)d; 
gnpe, grtp(e)st, gnp{e)d (J) ; 
ntpe, mp(e)st, ntp(e)d (Ji) ; 
ripe, rip(e)st, np(e)d (J>) ; 



dpdn, dpinon; dpinen, 

gdn, ginon ; ginen, 

hrdn, hrinon ; hrinen, 

hpdn, hpinon; hpinen, 

scdn(ed), scinon {io) ; scinen. 



grap, gnpon ; 
ndp, nipon; 
rdp, ripon; 



to^lipan,'Sltp(e)st,'Slip(e)d(Ji); -slap, -slipon; 



be-life, 4if{e)st, 'ltf{e)d; 
clife, cltf{e)st, clif{e)d; 
drife, dnf{e)st, drij\e)d (ft) ; 
scnfe, scrtj\e)st, serif (e)d; 

sltfe, sltf{e)st, sltj\e)d; 



4df, 'lifon ; 
cldf, clifon; 
drdf, drifon; 
scrdf, serif on; 

sldf, slifon; 



gnpen, 

nipen, 

ripen, 

'Slipen, 

"lifen, 

clifen, 

drifen, 

serifen, 

slifen. 



dwindle. 

yawn. 

touch. 

whiz. 

shine. 

gripe. 

darken. 

reap. 

dissolve. 

remain. 

cleave. 

drive. 

shrive, 
(split, 
(sliver. 



104 



SECOND CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 



IXDIOATIVX PSUKHT. 






• 


Ut 2d. 8d. . 


BiKO. Plus. 


Tast. Pa8T. 


(sweep, 
(turn. 


sptfe, sjnf(e)st, spif{e)d; 


spdf, spifon ; 


spifen. 


sptpe, sptp(e)st, sjAp{e)d; 


spdp (au), spipon ; 


spipen. 


spew. 


bite, bit(e)st, bit(eit) ; 


bat, biton ; 


hiten. 


bite. 


fltte, flit(e)st, fltt ; 


fldt,fliton; 


fliten, 


(flite, 
(strive. 


hntte, hnU(e)st, hnit ; 


hndt, hniton ; 


hniten. 


butt. 


sltte, sltt(e)st, slit ; 


slat, sliton; 


sliten. 


8lit. 


smite, smtt(e)st, smtt; 


smdt, smiton; 


smiten. 


smite. 


Pptte, fynt{e)st, Ppit{ed) ; 


Ppdt, Ppiton (eo) ; 


Ppiten, 


cut off. 


P^ ;^(«M />&(aO ; 8ubj. f^an, 


>pdt,piton; 


^ 


(see, visit, 
(impute. 


>put(m>utan, §§ 176, 224, c. 


piten. 


plite, plii{e)st, pltt(ed) ; 


plat, pliton ; 


pliten, 


look. 


prite, prtt{e)st, prit{ed) ; 


prat, priton ; 


priten. 


write. 


bide, bidest (bi(t)st), bided (bit) 


; bad, bidon ; 


biden. 


bide. 


cide, ci{t)st, cit ; 


cad, cidon (cidde) ; 


ciden, 


chide. 


(?) lide, list, tided lid; 


lad, lidon; 


liden. 


grow. 


glide, glist, glit ; 


glad, glidon ; 


gliden, 


glide. 


guide, gnist, gnit ; 


gndd, gnidon ; 


gniden. 


rub. 


hlide, Mist, hlit ; 


hldd, hlidon ; 


hliden. 


cover. 


ride, fist, rit ; 


rdd, ridon (io) 1 ; 


riden. 


ride. 


slide, slist, slit; 


sldd, slidon ; 


sliden. 


slide. 


stride, strist, sirit; 


strdd, stridon ; 


striden, 


stride. 


pnde, prist, pnt ; 


prdd,pridon; 


priden. 


bud, grow. 


lide, li{de)st, lU(ed) ; 


lad, lidon ; 


liden. 


sail. 


mide, mist, mid; 


mad, midon; 


miden. 


hide. 


scride, scrist, scrid; 


scrdd, scridon ; 


scriden{d),go. 


slide, sli(de)st, slid; 


sldd, slidon; 


sliden, 


slit. 


snide, snist, snid; 


sndd, snidon; 


sniden, 


cut. 


pride, prist, prid; 


prod, pridon (d) ; 


priden, 


wreathe. 


pnde, prist, pnd; 


prod, pridon ; 


priden. 


bud, grow. 


d'grise, -grist, -grist ; 


'grds, -grison ; 


-grisen, 


dread. 


rise, risest (rist), rised (rist) ; 


rds, rison; 


risen. 


rise.. 


Mice, blic(e)st, blic(e)d (p) ; 


bide, hlicon; 


blicen. 


shine. 


sice, sic{e)st, sic(e)d (p) ; 


sac, sicon; 


sicen. 


sigh. 


snice, snic(e)st, snic(e)d (p) ; 


sndc, snicon; 


snicen. 


sneak. 


since, stnc{e)st, stnc{e)d (J) \ 


; strdc, stricon; 


stricen. 


go, streak. 


spice, spic(e)st, spic(e)d (p) ; 


spdc, spicon; 


spicen. 


deceive. 


pice, ptc(e)st, pic(e)d ip); 


pdc, picon ; 


picen, 


yield. 


hnige, hnig(e)st (hst), hnig(e)d 
ihd); 


r hndh{g), hnigon; 


hnigen. 


nod. 


mige, mihst, mihd; 


mdh, migon ; 


mi gen. 


Umingo), 
(water. 


sige, sihst, sihd; 


sdh, sigon; 


sigen, 


sink. 


stige, stihst, stihd; 


stdh, stigon; 


stigen, 


ascend. 



THIRD CONJUGATION.—VARIATION. 



105 



pige, pihst, plM ; pah, pigon ■; 

like, lth{e)sty lih(e)d (y) ; Idh (ed) (lag), ligon ; 
sihe {seo), sih{e)st, sih(e)d; sdh, sigon (A) ; 
tihe (ted), tihst (y), tihdiy) ; tdh (ed), (tigonf) ; 

fihe, pthst, J>ihd; pah {pdg,pM), 



prihe, prihst, pnhd; 



prdh, prigon ; 



pigen, fight. 
hgen, lend, give. 
sigen (h)f strain. 
tigen, accuse. 

, {{Peo, ^206) 

* ( grow. 

( (preo, ^ 206) 
^^^''^ 1 cover. 



Add spine, swoon ; sntpe, snow ; Jfrtfe, thrive ? scrie, shriek. 

206. Thied Conjugation, -/ u. 

Ablaut (itt (m) ; ed,u; «)Xea(w); ed,u; o); tw>io>eo, w>o, a-um- 
laut (^^ 32; 38,2) ; ed>e, shifting (§ 41) ; e6>p, u>y, i-umlaut (^ 32). 
Ormulum ablaut (e, (u) ; &, u; o), Old English (e, (u); e, o or I; o), En- 
glish (ee, ea, do, u; ee, e, o, b; b, 6, ee, e). The imperfect becoming like 
the present by the shifting of co>e and ca>e, is distinguished anew by 
conforming with the b of the participle, by shortening its vowel (e, o), or by 
taking a weak ending : seethe; seeth-ed, sod ; seeth-ed, sodden; cleave; clove, 
clef't; cloven, clef -t; choose; chose; chosen; «if/7, weak, ^^25,200. 

Variation of consonants, ^ 194. 

creope, crip(e)st (eo), cryp{e)d > . . 

(e6)(p)', > ^^^^P^^^^P^^y 

dreope, drypst, drypd(p)', dredp, drupon; 

geope, gypst, g^pd (p) ; ^ gedp, gupon ; 

slype, slyp(e)st (t2), slyp(e)d (u) (p) ; sledp, slupon ; 



cropen, creep. 

dropen, drop. 
gopen, take up. 



seap, supon ; 
deaf, clufon ; 
dedf, dufon; 
scedf, scufon; 



supe, s^pst, sppd (p) ; 
cleofe, clyfst, clyfd; 
dufe, dyfst, dyfd; 
scufe, scyfst, scyfd (ft) ; 

hreofe, ; ; 

leofe, lyfst, lyfd; 

reofe, ryfst, ryfd; 

breope, brppst, brypd; 

ceope, cppst, c^pd; 

hreope, hrypst, hrypd; 

preope, prypst, pr^pd; 

breote, br^t(e)st (eo), brpt (ed) (eo) ; bredt, bruton ; 

fledt, fluton ; 

gedt (e), guton ; 

great, gruton ; 

hledt, hluton ; 

hredt, hruton; 

ledt, luton; 

nedt, nuton; 

redt, ruton ; 



slopen, 
sopen, 
clofen, 
dofen. 



dissolve, 
sup. 
cleave, 
dive. 



ledf, lufon; 
redf, rufon; 
bredp, brupon ; 
cedp, cupon; 
hredp, hrupon; 
Predp, prupen ; 



fleote, flytst, flyt ; 
geote, gytst, g^t ; 
greote, grpt(e)st, grpt ; 
hleote, hleotest (hlytst), hlyt; 
hrute, hrytst, hr^t ; 
lute, lytst, luted (lyt) ; 
neoie (io), n^tst, neoted (npt) ; 
reote, rytst, reoted (rpt) ; 
sceote, scytst, sceoted (scyt) ; 
spreole, sprytst, spryt ; 



scofen, shove. 
be-hrofen, (1) 

lofen, love. 

Tofen, reave. 

bropen, brew. 

copen, chew. 

hropen, rue. 

propen, throe. 

broten, break. 

floten, float. 

goten, pour, 

gruten, greet. 

hloten, cast lots. 

hroten , rustle, snore. 

loten, lout. 

noten, enjoy. 

roten, weep, cry. 



scedt (e), scvton ; scoien, shoot. 
spredt, spruton ; sproten, sprout. 



106 



THIRD CONJUGATION.— VABIATION. 



InDioATiyx PsnsMT. IxrEswrncrt 

Ist 2d. 8(L Bnia. Flub. Fabt.Fa8T. 

Peote, pytst, Pyt ; pedt^puton; poten^ howl. 

d-preotCy -prytst, -preoted irpr^t) ; -predt, -pruton ; -proten^ irks, loathe. 

heode (w), beodest (b^(t)st), beo-} i aj , , 
deam-, \bead,budon; 

cneodey cn^{t)sty cnpt ; cnedd, cnudon ; cnodeuy knot. 

creode (u), cr^{t)st, eroded cr^t ; credd, crudon ; . croden, crowd. 

leode (io), ly(t)st, lyt ; ledd, ludon ; 

reode, r${t)sty rpt ; redd, rudon ; 



boden, bid. 



loden, grow. 
roden, redden. 



strude, strp(t)st, struded (stryt) ; stredd, strudon ; stroden, despoil. 

d-breode, -breodest C'bryst), -breo'^ i >•'> r ^ z * 

dd(hrijit\' y 'bready'bruaon ; -broaen, worsen. 

d'hude, 'hyst, -h^d; "head^ -hudon ; -hoden, spoil. 

hreode, hryst, hryd ; kredd(d)fhrudon; hroden, adorn. 

seode, seodest (syst), seoded (s^d) ; sedd, sudon ; soden, seethe. 
ceose, ceosest (cyst), ceosed (c^st) ; ceds (e), curon ; 

dreose, dryst, dreosed (dr^st) ; dreds, druron ; 



freds, fruron ; 



coren, choose. 

droren, i ^''* 
(moarn. 

froren, freeze. 



'greds, 'gruron; -groren, frighten. 
kreds, hruron; kroren, rush. 



-leds, 'luron ; 



reac, rucon ; 
smedc, smucon ; 
sedc, sucon; 



-loren, \oae. 

brocen, brook, use. 

locen, lock. 

rocen, reek. 

smocen, smoke. 

socen, suck. 



freose, fryst, fryst; 
be-greose, -gryst, -gryst; 
hreose, kryst, hrpst; 
for-leose, 4yst, -lyst ; 
bruce, brucest (br^cst), bruced > x -* a 
(brPcd(p)); i oreacorucon; 

luce, lycst, lycd (p) ; ledc, lucon ; 

reoce, rpcst, r^cd (p) ; 
smeoce, smficst, smycd (p) ; 
suce, s^cst, sped (p) (c<g) ; 

dreoge, dreogest (dryhst), dreo-} ./../xj j i*. 

ged[dryhd); ^ dr€ah(g),drugon; drogen, Buffer. 

fle6ge,fle6gest (yhst),fle6ged(;yhd); fledh {eg), flugon ; flogen, fiy. 
leoge, lyhst, lyhd; ledh{e){g),lugon; logen, lie. 

smuge, smphst, smphd; smedh, smugon ; smogen, creep. 

te6f.Jeo>, t^hst, m{ut); plur.j ,,.^(,^(^),^^^ . ,,^,„, ^^^ 

ped,p^hst,pyhdi tedh,pugoni pogen, {fj^^***^^ 

preo, pryst, prifhd ; predh, prugon ; progen, i^^^ ' ■' 

(cover. 

Add »eo, strain ; teo, accuse, § 205, Heyne ; fneose, sneeze 1 



FOURTH CONJUGATION.— VABIATION. 107 

207. FouETH Conjugation, -/ a or a. 

Ablaut (a; 6, 6; a); a^sB, shifting; a>c, i-umlaut, infrequent (§ 32). 
English ablaut (5; o ot ob; d) = (e; 6 or u; e); fl>e, progression and 
i-umlaut (^^ 38, 32); o>w, progression (^ 38): wake, woke, waken; take, 
took, taken. Variation of consonants, ^ 194. 

ale, asl{e)st (e, a), ad{e)d (e, a) ; 61, olon ; alen, shine. 
gale, gsd{e)st, gxl(e)d; gol, golon ; galen, sing. 
fare, fiBr{e)st, fsBr(e)d; for, foron ; faren, fare. 
stape, stxp(e)st, stSBp{e)d (Ji) ; stop, stopon ; stapen, step. 
J J ge-dafen, behoove. 

grafe, graEf{e)st, grxf(e)d ; grofgrofon; {f^^^^ | grave, dig. 

rafe, rasf(e)st, rsef[e)d; rof, rofon ; rafen, rob. 

*''(aL)-'"^"' ^*'"'^' ^''^'^]Mi^)od,hl{e)odon; Warfen (»), load. 

pade, padest (passt), paded (jts^d) ; pod, podon ; paden, wade, go. 

ace, wc{e)st, xc{e)d (p) ; 6c, 6con ; acen, ache. 

hace, hsRc{e)st {e), bsBced(e), ^ 191 ; h6c, bocon ; hacen, bake. 

sace, sxc{e)st, sasc(e)d (J>) ; s6c, s6con ; sacen, fight. 

tace, tsBc{e)st, tsBe(e)d (J>) ; t6c,t6con; tacen, take. 

pace, pmc{e)st, paBc{e)d (p) ; poc, p6con ; pacen, wake. 

pasce, psBSc(e)st, pxsc(e)d (J>) ; p6sc (x), poscon {x) ; pxscen, wash. 

drag^^dra,g{e)st (hit), dra>g(e)d'^ ^^.^ ^^^^ .^^.^^ , ^^^^^^ ^^ 

gnage, gnasg(e)st ihst), gns^^ ^i ^ 
g(e)dthd); ^ gnoh, gnogon ; gnagen, gnaw. 

Add pape, thaw. 
(b.) 5c-breaking, § 33; A-breaking, § 33; 6a>y, § 32. 

sc(e)ade,scie)adest(sciBst),scie)a'^ / \^j / \^j /\> xi. 

J*i \\, f^ \ I ^ sc{e)od,sc{e)odon; sc{e)aaen, scathe. 

sc(e)ace, scie)acest (scsast), sc(e)aJ\ , ^^ , .^ ,v /\ii 

ced(scsBd)\ j- 5c(e)oc, 5c(g)oco» ; 5c(e)acen (»), shake. 

sceppeiy), scyp{pe)st, scyp(pe)d; sc{e)6p, sc{e)6pon; sc(e)apen{e), create. 
scafe (eaf), scsef(e)st, scasf(e)d; sc6f{eo?),sc6fon;scafen, shave. 

leahe (led), lehst (y), lehd (y) ; I6h {g), logon ; leahen (lean), blame. 
sleahe (sled), slehst (y), slehd (y) ; sl6h (g), sl6gon ; slagen (w, e), slay. 
pped, ppehst (y), Ppehd (y) ; Ppoh, Ppogon ; Ppegen, wash. 

peaxe, pexest, peaxed, pex{e)d; p(e)6x, p(e)6xon ; peaxen, wax. 

Add ^gfl, flay. 

(c.) Ti-assimilatioD, a>Oy% 35. 

spane, span{e)st, span{e)d (») ; sp(e)6n, sp{e)6non ; spanen (o), allore. 
stande (o), standest {stentst),\ ,-,,., m «,/i\ ^ . x j 

standed {stent (y)) ; \ *^^^' *^'^^^ (* ^^^^^ *^^'*^^'*' ^**'^^- 



108 FIFTH CX)NJUGATION.— VARIATION. 

{d.) Stems in -ia, § 196. Imperative in -€.* spere, stepe^ kefe. 

INDIOATIYB PSnKMT. iMPBXraOT 

l8t 2d. 8d. Ems. Flub. Past. Fast. 

jrper-ie (-(0^«)» sperest^ spered; spor, sporon; sporen^ swear. 

scepp€<^scqfie, ^ 207, b; scyppe <^sceqfie, § 32. 

steppe {^stapie)f step(e)st, step{e)d(p)y stop, stopon; stapen, step. 

hebbe(as){<ihafie),hef(e)st,hef(e)d; hoffhSfon; hafen(m)f heave. 

"'ueM^^'fi'^ ^'' ^' "'^' '"'^' ^'' ^^'} *^^*' "^""^ *'*'^**" (•)' ^*"8h. 
Add scedde, shed. 
208. Fifth Conjugation. — Contract. Imperfect in eo, 6 (id). 

(L) Root in a + two consonants; a>ea, 1-breaking (§ 33). Um- 
laut y<ea or e<a (§ 32). English €<^>e, shifting (§41); 
cUd^dldy progression (§ 38): fall, feU^ fallen ; hold, held, 
holden, 

^'tfylifeMh ^^^''^'•^"'^^^''^^}f<'Sm,fe6Uoni ge-feallen, fall. 

pealle, peallest (pylst), p€al(f)ed (pyld) ; pe6l{l)^pe6llon ; peallen, well. 
pealteipealtest (pt/lst),pealted{pylt); peolt^ peolton ; pealten, fall. 

^'Uyith'^"' ^^'"^' ^'"^^]fiold,feoldon; feaUen, fold. 

h(e)alde, healdest (hylsi), healded'i r >•,, , >•,, , ,, , ,, 

(hit)' > heold, heoldon ; healden, hold. 

stealde, stealdest (stylst), stealded } ^ a,-, \ a,, ,, 

(stvld)' Y steold,steoldon; stecUden, possess. 

p(e)dlde, pedldest (pylst), pedldedy >.,•,>.,, ,, 

(pvlt)' y peold, peoldon ; pealden, govern. 

pealce, pealc(e)st (pylcst), peal-} ^, ^, , „ 

c(e)d {pylcd (P)); | ^^^^^» ^'^^'^'* ' ^^^^^^'^^ ^^"^• 

(J.) n-assimilation, a>o (§ 36). 

^annc, ban{ne)st (benst), > t>. / x / >.x ,>. , ..v , . v , 

ban(ne)d (bend) ; f *^'*('*) (^^)' ^^'^''^^ (^^) ' *^'*''^'* (^)' «^^^'- 

sparine, span(ne)st (spenst), } -i / \ / >.x >. / /.v 
span(ne)d (spend) ( I ^/'^''W M» ^/^^'^^^'^ M ; *;>anncn, span. 

blande(o), blandest (blcn(t)d),\ rjA..^.,,^, , ^. ,, , , . , , , 
Handed (blent) ; I ^^^'^ (^^)' ^^^^^^'^ (^^) ' ^^«'*^^'* W' "end. 

fo«fdhe),fe(h)st(&),fe(h)dy ^ , v ^. 

(£ plar.%; '''•"''} ^^"^ (c^),/^n^on; /an^en (.),| ^^^^^ 

infin.yon; imperat. yo(A), yo</. ) 

5'« (Kga-gd-mi, § 210), ^^5/, ^^, plur. ) s , is , . >. 

^^; imperat. ^a^ gad; infin ^a<- I '"^'' "^^"^' ^^■^«'*'] 
g'fln^e (o) (c^), gangest (o), \ „a^,.. . .. , .1 

ganged (o),iA,gangad(o) 'J ^'''^^'''''''^''^' •''''' g^^g^^(o)^)>go. 
infin. gangan (o) ; imperat. gang (o) ; p. pr. gangende (o) (geon- 

gan, ^ 201 ; gengan, weak). 



FIFTH CONJUGATION.— VAHIATION. 109 

'%'!%) *'^'^'' ^*'' '''^''^^''^'} hing, hingan; Kangen (o)0 ^^^^ 
'm^ii» hon{<Chdhan)\ imperat. Ao(A), Aoef. y 

(2.) Root in a; i-umlaut d'^^ {% 32). English dp>ot^, pro- 
gression and labial assimilation (§§ 38, 35) ; e6p > et^' = iH^ shift- 
ing and labial assimilation (§§ 41, 35) : hlow^ bleto^ blown. 

spape, spapie)st isp^pieSst)^ spdp(e)ct ) >, >, ^ 

(sp&p{e)d\p))^ ; 'P^op.speopon; spapen, sweep. 

ge-ndpe, -ndpest (-n^pst), 'ndped{-n^pP) ; -nco;?, -neopon ; -ndpen^ whelm. 
for-spdfe, -sp^fst, 'Sp&f{e)d; -speof, -speofon; -spdfen, drive. 

cndpe,cndpest(cnibpst),cndped(cn&pd); cneop, cneopon^ cndpen, know. 

crdpe, crdpest {cr&pst)j craped {cr&pd) ; creop^ creopon ; crdpen, crow. 

mdpe, mdpest (m^pst), mdped (m^pd) ; meop, meopon ; mdpen, mow. 

sdpe, sdpest (s&pst), sdped {s&pd) ; seop, seopon ; sdpen, sow. 

prdpe, prdpest (J>r^pst), prdped (pr^pd) ; J>re6p, preopon; prdpen, throw. 

pdpe, pdpest (p&p(e)st), pdped (p^p(e)d) ; peop, peopon i i( ^ \ r blow. 

bldte, bldtest (hl^tst), hldted (blM) ; . blet(eo),bleton; bldten, pale. 
hate, hdtest (h^M), hdted {h&t) ; j he(h)i (^ ISO,-) , ^ , 

A(i//e (»), passive, i 219. \ b), hS(h)ton;i ^''^^''' '^'''^^^' 

hndte, hndtest(hn^tst),hndted{hn^t); 4 '*f^ \^' ^^'>hndten, knock. 

sc{e)ddey sc(e)ddest, sc{e)dded; \ ^^^''rf ^'. ^ i *c(e)arfcn, divide. 

(?) strode, strddest (str^(t)st), strdded i{stred{e6), stre\ ^^^.^^^^ g^j.j^g 
(^^r^O; }l don; ) ' 

.<,v ^ (sceon, scionon) , . 

(1) scane, , ; | ^^.j. ]■ , shine. 

lace, ldc{e)st (Isbcst), Idced (l&cd (J)) \ {^[fg^ b)!ucm; } ^^^^^' ^^^^^ 

(3.) Root ea. Syncopated forms not found in poetry. 

hedfe, hedfest Qiyfst), hedfed (hpfd)t; heof, heofon; hedfen, weep. 
hledpe, hledp{e)st (y), hledped (hlppd (J) ; hleop, hleopon ; hledpen, leap. 

d-hnedpe, 'hnedp(e)st {-hn^pst), ^hned-\ ,j,^,i^ ^rieopon; ^hnedpen, sever. 

p(e)d(-hnypd{p)); ^ . 

hedpe, hedpest (h^pst), hedped {hypd) ; heop, heopon ; hedpen, hew. 

bedte, bedtest (bytst), bedted {byt) ; beot, beoton ; beaten, beat. 

bredte, bredtest (brptst), bredted (bryt) ; breot, breoton ; bredten, break. 

ge-scedte, -seediest (-scfitst), -scedted \ _^^^.^^ .sceoton; -scedten, fall to. 

(-scyt); . ) 

dedge, dedg{e)st (dyhsi% dedg(e)d \ ^ . deo^on ; dedgen, dye. 

(dygd){hp); . ^ ^. ^ 



110 SIXTH CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 

(4.) Root db> English ee^ shifliDg (§ 41). 

Imdigatitv PBimrr. Imfsbtiot 

1st 8d. 8d. SiMo. Plub. Past. Past. 

sl&pe{d^e)^sl&p(€)sty sl&p(e)d; slip, slepon; sl&pen, sleep. 

gr^te, gr&t{e)st, grSt(ed) ; gret, greton ; gr&ten, greet. 

lAie, l&t{e)st, m{ed) {i) ; {Jf Utn ^^' ^^' ^^^^' } ^^^^""^ ^®*- 

''''(S^O''^''^^'^''' -rf^^^^^l .dre6rd(-drid),-dredan; ^dr&den, dread. 
r&d{e), r&d{e)st (r&{j)st), r^- ) (reord (§ 159, J), rid r^d)^j^^ ^^^^^ 
ded (rm) ; 3 ((M.Gloss.), redrrfon (1) ;) ' 

(5.) Root e > English ee, shifting (§ 41). 

(hrepe, hrep{e)st, hrep(e)d; hreop, hreopon; hrepen)f cry. 
pipe, pip{€)st, pep{e)d; peop, peopon ; pipen, weep. 

(6.) Root 6 ; i-umlaut <^ > ^ (§ 32). English edp > ew (§ 208, 2) : 

grow, grew^ grown. 

hr6pe,hr6pest(hripst),hroped(hrepd(J))); hreop, hreopon ; hr open, cry. 

hpope,hp6pest(hpipst),hpdped(hpipd{p))\ hpeop, hpeopon ; hpopen, whoop. 

hlope, hlopest (blipst), hloped {blipd) ; hleop, hleopon ; hlopen, blow. 

fiope, fiopest (flipst), floped (flipd) ; fleop, fleopon ; flopen, flow. 

grope, gropest (gripst), groped (gripd); greop, greopon; gropen, grow. 

hlope, hl6pest(hlepst),hl6ped(hlipd); hleop, hleopon ; hlopen, low. 

rope, ripest (ripst), roped (ripd) ; re op, reo(po)n ; ropen, row. 

spope, sp6pest(sp€psl), sp6ped(spipd); speop, speopon ; spipen, speed. 

blote, hlotest (ibletst), hloted (blil) ; hleot, hleoion ; hloten, \ ^' 

(?) proie, protest (pretst), proted (j>ret) ; preot, preoton ; proten, root. 

spoge, spogesl{spihst),spoged{spihd)\ \^ \an J ^ spogen, sough. 

209. Sixth Conjugation. — Stem in -ia. Weak. 

No ablaut. Certain verbs, having their -ia syncopated in the imperfect 
and past participle, drop their umlaut in those forms. The imperativis sin- 
gular of these verbs has umlaut without gemination, and the ending ^e 
(^ 188, h). The imperfect singular second person is often found in -^es 
(^ 166, a). 

Va. 

(a.) Theme in cg<^gi, compensative gemination (^ 188, b). Order of 
vowels, (e; sb,sb; »); a >e, i-umlaut ($32); fl>«, shifting ($41); seg^ 
^,eg>i,^ 37,2. 

lecge, leg{e)st (hst), leg(e)d (hd), ) lasgde (e),'ilmgdon (c), ) ge-lxgd (e),!. 
]fiuT. lecgad; ) lide, Uidon; j gelid, J ^' 



SIXTH CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. HI 

secge (as), seg{e)st {sb) (eg), seg{e)d \ ssegde (c),> ssegdon(e),\ ssegd,} 
{as) {eg), y\uT,secg{e)ad{sB), Im-f sMe, ) s&don; > s&d, ) ^*^' 
perat. sege («), plur. secg{e)ad{as). 
For sagastf sagad, saga, see sa- 
gian. 

{b,) Theme in cc<C^ci, ll<C^li, compensative gemination (^ 188, i). Or- 
der of vowels, {e; ea,ea; ea); a>e, i-mnlaut (§ 32); a^ea, ^-/-breaking 
(^ 33); cd^ht, § 189, c. English vowels, (e; o; o); cfl>a(Ormulum)> 
0, progression (^ 38) : sell, sold, sold, 

cpelle, cpel{e)st, cpel{e)d; cpeaUde, -don ; i i /i \ ^^* 

dpelle, dpel{e)st, dpel{e)d; 4peal-de,'don{dpelede); [/ j j* f err. 

d-stelle, 'Stelest, •st€l{l)ed; -steal-de, -don ; -steald, station. 

telle, telest, teled; teaUde, -don (telede) ; • "J^ ; j/ \ })' » ^ 

cpecce,cpec{e)st,cpec(e)d{p); {V}cpeah'te,-ton{cpehte); 0)cpeaht,\y^ , ' 

drecce, drec{e)st, drec{e)d\ ,,m^ ^ j/\r^ 

(J); plur. drecc(e)ad) \ '''•«(«)*-'«' -'"»'• ^'•'('')^'' '^^- 

lecce, lec{e)st, lec{e)d{p) ; leoh-te, -ton {ea? e)', Icoht {e), leak, wet. 

recce, rec{c){e)st, rec{e)d{p) ; reah-te, -ton {a, x, e) ; reaht, rule. 

strecce, sirec{e)st, strec{e)d\ ^ / m . . . i^ j. ± i. 

.,v \/ » \/ y stre{a)h-te, 'ton ; streaht, stretch. 

pecce,pec{e)st,pec{e)d{p); pe{a)h-te,'ton; peaht, thatch. 

pecce,pec{e)st,pec(c)(e)d(p)', pe{a)h'te, -ton; pe{a)htj wake. 

precce,prec{e)st,prec(e)d(p); preh'te,'ton(eaf) pre{a)ht^ wake. 

(c.) Theme in a nasal {nc,ng). Order of vowels, {e; o,o; o)\ a>e, 
i-umlaut (^ 32) ; a>o, nasal assimilation (^ 35). English order, {t; ou; ou) ; 
t comes from hringan (^ 201), pincan (^ 211); o'^ou=du, progression 
(^ 38) : bring, brought, brought. 

brenge, breng{e)st, breng{e)d {cp) ; broh-te, 'ton ; broht, bring. 
pence, penc{e)st, penc{e)a{p),i ^^^ 

plur. /enc(e)a(^; > -^ ' » x- 7 

210.— V' 6- 

Theme in c; cd>ht (§ 189, c). Order of vowels, (^; 6,6; 6); 6>e, 
i-umlaut (^ 32). English order, {ee; ou; ou)\ ou=^du, progression (^ 38) : 
seek, sought, sought, 

rice, recst, reed {p), recced; r6h-te, --ton ; r6ht, reck. 



112 IRREGULAR VERBS.— VARIATION. 

Ikdioattvh PEKSBirr. Impisfbot 

Ui. 2u. 8d. SiMo. Plub. Past. Fast. 

$ece, secest, secett, plur. sec(e)ad^ \ soh-te, -ton ; soht, seek, 
subj. plur. sic(e)an (^, eo)^ part. V 
pres. sic{c)ende, ^ 

211. — -v/u. 

Theme in a guttural {g, c) ; cgd>ht, ncd>ht (§ 194, a). Order of 
vowels, ((tt)y (0; &, o; o); u>y, i-umlaut (^32); y>«, shifting or bad 
spelling (§ 41); u>Goth. au>o, A-r-breaking (^ 33). English order, 
(y; ou; ou); y(t)>y = fli, o>ou=aM, progression (^38): buy , bought, 
bought. 

(hoh'te is not found. Conformation with the common weak forms led 
to hogde'^ hog-ede, -ade, -ode, and finally to a present hogie.) 

Pynce (t), J>ync(e)st (i), jlfync(e)d {i)} . , 

(/), plur. pync{e)ad; I ^"^-^^' '^^'^ ' ^^-•^^^'' «^®™- 

pyrce (eo, i, e)y pyrc{e)st (e), pyrC'X / m ^ ^ r^ , 

W(0, plur. ^roWoe?,. I Z'^Ku)^-^^, 'ton ; ge-porht, work. 



212. IRREGULAR VERBS. 

I. Prateritive Presents. — The completion of certain acts is the be- 
ginning of states ; perfects of verbs denoting such acts get to be used as 
presents denoting the states: Sansk. ve'da, Greek pot^a, Ang.-SsiX, pat, I 
have seen > / know. About a dozen such verbs are common to the Teu- 
tonic tongues. They retain antiquated personal endings and other forms, 
have peculiar syntactical relations, and the original notion of their verb has 
often given place to a varying modal force, in which case they become aux- 
iliary verbs. The old presents are obsolete. New weak imperfects are 
formed. 

^^vid, see. Parent Speech, perfect vi'Vaid'{m)a, plur. vi-vid-masi (§ 166). 



Sanskrit 


Greek. 


T^tin. 


Gothic. 


0. Saxon. 


Ang.-Sax. 


0. Norse. 


v6'd-a 


fol^-a 


vid-i 


vait 


W^t 


pat 


veit 


v^'t-tha 


poiff-^a . 


vid-is-ti 


vais-^ 


W^8-« 


pas-t 


veiz-< 


v6'd^ 


Foi^-c 


vid-i-t 


vait 


W^t 


pat 


veit 


vid-ma 


\i(j'iiiv 


vid-i-mus 


vit-tM» 


wit-«-n 


pU-o-n 


vit-iM» 


vid-4 


FiV-re 


vid-is-tis 


vit-ii-^ 


wit-fM» 


pit-o^ 


\UrU-d 


vid-i'ifl 


^ut-dai 


vld-€r-unt 


vit-M-»» 


wit-u-n 


pit-o^ 


vit-tt 



O.H.German has weiz, weiz-t, weiz, plur. wiz-a-mes, wiz-u-t, wiz-u-n. 
The other forms use the vowel of ablaut which appears in the plural of the 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 113 

new present. It may be varied by umlaut, or other assimilation. The per- 
sonal endings have all the variation mentioned in ^^ 165, 166, 170 : mag-um, 
'Un, -on, -en, -e, -an ; meahtes. In canst, gemanst, dhst, -t is strengthened 
to -St (^^ 50 ; 40, 1). The grammars give t/nne, cunne, durre, purfe, age, 
duge as regular indie, pres. sing. 2d ; but their examples are subjunctive. 

First Conjugation. — V^J 

megan, heneohan, innan, cinnan, ge-minan, scelan, deorran <C deorsan (Goth, dair- 

san), peorfan, not found. 
Indicative Sing. 
p let & 3d. 2d. Flur. Subjunctive. Imperat Infin. Fart. 

/xx^j*99*2oo) mdgon (x) (u) ; m&g-e,-en; ; mag-an(u); 

Imperf. meah-ie (i) , meah-ton (i) ; ^te , -ten ; am strong, (may), <have grown 

Pres. (^199). he-neah, ; be-nugon; benug-e,'en; ; henuganf; 

Imperf. he-noh-te, -ton (^ 211) ; -te, -ten ; hold and use<have come to 

Pres. (^201). on (o), ; unnon; unne,-en; ; unn-an; (ffeyutm-en; 

Imperf. M-flfe,-rfon (Goth. /irregular), §37; -de, -den; favor<have given. 

Pres. (§201). can (o), canst (o) ; cunnon ; cunne, -en ; ; cunn-an ; ; 

Imperf. cu-de, -don (Goth. ]cunpa),^Zl', -de, -den; know<have got. cude. 

Pres. (§201). ge-man(o),-manst; -mnnon; -e,-en; gemun,'ad; gemun-an; ; 

Imperf. ge-munde, -don ; -de, -den; reinembcr<haye called to mind. 

( sctil^e en ^ 
Pres. (§203). 8c(e)al(8cel),8c(e)aU;scid'On(eo)] < . ' V V * sculan; ; 

Imperf. sc{e)ol-de (to), -don ; -de, -den; Bhall<ouglit<have got in debt. 

Pres. (§ 204). d{e)ar, d(e)arst ; durr-on ; -e, -en (y) ; ; durran ; ; 

Imperf. i dors-te, -ton (Goth, daurs-ta) ; -te, -ten; dare<have fought. 

Pres. (§204). J>{e)arf, J>(e)arf-t ; purf-on; purf^-enQ/); ; purf-an; ; 

Imperf. porf-te, -ton ; -te, -ten ; need< have worked (opus est). 

Second Conjugation (§205). — Vi; t^an, not found,/>i7an, § 205. 

Pres.... dh,dhst; agon; dg-e,-en; ; dgan,-ne; dgende; 

Imperf.. dh-te, -ton; -te, -ten; own<have earned or taken. 

ndh=:{ne'\-dK), &c., not own. 

Pres. ... pdt, pdst {&) ; piton ; pit-e, -en ; pit-e, -ad; pitan(ffyne; piten, -de ; 

Cpis-se,-son,^ ^^ ^^^ 
Imperf.. pis'te(y), -ton; < §§36,3; 35,V J ' ' } know<have seen. 



Cpis-se,-son,^ 
; §§36,3;35, |j^;^;;^.| 
LB,pestan; J . ' ' 



Pres. ... ndt(=ine-\-pdt),nyton(e); nyt-e,-en; ; nitaniy); nyten,'de; 

Imperf,. nyste,ni/sse; ni/ston(&c.); not know. 

Third Conjugation (§ 206). — -^u; dugan not found. 

Pres.... dedh(g), ; dugon; dug-e,-en; ; dugan; dugende; 

Imperf.. doh-te, -ton (§211); -te, -ten ; is fit<has grown. 

II 



114 IRUEGULAU VERBS. 

Fourth Conjugation (^ 207). — V^i matan not found. 

Indicative Sing. 

l8t&3d. 2d. riur. ^.nh). Imp. Infin. Part. 

Pres. ... mot, most; moton; mot-e,-cn; ; motan ; 



Imperf.. mos-te, -ton (^ 36, 3) ; -te, -ten ; is meet<has met. 

Grimm takes beo, be, for a prasteritive present from a buan, to dwell, of 
the Fifth Conjugation. 

From an imperfect subjunctive of the Second Conjugation (Goth. viljau<i 
V vil, inflected like nemjauy ^171) arise 

Fiea, ... pille, pilt ; pillad(y)\ piU-e,-en; -Ct-act; pill-an; -ende; 
Imperf.. pol-de, -don (Goth, vtlda) ; -de, -den ; will<^have wished. 

Pres.... neUe,neIt; nellad(i/ji); -e, -en; -e^-ad; -an; -ende; 

Imperf.. nol-de, -don, &c. ne+pille, will not. 

pi'^po, assimilation (^ 35, 2, a) ; i>c, a-umlaut ; pi'^y, ^^ 32,23 ; //>/. 

213. — II. Verbs without Connecting Vowel (Relics of Sanskrit 2d 
Class, ^ 158) : 

(1.) The common forms of Iho substantive verb arc from three roots: 
-y/ as, -y/ hhu, -y/ vas, 

(^•/ Sanskrit Greek. Latin. Gothic O. Saxon. Anglo-Saxon. O.Kone. 

Stem, at*, s ca cs, s is, s is, s is, ir, s ; ar er 

SiKo.— 1. ds-mi el-/M*>^<r-/i< •s-u-m i-m<is-in eo-m ea-m e-m<er-m 

2. fis-(s}i la-ait et es- Is- ear-t er-t 

3. fia-tl la-T< es-t is-t is-t is- er- 

Plub.— 1. •s-mas la-ixiv •s-n-mus •s-ind •8-ind(on) ear-on er-n-m 

2. •s-th& ha-re cs-tis 's-ind •s-ind(on) ear-on er-u-^ 

3. •s-dnti t-tt<r/, c-ial *s-uut 's-ind *8-ind(un) ♦8-ind(on) ear-on er-u 

As^s, compensation, gravitation (§§ 37, 38); as ^is, precession (§ 38); 
y5<w, bad spelling ; 5>r, shifting (^ 41, 3, h) ; t>m> {eorrny^ eom, arm^ 
(earm) earn, breaking (^ 33); second person -s and -t (^ 165); nt'^nd, 
shifting (^ 19), nt is often found. Seond-on, -un {ie, y), u-umlaut ? (§ 32) ; 
-on in earon (O. Norse cr-u-m) (^ 166, a) ; in sind-on, a double plural through 
conformation (§ 40) ; aron, caron, are rare in West Saxon. 

The subjunctive (Sansk. *s-jd-m, Greek i^-ltj-v, Lat. *s-ie-m^sm, Goth. 
*s-ija-u, O. H. Ger., 0. Sax., Ang.-Sax. *s-t, O. Norse *s-e) is inflected 
like the imperfect given in ^ 171. Anglo-Saxon has also si^sig (dissim- 
ilated gemination, § 27)>5ie, seo (a peculiar progression, § 25)>5y (bad 
spelling); so plur. sin, sien, seon, syn. The subjunctive often has the force 
» of an imperative, and is given as the imperative in -^Ifric's grammar. 

(b.) "v/ bhu, be. Sansk. bhav-dmi, Greek 0u-w, Lat. fu-i, correspond in 
form to Goth, bdu-an, Ang.-Sax. bu-an, dwell. From the same root are 
found forms without a connecting Towel in Ang.-Sax., 0. Sax., 0. H. Ger. 
In O. Sax. are only biu-m, bi-st; in 0. H. Ger. pi-m, pi-s, — , plur. pi-rumes, 
pt-rut, pi-run {r<^s<C\/as). Ang.-Sax. has be6-(m) (io), bi-st (y), bi-d (y), 
plur. beod (io), and a present subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, with the 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 115 

common endings ; eo>^>y>t, umlaut, precession, and shifting (^^ 32, 38, 
41). Sing. 3d heod occuis (conformation). 

(c.) ^vas'^vis (ablaut) is inflected in the First Conjugation, ^^ 199, 197, 
but the present indicative forms are so rare that they are not given in the 
granmiars. 

Paradig&is for Practical Use (pp. 84, 90, 91). 
Present : 

Sing. — indicative. Subjunctive. Imperative. Infinitive. Participle. 

ic eom, be6(m) ; st, beo, pese ; 

pu eart, hist ; st, beo, pese ; beo, pes ; 

he is, bid; st, beo, pese; beon, 

Plur. — or pesende. 

pe sind{pn),be6d; sin, beon, pesen ; pesan; 

ge sind(on), beod; sin, beon, pesen ; beod, pesad; 

hi sind{on), beod ; sin, beon, pesen ; 

Imperfect : 
Sing. — 

ic pxs ; p&re ; 

pu p&re ; p&re ; 

hepxs; p&re; ge-pesen. 

Plur.— * ' 

pe, ge, hi p&ron ; p&ren ; 

The negative ne oflen unites with forms beginning with a vowel or p : 
neom = we + eom ; nis ; nsss = ne -\-pxs, p. p. nasrende <[ ne paerende, etc. 

(2.) -v/ dha, place : Sansk. da-dhd-mi, Greek ri-Bti-ni, Goth. — , 0. Sax. 
do-n, O. H. Ger. tuo-n, do. Anglo-Saxon imperfect from reduplicated theme 
dad; a>» (ablaut, § 199) '^y^i, irregular weakening. § 168. 

Indicative Sing. Flur. Subj. Imperat. Infin. Participle. 

Pres. .. do, de-st, de-d ; do-d; d6,'n; d6,-d; do-n; do-nde. 

Imperf. did-e{y),'est,-e; 'On{x)\ -c(a?), n; d6-n,de'n. 

(3.) 'V ga, go : Sansk. g^i-gd-mi, Greek pi-Ptj-fu, Goth, gaggan, 0. Sax. 
gd-n, O. H. Ger. ge-n. Imperfect from -y/* (Sansk. e'-mi, Greek il-iu, Lat. 
i-re, go, § 158, a)>Goth. i-ddja, weak form strengthened. 

Fxes. ., gd, g&'St,g&-d; gad; gd,'n; gd,-d; gd-n; 

Imperf. e6'de,-dest,-de; -don (^37); ge-gd-n. 

From the same root are the nasalized forms gangan, imperf. geong, geng, 
gieng (^ 208, b) ; geongan (^ 201) ; and gengan, imperf. gengde. 

214. Reduplicate Presents (Relics of Sanskrit 3d Class, ^ 158): 
gangan <i'\/ ga> ga-gd-mi, go (^ 213) ; so hangan, standan, § 216). 

215. Stems in -ia of strong verbs (Relics of Sanskrit 4th Class, ^ 158) : 
fricge, inquire, etc. (§ 199) ; sperie, swear, etc. (^ 207, d). 



X16 IRREGULAU VERBS. 

210. Stems with n inserted (Relics of Sanskrit 7th Class, ^ 158) : 
f6<fdhc>(Jd(n)gan)jfenff, etc., catch (^ 208, i). 
ga(n)gan<ga-ga, go (^ 214). 
h6<hdhe>(hd(n)gan), hcng, etc., hang (^ 208, i). 
sta{n)dan, stod, etc. (^ 207, c). 

hrc(r^gan^ brohte, bring ; pe{ti)can, pohte^ think ; Py(n)can, puhte, seem 
(^^209,c; 211). 

217. Stem in '^-{■na (Relic of Sanskrit 9th Class): frignan, ask 
(^ 202), shows itself of this formation in Gothic, but is consolidated in An- 
glo-Saxon. 

218. Relics of Reduplication (^159,6): hdtan, cbM^ heht ; Idcan, 
leap, leolc (^208,2) ; l&ian, let, leort; ondr&dan^ dread, ondreord; r&dan, 
rede, reord (^ 208, 4) ; and see ^ 214. 

219. Relic of Passive : hdtan, call, is called (^ 208,2) ; passive indie, 
prcs. sing. 1, hdt-te (&), I am called ; 3, hdt-te, he is called. Imperf. sing. 
1, 3, hdt'te ; plar. hdt-ton. Hdtte = Gothic haitada : -te, Goth, -da (baira- 
da)y Greek -rai (^ipc-rai), Sansk. -te (^Aara-/eX ta-ti > Parent Speech ^tai 
(bhara-tai). Compare § 163 : ai'^a'^e, precession, § 38; ^>rf, shifting, 
^ 19 ; td'^tt, assimilation, ^ 35, B, 

220. Verbs with Mixed Ablaut : drepan, strike, p. p. drepen and 
dropen (^ 199) ; bregdan, braid (^ 202) ; spelgan, swallow (^ 203) ; stharii 
seon, strain ; tihan, teon, accuse ; J>ihan, peon, grow ; pnhan, preon, cover 
(^^ 205, 206) ; but these eight last should be treated as separate verbs. 

221. Verbs with Mixed Strong and Weak Forms : finde, find, im- 
perf. fand and funde (^ 201) ; biian^ inhabit ; imperf. bu-de ; p. p. gebu-n ; 
buian, bugian, bupian are other variations ; cidan, chide, cad, cidde. 

222. Verbs with Mixed Weak Forms in -ia and 6 (§^ 160; 165, d; 
183). The same theme often has forms from both stems ; but they are best 
given under different verbs : ^ 

Theme /i/has imperfects lif-de «stem lifia) and lifo-de (y, eo) «stem 
lifo). Hence two verbs, libban<^lifian by compensative gemination (§ 188, 
b), and lifian like lufian (^ 183). 

With libban are put indie, pres. (libbe, plur. libbad, not in Grein) imperf. 
lifde, lifdon. 

With lifian, pres. lif{i)ge, leofast, lifdd {eo, y), plur. lif-iad (-igad, -gad, 
-igead) ; imperative leofa; p. p. lifiende ; imperf. lifode (y, eo). The % of 
ia has its usual variations in the infinitive and participle (ig, ige, ge, g), 
^ 175 ; i^eo, a-umlaut, ^ 32. 

Habban (as), have, <^hafian, has, besides full forms from -ia, indie, sing. 1 
haf-a, -o, 'U; 2, haf-ast; 3, haf-ad; imperative haf-a. For other forms, 
see pages 84, 85, 86. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 117 

Secgan, say (^ 209), has sagast, sagad, saga to put with a. sagian; so 
iellan and talian, tell (^ 209) ; hycgan and hogian^ mind (^211), etc. 

223. Weak Verbs with Ruckumlaut : bycge, buy, JaA^c, etc. (^ 211). 

224. Forms disguised by ecthlipsis and the like. 

(a.) Ecthlipsis of g, h, ox p: 

bregdan'^ brede, hnAd ; stregdan^ strede, strow; frignan^frine^ 
ask, etc., vowel e, % kept short by ablaut (^ 202) ; lecgan, lay, im- 
perf. legde^lede ; ssegde'^s^de, said, etc. (^ 209); spigian, be si- 
lent, sptgacf^ spiad, etc. ; bogan [> 5o(f, boasts. 
f6<ifdhe, catch; h6<C.hdhei hang, etc. (^ 208, b)\ se6<isihe, etc. 

(^ 205) ; 'and many others, strong and weak. 
gerpan {ie, y, i, ea, asi), equip ; imperf. gyrede, p. p. gegyrped, gyred, 
serpan (y), contrive ; indie, pres. plur. syrpad, syrepad; imperf. syr^ 
p{e)de, syr(e)de {e) ; p. p. gesyrped, 
{b.) DissiMiLATED GEMINATION : p^up'^cp (§ 117) ; (i '!>igy> ige, 
regular, § 183 ) ; syrepad < syrpan, contrive ; gefrsstepod < gefrastpian, 
adorn. Compare poruhte <iporhte <C^pyrcan^ work (§ 211). 

(c.) Assimilation: po^u; pi'^u; ^peran, weld, p.p. gepporen^ge- 
Jmren (^ 200) ; spigian (y), be silent, imperf. sugode, sptgode (^ 224, a), 

(d,) Shifting of/,/? to u: begrauen<Cbegrafen<^grafen, grave (^207); 
bi'pdune<ipdpen<^pdpan, blow (^ 208, 2). 

(e.) Interchange of g, i, and/>.* (A and g regular (^^ 197, 118)) ; buian, 
bugian, bupian, inhabit (^ 221) ; herian, herig{e)an, herpan (y), blaspheme ; 
and many more. For seon, see, seah^ s^gon, {ge)sepeny ^ 197. 

(/.) Metathesis : frignan^fringan, ask (^^ 201, 202) ; gepruenK^ge- 
pperen, weld (^ 200), etc. 

225. Northumbrian. — Inflection. — Indie, pres. sing. : 1, -o; 2, 
-est; 3,-ed^-es; p\\iT. -ad^-as. Subjunctive; sing. -g; plur. -cn>-e. 
Infinitive : -an (rare) > -a > -« > -e. Imperfect plur. -wn, -on drops n be- 
fore a subject woe (pe), we, or ^> (ge), ye, and -w, -o may go to e or i. 

Variation. — The vowels of ablaut and other variation may change as in 
^ 26. The first form of ablaut (^^ 199, 200) has present ea, eo ; imperf. 
sing, le, oe, e ; plur. oe, e. The contracted imperfects (^ 208) have e, ei, 
ea. Weak verbs with stem -ia (^ 160) in the present drop i with compensa- 
tive gemination (^ 188, b). Stem e remains oflen in the imperfect, and ofl- 
enest in the p. p., except in verbs having ruckumlaut (^ 189, d). Stem 6 
goes to d. Participle pres. often in -and. 
Irregular Verbs. — (For first person -m, see ^ 165, a) : 

Wb^a = Ang.-Sax. pesan: Pres. indie. 1, am, eom ; 2, ard; 3, is; 
plur. 07*071, sind, sindon. Subjunctive, ste, Pres. indie. 1, bium 
(om); 2, bist; 3, bid; plur. bidon. Imperf. toass ; plur. woerun, 
Gaa = Ang.-Sax. gdn, go : Pres. indie. 1, g& (geongo) ; 2, g^s; 3, 
g^; plur. ^aotf (gad). Imperf. eade. 



118 IRREGULAR VERBS.— DERIVATION. 

D6A=Ang.-Sax. </on, do : Pres. indie. 1, dom (do) ; 2, does; 3, doed; 

plur. doad (doed). Subj. do. Imperf. dyde, 
Wa//a =Ang. -Sax. pillan, will : Pres. indie. 1, willo ; 2, wilt; 3, toil ; 

plur. wallad, Imporf. walde. Other forms generally agree with the 

West Saxon. 

226. Weatherino or Inflection Endings. — (For variation of root 

TOwel, see ^^ 199-211) : 

Indicative Present. 



Aug. -Sax. 
& W. 


LayamoD. Ormulain. 
aw. 8. & W. 


Chanoer. 
&&W. 


Bhakespean. 
&&W. 


Snro.'l. e ie 


e 


ie e 


^,— 


— 


2. est Sst 

3. ed(p) id(p) 

Plur.— ad(p)iad(p) 


est est esst 
ed(p) ed(p) epp 
ed(p) ied(p) enn 


est 

ethj es 

ethf en, e 


est 
ethj s 






Imperfect. 






Soro.—l. — e 


— 


e — e 


— e,— 


— 


2. e est 


e 


est e est, e 


e, — , est est 


est 


3. — e 


— 


e — e 


— c,— 


— 


Plur.— on on 


en 


en enn enn 


en, c, — en, c, - 


- — 



Subjunctive sing, e, plur. en, e, stands to Chaucer, is gone in Shakespeare. 
Imperative sing, e, 3, plur. ed, ad, weathers like the indicative. 
Infinitive an, Layamon en, Ormulum enn, Chaucer en, e, — , Shakesp. — . 
Participle present ende ^ Layamon ende, inde, inge, Chaucer end, and, 

yng, Shakespeare ing, conforming with verbal nouns. in tn^<Ang.-Sax. 

ung,ing. 
Participle past c» > n ; od^ad^ ed. The prefix ge- > Layamon i- is 

rare in Ormulum ; Chaucer often uses t- or y-, but with this participle 

only ; Shakespeare ridicules it. 



VIL DERIVATION. 



227. Word stems are made from roots and radicles (§§ 56, 67). 
The Parent Speech made stems by suffixing a radicle to a root or 
stem, (2) by change of a root vowel (progression), (3) by redupli- 
cation, (4) by combining stems. 

(a.) The last class are called compound, the others simple. 

{b.) Words having stems formed from verb stems are called verbals; from 
noun stems, denominatives. 

(c.) The radicle makes more definite the indefinite notion of a root by in- 
dicating a particular relation in which it is to be conceived. It often brings 
it under some one o(the parts of speech. 

The vowel change has a similar force 83rmbolically. 



DERIVATION. 119 

Composition or coalescence combines two notions. 

(d.) Certain notional stems used as the latter part of compounds lose their 
notional force, and become in effect relational suffixes. It is not easy al- 
ways to separate these from suffixes springing directly from radicles. 

228. Suffixes from Radicles (§ 66). 

The suffixes of the Anglo-Saxon nominative or present are at the lefl. 
Small letters above the line have dropped. Latin stems in o- are of the 
second declension, and imply a nominative in -us, -urn, or -er (^ 70,). 

Suffix. 
1. Vowels, Sanskrit Greek. Latin. Gotliic. Anglo-Saxon. 

— *< a : Jug^, yoke, VJuff, join ; ^vy-o-v ; jug-o- / juh-^s ; iuk^, 

e<a(verb): .... dAar-i-mt, I bear ; ^kp-to; /er-o; hair-a; her-e, 

— *<i: aA-f, snake, -/cr^A, sin; tX't-s; angu-is; | \ \cpejif. 

_u<u. j^-"'» ^^ck, Vak, to I ^^'. f ac-M-«, | Aanrf-w, V | AammF, 

( be sharp; J ' (needle; I Aan^A, catch;! hand. 

e<ja: rnddh-ja, middle; fikaffovKfu^-jO'V ; med-io-; mtd-fi^; midd<Cmide, 

Si^ < jan : Lat. leff-ion-iSf legion ; Goth, maurthr-ja^, murderer ; Ang.-Sax. murdr-cfl. 



_i ^ . » . ( vid-Jaj wit, V vid, see ; | oaaa<.f6K'ja, ( itirsid-ia, sit^ihafid-ij ( bend*^ 

^'* Kdev4\ goddess ; 1 voice, Vvok; \ ting in wait; | /Jan^f; 1 bond. 

ie, 6 < aja in verb stems, see § 160. 

t iraid-io-Vf little ) ^ tt p , • ( ^^ffd-en^ 

I child; ; { maid. 

2. Semi-vowels, 

p*(u, o)<va:.. l'-»a, going, "v/t, go; at-fwv, time; /B-ro-; cd-vf'-s; d-jp^. 

pu< vu, pi (u, o) ) __ J far-bu {-pu), color ; 

<vja: 3 ( 6ea({-tf, battle. 

xn*<ma: j^ ',!•*'. * f ^tjo-fto-c, hot; ybr-mo-; var-m^ ; pear-vfl. 

V radiaie ; / 

n ^ {(J)na-man, name, ] , , ^ -., n n 

ma" < man: ••••)/ J . r yvw-^uov-oc ; (jgyno-men; na-(no(-}»an); na^mar. 

For ma, ra, as suffixes of comparison, see §§ 123, 126. 
„ „ (a/-ra, field, -/g^, go; dy-po-g; ag-ro-f ah-r^s; aic4e)r^, 

' ^ Uid-ra, seat, -/^oi,—; tS-pa-y 8eUa(d>l); ni4<^-8,' «e«<c)?« 

Here put ei^^i*, or^i\ ur^i*, er-e{<'Jd), al<*i\ cZ«>», ol^\ «/»>»> eUi<-jd), 

, . ^ jGr. (-i;po+to), Lat. (-ari+io), Goth, (-ar+ja), (Bopp gives -ar-jaKtar-ja). 
^ J • •• \Lat. l%br-dr4o-(iu$'), book-man ; Goth. bSk-ar-ei^j Ang.-Sax. hdc-er-e, O.H.G. 

huochrer-% (dri). 

jj ^ . rM<i-a», water, I rfp-€j/-oc, smooth ; f|7ec^€n, comb; f «rf-^4iw), ( /^a^f-a". 
' I -/roi, wet. I eic-di/-oi^, likeness ;( e(i-&n-», eater ; 1 water. ipseUe-^^, 

For more of -auj see §§ 95, 105, a; for infinitive -ana, p. p. -no, § 175. 



120 DERIVATION. 

Contlmted. SuuHalU . Greek. Utin. Gothle. Adk..8u. 

i V «vap, Bleep ; 3 ( top-no-^ ; (bairn; ( sleep. 

^^ Ifruit-bearing; I cedarn; \ ashen; ( BUvern; J "tf »^«» • 

n*<m: < "^ , > u»-i/i-i^, wrath ; m-iu^ fire; -J , ' ^ s,.I 

^ i Va^/ 3'^' "•' ' ^''^ ' ( victuals; I Vii/lUve. 

|«i-ntt, son, ) («-««-#, ) 
{;/«*, bear; } Vr'^'C* "tool ; ma^,hand;| ^^^ » } «««, aon. 



nu: 



en"«<a-nj 



I draswife, ( q„een(w<vj); ( king; ( goddess; ) «*^^^- 

^ ^ . ( Lat (exter-nd), extrdneo-, belonging to ( 0. H. Ger. /ist-r-StiL \ . 
eme<ar.a.nja:| that ex^; (^, §§ 122, 6; 129, 2); \ eastern; | «^'«-^. 

3. Dentals, 

fFor p. p. -to, Goth, -do, -tha, § 175, 6; for 'ta-rOf -ta-ma, -4040 in compar- 
**• I ison, §126. 

Here belong Ang.-Sax. -4^ {dd<^, Od^, ndd^, -d^ (pd^, t«i«, ed% -49 (pt<^, efi), 

. r|)i-^ir, father, ) ;ra-rip-oc; pa-ter; f Order; faed-er. 

Jer, der, dl* < I V^o,feed; J -/na, Gr. v£, Lat. ii€>(needle) nl-eWa; ii*^». 

* **** IftAra -tor, brother ; ^pa'-rop-oc ; fr&4er; hr&4har; brMor, 

eatre^ < as-ta-ra c Latin ««r(J-a»«ro-, deafish; ) . ., _ ./«.*,,, 

.i N i-i? u '. J ^4. 4. f Ang.-Sax. 6iBc-M<r-c-»», female baker. 

(+an): ( French poc^cM^c, petty poet ; ; ' 

.rfW.ft«», stand, /F«<r-rv, city; (f^"^' <■*:*■• i'^f^' i*^' 
' ' ^ ' ''^* I etc.); («&ttA-/M-«; f thought 

• • • 

nea^* (nis^*, nys^^) ) f ffudJi-nassuSf f gdd^naP^^ 

<na+a8+ta: 3 ( priest-hood; (goodness, 

ende<ant: § 175, 3. 

r \ . ' JGoth. 'tzoLf O.H.G. -tVo, A.-S. •eru'^'ru in plurals wg-ru^ egg$^ etc. (§82, a). 

els* ) ^ ( al +sa ) 0. H. G. faot-Ual^, fodder ; 0. Norse foedrsh / Ang.-Sax. fed-eh^, -€8/«. 
eal* J ( as+la ) 0. H. G. ra;t-is(d% riddle ; Swedish ned-else ; Ang.-Sax. r&d-ekf^, 

4. Gutturals . 

ih* iga<ka: .. /^««^^«-^ i Xoyt-icd-f, of ( 6c»*-co-, of ( gtU-a^^, ]grM4-g^. 
* * " vfrom/Sint^M; ( logos; \ war; I greedy; ) 

Here put h*, oc*> \ uc*> ^ 

,, . o /% TT ^ . . » . X $ steina-ha. ( stsBn4k4^, 

iht*: O.H.Ger.«fci»-oH stony; i , * i ^ ' 

' "^ ( stony ; ( ston-y. 



SUFFIXES.— QUASI-SUFFIXES. 121 

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Ang.-Sax. 

i8Q-<^iWKa. (UtdecliUd(irai^-); 1 littleplate; f childisli; ] ^*^^- 



Syr-iscO'f 



EngUisc^f 



, a Syrian; / \ English. 

iiig*<i(n)g*: 0. H. G. C(/i/-«nc^, noble-man ; A.-Svlx, sedel-ing^ ; EUs-ing^, 

son of Elisha. 

1-ing* : 0. H. G. junki'linc^, a youth ; A.-Sax. geong-ling^ <igeong, 

young. 

• • • • 

ung\ ing^: 0. H. G. wam-ungaj warning ; A.-Sax. peam-ung^ (-tw^"*) 

(peam-ian, to warn). 

inde : Lat. domu-n-cu-lo, little house {domo-) ; 0. H. G. esil-inchilin^ 

little ass; A.-Sax. hus-incle, little house. 

For suffixes of pronouns and numerals, see ^^ 130-140 ; for those of com- 
parison, ^^ 122-129. The endings of adverbs are mostly from case-endings. 

229. QUASI-SUFFIXES FEOM NOTIONAL StEMS. 

aem, enii house; Goth, razn, O.Norse rann: slebp-ern^ sleeping-room; 
hors-ern, stable. Often mixed with Latin radicle suffix -em : Lat. lat- 
ern-a, lucema, A; -Sax. hldc-ern^ lant-ern ; Lat. tab-ema, A.-Sax. gsest- 
erriy tav-ern ; Lat. career^ A.-Sax. carc-ernj prison ; A.-Sax. cpeart-errif 
quarters. 

b^re, bearing ; Lat. -ferus, 0. H. G. pari, 0. Nor. h&r : lusUh&re, lust-y, 
joyous. 

cund, kind ; Gr. -yiv-YiQ, Lat. -genaj Goth, kunds, 0. H. G. chund: deofol- 
cundj devil-ish ; god-cund, god-like. 

craeft, craft; 0. Sax. -kraft, 0. H. G. 'chraft: stsef- crseft, (letter -craft) 
grammar. 

cyn, kind ; Lat. gen-us, Goth, kuni, 0. Sax. kunni, 0. Nor. kynni, 0. H. 
G. chunni : treop-cyn^ (tree-kind) wood ; man-cyn, man-kind. 

daeg, day ; Goth, dags, 0. Sax. dag, 0. Nor. dagr, 0. H. G. tac : gedr-dwg, 
(yore-days) formerly. 

d6m, judgment, authority, dominion ; 0. Nor. -domr, 0. H. G. -tuom, Ger. 
-thum : cyning-dom, kingdom. 

faest, fast ; 0. Nor. -fastr, M. H. G. "Veste, Ger. -fest : dr-fsest, honorable ; 
st&de-fasstj stead-fast. 

feald, fold ; Goth, faiths, 0. Nor. -faldr, 0. H. G. -fait : mxnig-feald, 
manifold. 

ftd, full ; Goth, fulls, 0. Sax. -ful, 0. Nor. -fullr, 0. H. G. -fol : dr-ful, 
honorable. Sansk. pur, Gr. trXk-taq, Lat. ple-nus. 

Md, character, state, rank; 0. H. G. -heit: hrodor-had, brother - hood ; 
m^den-hdd, maiden-head. 



122 QUASI-SUFFDlES.— ABLAUT. 

heard, hard ; Goth, hard-u-s^ 0. Nor. -hardrj 0. II. G. -harty 0. French 
-ard: nucgen'heard, (might-hard) very mighty; drunk-ard; bragg-art. 

lAo, sport, gi(t ; Goth, laiks, 0. Nor. leikr, 0. H.G. -leih: feoht4aCy fight ; 
0. Eng. lovt'laiky love ; know-ledgo ; ped-lac^ wcd-lock. 

leAs, loose from ; Goth. 4aus, 0. Sax. -los^ 0. Nor. ''Iau3y 0. H. G. -laosy 
'I6s: ar-leaSf (honor-less) dishonorable; god'leds, godAeaa, 

lio, like ; Goth, -leiks, 0. Nor. -Itkr, -legr, 0. H. G. Mh : ar-lic, (honor-like) 
honorable ; god-tic, god-ly. Sansk. -drk. Or. -Xur, Lat. -He, 

man, man ; Goth, mansy 0. Sax. -many 0. Nor. 'Tnadr, 0. H. G. -man; 
gleo-mariy glee-man ; ptf-man, wo-man. 

m^l, time ; Goth, -me/, 0. Sax. -mahaly 0. Nor. 'tnaly 0. H. G. -mahal, 
mal{i): urac/crn-m^/, 'noon-time ; «/ycce-mi8/tim, piece-meal. 

rsbden (Lat. ratio), mode, fashion : freond'V&deny friend-ship ; nU^g-r^eny 
kind-red. 

• 

red, r^d, counsel, condition ; 0. N. -rddy 0. H.G. -rat: hUredy (hive-con- 
dition) family. 

rice, prince ; Goth, -reiks, O. Nor. rekr, 0. H. G. -riA, Sansk. rd'g'an, Lat 
rex : stge-ricey victorious. (2) =:d6my cyne-ricey kingdom. 

JBcealt, shape, manner ; O. Sax. -scafty 0. H. G. (10th centary) scafL 
BCipe (y), shape, manner ; 0. Sax. -scepiy 0. Nor. scapr, 0. H. G. scaf: 
freond-scipey friend-ship ; hyge-sceafty mind-state ; land'Sceap (scipe), 
land-scape (-skip). 

smid, smith; 0. Nor. -smidry O.H.G. -smid: ptg-smidy warrior; Goth. -a. 

Btsef, staff; 0. Nor. -stafry O. H. G. -stop : fdcen-stspfy wickedness; dr- 
stxfy honor. 

Btixn, same, like ; 0. Nor. -samTy 0. H. G. -sam : pyn-sumy winsome, joyous. 

t^me (y) = stun : luf-tymcy lovely ; hefig-tymey troublesome ; Ppeorh-temey 
perverse. 

pare, men ; Goth, vair, 0. Sax. wer :■ Rom-parcy Romans. Sansk. vtr-a-Sy 
Gr. ijp-iogy Lat. vir. 

peard, becoming, tending to; Goth. 'Vairthsy O.H.G. -werty -wart: ham" 
peardy home- ward. Sansk. vfty Lat. vert-ere. 

pis, wise ; 0. Sax. -wisi; O. Nor. -vis; M. H. G. wise: riht-pisy (wise as 
to rights) righteous. V'^^j § 212. 

230. New Stems from Vaeiatiok op Root Vowel. 

Ablaut.— rThe vowel of the present denotes the act or an object suited to 
act ; those of the past denote resulty the plural being more abstract. But in 
many derivatives this force is lost. 

First Conjugation, (c(eo); »(efl); ^(a); e; §199): Jeran (^eoran), bear, 
^heordy birth ; herCy barley ; hearriy child ; h&ry bier, (i ; a, w ; u; § 201) : 
singan, singy^ sang, song, song ; grindan, grind, '^grund, ground. 



UMLAUT.— FORMATION OF NOUNS. 123 

Second Conjugation, (i; a, i ; t ; ^ 205) : drtfan, drive, > drdf, drove ; 
bttan, bite, ]> bit, bit ; biter ^ bitter ; ^a^, bait. 

Third Conjugation, (eo {u) ; edy u; o; § 206) : beogauy bend, > JeaA, ring ; 
boga^ bow ; teohan, tug, ]> <eam, team ; toga^ duke ; ^yA/, course. 

Fourth Conjugation, (a (ea); o, o; fl(ea); §207): ^ra/an, grave, >^ip/', 
grave ; ^q/*, ditch ; sceapan, shape, > scop, shaper, poet. 

Umlaut. — The same stem may occur with and without umlaut or break- 
ing, but this variation does not make a new word, though it may be the be- 
ginning of bifurcation (§ 40, 3). Since the ablaut became irregular (§ 199) 
new words have been formed in large numbers by irregular bifurcation. 

Suffixes aeeanged accoeding to theie Use. 

Formation of Substantives, 

231. Indefinite Noun-signs: u<a, — *<f, — *</«, u, — ^<a, e< 
ja, a<an, e<ian. 

These combine with the case-endings (§§ 69-95), and are abundantly used 
as secondary suffixes ; — * is found oftenest with names of actions and qual- 
ities, u with names of qualities, e and a with agents. 

g{f'^ (gif'^^^i give), gift. drinc^ {drinc-an^ drink), drink. 

d&d^ {don, do), deed. hird-e (Goth, haird-ei-s), bird. 

7>yn^* (O. Sax. tounnia), fun. han-a^ (^ obh, sing), cock. 

mag'U {mag-an, get), son. tung-e, -an, tongue. 

232. Agent. — Masculine a, end, ere, e<ija, V* (e/^, ol^, «/«), der, 

der, ter. 
Feminine e<an, en^^,e8tre, — <i, id, tsse (Lat. issa). 
Instruments and means : ela^, ele, el^, dl*, or^ (er^), 

(e)n«. 
Quasi-suffix, amid. 

dem-a (dem-an, deem), judge. myr-e, -an (mearh, horse), mare. 

dem-end (dem-an, deem), judge. fix-en, enne (fox), vixen. 

dem-ere (dem-an, deem), judge. sang-estre (sing-an, sing), songster. 

sang-ere {sing-an, sing), singer. fed-els {fed-an, feed), victuals. 

pin-e (V pin, love), friend. net-ele (V na, sew) 1 nettle. 

fore-rin-el {rinn-an, run), fore-run- set-l^, n. {sittan, sit), settle. 

ner. n^rf/* (-y/na, sew), needle. 

fx-der (y pa, feed), father. fod-or^ {fed-an, feed), fodder. 

bro-der (-y/bhar, support), brother, leof-en* {Ufan, live), victuals. 
speos-ter, f. {sva-su-tar, connected byg-els, bow ; ham-or^, hanmier. 

woman ; V an, bear). pig-smid (war-smith), warrior. 
abbud-tsse, abbess. 



124 



DEIUVATION.— SUBSTANTIVES. 



233. Action.— Masculine and Neuter t^ (pt<^^ tf/«)i *** («^» od^ nod)- 

Feminine ing*, ung*, 1*, lo^'* (ele, ole, tde). 
Quasi-suffix, lao. 

d'tU't {rU-aUf rise), resurrection. hern-ing {bcorn-ariy bum), burning. 



bxm-et (beorn-an, bum), burning. 
hunUad (hunt-ian, hunt), hunting. 
hunt'wt {huni'ian, hunt), hunting. 
hunt-nod {huni-iany hunt), hunting. 



bxni'Ung (beorn'Ony bum), burning. 

sping-eU ) (sjfing-an, scourge), scourg- 
sping'tle 3 ing. 
beadu4a(fl (fight-sport), fighting. 
ptf'ldcy marriage. 



234. Result. — Masculine m^ {em^, tim^), ma^, n**, d^<itUy t^<^M. 

Neuter n^. 



Feminine (e)n*. 
cpeal-m^ (cpell-any kill), death. 
pxS't-m^ {peax-an, wax), fruit. 
blo-ma^ (blop-an, blow), bloom. 
heof'Cn^ {hebb-any heave), heaven. 



dcd-d^ (\/ dau, die), death. 
ge-poh't^ {pinc'cny think), counsel. 
bear-n^ (ber-any bear), child. 
sel-en* {sell-any give), gift. 



235. Quality and objects named from it. — 

Feminine u (o, eo)y nes** (nw, nys)y (u)CtS d*, t*. 
Neuter d^y d^, t^, used instead of rf», <i*, /« when ge- or 

other prefix is used with an abstract. 
Masculine ing^'* 

Quasi-suffixes, craeft, cjn, ddm, h&d, man, r^d, rSbd- 
en, rice, sceaft, soeap, soipe, ataef 



h&t'U (hdty hot), heat. 
streng'Uf -o, -co, strength. 
ge-ltc-nes^^y like-ness. 
mild'heorUnes^^y mercy. 
streng-d^y strength. 
ge-cyn-d^y nature. 
pit'leds-t^y wit-lessness. 
gyme-lyS't*y heed-lessness. 
geog-ud^ (g€ong)y youth. 
ge-ping-d^y honor. 
ge-cyn-d^y nature. 
ge-pih't^ (peg-any weigh), weight. 
ssdel-ing^y noble-man. 



l&ce-crarft^y m. leech-craft. 
l&ce-cyn^y n. (leech-kind), doctors. 
l&ce-dom^y m. leech-craft. 
pU-dom {ptSy wise), wisdom. 
cUd-hdd^y m. child-hood. 
peop-hddy serf-dom. 
sud-many m. Southerner. 
hi-red\ f. (hive-state), family. 
freond-r&den^y f. friendship. 
hyge-sceafV'y f. (mind-state), thinking. 
land-sceapy n., -scipey m., land-scape, 
dr-stxf<^, m. honor. [-skip. 

btsceop-rice, n., bishopric. 



236. Diminutives : c («ca, oc^^f), 1 (/^ <(t)/fl), le < i/+an, ling, incle^^, 
k (questioning, ^ 56) and 1 (trilling) are suited to express diminution. 



DERIVAnOX.— ADJECTIVES. 125 

The Sanskrit diiui umi rc is k; Greek, to, 0k; Latio, /, c-l; GoUi.,O.H.G., 
/ most ; Low Genmn, k most. Angio-Saxon words in ucuj el, le are rel- 
ies ; ling is growing into use. The English uses ock, ling. 

hyU-uca^j boll-ock. geong4ing^, m. young-ling. 

cym-tl^j n. (conij eoxn), kernel. rap-incle, n. (rap, rope), stiing. 

me6p4e, £ (Goth, mart, Tirgin ; ma- cyc-eifi, n. {foc, cock), chicken, 

ri/o, litlle giri), giri. makgdrcifij n. (mxgd, maid), maiden. 

237. Patsostmics: lng^. 

JElfred ^delpvlf-ing^, Alfred son of ^thdwnlf. 

238. Gextius: e<ui, an, isc, ing^ (^ 101,2). 

Qoaa^^nfiix, pare. 

EngUe (^ 83), English. Englisc, adj., English. 

Got-an, Goths. Pyr-ing-aSj Th jzingians, descendants 

Ram-pare, Romans. of Thyr. 

239. Flack : en*, cne^. Thie : 

Qaasi-soflibc, em {sem), etc. (^ 101). . . daeg, ms^ 

tnidl-enf^j n. midst dam-emfl, n. {damj doom), jodgment- 

cyc-ene, f. (coc, eook), kitehen. hors-em, n. hoise-stable. piall. 

gedr-dsgj m. (jore-day), antiquity, undemrm^l, n. noon-time. 



ADJECTIVES. 

240. LcDEFDnTB ScPFixss combining with case-endings: — ^, ii<^a, 
— ', a<aii, e^an. 

Any adjective theme may hare stems in all these endings (^^ 103-114). 

241. CHAnACTEBisnc, connoting quality of the object denoted by the 

stem: iac 

Qaasi-snffixes, cand, lie (with noons). 

cild-isc (did, child), child-ish. pi/-lie (pif, woman), haTing the qoal- 

deofol-cund, (deril-kind) deril-irii. ities of a woman, womanly. 

(a.) Patrial isc also connotes origin from a place or stock : Roman-ise, 
Roman ; Landen4sc, Loodomsh ; Engl-isc, En^ish. 

242. FrrvESS or disposition for the act or state denoted by the theme : 
ol, or. 

Qoasi-soffixes, Ite, lie (with yerfas), sum, tyme, j^ 

jprfr-o/(jpr«c-aii,qieak),taIk-atiTe. bealo-fus, difyosed to bale, wicked: 
bit-^, 'tr {tnirOH^ bite), Intter. O. Nor. fms, O. H. G. fwms, ready. 



126 DERIVATION.— VERBS. 

forgifend-ltcy to be forgiven. luf-^um^ disposed to love. 

un-gesepen-ltc, (unseen-) invisible. lof-sum, worthy to be praised. 

un-gel^red-licy (unlearned-) unlearn- luf-tyme^ fitted for love, 

ed. riht-pU, knowing right, righteous. 

243. Fullness, connoting possession of an object denoted by the stem 
e<Cja, ig, ilit, ed. 

Quasi-suffixes, beere, fsest, fill, heard, le^. 

pijrd-e (peorctf worth), worth-y. pmstm-h&re (piBStnij fruit), fruit-ful. 

stdn-ig (start, stone), stony, abound- hlys-h&re (hlysa, fame), famous. 

ing in stones (^). dr-fxst (dr, honor), honorable. 

pel'ig (pela, wealth), rich. cear-ful {cearu, care), care-ful. 

stdn-ihtj stony (^). msegen-heard, might-y. 

ge-hyrn-ed (horn, horn), horned. cear-leds (eearu, care), careless. 

244. Material, (e)n^ : si^n-en (stdn, stone), made of stone. 

gyld-en (gold, gold), golden. 

245. Place, erne : sud-eme, southern ; nord-erne, northern. 

peard : sud-peard, southward ; nord-peard, northward. 

For Pronouns, see ^^ 130-137 ; comparatives and superl., ^^ 122-129. 
For Numeral -feald, -ode, -tig, etc., see §^ 139-148. 



VERBS. 

246. Strong Verb Suffixes : a, ia.<C ja (^^ 158, a; 916). 

These are suffixed to a root. . 

nfm-a-n, take ; sper-ia-n, swe^x ; sittan<^sit'ia'n, sit 

247. Weak Verb Suffixes: ia.<Caja, 6<C.aja (§ 160). 

(a.) aja is a secondary suffix = a -{-ja, a belonging to a simpler word. 
In aja > ia, a drops ; aja > ajd '^ ad^ 6, progression and contraction 
(^^ 38, 52). 

(h.) Variations : ia, iga, igea, ga, ea, a, ie, ige, ge, e, — ; 

6, a, a, u, e, precession and dissimilated gemination 
(^^38; 27,5). 

ner-ia-n, nerre-de, save ; infinitive ner-ia-n, ner-iga-n, ner-igea-n, ner- 
ga-n ; feg-a-n, fe^-ea-n, join, feg-(e)'de ; indicative present ner-ie^ 
ner-ige, ner-ge, ner-e, 

sealf-ia-n, salve, sealf-o-de, sealf-u-de, sealf-a-de, sealf-e-de, 

247*. Infinitive kn is contracted from aa, Sgan, ahan; 621 from dhan, 
bhan: gdn (gaan), go; smeagan"^ smedn, consider ; sleahan^ sledn, s\2iy; 
fon <ifdhan, c&ich; gef€6n<.gef€ohan, repice; tedn<^ieohan,ing. . 



NOTEWORTHY WEAK VERBS. 127 

Noteworthy Weak Verbs. 

248 — I. Causatives and Transitives, relics of the Sanskrit causative. 
They have the highest progression of the root (like the strong imperfect 
singular), and i-umlaut. 

CoNJ. 1. — -y/a: -^ sad, sit; Sansk. sid-d'mi, sit, causative sad-dja-mii 
set ; Goth, sit-auj sat-ja-n ; O. Sax. sittian, settian ; 0. Nor. sit-ia, 
set'ia. Highest progression, a ; i-umlaut, e (^^ 199-204, 32). 

sittan<Csit'ia'n, sit; imp. sast(a) ; settarKCsat-ia-n, set. 

licgan<i^lig'ia-n, lie ; imp. lseg{a) ; lecgaiKClag-ia-n, lay. 

beorn-an, burn ; imp. barn ; bern-a-n, cause to burn. 

drinc-an, drink ; imp. dranc ; drenc-a-n, cause to drink. 

CoNJ. 2. — ^i: ^ dig, show; Sansk. causative rfep-a/a-mt; Go^.teih-an, 
tdik-ns, token. Highest progression, a; i-umlaut, & (^^ 205, 32). 

tih-an, point at ; imp. tdh ; t&c-a-n, teach. 

drif-an, drive ; imp. drdf; dr^f-a-n, disperse. 

lid-an, go (by sea) ;, imp. lad; Isbd-a-n, lead. 

rts-an, arise ; imp. rds ; r&r-a-n, raise, rear. 

CoNJ. 3. — ^u: -^bhug^, hend; Sansk. causative bhog'-dja-mi (^ 158). 
Highest progression, ed ; i-umlaut, y (^§ 206, 32) ; e often occurs. 

bug-an, bow, bend ; imp. bedh ; byg-a-n, cause to bend. 
fleog-an, flee ; imp. fledh ; fiyg-a-n, put to flight. 

CoNJ. 4. — -y/^ a : -^ par, Sansk. causative pdr-dja-mi, accomplish. High- 
est progression, o; i-umlaut, e (^^ 207, 32) ; or, progression, a; umlaut, 
€ : Goth, far-an, far-ja-n, but gal-an, sing, gol-ja-n (compare ^ 158, e), 

far-an, go ; imp. for ; fer-a-n, go ; far-ia-n, carry. 

pac-an, wake ; imp. poc ; peccan < pac-ia-n, awaken. 

paC'ia-n, watch, is also found — a later denominative. 

Here belong many verbs apparently formed from nouns or participles by 
i-umlaut of the root vowel : hyld-an, to make bent (heald) ; hyn-an, to make 
lowly (hedn) ; hrym-an, to cry (hredm) ; pyrc-an, to work (peorc) ; pyrm- 
an, to warm {peaxm) ; yld-an, to delay (eald, old) ; yrm-an, to make wretch- 
ed (earm) ; ypp-an, to lay open (up) ; ^t-an, to drive out (ut) ; words in 
-f yld-an: pri-f yld-an, to triple (/ca/rf, fold), etc. 

249. — II. Denominatives without Umlaut, from adjectives. 
Such are oftenest neuter, but with ge^ oftenest transitive. 

micl'ta-n, to grow great (micel) ; ge-michan, to make great. 
litl-ia-n, to grow little ; ge-litlian, to make little. 

hdt'ia-n, to grow hot (hat) ; compare hM-an, to make hot. 
pearm-ia-n, to grow warm ; compare pyrm-an, to make warm. 



128 ADVEUBS.— NOTlOX-tVL STEMS. 

250. — III. Denominative SurriXES grown Verbals: -o-, St -n-t 
-S-, etXan<iatian (^ 188, b), Uhomn : 

hyT'C'ti'tanf hark, hearken (hyr-an^ hear) ; syn-g-ian, to sin ; nu^r-i-tan, 
to make more ; pU-n^ian, to punish ; hal'€ttan^ ^etan^ -etiany bail ; 
sumoT'lAcan* summer is near. 



ADVERBS. 
251. Adverbial suffixes are mostly from case-endings. 

Notional Stems (Nouns). 

I. Living Case -endings, with and without prepositions: gen. es, 4; 
dat a, e, um ; ace. — , ne ; instrum. e, e ; weak an. 

68 : dapg-eSf by day ; {dseg-es^ (now)-a-days ; eall-es, wholly ; micUes, 
much ; to-midd-es^ amidst ; neaht'es^ by night ; ned-ts, needs ; san-es, 
(efl-)soons; /anc-e«, willingly ; after'peard'eSjaifieTVfvads; hdm-peard- 
cs, homewards, a : gedr-dj of yore (gedry year). 

Adverbial -es is found with nouns having their genitive in -e; neaht-e, 
ned'Cf etc. ; sin-neahtes, eternally. 

a, dative feminine (^ 93, t) : deam-ung-a, -inga, -enga, 0. Sax. darTi- 
ung'6 (^ 88, a), 0. H. G. tamunk-un (i2 = Goth. 6, ^ 95, c), secretly : 
deorcung-Of in the gloaming ; Scotch darklings, darkling ; eaUung-a, 
wholly ; bxcling-a, 0. Eng. hacklings^ on the back ; so 0. Eng. nose- 
lingy side-ling'^ sidelong (^ 40, 3), headlong, on the nose, side, head. 
This is often thought genitive plural ; but feminine abstracts in "Ung 
seldom use the plural, and they retain the old dative in -a (^ 77, t) ; 
while the 0. H. G. can not be a genitive plural. 

um, dative plural : hpU-um^ -on, whilom ; on-sundr-an, asunder ; pundr^ 
urriy wondrously ; stycce-m&Uum, piece-meal ; seld-um, -on^ ^an, sel- 
dom ; litl'Um, little ; micl-um, much. 

e, S, dative and instrumental : ^g/r-e, ever; he6dasg(e), iO'dd.y; to-dsBg-e, 
to-day ; to-nihte, to-night ; to-ealdre, always ; micle mdt much more ; 
tO'gsedere^ together, an : to-edc-an, moreover. 

— , accusative : hdm^ home ; edsU east ; pest^ west ; ealne peg, always ; 
on peg, away ; on bsec, back ; on-gedn, against ; eal, all ; nedh, nigh ; 
hdmpeard, homeward ; on tdel, in vain ; and comparatives and super- 
latives (^ 123). ne : eal-ne peg, always ; sum^ne d^, 0. Eng. some 
dealy somewhat. 

II. Obscure Endings, a, e. 

(a.) a : Gotli. -a, 0. Sax. -a, 0. H. G. -a, perhaps from instrumental -d 
(*63,5"). 
ib.) The common adverbial ending from adjectives is -e: 0. Sax. -o. 



RELATIONAL STEMS. 129 

0. Nor. -a, 0. H. G. -o, Goth, -o, some say -ba. Gothic -ha, -6 are prob- 
ably akin to instrumental -hhi and -a (^ 63, g). Bopp thinks -6 an ablative 
ending like Greek -wc<^-tor, Latin -o and -e<-erf, but in Teutonic the in- 
strumentals have a history analogous to that of the ablative in Greek and 
Latin ; the Anglo-Saxon instrumental has been kept alive by the influence 
of this adverb. Grimm thinks -e a weak singular accusative neuter. 

(c.) So many adverbs are formed from adjectives in -lie, that -Itc-e > 
Eng. 'ly is established as an ending ; so Icelandic -liga, M. H. G. liche. 

feUa, much ; geh-a, again ; get-a, yet ; son-a, soon ; tel-a, well ; feor^ 
(Goth./flirra), far ; nedh^ (Goth, nehva), nigh ; oft^ (Goth, ufta), oft; 
pel^ (Goth, vaila), well ; pid-e, widely ; deop-e, deeply ; hedge K^hedh, 
highly; nearpe <CnearUj naxrowly ; str angMe-e, strongiy ; sceort'lie-e, 
shortly, etc., etc. For A>^, p'^u, see §§ 117, 118. 

252. Relational Stems (Pronouns and Prepositions). 

I. Correlatives of Place : 

where, whither, whence ; tb^re, thither, thence ; here, hither, hence. 

A.-Sax.. hp^f hpider, hpanan; pabr, pider, panan; A^r, hider, heonan, 

0,Sajs..,huarfhuar(od),huanan; thar, thar(pd), thanan; her, her(pd)y hinan. 

O. H. 6. hwdr, hwar-a,'6t, hwanana ; ddr, dar-a, 'St, danana ; hiar, her-a, -^, hinana. 

O. Nor., hvar, hvert, hvadan / * par, padra, padan ; Mr, hedra, heddn. 

Goth hvar, hva-p, -dre, hvapro; par, padet, papro; Mr, hidr^, (MprS). 

Greek... irov, iroT, 'jrS^ev; tv^a,lv^dS(, tv^iv; Lat.hic, hue, cUrS, hinc, 

Sansk... htl-tra, Jcu-tra, kiirtas; td4ra, ta-tra, id4cu; d4ra, &4ra, drtas. 

{a,) For the stem radicles (interrogative hp, demonstrative J), h), ^^ 135, 
133, 104, 130 : hp&r, p&r (^, », 5), Ormulum &, 
(J.) Ang.-Saxon endings, -r, -der, -nan {.-arC) ; -d (5amo^, Goth, ^ama-/) : 

-r< locative -h < comparative -ra (^§ 126, 62): Sansk. upd-riy Greek 
I'TTc-p, Lat. S'Upe-r, Goth. ufa-Ty O. H. G. uha-r, 0. Sax. ohha-r, Ang.- 
Sax. ofe-r, over. 

-der, -der, Goth, -dre, Sansk. -tra <^ -/ra, is the instrumental of a com- 
parative in 'ta-ra (^^ 126, 62) : some think this .-tra weathers to -r in 
hp^ry etc. ; -d, probably comparative, ^ 255 (Sansk. samantt). 

-nan, -nanne, an oblique case of the repeated adjective suflix -na, belong- 
ing to (^ 228, 2) ; Lat. super-no-, belonging (super) above ; whence ab- 
lative adverb super-ne, from above ; belonging to and coming from are 
near akin, but the lost case-ending gives the turn to from, Goth, in- 
nana, within; utana, without; hindana, behind, etc., do not have the 
plain sense from. Pott suggests composition with a preposition (Let- 
tisch noy from). Here beldng edst-anyfiom the east; pest-an, from 
the west, etc. ; also seft-an, aft ; feorr-an, from far ; for-an, before ; 
hind-an, from behind ; inn-an, within ; nedn, from nigh ; neod-an, from 
beneath ; vf-any from above ; ut-an, from out, and their compounds. 

I 



130 DERIVATION.— PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES. 

II. Correlatives of Time: Manner: 

when; then; now; once. how; thus; so. 

A.-S. hpannc; Panne {tp,o^c), pd; nu; iu^geo, hu<ihpi; Pus,Pbm; spd, 

Goth, hvan; pan^ (0. 11. i}. do; nu; ju, giu, huieo),hvdiva; svah, sve, 

Lat... quum; turn; nunc; jam<iS:inBk, ja. quo-modo; tanitita; nc^ut. 

Gr.... iror«; t6ti\ v^, vOv (Sansk. nu) ; ci'iKdJd, ?rwc; Tio^; wc, 

hpannc, accusative masculine ; pa, feminine ; huj hpi, instrumental ; pus^ 
(Tcnitivc, <^PpiSy or instrumental Pu + Sj O. Sax. thiu-s (^ 133, 3) ; 
Picsj genitive ; spa, Goth, set; instrumental ; the endings in the other 
languages are not all analogous. 

III. Prepositions = adYerbs: SEfter, bU for^ in, mid, on, of, to, purk, 
under, up, ofcr, pid, with many derivatives and compounds. See ^^ 253- 
259. 

IV. Derivatives in e, denoting rest in, probably a dative : Goth, -a, O. 
Sax. -a, O. Nor. -A, O.H. G. -a. 

inn-e, within ; ut-e, without ; ufan-e, over, etc. 

V. Comparatives and Superlatives. ^^ 123-129,2. 



PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES. 

253. — I. Those denoting simple relations generally take their signifi- 
cance from a single consonant (^ 56). Contrasted space relations are pri- 
marily denoted. This contrast is often further brought out by endings of 
comparison (^^ 122-129). The relation is sometimes made more definite 
by case-endings and other suffixes. Most inseparable prefixes have a sim- 
Uar etymology. 

II. Many prepositions and prefixes of later growth are from nouns or 
verbs, and have an etymology like adverbs. 

254. Prepositions and prefixes with a single consonant. A few others 
are added to better illustrate their etymology. 

1. Semi-vowels. Sanskrit Greek. Latin. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Nor. O. n. O. 

a- (^), privitive : ... ap«>cw? i^9 exf see or; a-; er-; 4<ar-b 

or-=a:. ari»>t«? ; ; iw-; — ; ur^dr-; W'. 

eft-O, besides : dva; av-(nc); ; du-kf d-h; au-k; on-A. 

pid, against, with : w, see to ; ; r»-, re- / vi-pra ; wi-d; vid; tohdar. 

ne, n-, negative: .. na; vij-; ne, ne; ni; ni^ne; ne; in, ne. 

an (on, d-), on: and; dvd; an^f ana; an; d; ana, 

and (ond, ^), an- : dn-H; avTi; an4e; an-d; an-d;4; an-d; an4, 

in, in, on: andean-; lvi,lv; in; in; irma; tnn, I; tn. 

un- (on), im-: an^fO-; dv-yd-; in-; ten-; un-; (b-; 



PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES. 131 

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Ck>thic. O.Saz. O.Nor. (XBLQa 

mi-d, with: mi-thdsf fit-rd; ; m^// mi-d; me^; mi4(f). 

mis-, mis-: akin to mid, Goth, mwo, mutually; musa-; mis-; misS'f miB; 

4- (^, 4pa, ^, ever : evorsf aifU; asuum; aiv; to; oe; to. 

2. LdbiaU (p, b, f ). 

up, adv., up: upa; vvo, vvsp ; &4ib, s-uper ; iup ; 4tp; uppf 4/* 

\}i(be,lnff)jhe-^hyi abhi; -ft; (^')-W; bi; &f, fte-; ; pi. 

ymb(e),em5(e),al)oat:a5^»; <i/<^ ; amlh; ; umibif urn; fcmpi. 

Of(»/-),of, off: dpa; &ir6 ; ab; af; of; of; aba. 

for-, for-(bid) : pdrra; irapd, irdp ; per- ; J^a-; f^^} fi^i for^' 

for, for: purds; irdpoe; prxf faiir; fw(i); fyifiifiri. 

fore, fore-: purds; vdpog; por; faura; Jor(a)f for-f fora, 

feor, ady. adj.,far: jMira; ^kpa\ per.; fair-ra; fer; fiarri) fer. 

^^^ ^ (pari; • Trepl; P^'t "i mixed; probably a simulation of Lat. 

^ -'> V • \j^^ , ^p^ . j^^ p^g^ , f ^^ Y}j compounds of /red (§ 40, 2). 

fram, from: pd-ra-m; irspav; peren-f /ram; from; from; from. 

3. i>cnto&(t,d,J),d,8). 

set, at: ddM; (o-)&«; od; at; at; at; as. 

6d, unto: ddhif ; ; andfimd; wft; unz; imf-. ^ 

td, to: ddUf 'St; — -; du; td^te; ; mo^tS ^ 

t6-, intwo: (d)t'*-(nS9,2); ^wt; (fw-; dii-; it-; ; 2e(r^«i(r> 

iltjOUt: vl; ^a-repog; ; ^; ut; ut; ik. ' 

ed-, back: i-iara, other? ; i4erumf id-; id-ur; id-; it-. 

J)lirli, through : .... iirds; — —i trans; pair-h; thurh; ; dUrah. 

8am-> together: ... -fo-fiia'; iifia; sim-ul; soma; sama; sam-; satna. 

edm-, half : sd-mi-; Vfu-; stmi-; ; sdm-; ; sdmi-. 

Bin-, ever: sa-na; 'ivo-g; semper); 8in-(teiru); sin-; si-; mi-. 

4. Gutturals. 

ge-, together : (sd-ycdmf Ivvf am^ co-f go-; gi-; g-; 1^, etc 

Ag=4+^e, ever : . O. H. G. e6-ga (§ 136, 5). 

(a.) For shifling of letters, see ^^ 18, 19, 41 ; for precession and weather- 
ing of endings, ^ 38. a <^ar^ 6d<Cand, ^ 37 ; ymbe <iabhij and^ddhij ^ 37, 
5 ; A in purh, c in edc, ^ 133, 2, a. 

(b.) Most of the Sanskrit forms look like vowel pronominal bases with 
suffixes and case - endings : a-Mt, a-^a ]> a-j9a-ra ]> gen« purds f locatiTe 
pdrif ace. paramo instrom. pdrd. ^ 62. 

255. Comparative Forms : er, r, ter, der, der, d, d. ^^ 122-129. 

of-er, over ; asf-ter, after ; un-der, under ; pi-der^ wither-(nam) ; to-pi' 
dere, against ; nirder, neath ; pi-d^ with ; mi-dj with ; /o-r, for ; /a-r«, 
before ; f-r&f very ; geon-d, yond ; hin-d-an, behind ; samO'd, together. 

(b.) The above are formed on of; of; an>Sansk. an(aytara; pi; ni, 
akin to in, Sansk. ant>m, down, Gr. ivi-pot, 0. H. G. m-dar; mi^ma; 
f—<C.pa; geon,GoihJdins<Ja'na; hin=heon(an) (^252); sam. 



■.i' 




132 PBEPOSinONS AND PREFIXES. — PABTICLES. 

256. Superlative m (^ 126) : fra-m, from ; pdram, vipav, peren- seem 
to be accuaatives, and in so far not analogous to fram. 

257. Adverbial -an (^252), mostly compounds: be-^ b-^ pid-aft-an ; 
for-an ; wt-, bi-, on-, to-, pid-far'an ; geond»an ; be-, pid-geond-^n ; be^ 
heon-an ; be-hind-an ; inn-an ; b; on-t pid^inn-an ; neod'an ; be-, under' 
neod-an ; uf-an ; ^, a-^-, on-uf-an ; upp-an ; on-upp-an ; ut^an ; 5-, on-h^^ 
pid-f ymb'ttt-an ; English before ; beyond ; behind ; within ; be-, under- 
neath ; above ; a-b-, with-out. 

258. From Substantives, mostly compounds with prepositions: to- 
eacan, besides; a-, on-gegrij to-gegnes, against; ge-mongy on^getnongf 
among ; on-efn (German n-eben), even with, beside, an-ent ; in-tniddunif 
to-middesj amidst ; be'tpeon-uniy -an, between ; be-tpeo-h'S, bc'tpeox, be- 
twixt ; so English be-side <C be stdan ; down < d-dune, from a bill ; a-loft 
(Shakespeare) < on lyfte, in the air ; and the like, hand-, ^ 267, II. 

259. From Adjectives = adverbs (see ^^ 254, 229): &r, ere; feor, 
far from ; ge-hende, handy to ; Ises, less ; nedh, near, nehst, nedh-hand^ 
nigh to ; til (Northumbrian), to ; peard, to-peard, toward ; pana, less ; ge^ 
long, and'long, along ; n-efne, n-emne (compare on-efn, ^ 258), except ; 
sid (late), since. Prefixes : eal- (ml-, el-), all ; efen-, co- ; /ti/-, full ; tnis-^ 
mis-; 5am-, semi-; 5m-, ever; pan-, less; 7>g/-, well. 



Paeticles of Inteeeogation, Affirmation, Negation. 

260. Interrogation. — (a.) Adverbial forms of the pronominal A/», whose 
derivation has been explained : hpseder, hp&r, hpider, hpanan, hpp, hu, and 
compounds, /or-A^(zm, etc. 

(b.) Intensives: ne, ^ 254 ; ac (ach, ah), ^ 262 ; hu, ^ 252 ; Id, ^ 1^63. 
(c.) Conjunctions in indirect questions : gif, if, ^ 262. 

261. Affirmation and Negation. — (a.) From relational stems: 

gea, ia, yea<ya (^ 107, a) ; Goth, ja, jai ; O. Sax., O. Nor., 0. H. G. ia. 
ge-Be, yes ; gea-\--se<^st, let it be. 

ne (^ 254), n-SL, n-6, nay, no ; Goth, ne div, 0. H. G. ni-eo, not ever. 
ne-se, like gese : n-dn, Ger. n-etn, Lat. n-on, not one ; nealles, nalms, nses 
ine ealles), not at all ; n-d-piht, nbht, not a whit. 

{}>,) Regular adverbial forms : sodlice, pitodlice, verily. 



DERIVATION.— CONJUNCTIONS.— INTERJECTIONS. 133 

262. CONJUNCTIONS. 
In their formation they are similar to prepositions. 

I. From relational stems. — (a.) Not before explained: 

Sanskrit Oredc Latin. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Nor. O.H.G. 

and, Ofwf, and; (ati; in; et)? ; andi; ; €mH(u). 

ano, ono, an=if; «afia); dv; an; an; O.H.G. «no, «}tti< an +ntf. 

gi^ if; ja-dCJa-pi); €i; <4/ ja-fta; (ef; ef; ibu). 

ac (ch, h), but ; (akin to edc, § 254 ?) ; , «* ; ac; ; oh. 

ge, and ; « ja^ § 252 ; ^^ < djd ; ja-m) ; ja^ ; ja, ja-c ; ok f ioh, 

gytj^eto, yet; <^eo,§252; ; ; jtt-pan; ; "iLH.G.ie-zuo. 

j^en-den, whilst; compare Latin ^an-cZem; - Pan-d^; ; • danria, 

|>eah (^peh), though; see for -uh § 133, 2, a; pa-vh; thSh; Jf6; dok. 
odde (eddoj ^), or; dtha, but; ; at; ipy aip-pau; eUha; eda; eddo(p^ 

eaCp also; sam, samo-d, as well as; ne — ne, neither — nor; nn — nu, 
now — then, have been given with adverbs or prefixes! 

and may be akin with and<Canti (^ 254). ano is all doubtful ; ja'^ja- 
bai and t > Goth, i-ba = O. H. G. i-bu^ are kindred stems ; gtf^ O. 
Friesic^'e/, Lithuania ^ei-i, go mihja-bat (^^ 107, a; 63,^) ; ge might 
be ge- (^ 254) ; -den in pen-den, -pan in ju-pan, are the demonstrative 
ta (^ 104, b) ; Goth, tp > ed, ap > od is akin to ed- (^^ 254, 3 ; 38). 

(6.) Many other pronominal adverbs, whose etymology has been explained, 
and whose meaning and use belong in syntax : hu, how ; spa, so ; spylce^ 
such ; ptder, panan, pa, py, pi, paes, ponne,p&r ; hpt-der, whither ; hpss^r^ 
whether ; elles, else ; O. H. G. allts, ahes, gen., Lat. altasy al-; ^ 216. 

II. From notional stems, a few oblique cases of nouns. 

hpUe, hpU-um — hpilum, sometimes — sometimes. 



263. INTERJECTIONS. 

(1.) Imitation of cries, or sound-gestures : edy e&, cap, oh; pa, pea, wo; 
Id, lo; ha, ha; ha, ha; compounds — ed-ld, mixed with French he-las (Lat. 
lassus, weary), alas, corrupt alack ; pa-la, pd-ld-pd, welaway, corrupt wel- 
aday, etc. ; hJg, hig, Lat. o, o, ^Ifrc. Coll. 

Somewhat similar quasi- words are wide-spread, but they can be iden* 
tified only when steadied by true words formed from them: Greek 6a, 
oifai, Lat. va,Goih. vdi, O. Sax. wi, Swed. ve, 0. H. G. we, wo; O. 
H. G. we-la, etc. . . Such words were doubtless as numerous in the an- 
cient languages as in English, but are not preserved in books. 

(2.) True words used as cries or gestures have nothing peculiar in their 
etymology : hpset, what ; hu, how ; pel, well ; peg Id =p€l /a, well done, etc. ; 
efne, Lat. ecce, lo. 



184 COMPOSITION OF WOBDa 

204. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 

Composition proper combines word-stems so as to express a new notion. 
CoALiscmci is the running together of whole words with sach change 
of accent as to make a new word. 
(a.) Parasyntheta are derivatives from compounds. 

Nouns. 

265. — I. Form. — Nouns final in compounds retain their stems and end- 
ings; elsewhere only their theme, except substantives in e<fa, e<t, and 
u (o) : gum-a^ man ; gum-cyn^ mankind ; ecdd-frnder^ grandfather ; gryre, 
horror ; gryre-hjnl, time of horror ; lagu, lake ; lagu-flSd, river. Coades- 
eence takes place of prefixes and some genitives with a following noon : 
SmtemeS'dmg^ Saturday; Monan-dxg^ Monday; Oxena-fard, Oxford; 
dasges-ege, daisy ; andsparu^ answer ; un-treopd^ untruth ; un-pU^ un- 
wise, etc. Words with quasi-suffixes are compounds in form. ^ 229. 

266. — II. Relation op Stems to each other. — (I.) Attrirutiyi 
(substantive -|- substantive) — appoaitive : dc-treo, oak-tree ; jnf-man^ wo- 
man ; compare peop-horen^ born a slave ; deaoriptive : gdr-ledc, spear- 
leek, garlick ; heafod-man^ head-man ; genitive : god-spel^ God's mes- 
sage; (adjective -{-substantive): mid-dsegf mid-d^y ; neaA-^r, neigh-bour. 
Adjective parasyntheta from the last are called Possbssiyes : cl&n-heort, 
possessing a clean heart ; dn-hende^ one-handed ; dn-edge and dfi'Sged, 
one-eyed ; basr-fot, bare-foot, bare-footed. 

(2.) Orjective.— (Substantive -|-noun, between which an accusative end- 
ing or preposition would express the relation) — accusative : man-^pellere, 
man-kiUer ; dd-sparingt oath-swearing ; hlod-g^ote^ shedding of blood : gen* 
itive : cear-fvXy full of care ; dative : god-lie, like to God. 

(3.) Adykrbixl (noun or particle -{- adjective) : wl-meahtig, all'mighty ; 
manig'feald, manifold ; blod-redd, blood-rCd ; ' sndp-hpit, snow-white ; un- 
elAne, unclean ; (noun or particle -\- substantive) — space relationa : land- 
man, man living on the land, farmer ; time : niht-hrmfn, raven flying by 
night ; canae : hand-gepeorc, hand-iwork ; purpose : ort-geard, orchard, 
yard for vegetables; ealo-fmt, vat for ale ; edg-sealf, eye-salve; with an 
infinitive, hpet-stdn, stone to whet ; prtt-boc, writing-book ; material : stdn- 
peal, wall of stone ; ts-gicel, icicle ; gold-smid, worker in gold. 

(a.) Attributive compound nouns not possessives and adverbially com- 
pound adjectives are called Determinatives. 

(b.) Collectives have copulate parts : per-polf, man and wolf, were* 
wolf; preo't^ne, three and ten. 

267. Yeebs. 
I. For the terminations springing from composition, see ^ 160. 



FORMATION OF WORDS TO EXPRESS GENDER. 135 

II. Verbs with proper compound stems are parasyntheta from compound 
nouns. But note hand-sellan, put in hand ; ful-fyllan, etc., below. 

III. Compound verbs are directly formed by coalescence with preposi- 
tions and prefixes : ofer-fleopauy over-flow ; d-pacan, a-wake ; mis-don, 
mis-do ; ful-fyllan, fulfill ; pel-don, do well ; efen-peorcan, co-operate. 

(a.) For prepositions and prefixes, see §^ 15, 254. 

(h.) Composition has the same laws throughout the Indo-European lan- 
guages. Ik some of them so many of the stem-endings conform with the 
most common one that it comes to be regarded as a sign of composition 
(Gr. -0-, Lat. -t-, Goth, -a-) ; traces of this are in Anglo-Saxon : niht-e-gale, 
night-in-gale. 



FORMATION OF WORDS TO EXPRESS GENDER. 

268. — I. Animals. — A, Words with pairs of endings (Mobile) : 

Masculine, — <fl; a.<Can; ere. 

Feminine, — <i; e<ian; e,ige<^ie<^ian; en<^enni; estre. 

1. ( — <a and -^<ij, umlaut, ^ 32: gat, -es, g&t, -e, he-goat, she-goat; 
ms^g, -es, -e, kins-man, -woman ; pulf, pylf, he-, she- wolf. — 2. (a ^d e) : 
ass-a, -e, he-, she-ass ; mdg-a, -e, kins-man, -woman ; nef-a, -e, nephew, 
niece ; r&g-a^ -e, hart, roe ; peop-a, -e, man-, maid-servant ; pebb-a, -e, 
weaver; picc-a, -e, witch ; pudup-a, -e, widow-er. — 3. (— <[fl and e, 
ige) : mearh, merige, mere, myre, horse, mare ; hldford, hldf(or)d-ige, 
lord, lady. — 4. (a and — <0 • han-a, hen, cock, hen. — 5. ( — <a and 
en) : sslf, -en, elf; fox,fixen, fox, vixen ; god, gyd-en, god-dess ; munec, 
-en, monk, nun ; Jteop, -en, pegen, pign-en, pealh, pyl-en, servant ; add 
manna, mennen, servant; cdsere, cdser-n, emperor, empress. — 6. (ere 
and estre) : bxc-ere, basc-estre, baker, bakster ; hearp-ere, -estre, harper ; 
hopp-ere, -estre, dancer ; red-ere, -estre, reader ; sang-ere, -estre, singer ; 
sedm-ere, -estre, seam-ster ; pebb-ere, -estre, weaver, webster ; fidel-ere, 
•estre, fiddler. — 7. (Relics): gos<^gans, gandra (^^ 37; 41, b; 60), 
goose, gander; cyning, open (^ cpan"^ cun'^ cyn, ^^ 35, 32, 38, 24), 
king, queen ; abbud, risse (Lat. abbatissa, Gr. -(vva), abbot, abbess ; speor^ 
speger (Goth, svaihr-a, -6, Lat. socer, socrus, Gr. iicvp-oci -«» Sanak. 
fvagura, fvagru), father-, mother-in-law. 

B. Compounds whose first part marks sex, last part gender : 

Masculine, p&pned, p&p-, p&pen-, weaponed ; carU hyse, man, guma. 
Feminine, ptf, wife ; mmgden, maid ; cpen, woman. 

p&pned-man, m., -beam, n., did, n., -pifestre, f., man, boy, hermaphrodite ; 
hyse-cild, n., boy ; man-cild, n., man-child ; man-esne, m., man-servant; 
gum-man, man ; gum-pegn, man ; carl-cat, m., -fugol, m., tom-cat, -bird ; 
ptf-man^ pimman, m., woman; pif-pegn, m., servant; pif-freond, m., 
friend; m&den-cild, n., -fabmne, f., -man, m., female child, maid; cpen- 



136 FOKMATION OF WORDS TO ^L\P1U•:SS GENDEM. 

fugolf m., bird; add sf^ere-healf, f., spindl-healf^ f., 8poar-lialf=nuile 
side, spindlc-half = female side. . . 

C. Male and female have names from diflTercnt roots. Such names 
abound for man and the domestic animals. They are old and widespread. 

Man : guma, per, husbonda, leod, sccg, haile(d), rinc, beorn, carl ; plur. 

firas; feminine, /i^nf, ides, bryd,Jostre, mcople, mwged^'mibg, cpen; 

neuter, beam, cild, child ; pif, wife. Pairs of kindred : fader, modor; 

sunu,d6htar; brodor,speostor; cam, fnoe/ri^e, uncle, aunt ; god-frnder, 

god-modor. 
Hone : hengest, stcda, fola ; feminine, mcrihe. Ox : oxa, stearc, fearh, 

bulluca; fem,cu,h€afre. Sheep: ram,ped€r; fcm, e6p(u), B^Tine: 

bar, eofor, bearh ; fem. sugu. Qoat : bucca, hwfer ; fem. rah, rd. 

Deer : heort, m., hind, f. Dog : hund, m., bicce, f. Hen : coc, m., 

hen, f. Bee : drdn, m., beo, f. Neuter : hors, picg, horse ; stinn, 

swine; mi2/, mule; (/cJr, wild beast, deer ; cea//*, calf ; lamb; scedp, 

sheep. ^ 

Names of other animals are epicene (^ G7). Neuter names of young ani- 
mals often add -tr-, -er- in the plural : cild, cild-er-u, child, children 
(^ 82). Nothing else peculiar in the formation. 

269. — II. Things without Sex, and abstracts. For general rules, 
^ 67 (gender of the endings, ^^ 231-239). It is often not easy to tell how 
far personification, and how far phonetic laws, determine the gender (^ 64, 
2). The same object often has names. of different genders: s&, f., lago, 
m., bnm, n., egor, n., sea. The Teutonic tongues generally' agree. But 
note Neuters (German masculine) mod, mood, mu^A; tptgi twig, zweig ; 
pin, wine, wein; (German feminine) clif, cliff, klippe ; ear,' e^,dhre ; 
fxsten, fastness, ye^^f ; tic, corps, leiche; s&d, seed, saat; sceorp^ Bc?a{, 
scharpe ; p&pen, weapon, waffe ; pesten, n., m., waste, tru^^e ; Masculines 
(German feminine), cr^i(, craft, ^ro/V; /t/5/, lust; tear, i&zx, zdhre ; (Ger- 
man neuter) ende, end ; feld, field ; here, army, heer; sal, cord, seil; Fbm- 
ININES (German masculine), turf, turf, torf; piht, wight, wicht; (German 
neuter) blxd, blade, blatt ; boc, book, buch ; h&lu, health, heil ; heorie, 
heart, herz ; gesihd, sight, gesicht, 

270. — III. Derivatives from foreign names retain their gender, except 
Feminines> masculines: ancor, anchor; 5oa?, box- wood ; /^er^t^c, peach ; 
pistol, epistle ; regal, rule ; >neuters : non, noon ; NEUTERs]>masculines : 
balsam ; creda, creed ; ]>feminines : ceaster, city ; lilie, lily ; palant, palace ; 
limpane, drum 1 



PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

271. Syntax is the doctrine of grammatical combinations of 
words. It treats of the use of the etymological forms in dis- 
course — their agreement, government, and arrangement. 

SIMPLE COMBINATIONS. 

272. There are four simple combinations: the predic'cUivej at- 
trib'utive, obfective^ and adverbial. 

273.— I. Predicative 

^nominative substantive + agreeing verb; 

= nominative substantive + agreeing predicate^ noun / 

=inominative substantive +predicate adverb, 

gold glisnad, gold glistens ; gold is beorht, gold is bright ; 
JElfred pses cyning^ Alfred was king ; ic eom her, I am here, 

(a.) This is a combination between a 
subject, of which something is said (z=gold, JElfred, ic), and a 
predicate, which is said of the subject (=glisndd, beorht, cyning, her), 

{b.) Copula. — The sign of predication is the stem-ending of a notional 
verS (=a in glisnad), or is a relational verb {is, pass, eom). The substan- 
tive verb, when so used, is called the copula — a good name for any sign of 
predication. Copulative verbs take a predicate noun. 

(c.) Quasi-predicative is the relation between tlie implied subject and 
predicate in a quasi-clause, ^ 278, d. 

274. — ^11. Attributive =a^reeew^ noun+ substantive; 

= genitive substantive + substantive. 

god cyning, good king ; JElfred sedeling, Alfred the prince ; 
Engld land, land of the Angles. 

(a.) This combination expresses the relation of subject + attribute as 
taken for granted. The leading substantive is called the 

subject, that to which the attribute belongs (cyning, JElfred, land) ; 
an attributive is the agreeing adjective (god), or genit. substantive {Engld) ; 
an appositive is the agreeing substantive {asdeling), 

(b.) The sign of this relation is the agreeing case-endings, or the attribu- 
tive genitive ending, or a preposition (^ 277, 2). 



138 SYNTAX.— SIAU'LE COMBINATIONS. 

275. — III. Ol^eotive z= verb + governed nottn, 

= adjective + governed noun, 

ic huntige heortds, I hunt harts ; he syld him hors^ he sells him a 
horse ; gilpes pu gyrnest^ thou wishest fame ; p&re fAhde hi ge^ 
feahy he rejoitfod at the vengeance ; hi macad hme (to) cyninge^ 
they make him king ; hpi segst pu me godne^ why callest thou me 
good ? head gemindige Lodes pifes^ remember Lot^s wife. 

(a.) This combination expresses the relation of an act or quality to its 
completing notional object. 

Objective verbs or adjectives are those which need such object {knHUge^ etc.). 
Subjective need no such object (ic sl&pe^ I sleep). 
Transitive verbs havo a suffering object (hunttge^ syld, macad, etc.). 
Intransitive have no suffering object (gymest, gefeah). 

The completing object may be 
suffering (=(firec/), an accusative merely affected (heortds,hors,hineyme); 
dative (=ztndtrect z=personal), a receiver to or for whom is the act (him) ; 
genitive, suggesting or exciting the act (gilpes, fAhde, pifes) ; 
factitive, a product or result in fact or thought (cyninge, godne). 

(b.) The sign of relation is the case-ending or a preposition. 

(c.) Many Anglo-Saxon verbs require an object, when the English by 
which we translate them do not. Many objects conceived as exciting in 
Anglo-Saxon are conceived as suffering in English ; many as merely ad- 
verbial. 

(d.) The factitive object oflen has a quasi-predicative relation to the suf- 
fering object, agreeing with it like a predicate noun (me -\- godne). Such 
clauses are nearly equivalent to two (why say est thou that I am good?). 

276. — rV. Ad'vetbi3l=verb+ adverb or adverbial phrase. 

=adjective+ adverb or adverbial phrase. 
=zadverb+ adverb or adverbial phrase. 

ic ga ut, I go out ; ic singe selce dxg, I sing each day ; pe sprecad 
gepemmodltce, we speak corruptly ; he com mid pd f&mnan, he 
came with the woman ; mid sorgum libban, to live having cares ; 
hpi fandige ge mm, why tempt ye me ? mtcle md man is scedpc 
betera, man is much (more) better than a sheep. 

(a.) This combination is between an act or quality and its unessential 
relations. The most common relations are place (ut), time (mice ds^g), 
m ann er (gepemmodlice), co-ezistence (mid fsemnan, mid sorgum), cslobq 
(hpt), intensity (micle, md, scedpe), 

(b.) The sign is an adverbial ending, case-ending, or preposition. 

(c.) The adverbial combination is given by Becker as a subdivision of 
the objective, hut the linguistic sense of the Indo-European races uniformly 
recognizes the adverb as a separate part of speech. 



EQUIVALENTS.— SENTENCES. 139 

211. Equivalents of the Noun and Adverb in the com- 
binatioDS : 

(1.) For a Substantive may be used a substantive noun or 
pronoun^ an adjective or any of its equivalents, an infinitive^ a 
clause^ any word or phrase viewed merely as a thing. 

(2.) For an Adjectivb may be used an adjective noun or pro- 
nouny an article (attributively), a participle^ a genitive substan- 
tive^ an adverbj a preposition with its case^ a relative clause, 

(3.) For an Advebb may be used an oblique case of a noun 
with or without a preposition, skphrase, a clause. 

SENTENCES. 

278. A Sentence is a thought in words. It may be 

declarative, an assertion, indicative, subjunctive, or potential; 
interrogative, a question, indicative, subjunctive, or potential ; 
imperative, a command, exhortation, entreaty ; a species of 
ezclamatory, an expanded interjection. ^^ 149-151. 

(a.) A clause is one Jinite verb with its subject, objects, and all their at* 
tributives and adjuncts. Its essential part is its predicative combination. 
The (grammatical) subject of the predicative combination, its attributives 
and adjuncts, make up the logical subject of the clause ; the grammatical 
predicate and its objects \vith their attributives and adjuncts make up the 
logical predicate. 

(b.) A subordinate clause enters into grammatical combination with 
some word in another (principal) clause ; co-ordinate clauses are coupled 
as wholes. 

(c.) The sign of relation between clauses is a relative or conjunction. 

(d.) Qnasi-clanses. — (1) Infinitives, participles, and factitive objects 
mark quasi-predicative combinations, and each has its qCiasi-clause. (2) /n- 
terjections and vocatives are exclamatory quasi-clauses. 

279. A Sentence is simple^ complex^ or compound. 

280. A simple sentence is one independent clause. 

I. A predicative combination. 

Verb for predicate : Jiscerds fisciad, fishers ^*A. 

Adjective : God is god, God is good. 

Genitive : tol C&sares is, tribute is Cmsar''s, 

Substantive : Casdmon pxs leodpyrhta, Csedmon was a poeU 

Adverb : pe sind her, we are here. 

Adverbial : God is in heofenum, God is in heaven. 

Subject indefinite : {hit) snxpd, it snows ; me pyrst, mo it thirsteth. 



140 S^ENTEXCtX 

II. Clause with aUributivo combinatioD. 

Adjective altributo : god gold glisndd, good gold glisteM. 
Qenitive : folces stemn is Godcs stemn, foWs voice is God^s Toice. 
Appoeitive : p^ cildra sind ungclikrcdc^ wo children are untaught 

III. Clause with objective combination. 

Direct object : Cxdmon porhte Uodsangas, Caedmon made poems. 
Dative: liPn me pnhldfds,'giye me three loaves. 
Genitive : I^rt ptf ahloh drihtnes^ the woman laughed at the lord. 
Factitive : Simoncm he ncmde Petrum, Simon he named Peter. 

IV. Clause with adverbial combination. ^ 

Place : ic gd ut, I go out. 
Time : ic gd ut on dstgred, I go out at dawn. 
Maimer : se cyning scryt me pel, the king clothes me well, 
Co-eziBtence : mid sorgum ic libbe, I live with cares. 
Cause : he hds is for cylde, he is hoarse from cold ; se cnapa Pypdd 
oxan mid gadisene^ the boy drives oxen with an iron goad. 

281. — V. Abridged complex sentence. Clause containiDg a 
quasi-clausc. § 278, c?. 

Infinitive : t^ us sprecdn, teach us to speak, 

Ffictitive : hpt segst J>u me godne, why callest thou me (to be) goodf 
Participle (adjectival) : ic hxhbe sumne' cnapan] Pypendne oxan^l have a 
boy, {driving) who drives oxen; (adverbial,* gerund), Boetius gebssd 
singende, Boethius prayed singing; (absolute), ^mre durd belocenre^ 
bide pinne fxder^ thy door having been locked^ pray thy father. 

282. — ^VI. Abridged compound sentence (§ 284). Verbs>verb. 

Compound subject : he and seo singad^ he and she sing. 
Compound' predicate : he is god and pis, he is good and wise ; seo lu- 
fad hine and me, she loves him and me. 

283. A complex sentence is one principal clause with its 
subordinate clause or clauses. § 278, b. The subordinate may 
be a 

Substantive : (subject), is ssegd paet he com, that he came is said ; (ob- 
ject), ic pat past he com, I wot that he came ; (appositive), tc com to 
pam, pxt he p&re gefulpod, I came for. this, that he might be baptized. 

Adjective : stasf-crxft is seo c&g, pe p&rd bocd andgit unlycd, grammar 
is the key, that. unlocks the sense of the books. 

Adverb : (place), hpider pu g&st, ic gd, I go whither thou goest; (time), 
tc gd hpxnne pu g&st, I go when thou goest; (manner), /u spr&ce spd 
spd an stunt pif, thou spakest as a stupid woman speaks ; (intensity). 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 141 

heod gledpe spa ruBdran, be wise as serpents ; leqfre is hlehhan Jfonne 
grsbtan\ it is better to laugh than cry ; (cause = efficient, motive, means, 
argument, condition [protasis to an apodosls], concession, purpose) : 
hit punrad forpam God pilt, it thunders because God wills; paciad,for- 
pam pe ge nyton pone dwg, watch, because ye know not the day ; On- 
send Higeldce^ gif mec hild nime, (protasis) if me battle take, (apodosis) 
send to Higelac, etc. Co-e3U8tence is usually in an abridged participial 
clause (^ 281). 

284. A compound sentence is a number of co-ordinate 
clauses. § 278, 5. 

Copulative : ic gd ut and ic geocie oxan, I go out and I yoke oxen. 
Adversative : fyr is god pegn, ac is frecne fred, fire is a good servant, 

but is a bad master ; ne nom he md, pedh he monige geseah, he took no 

more, though he saw many. 
Dii^anctlve : ic singe odde ic r&de, I sing or I read. 
Causal : forPy ge ne gehyrad, forPam pe ge ne synd of Gode, therefore 

ye do not hear, (for this that) because ye are not of God. 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

285. A complete sentence has every part of all its combina- 
tions expressed. 

A normal sentence is complete, and has its parts expressed 
and arranged according to the general laws of the language. 

Figures of Syntax are deviations from the normal sen- 
tence. 

I. Ellipsis, omission. This may be of a conjunction (asyn'deton), of 
a word to have been repeated (brachyrogy), of a verb somewhat like one 
in a corresponding clause (zeugma), of the latter part of a clause not to be 
supplied from the corresponding part of other clauses (aposiope'sis). See 
also anacoluthon (below, III.). 

II. Pleonasm, too many words. There may be too many conjunctions 
(polTsyn'deton), two nouns and a conjunction for a noun and attributive 
(hendi'adis). 

III. Enallage, substitution. Of one part of speech for another (anti- 
meri'a), of one case for another (hypal'lage), of a different scheme of con- 
struction for the one in which a sentence begins (anaooln'thon). Syn'- 
esis is a construction according to sense and not grammatical form. 

IV. Hyper^baton, transpositioD. Of words (anaa'troplie), of clauses 
(hys'teron-prot'eron). 



142 USES OF TUE CASE-ENDINGa 

USES OF THE CASE-ENDINGS. 

SUUSTANTIVES. 

Agreement of landings. 

280.— I. Predicative Combination.— A predicate noun 
denoting tlio same person or thing as its 8at(Jectf agrees with it 
in ca^e. 

(a.) Also in gender, if it varies for gender, and oftenest in number; bat 
copulate singulars and a plural agree : ic eom peg, I am the way (John, 
xiv, 6) ; he is mtn sunu, he is my son (Luke, ix, 38) ; he and seo sind 
freonddsy ho and she are friends. Nouns of multitude take Synesis. 

(b.) The rule applies to quasi-prcdicativcs (^ 278, d) : God hit pd fmst- 
nisse heofcnan, God called the firmament heaven (Gen., i, 8). But pred- 
icate-accusative substantives are rare in Anglo-Saxon. The Latin and 
Greek accusative -)- infinitive is generally represented by a clause with 
Jtoft (that), and the factitive depends on to (to) or for, as does often the 
common predicate : Jtu pyrcst pe to Gode, thou makest thyself (to) God 
(John, X, 33) ; me p&ron mine tedrds for hldfds, to me my tears were 
(for) bread (Psa., xlii, 3). 

(c.) The rule is called for oflenest in clauses having the verb be (eom, 
pesan, beon), become (peordan), stand, lie, etc. (standan, licgan, etc.), go, 
remain (gdn, punian), seem, prove (pyncan, prqfian) ; and passives of 
naming, calling (hdtan, nemnan), seeing, thinking, telling (seon, tellan), 
making, appointing, choosing (macian, gesceapan, gesettan, geberan, ge- 
ceosan, etc.). The predicate noun is oflenest an adjective : pd bedmds a 
grene stondad, the trees stand ever green (C. Ex., 200, 4) ; mtn cnapa lid 
lama, my boy lies lame (Matt., viii, 6); peos poruld punaU gehal,Qaa world 
remaineth whole (St. B., 14) ; me past riht ne Pynced, to me that seems not 
right (C, 289) ; leoht pxs dxg genemned, light was called day (C, 129) ; 
lytel he piBS gesepen, he was seen (as) little (H6m., i, 138) ; he pms blind 
acenned, he was bom blind (John, ix, 20) ; Saxulf pxs gecoren to biscop, 
Saxulf was chosen (to) bishop (Chr., 056). See b, \ ^ 

fl 

287. — IL Attributive Combination. — An appoaitive 

agrees in case with its subject. 

Oflen also in gender and number. It is an undeveloped adjective clause, 
generally marked as such by tone and punctuation ; but in titles it some- 
times makes with its subject a kind of compound noun in English (see be- 
low, e) : pe, cildra, we, (who are) children (^Elf.) ; seo drpyrde f&mne 
Ecgburh abbodisse, Aldpulfes dohtor pass cyninges, sende pam drpyrdan 
pere Gudldce leddene pruh, the venerable maid Ecgburh abbess, Aldwulfs 
daughter the kingCs), sent to the venerable man GuthUc a leaden coffin 
(St. G., 18) ; Dryhten sylf, heofend hedhcyning,the Lord himself, heaven's 



AFPOSITTVES. 143 

high king (And., 6) ; pies sum his scipcs-man, ^a'» forespreeenan Adel- 
baldes, there was one, his boatmaE, the aforeaaid Athelbald'a (St. G., 23) ; 
freondscipe ii betpux nnc, mc and pe, friendship be betwixt us, me and 
thee (G., 31, 44) ; pid Bliedlan and Auilan, Huna cyningum, against Bled- 
la and Atlila, kings of Ihs Uuna (B£il., I, 13) ; spa ker men did, geonge 
and ealde, so here men io, young 3.nd old (C., 1200) ; hi Pegniad, ait 
udrum, they serie, each the others (Met., 35, 12). The appositive is some- 

descxiptlve, giving kind, condition, etc., of ita subject {cildra, abhodisse, 
dShtor, cyninges, keahcyning, scipes-man, etc., in examples ahore) ; 

definitive, a specific name after a general description, very comman in 
Anglo-Saxon {Ecgburk, GutUdc, Aitelbaldes), emphatic ("jlf). {Repeat- 
ed Subject. — A ptonoun + a name, aod a name + a pronoun, where the 
seeming atlributire Is really a repetition of the subject far clearer syntax, 
are very common : se H&lend, hifxsle, the Sayioui, he fasted, St. G., 9) ; 

partitiTe, giving pacts of ita subject, or ita whole {me and pe, cyningum, 
geonge and ealde). ExamplcB are introduced by spa spa (Latin ul, Gct- 
man aU) : sume bead langspeorede, spa spa spands, same (birds) are 
long-necked, as swans (St. B., 14) ; 

distributive {mlc). 

{a.) Adjectives are often appositives {geonge and ealde), eo pronouns. 

{b.) Sentences are often appositives, of^nest definitives begioning with 
p.-e!, after hit, pxl, ping, or the like indefinite subject : jla^i gelamp, pmt 
pSr com sum man, it happened, that there came a man (St. G., 9) ; hil 
{20); Ping {IS). 

{c.) Appositive for partitive genitive is found after sum: pd cp&don 
sume Pa biiceras, then quoth some (of) {the) scribes (Matt., is, 3) ; stime, 
hi comon, some (of them) they came (Mc, viij, 3). Risk gives tptgcn 
marc gold, two marks (of) gold. I have not found such forms in Anglo- 
Saxon -, but they are common tn Old Englisb, after the inflections had de- 
cayed (Lang., 1, 174 ; Ch., 7328). So German masse geld, pfund Jieisch, 
etc. The reverse, gold, two marks, is in Sanskrit, and down to English. 

(d.) Genitive for apposilive of material or place : ceastra Natzaredes 
for ceastre Nazareth, i.e. City of Nazareth = City Nazareth. ^ 313. 

{e.) Genitives in apposition all have their endings, where in Old English 
all but one drop it ; cyninges Aldpiilfss dahtor, kingCs) AldwulPs daugh- 
ter. See above. 

(/.) Ad appoaitive often fails to agree with its subject from onacolnthon : 
m'lnum hlaforde * • • Alfpold cyni-ag (nominative), to my lord — King Alf- 
wold (St. G., Prol.) ; se rica and se heana " * " ealle hi gel'ice se ttranga 
dead forgriped, the rich and the poor (nominative) — all these alibo strong 
death gripeth (St.G., 19). 

ig.) Number. Note cyningum, sTc, above. After a dual the name of 
the second person is used alone paititively : pit Scilting song ahofan, we, 
(I and) Seilling, raised a song (C. Ex., 32.1, 31) ; une Adame, to us, (mo 



144 NOMINATIVE.— VOCATIVE. 

and) Adam (C, 387) ; gU lohannis^ ye, (thou and) John (C. Ex., 467, 7). 
This idiom is found in O. II. German, is common in O. Norse. 

(A.) GiNDiR. Synesis. Substantives agree in natural rather than in 
grammatical gender: JElfl&djPxt miD<fcn,Alflcd,tho maiden (Hom.,ii,150). 

Nominative. 

« 

288. Tho subject of a finite verb is put in tho nomina- 
tive. 

JElfred cpwd, Alfred said ; God is god, God is good. 

(a.) Nominative independent. The subject of quasi-clauses of enmi- 
ciation is put in the nominative. Such are names and titles containing no 
predicative combination : pspt godspel wfttr Johannes gerecednysse, the 
Gospel according to John. Anacoluthon, ^ d87,/. Absolute, ^ 295. 

(6.) Repeated aubjeot. See ^ 287, definitive. 

(c.) Predicate nominative. See ^ 286. 

(d.) Attributive nominative. See ^ 287. 

(e,) Factitive object. A nominative of enunciation is often used in- 
stead of a factitive object after verbs of naming, calling, and the like : c/y- 
pode God his gefylsta, he called God his " helper*^ (Hom., 2, 82) ; hdtad 
hine Afenstiorra, they call it " evening star*'' (Met., 29, 30) ; gi clypiad me 
Lareop and Dryhten, ye call me " Master" and " Lord" (John, xiii, 13). 
This use of the oratio directa is the common form in Sanskrit, and has 
doubtless been common in all folkspeech. It is in the Greek of the New 
Testament ; the Latin Vulgate in such cases uses the vocative, as does the 
Greek sometimes. It is in the Gothic (0. H. German ?) and M. H. Ger- 
man. Compare ^^ 289, d ; 294. 

Vocative. 

289. A compellative is put in the vocative. 

Lareop, sege ponne. Lord, speak then (Luke, vii, 40) ; ed la geonga, 
young man (Luke, vii, 14) ; Id pu Itcetere, thou hypocrite (Matt., vii, 
5) ; hldford cyning, lord king (Ap., 7) ; Feeder ure, pu pe eart on heo- 
fenum, our Father, thou that art in the heavens (Matt., vi, 9) ; min, 
se spetesta sunnan sctma, Juliana, my (the) sweetest sunshine, Juli- 
ana (Ju., 166) ; Jlerra, se goda. Lord, the good (C. (G.), 678). 

(a.) A compellative is the subject of a quasi-clause of address. The ad- 
dress may be formal, a simple call, or an emphatic judgment {pu licetere). 
The vocative may have an interjection with it, or not ; it may enter into at- 
tributive combination with adjectives, appositives, clauses, etc. Note the 
use of an appositive with the definite article : Jlerra, se goda ; mtn, se spe- 
testa ; and compare French Monseigneur Varchevesque, etc. 

(b.) The weak form of the adjective is often used in the vocative without 
a definitive : leofa Beopulf, dear Beowulf (B., 1854). 



ACCUSATIVE.— IMPEESONAIS. 145 

(c.) La.tin vocatives arc aoDaetimes used : Thaharehe, Apolloni (Ap., 5, 



{d.) Quaai-claose. The vocative (with or without attributives) may en- 
ter into combioatioiiB as a clause. It nay be a direct object : manige 
cpedad, Dryhten, Dryhlen, many shall say, Lord, Lord (Matt., vii, 32); 
factitive objeot : hpi clypige gi me Dryhten, Dryhlen, why call ye me 
Lord, Lord? (Luke, vi, 4G). Compare ^ 288, e. 

(e.) The native grammarians in Sanskrit do not separate the vocative 
Trom the noraioative, hut think it a slightly modijied form for address. Its 
syntax is nearly the same in all out languages. 



Accusative. 
2S0. Objective Combinations. — l. The direct ol^ect 

of a verb is put in the accusative. It may bp 

I. A mateiia^ object moved, hit, or changed, or produced as an effect, 

by a transitive verb : ^one maMum hyrcd, he hears the treasure (B., 

2055) ; slormas alanclifu beotan, storms beal cliffs (Seaf., 23) ; ic 

dhyrde keortan, 1 will harden hia heart (Esod., iv, 21) ; seip pyrcan, 

to build a ship (C.,1302). (Madm'>maddum,Otm. maddmesa.) 

{a.) Persons and abstractions may also bo conceived as material objects 

of act or thought: se pmt pkg byrd, he whom that horse bears (El., 11B6) ; 

ic here dryhtnes domds, I bear the lord's commands (D., 744). 

{b.) Transitive verbs express an exercise of the appetites (eat, drink, 
etc.), the aenaes (see, hear, etc.), (he senaibtltlies Oove, hate, etc.), the in- 
lellect (know, tliink, etc.) ; raovemcntE — moving an object, or keeping it 
from moving (set, lay, raise, carry, heave, have, hold, marry, catch, late, 
give, lead, throw, drive, call forth, send forth, speak, etc), hitting or moving 
towards it (strike, follow, etc.), changing its form or condition (break, tear, 
harden, cover, sprinkle, etc.), making an object (do, make, work, build, etc), 
caiisalive acts. Verbs expressing these notions as affecting the whole of a 
materia! object govern the accusative throughout the Indo-European tongoes. 
(f.) Persons may be conceived as suffering objects of their appetites. 

Impersonals of aj>petite or passion govern an acoasative 

of the peison euffei'ing. 

Afc ^yrjle, it Ihirsled me = I suffered thirst (Matt., xxv, 35) ; me hin- 
grede, I suffered hunger (Matt., xxv. 35) ; hme lyste, it listed hini = 
he suffered list (B., 1793) ; mec longSde, I longed (Ki., 14) ; tnS apri/t, 
it irks me, aprcolan pegn (Sch., 21) ; us platad, we loathe (Num., 21, 5). 
So hreopan, rue (C„ 1278) ; gem&tan, dream (D., 122) ; eglian, aU (!) 
(Bosworth, Ett. their example a. mistake) ; l&elan, tickle (?), it tibeleth 
me (Chaucer, C. T,, 6053). Koch says passives of these impersonals 
take an accusative ; so Grein, his rnandryhtea (ace.) gem&led peard 
K 



146 KEFLFIXIVES.— COGNATES.— TWO OBJECTS. 

(D., 157) ; but dryhten is nom., '* his lord (was) had dreamed ;** so pms 
monig gelysted (Met., 1,0); ic pms ofpyrsted (Seel., 40) ; ic eom of" 
longdd (Kl., 29) ; no accusatives found. 

{d.) RefleziTes. — Many verbs may take an accusative of the reflexive pro- 
noun : hine sylfne dheng, ho hung himself (Matt., xxvii, 5) ; apende hine 
sylfne to Gode^ he turned himself to God (Chr., 1067). Sylf^ self, is not fre- 
quent in early Anglo-Saxon. Some verbs get to have a reflexive sense 
without the pronoun : he gehealh hine^ he swelled himself = he was wrathful 
(Luc, XV, 28) ; ge belgad, ye are wrathful (John, vii, 23) ; he bepohte hine^ 
he bethought him (Luc, xv, 17) \^g&st hine fysed^ the spirit hastens (it- 
selQ (Ex., 178, 7) ; ic me teste, I rest me (Ex., 494, 8) ; reste Pat fole hit, 
the people rested (itself) (Exod., xvi, 30) ; gegadorode micel folc hit^ 
much people gathered itself (Chr., 921) ; pamiad cop, beware (yourself) 
(Matt., vii, 15) ; pene pec, wont thee (Fath., 62) ; se H&lend bepende 
{hine), the Savioof went (him) (Matt, ix, 22 ; Mc, v, 30). In Sanskrit 
the reflexive is incorporated with the verb, and makes a nyddle voice (^ 150, 
a). So in Greek, but not in Latin. Traces of the middle are found in 
Gothic, but in the main it and the other Teutonic tongues work like the An- 
glo-Saxon. Intransitives take a dative reflexive, as do some of the above 
sometimes. See ^ 298, c. 

291. — II. A definitive object repeating more specifically the notion 
of the verb : (cognate accusative), demad rihtne dom, judge righteous 
judgment (John, vii., 24) ; (more specific), sang hildeleod, it sang a 
war-song (Jud., 211). 

(a.) The verb may be transitive or intransitive. 

(h.) The simple cognate alone is tautological. An adjective + definitive 
= adverb. The transition from the effect to the cognate is easy, and is al- 
ready made in Sanskrit. The definitive has a widely extended use in Greek, 
and in German and English is co-ordinate in importance with the material 
object. 

292. Double Ol](ject.— Some verbs of asking and teach- 
ing' may have two accttsatives^ one of a person and the other 
of a thing. 

(a.) So in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, O. H. German, etc. 

(b,) Asking. Verbs of asking may have the second object cognate (ask 
him questions), exciting (ask him a. favor) or (ask him about Vishnu), The 
third form is the common one in Sanskrit ; the first and second in Greek, 
Latin, O. H. German : hig hine ne dorston &nig ping dcsian, they durst not 
ask him any question (Luke, xx, 40) ; hig hine past bigspel acsodon, they 
asked him about the parable (Mc, iv, 10) ; hi hine bissen gefrugnum 
(same, vii, 17, Northumbrian) ; spa hpxt spa heo hine b&de, whatever favor 
she might ask him (Matt., xiv, 7). This construction is rare in Anglo- 



SUBJECT ACCUSATTVE.— PACTITIVES. 



Saxon ; generally we hare accusative of person -j- gen i live of thing (+ da- 
live of person for whom) ; or (2d) icc. of pers. + infinitive (or clause) ; or 
(3d) ace. of pers. + ymbe, he, stfler (concernine), and an aco. of thing ; or 
(4th) the person follows to or s!t, the thing ia an ace, or gen. 
' (c) Teach is a, causative of /earn in Sanskrit pks'aja, Causatives gov- 
ern an accusative + the case of the included verb : ne meakton pe gel&ran 
leofne peSden r&d &nignc, we might not teach the dear lord any counsel 
(B., 3079). T&can, teach, takes the accusative of thing + dative of person, 
{d.) The passivea seem not to take an accusative in Anglo-Saxon, as they 
do in Greek, Latin, English, etc. 



203. Quasi-predicative Combinations. — I. The sub- 
ject of an infinitive is put in tbe accusative. 

Secgad hine libban, they say that he lives (Luke, isiv, 23) ; 
geseah stTeam uf brecan, he saw a streatn break out (B,, 2546). 
(n.) This accusative is grammatic^ly the object of the preceding verb; 
but after verba of perceiving and declaring, wishing and expressing a tcisb, 
and some others, the logical object Is the infinitive clause, and gratnmarianB 
use this rule. Cases to which it applies are not found in Sanskrit, have a 
wide range in Greek and Latin, are rare in Anglo-Saxon. See ^ 286, b. 



294. — II. A predicate noun denoting the same person or thing as 
subject agrees with it in case (^ 286) : pe pitun pe bilepitne pesan, ' 
know thee to be gentle {MUc). Under this rule come some 



-(«.) Some verba of making, naming, re- 

FB two aocvsatioei of llie aame person or ihinj 



Factitives. 
gar ding may b; 

IIS his cnglds ded ledele gdsids, he makes noble souls Lis angela (Psa. 
ciii, 5) ; seS ea, Pa perds Eufralen nemnad, the river, which mei 
name Euphcaics (C, 334); tocneopon Crist sadne man, they recog 
nized Christ as a true man (Horn., t, 106); hi hine purdodon sSdne God, 
they worshipped him as tme God (Hom.,i, 108). 
■ (b.) Verbs of making, naming, regarding, perceiving, finding, having, li 
ing, and the like, may take an accusative adjective as a factitive ohject. 
For Anglo-Saxon verbs, see passivea in ^ 280, c. 

(c.) Verbs of maklag (choosing, etc.) in Sanskrit may have t 
satives,hut usually the factitive ia a locative. So in Anglo-Saxon 
ally construed with lo or for. See ^ 386, b. 
\d.) Verbs of naming. See ^ 288, e. 

(e.) Verba of regarding have two accusatives in Sanskrit and after. 
(/) When the factitive ia in the accuaative, it ia drawn into agreement 
with its quasi-suhject, the direct object of the verb. 



148 DATIVE.— OBJECTIVE COMBINATIONS. 

295. Adverbial Oomblnatlons.— Tho extent of time 
and space is put in tho aocusatiye after verbs. 

(a.) So in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, etc. 

Hitfdon sumne dAl peges gefaren^ they had gone some part of the way 
(Gen., xlir, 4) ; ealle ntht spincendetilX night toiling (Luc, y, 5). 

(b.) Excess of measure (datire) : anne sUtpefurdor, one step further (Jos., 
X, 12) ; — instrument: grws ungrene^ not green with grass (C, 117, 812) ; — 
absolute : dseg scrtdende, day dawning (Gil., 1011 ; C, 183, nom. abs.?), ^ 
301, d. Milton*s me overthrown (Sam. Ag.,463) is classic affectation. 

(c.) The accusative is used with prepositions to denote an 
object towards which, or to, on, or over which an action 
extends. For examples, see Prepositions. 

Dative. 

20G. The dative in Anglo-Saxon denotes relations of four old 
cases : 

1. Dative, the person to whom something is given, or for whom some- 
thing is or is done. 

2. Instrumental, that with which an act is done or associated. 

3. Ablative, that from which something is separated or distinguished. 

4. Locative, the time or place in which. 

Objective Combinations. 

297. An object of influence or interest is put in the da- 
tive. 

L Object of Inflaence, the person to whom something is given. The 
giving may be figurative ; material objects or abstractions may be con- 
ceived as persons. The object given may be expressed as an accusa- 
tive, or implied in the governing word. 

(a.) This dative is oftenest found after verbs of 

giving (paying, offering, loaning, etc.) : ealle pas ic sylle pS, all these I 
give thee (Matt., iv, 9) ; so gifan, forgifan, l&nan^ lednian, dgyldan, 
geunnauj ttdian, onlthan, pyman, forpyman, etc. ; 

address = giving words (say, bid, forbid, answer, thank, chide, judge, prom- 
ise, advise, etc.) : ic secge pi, I say to thee (Matt., xvi, 18) ; so c^dan, 
bebeodan, command, /oricoc/an, ansparian^ pancian, cidan, deman^ r&^an ; 

gesture : ^eacntan, beckon, bugan, bow, hnigan^ lutan^ stupian, ody party etc. ; 

obeying = giving thought (listen to, obey, follow, etc.) : hig hlyston him, 
let them listen to them (Luc, xvi, 29) ; that which is obeyed is often 
conceived as personal : minum Idrum hyre, hear to my precepts (C, 105, 
8) ; so gehyrsumian, fylgian, heorcnian. So exciting thought (seeming. 



DOXIBLE OBJECT. 



149 



etc.) : manegum men Pyncit, it seems to many a man (Boet., 30, 1) ; mt 
Jiyncd, methinks (Boet., 33, 1), etc. 
glTins feeliuB; (pity, mourn, honor, truat, etc.) : gemiltsa tnmum suna, 
(give) pity (to) my son (Matt., XTii, 14) ; ara plnum fatder, (give) honor 
(to) thy father (^If. L., 1, 4) ; ho heiargian, Ireopian, Ireopsiaa, gety- 
fan. Here also giving =^exeiting (please, sootlie, still, etc.) : Jiamfolce 
gecpeman, to please the people (Mc, xr, 15) ; so liillan, vleecan, and 
ImperBoaals : Aim ne sceamode, it did not shame him (Geo., ii., S5) ; 
o/puhle (Sat., 247) ; langad (B., 187B), etc. 
giTiiiB aid (help, serve, defend, injure, ete.) : pi tnonegum helpst, thou 
hclpcst many (Hy. , vii, 44) ; heS him penode, she miniatered to them (Mc, 
i, 31) ; Eo fremian, peopian, dcHan, fylslait, styran, chastise, etc. : lii 
me pd dydan, they did me woo (Psa., cxviii, 138) ; do pel pSm, ia well 
to thD3e(P8a.,ciKiv, 4). 

{&■) Adjeotives of the ahove senses, especially of tliouglit and feellue;: 
dnum gehyrsum, ohedient to one (Matt., vi, 24) ; geirype hlaforde minum, 
true to my lord (.^Ifrc) ; pom btsceope cud, known to the bishop (John, xviii, 
15); icd/Gode,deirto God (C.ivi, 17) ; /remrfe, strange (B.,1691). 

(c.) Some of these words nay take a genltiTe of the non-personal ob- 
ject ; Alysl his pordd, listen to his words (Nic, 3) ; or even of a personal 
object ; so helpan, gdyfan, piitaaean, pancian, tTCopian, miltsian, gefcon, 
sceamian, etc. See under Genitive, The notion of the verb may be con- 
ceived as given to the object, or as had as belonging to, or excited hy 
him, e. g. gelyfan —give confidence Co him (dative) or have confidence in 
him (genitive) ; helpan-=give help la him or be his help. In Sanskrit the 
genitive may he used for most datives of this kind. The early Greek has 
much of the same freedom. The Latin is more fixed thin the Gothic, 0. 
H. Gorniin, or Anglo-Sason. 

((?.) Double Oliject. — Verbs of granting, refuBing, an J 
thanking may take a dative and genitive- 

Ic feores pi unnan pille, I will grant (to) thee (of) life (Es., 254, 4) ; so 
onlihan, pyman, ttilian ; me jixs forpymdc paldcnd, tlie lord lefuaed 
me that (C, 2219) ; pancian his dryhlne p,Ts teanes, to thank his lord 
for Iho gift (C, 357). See under Genitive. 

298. — II. Object of Interest, the person for whom something is or is 
done. 

(n.) Dative of advantage or disadvantage (verbs) ; bwd him hlafai 
pyrcan, bade make loaves for him (Sal., 673) ; polde hire bUr atimbran, 
wished to hnilda bower /or herself (R., '30, b); him heakcyning pif Speahle, 
for him (Adam) the high king a wife raised Dp (C, 172) ; (adieoUTes) : 
pS is betcre p^t an pinra lima forpeorde, it is better for thee that one of 
thy limbs perish (Matt., v, 29) ; nyllre him p&re, it would be better for 
A.™(Luc.,xvii,2). 



150 ASSOCIATION.—MASTEBY. 

(b.) Dative of PospMwor: him pms gepealdf to him was (=he had) 
powei (Cri., 228) ; pAm ne byd ndnes godes pana, to them is lack of no 
good (Psa., xxxiii, 0) ; Gode si puldor^ to God be glory (Lac, ii, 14) ; pa 
byd pam^ woe is to him (Ex., 444, 25) ; so afler intexjeotioiis : pa Pom 
men^ woe to the man (Matt., xviii, 7) ; pel p&re heorde, well foi Uie herd 
(Leg. Cnut., ii, 84, 2). A favorite in Greek and Latin ; not so in Teutonic. 
The Sanskrit thus uses a genitive. A second dative takes a preposition. 

(c.) Refleadve, afler verbs meaning take : nim pi pis ofset on hand, 
take for thee this fruit in hand (C, 518) ; be, remain, etc. : p&ron him on 
Cent, they were for themselves in Kent (Chr., 1000) ; beod eop stUle, be 
still for yourselves (Exod., xiv, 14) ; so stod, stood (Gen., xviii, 8) ; sset, 
sat (Gen., xxi, 16), etc. ; move, go, etc. : gepdt him, he departed /or him- 
self =he was off with himself (C, 2884) ; so cyrde (Chr., 1016) ; ferde 
(1009) ; trmd (B., 1881) ; gd (An., 1350) ; hpearf (C, 447) ; sometimes 
pende (Chr., 1016 ; $ 290, d) ; fear, etc. : ondred he him, he feared for 
himself (John, xix, 8) ; so with pile, wish (Ex., 450, 18) ; piste, knew (C, 
445) ; hleodrede (Ex., 185, 3) ; hafde, had ; gelyfed, believeth ; peaxan, 
grow, etc. (Grein, s. v.). These are substitutes for the middle voice. See 
^ 290, d. Many of them resemble the ethical dative. Most would be ex- 
pletive in English. 

299. Association. —Words of nearness and likeness 
govern the dative. 

He pam huse genedhl&hte, he came near to the house (Luc, xv, 25) ; 
geltc pdm leohtum steorrum, like the bright stars (C, 17, 7). 

(a.) Here belong some words of meeting, association, contention, and the 
like ; of bringing near, receiving, touch ; of imitation, agreement, etc. : 

geefenl&can, pidstandan, forstandan, pidpinnan, tidan, hrtnan, onfon ; 
imperaonals : hit licode HeWode, it was suited to Herod (Matt., xiv, 6) ; 

so becyme, becometh (Mc. (D.), xiv, 31) ; gedafenad (Luc, iv, 43); 

gertsed (Ex., 1, 5) ; gebyrad (John, x, 13). 

{b.) This relation takes the instrumental (or genitive, nearness sometimes 
the locative) in Sanskrit ; the dative in Greek, Latin, Gothic, etc. Some 
of the words may govern in other relations an accusative, genitive, or in- 
strumental : hrtnan, onfon, 

300. Mastery (use). — The instrumental or dative may 
denote an object of mastery : 

pdm pApnum pealdan, to have power over the weapons (B., 2038) ; 

py ponge pealdan, to have the mastery of the field (Giith., 674) ; 

peold Hunum, ruled the Huns (Wid., 18) ; py rice rsbdan, to rule the 
realm (Dan., 8, 688). Ruling may be conceived as transitive, or as 
giving law or direction to a dative, or as being master of a genitive, 
or as being strong by means of an instrumental : pealdan > English 



ADVERBIAL COMBINATIONS^.— IN8TBTJMESTALS. 



151 



wield gDveins the dulive in Gothic and O. Norse, the genitive in O. H. 
German, in Anglo-Saxon, like Latin potior, the ace, gen. (dat.), instr. ; 
T&dan goierns the gen. in 0. Saxon and M. H. German, in Anglo-Saxon 
often the instrumental or dative, the dative elsewhere ; irucon (Lai. 
Jnior), use (Bed., 4, 19) : tteolan, use (An., Sll), take the ace, gen., 
instr., dat. 



301. Separation. — Some verbs of separation may take 
an object fraax. which in the dative or instnunentaL 

(a.) TraQsitive verhs of this kind take an accusative + a dative; met 
bcscyredc catlum, he deprived me of all (Rid., 41, 101) ; passive : tegl- 
dum beicyredne, deprived of shields (Mod,, 8) ; -f instrumental ; hi rihte 
licnitman, to rob them of their right (C, 129, 32) ; hint hea/de iiecearf, he 
cut him off from hia head (B., 1590) ; Sei^an, deprive (B.,721). 

(i.) Intranaitlves: hi feondum odfarea ha/don, Ihej had escaped the 
fiends (Enod.,64). So adjectives : drihtne fremde, far from God (C., 105). 

(e.) The old case here is the ablative, n-bich is retained in Latin. The 
Greek uses the genitive. The Anglo-Saxon has oftenest the genitive, then 
the instrumental, sometimes a dative. 



Atlverbiai Comhinations, 
302.— I. Instmmentals.— («.) Tlie instrumental or da- 
tive luay denote inatroment, means, manner, or cause : 

tpehban speardc. to kill with sword (B., C79) ; edgum geseah, saw with 
eyes (C., 51, 3) ; pordam kenan, to praise with words (C, 1, 4) ; 
cognate of manner : gefallode pam faUuhle, baptized in the baptism 
(that I am) (Mc, s, 38) ; luitfullian pan biscopes pordum, to rejoice 
because of the bishop's words (B6d., 2, 9) ; adjective* ; ftdrum tnell, 
swift with wings (Ex., 206, 7) ; ancrum fatste, fast by means of an- 
chors (El., 252) ; fedrum ttrong, strong in respect of wings (Ex., 
303, 18) ; mundum freong, freezing in my hands (An., 491). Greek 
dative, Latin ablative represent these old inetiumentals. 
(b.) Dativo of the Agent. Passive verbs take the agent with a prep- 
osition {/ram, purk, etc,) : gesealde Jram mtmim fisder. given by my la- 
ther (Malt., xi, 37) ; gecpeden park pone p'Uegan (ace.), spoken by the 
prophet (Matt., iii., 3). The dative after some verbals might he put hets : 
Gode lind mihteitce pd ping, to God the things are possible (Luc, TTvlii, ST). 
Sanskrit here uiea the instrumental regularly ; Greek often, Latin some- 
times, a dative without a preposition. 

(■:.) Tlie instnunental or dative may denote price : 

anum penninge gebaht, bought with one penny (Matt. (D.), x, SD) ; usu- 



ally after pid o 



a genitive, 



152 DATIVE.— ADVERBIAL. 

(</.) The instmmental or dative may denote meaiure of 
differenoe : 

sponne lengra JfiBre pryh, longer than tlio coffin by a span (B^d., 4, II) ; 
micle md sceape hctercy better than r. sheep by much more (Matt, xii, 
12) ; 80 micelum (Greg.) ; micelre (B6d., iv, 13). 

(6.) The Inttnunental or dative may denote an object 
•worn by : 

mec pine life hedUode^ he swore mo by thy life (B., 2131) ; oflenest after 
purh ox for, 

803.-11. Ablatives.— The comparative degree may gov- 
ern a dative. 

Mara lohanne fuUuhtere^ greater than John the Baptist (Matt, xi, II) ; 
betera manegum spearpum^ better than many sparrows (Luc, xii, 7). 
The nominatire, with ponne, than, is more common. The instnunental 
is found. The Sanskrit uses the ablative, sometimes the instrumental ; 
the Greek the genitive ; the Latin the ablative ; other Teutonic tongues 
are like Anglo-Saxon. 

804.-111. Locatives.— (a.) The dative may denote time 
when or place where. 

Odrum dwge hine hyngrode^ the second day he hungered (Mc, xi, 12) ; 
Pam priddan dmge he dnst, the third day he arises (Matt., xx, 10) ; 
so iiiBtniniental : Py syxtan monde, on the sixth month (B6d., i, 3). 

(5.) It may denote a repetition of times : on dmg seofen stttum syngact, 
sinneth seven times a day (Luc, xvii, 4). 
(c.) The dative of place takes a preposition. 

Quasi-predicative Combination. 

(d,) Dative absolute. — A substantive and participle in 
the dative may make an adverbial clause of time, cause, 

or coexistence (§ 278, d, § 295, 5, time with 5e, bi, § 334). 

Him sprecendum, hig comon, they came, while he was speaking (Mc, v, 
35) ; pinre dura belocenre, bide, thy door having been locked, pray 
(Matt., vi, 6), so still a dative in Wyclifie. Sanskrit uses thus 
different cases to denote different relations; the locative- is the most 
common. The Greek has the genitive oflenest ; the Latin the abla- 
tive. The Teutonic languages use this construction seldom. Time 
when, not absolute, is put in the dative in Greek. 

305. With Prepositions.— The dative with a preposi- 
tion may denote an object of influence or interest, asso- 



IHSTRUMESTAl.— GENITrVE. 153 

ciation, mastery, or separation ; or an instmniental, 
ablative, or locative adverbial relation. For examples, eee 

PreposilioDS. 

Insteuuental. 

306.— I. The Proper Infltramental. See g§ 290, 300, 302. 

Tlie plutal instrunientB.1 cniiin^s are loEt wholly,, the eingular nEarly. 
The dative generally takes their place. Tlie surviving endings are found 
Eomettmes in ablative and locative uses. They are lost also in Greek and 
Latin (!j^ 303, 70, a). O. H. German and O. Sason have a. few eingnlai 
examples, Gothic only pcanouns. 

307.— IL Ablative uses. See |§ 301, 303. 

308. — III. Locative wses. See § 304. 

Genitive. 

309. The Aiiglo-Snxon genitive denotes relations of four old 
cases : 

1. The genitive, the possessor and personal adjnnct. 

2. The ablative, that from which any thing ia separated. 

3. The inBtruinental, by which any ihing is or is done. 

4. The locative, the time or place in which, "^he genitive is already 
in the Sanskrit Ino^ely used for all the other obliqoe cases. 

Attributive Combinations. 
310. — I. Possessive.— An attributive genitive may de- 
dote tbe possessor or author of its subject. 

The Bnhject may be 
material wealtli ; /its sjieorde, his sword (Mc, siv, 47) ; 
quality : engles hip, angel's beauty (Jul., 244) ; 

peraona had or related : Gode» jnopds, God's actvanla (LL. In., 1) ; Of- 
Jan dahtor, Offa'a daughter {Chr., 787) ; Incs brodor, Ine'a brother (Chr., 
718); officers: Can(/»ara eyning-, Kentish men's king (Chr., 837). 
Any thing conceived as belonging to another : Apnllmies hand, Apollonios' 
hand (Ap., 21); pSra apoitola lare,t\ie apostles' lore (BM.,4. 25); Mlf- 
rcdea dSmdi, Alfred's laws ; husei duru, house's door (St. G., I). 

311. — ir. An attributive genitive may denote tbe sub- 
ject or object of a verbal. 

Subjeotlve genitivo : Goi/ej ^i/s, God's gift (LL. In., Pream.); IpegrS 
manna gepitnes, two men's testimony (John, Tiii, 17) ; eyningei hits, 
king's command CC, 8, 14). 



154 GENITIVE.— PAKTITIVE, ClIARACTERISTIC. 

Objective genitive : Godes egsa^ fear of God (Ex., 344, 30) ; synnd 
forgifenneSf forgiveness of sins (Matt., xxvi, 38) ; huntunge heorta, 
hunting of harts (B6d., 1, 1). 

312.— III. Partitive.— An attributive genitive may de- 
note the whole of which its subject is part. 

Se norddAl middangeardes^ the north part of the eartli (B6d., 1, 1) ; 
reste dsrges Afene, the evening of the Sabbath (Matt, xzviii, 1). 

(a.) The subject a pronoun : hpwt godes do ic^ what of good do I ? 
(Matt., xix, 16) ; hpxt peorcesj what sort of work (^If.) ; so hprnder^ hpylc^ 
ealj sunit wlctgehpd, gehpylc, &n%g,piht^ ndht^ etc. \—p&r^ adv. (C, 384, 34). 

(h.) The subject a numeral : an his cnihtd, one of his disciples (Lnc, 
xi, 1) ; Arest ealrd, first of all (C, 4, 32). Compare rf, below. 

(c.) The subject a superlative : s&dd Imst^ least of seeds (Matt, xiii, 
32) ; husd sclest, best of houses (B., 140). Very common is «a/ra 4|,a su- 
perlative ; ealrd rtcost, richest of all, etc., whence old English alder^rsij 
a/e/^rliefest, etc. (Ch. Sh.). 

{d.) The subject an aggregation or measure of objects or material : 
mycele manegeo fixd, a great crowd 6f fishes (Luc, v, 6) ; heord spynd, herd 
of swine (viii, 32) ; hund mittend hp&tes, a hundred of measures of wheat 
(xvi, 7) ; fusend pundd goldes, a thousand of pounds of gold (LL. ^thd., 
II, 7, 2). This should be distinguished from the characteristic genitive of 
material (^ 313, b). This is very common, that rare ; this is Sanskrit gen. 

(e.) A cognate genitive may denote the eminence of its subject: cy- 
ningd cyning^ king of kings (Ex., 9, 17) ; dredmd dream, joy of joys (36, 
22) ; heofond heofonds, heaven of heavens (Psa., cxlviii, 4) ; and so abun- 
dantly in Anglo-Saxon, 0. Norse. 

313.— IV. Characteristic— An attributive gemtive 
may denote a characteristic of its subject. 

In Sanskrit a characteristic takes the instrumental, in Greek (rare) the 
genitive, in Latin (frequent) the ablative or genitive. 

{a.) Quality : fasgeres hipes men, men of fair aspect (Hom., ii, 180). 

{b.) Material : scennum sctran goldes, patens of pure gold (B., 1694) ; 
rare : material as characteristic is almost always expressed by an adjective 
{gylden, golden), or a compound (gold-fset, gold vessel), or a preposition 
{redf of h&rum, garment of hair (Matt., iii, 4)). Compare § 312, d, 

(c.) Age : lamb ones gedres, lamb of one year (Horn., ii, 262). 

(d.) Size : fen unm&tre mycelnesse, fen of immense size (St 6., 3) ; 
so weight, value, and the like: penegd peorde, pennies- worth (John,vi,7). 

(e.) Name : hit ofetes noman dgan sceolde, it the name (of) apple must 
have (C, 719) ; he forleort ceastra Natzaredes, he left the city (of) Naza- 
reth (Northumbrian Matt., iv, 13). The West Saxon uses the appositive 
Nazarect, Britene tgland, island (of) Britain (Chr., 1 ; Bdd., 1), is doubt- 



PREDICATIVE— EXCmXG OBJECT. 155 

fuL The Greek and Latin used this genitiTe sometimeSy the Fieoch often, 
aad it became codudod in Semi-Saxon. 

IVtdieatice Combincaions. 

314. A predicate sabstAntiye maj be pot in the g^enitiTe 
to denote a possessor or characteristic of the subject, or 
a whole of which it is part. 

Possessor : Dryktmes sind pa ricuj the kingdoms are the Lord's (Psa., 
yii, 26) ; ge CrisUs sind, ye are Christ's (Mc, ix, 41). Chazacter- 
istic : Pa pseron ongrisRees andplUam, they were of grislj coonte- 
nanee (Bed., 5, 13) ; ke pau scearpre gleapnessej he was of sharp 
wit (5, 19) ; sto pms micelre bfiedoj it was of great breadth (5, 12) ; 
i^ /^ex /orre, (iO he were (of hfe) alire (LL. ^thd., n, 9, 3) ; he X 
pintra sUj he maj be of ten years (LL. H. & Ed., 6). P aitilive : *e 
abbot pau godera manna j the abbot was of good men (Chr., 1066). 

(a.) The predicate genitire may be osed perhaps in all the relations of 
the attribotiTe genitire. Compare the Latin and Greek Grammars (Had- 
ley, 572). 

(&.) Qoasi-|gedicatf¥e. The genitire may be osed for a predicate- 
accosatire adjectire (^ 294) : Hig gesapan pone siUan gescrydne and kales 
modes, they saw him sit clothed and of sound mind (Mc, t, 15). 

Objective Combinations, 

These are mostly secondary, either abridged or acquired. In most of 
them one of the common relations of the attribotiTe genitire may be con- 
ceired between the genitire and the notion of the rerb or adjectire with 
which it combines: he fears t7 = he Ytusfear of it; he remembers i7=he 
has remem b rance of it. 

315. TTxciting Object.— The genitive may doiote an ex- 
citilig object. 

That which soggests or excites a mental state or an act is its exciting 
object. The most common states or acts taking this object are 

I. Feelines— joy, sorrow, pride, shame, longing, lore, hope, fear, care, won- 
der, etc. Vertis : peodnes gefegon, they joyed in the lord (B., 1627) : 
mcrdres gylped, he exnlts at murder (B., 2055) ; pikre feohgifte scami^ 
gan^ to be ashamed of the gift (B., 1026) ; gUpes pu gimest, thoo yeam- 
est for £une (Boeth., 32) ; ondred he >a», he feared that (John, xix, 8) ; 
psepna ne reced, he recks not of weapons (B., 434) ; pundrige f miles tmS- 
nan, wonder at the foil moon (Met, 28, 40) ; so begym (Lnc., x, 35) ; 
pilnian (An., 1130) ; pyscad (Goth., 194), and see ^ 297, c. A^jeo- 
tires : fxgen sides, gbd of the joomey (An., 1043) ; sides perig, weary 
of the joomey (B., 579) ; godes gr^dig, greedy of good (SoL, 344). 



156 GENITIVE.— PARTITIVE.— SEPARATION. 

II. Intellectual Btates — remember, forget, think of, listen, etc. Verbs : 
gemun pines pordes, remember thy word (Psa., cxviii, 49); Godes hi 
forgedtofit they forgot God (Psa., cv, 18); pence pe ndnes yfeles, we 
think no evil (Gen., xlii, 31) ; hlyst his pordd, listen to his words (Nic, 
3). Adjectives : gemyndige Lodes pifes, mindful of Lot's wife (Luc, 
xvii, 31) ; unpis pass naman, ignorant of the name (B^d., 4, 13). 

III. Acts related with such states of mind — laugh, pray, help, try, watch, 
remind, etc. : pxt pif dhloh drihtnesy the woman laughed at the lord (C, 
2380); fl&sces hi Mdon, they prayed for flesh (Psa., civ, 35); hidan 
pines eftcymesj watch for thy return (Ex., 466, 33) ; help mm, help me 
(Psa., Ix, 1) ; Hptfandige ge mtn, why tempt ye me? (Matt., xxii, 19) ; 
min costode, tried after me (B.,2084). Adjectives: gearo (Jul., 49). 

(a.) Verbs of asking, accusing, reminding may take an 
accusative and genitive (§§ 292, 297, a) : 

pS hiddan dnre bene, to ask thee of one thing (B., 427) ; dcsian (B^d.,4, 
3) ; tyhd me untreopdd, accuseth me of untruths (C, 36, 33) ; usic 
pdrd lednd gemonian, to remind us of the loans (Ex., 333, 19). 

(b,) Verbs of granting, refusing, and thanking may take 
a dative and genitive. See § 297, d. 

(c.) Impersonals may take a genitive and an accusative or dative 
of the person excited : hine &tes lysted, he longs for food, § 290, c (Wal., 
52) ; him pass ne sceamode, it did not shame him of that, ^ 297, a (Gen., 
ii, 25). 

(d,) Reflezived may take the reflexive pronoun and a genitive : on- 
dred he htm pass, he dreaded (him) of that (John, xix, 8). 

(e.) In Sanskrit the exciting object is regularly an ablative, but many of 
the verb notions here specified already take a genitive ; in Greek the geni- 
tive is established, in Latin frequent ; in Teutonic, genitives, datives (instru- 
mentals), and accusatives combine often with the same verb. 

316. Partitive. — The genitive may denote an object af- 
fected in part. 

Afler verbs of sharing and touch : genam pass ofwtes, he took of the 
fruit (C, 493) ; ast pisses ofsetes, he ate of this fruit (C, 500, 564) ; pass 
passtmes onbdt, bit of the fruit (C, 470) ; ic hashhe his her, I have (some) 
of it (the fruit) here (C, 678) ; his hrinan, to take hold of it (C, 616); 
p^pnd onfon, to take hold of weapons (C, 2040). So in other languages. 
In the Romanic tongues, and sometimes in Anglo-Saxon, a preposition is 
used. See of. 

317. Separation (ablative). — ^The genitive may denote an 
object of separation. (Compare § 301.) 

(a.) Many transitive verbs of separation take an accusative of the 




person and a genitive : ienaimart Crist rices, to deprive Clirist of tlie 
kingdom (C.,2S6,3) ; fata hine bere^/ian, rob him of his goods (Matt., xii, 
39) ; hine ganges getp&man, tfl hinder him from flight (B., 967) ; getp&- 
fed (B., 1763) ; gecmnsa (Pa. C, 112) ; her&dde (An., 1328). 

(J.) Intraaaltlves — cease, need, misa, etc. : God gespdc his pearccs, 
God CBsaed from his work (Gen., ii, 3) ; ealdres liiman, to be deprived of 
life (B., 2443) ; jiingA bejiurfon, have need of things (Matt., Ti, 33) ; belia- 
fad(B&i.,i,2b)i misle mercelses, missed the marit (B.,2439); p^s sates 
ansaced, deviate from the truth (Sol,, 1S3). Adjectives: buendra leas, 
empty of inhaliilants (C, 6, 16) ; f denes cl^ne, clean of crime (Ex., 276, 13] ; 
unespanajif tig, &{ty less one (An., 1043) ; bed&led,^. p. (C., 276, fl). 

318. Supremacy. — The g:enitiTe may denote an object of 
supremacy or use. 

Godpealded manna cynncs, God rules the laoe of men (Psa., Iviii, 13). 
See ^ 300. 

319. Material. — The genitive or instrumental may de- 
note the material of. which any thing is made or full. Com- 
pare § 303, a. 

Pst fait hades gefylde, filled the vessel with lead (Ex., 277, 10) ; ofm- 
tes gehimdene, laden with fruit (C, 401); peas eorde is berende fuge- 
Id, the land ia full (bearing) of birds (Bed., 1,1); adjectiveB ; fstful 
ecedes, vesael full of vinegar (John, six, 29) ; gdsie (Luc., iv, 1). 

(a.) The material alter a verb of making takes a preposition. ^ 394, c. 

(5.) The material ia put in the genitive in some other relations. § 334. 

320. Measure. — The genitive in combination with adjec- 
tives may denote measure. Compare g| 295, 302. 

(fl.) Space, dimension ; f'lftiges fot-gemearces lang, fifty paces long 
(B., 3043) ; fIftSna monnes ilnd dcop, fifteen man's elia deep (C, 1397). 

(*.) Time ; he pses hundnigontiges pinlrd eaid, he was (of) ninety (of) 
wintors old (B6d., 3, 97) ; oftenest English {twelve) years old is in Anglo- 
Saxon a compound adjective {tpelf) pintre (Luo.,ii, 43; viii,43; Gon., v,C). 

(c.) Price, value : ji> pcningA pyrde, sixpence worth (Rask) ; is pyrde 
Us meles, ia ivorthy of liia meat (Malt., i, 10). Compare \lj 309, 313, d. 

(rf.) Crimo: morrfj'M scyMig-, guilty of murder (B., 1693) ; deddea sct/I- 
dig, deserving of death (Matt., xxvi, 66). Also dative and instniraental. 

321. Adjunct. — The genitive in combination with a(]jeo- 
tives may denote the part or relation in which the quality ia 
conceived. 

Modes bliite, blithe of mind' (Br, 430) ; tniegenes sireng, strong of might 
(B., 1844). For instrumentals, see ^ 309. 



158 GENITIVE— ADVERBIAL.— PREPOSrnON& 

% 

Adverbial Combinations. 

Most examples are relics of the time when the genitive was more freely 
used in the adverbial relations than wo find it in tlie literary remains. See 
farther $ 251. 

322. Space.— The genitive may denote by what way: 

pendon him pa odres peges hdmpeard, they return homeward by another 

way (Chr., 1006), Gr. r^c ^^ov, Ger. deines tceges. 
Hew far from (?) : IV mtld from pam rnddan^ four miles from the 

mouth (Chr., 803 ; so Mietzncr), but four of miles is better (^ 295). 

323. Time.— Tho genitive may denote the time when : 

pintres and sumeres pudu bid geltce gehongen, winter and sominer the 
wood is alike hung (with fruits) (Ph., 37) ; pass pintres, that winter 
(Chr., 878) ; dnes dspges, one day (Job, 165) ; dseges and nihteSf by 
day and night (B., 2260) ; pis pass feordes gedres, this was on the 
fourth year (Chr., 47). Note also p«s, thereafter. 

324. Means.— The genitive may denote means or cause: 

pxteres peorpan, to sprinkle with water (Ddm., 78) ; glxd pines, jolly 
with wine (B., 2791). 

325. Manner.— The genitive may denote manner: 

hugan spilces gcongor domes, bow in such vassalage (C, 283) ; gepeal- 
des monnan of sled, intentionally slay a man (LL. Alf., Intr.; 13) ; so* 
des ic pS secge, of a truth I say to you (Matt., v, 26) ; peaxad self" 
pilles, grow of their own accord (Lev., xxv, 5). 

326. With Prepositions.— The genitive with a prep- 
osition is sometimes used to denote instrumental,^ abla- 
tive, or locative adverbial relations. See Prepositions. 



USES OF PREPOSITIONS. 

327. A preposition governs a substantive, and shows its 
relation to some other word in the clause. 

(a.) This relation is oflenest adverbial, but may be attributive, pred- 
icative, or objective : s&ton he pam strande, sat by the strand (Matt., 
xiii, 48) ; — attributive : redf of hsbrum, garment of hair (Matt.', iii, 4) ; — 
predicative : he pass fram Bedsdida, he was from Bethsaida (John, i, 44) ; 
— objective : on his dgenum fa^der are gescedpian, render honor to his fii- 
ther (C, 1580). 

(h.) A preposition may merely define a verb. It is then said to be in 
complete composition, if phonetically united with it, otherwise in incomplete. 



GENERAL RULES.— AND, ANDLONG, JEETEEL 159 

328. Prepositions expressing extent take the accusative, 
others the dative and instmmentaL 

Aca Signs : geond, od, J>urh, ymh (e) = emh (e). 

Ace. sometimes : and, ipfter, set, for, fore, foran, in, innan, mid, on, to, 
ofer, uppan, under, pid, 

(a.) Prepositions expressing poaitioii, or a place of rest before or after 
motion, take a dative. The same preposition may express extension with 
one verb and rest after another. (Study the examples.) The dative also 
has taken up the instmxnental and ablative relations, and all others ex- 
cept plain accusatives. Occasional instrumentals and genitives occur, and 
are given under their prepositions. 

iff.) Prepositions compounded with adverbs generally retain their case. 
Ace. ymb-uian, and sometimes on-hutan, on-foran, on-uppan, ongegn, on- 
gemong, pid-geondan, pid-asflan, pid-innan ? Grein. 

329. The genitive is sometimes used with pur/iy pid^ of, t6^ 
innan, Utan^pana, — mostly in old phrases. (Compare §*322.) 

(a.) Prepositions compounded with nouns may take a genitive originally 
an attributive with the noun : and-lang, to-middes, he-tpeonum. 

Table op Peepositions. 

330. and (§ 254) ; + dative or + accusative : Gothic ace. 

L Dative — ntunber: eahta niht and feoperum, eight nights and four 

(Men., 211). 
II. Accusative — place : and cordan, on the earth (Met, 20, 123) ; and 

ordfruman, in presence of their creator (C, 13). 

and-long, -lang (^^ 259, 329, a) + gen. : ridende andlang Jubs pestenes, 
pursuing along the vnldemess (Jos., viii, 16) ; up andlong (Chr., 882) ; ny- 
der andlang, down along (Lev., i, 15). 

331. SBfter (§ 255), more aft; + dative or (rare) accusative. 
Goth, afar + dat., ace. ; O. Sax., O. H. Ger. aftar; O. N. ^ir. 

I. Dative. 
Place — position : cumad aefter me, come further back*than I = follow me 

(Matt., iv, 19) ; — extent : s&ton sefter beorgum, they sat dispersed through 

the hills (C, 191, 9). Latin secundum. 
Time— point: after prym dagumic arise, after three days I arise (Matt, 

xxvii, 63) ;— extent : sp'fter poruldstundum, during this life (EL, 363) ; — 

repetition : pundor softer pundre, wonder after wonder (B.,931). 
Cause : panian xfter headospdte, melt because of the hot blood (B., 1606) ; 

—end : acsode after him, asked after him (Psa., xxxvi, 35) ; grof after 

golde, grub after gold (Met., 8, 57). Compare for. 



160 PREPOSITIONS.— JEFT, iill, JET, JETFORAN, BI. 

Likeneu : geporhtne after his onltcnesse^ made after his likeness (C.,35, 
18) ; offter Engld lage^ according to English law (iEdr., 1). See hi, 

II. Accusative. 
Place : he eordan mfler pxter sette, he set the earth upon the waters (Psa., 

CXXXT, 6). 

edft=: asfler (rare) : mft mec^ (come) after me (Matt., iv, 19, Northumbr.) ; 
aft sunnan setlgange, after sunset (Gen., xxviii, 11). 0. Eng. eft, eft-soons, 

332. At (§ 259)+dative. Nortbum. ace. and gcD., Goth. gen. 

Time : &r sumeres cyme, before summer^s coming (El., 1228) ; hdtede me 
&r eop, hated me before (it hated) you (John, xv, 18) ; Ar J>am, J>on, pif, 
Lat. priusquam, before that. 

333. 8Dt (§254, 3)+ dative or (rare) acc. Gothic dat., ace., gen. 

I. Dative. 

Placer-Position : p&ron at Exanceastre, were at Exeter (^ds. VI) ; at 
ham, at home (B., 1248) ; — direction : camon at me, came to me (Matt., 
xxv, 43); — departure: dnimad pat pund at him, take the pound from 
beside him (Matt., xxv, 28) ; onfeng pallium at papan, he received the 
pallium at the hands of the pope (Chr., 1026) ; so with learn, hear, take, 
etc. at = of, from. So in Gothic, 0. Norse. Compare Gr. napd and 
the dative of separation {^ 301). Often strengthened by gelang (B., 1377). 

Time — point : at middan sumere, at midsummer (B^d., 5, 23) ; at &restan, 
for the first time (Ex., 51, 30). 

Specification (Lat. quoad) : at Me speop, got along as to eating (B.,3026). 

Opposition : at me gepyrcean, work against me (Psa., cxxviii, 1). 

State — circumstance : stande at gehede, stand praying (Psa., t, 3) ; sat 
at pine, sat at the wine (Rid., 47, 1). 

II. Accusative — space : at s&stredmds gehrebddest, extendest even to 
the sea-streams (Psa., Ixxix, 11). 

set-foran (+ dative or (rare) ace.) : — place : atforan pam folce, (go) in 
front of the people (Jos., iii, 6) ;— person : gepemmed atforan Gode, cor- 
rupt before God (Gen., vi, 11) ; — time : atforan massan, before (St. An- 
drew's) mass-day (Chr., 1010). II. Ace. : atforan edgan pine, before thine 
eyes (Psa., v, 5 ; Ettm.). 

334. bi, be (§ 254, 2) ; + dative (instr.) : Gothic ace. and dat. 

Place — immediate, juxtaposition : hi sMon he pdm strande, they sat by the 
strand (Matt., xiii, 48) ; dledon he maste, laid him by the mast (B., 36) ; 
for he pam lande, sailed along by the land (Ores., 1,1); he pege, by the 
way (Mc, viii, 3) ; — part handled : genam he feaxe, took him by the hair 
(Jud., 99). 



BJEFTAJT, BE-EASTAN, ■ 



■, BE-TPIHS. 



161 



Time: be dreges leShte, by daylight (Rid., 28, 17) ; — dative absolute: ^u 
lie aliiie be pe iifigenduia, permit thoa not, while thou livest {I3.,8665), 

Cause — means : hangad be pr&de, haaga hy a thread (Boeth., 29) ; — souice : 
itinu agan be bryde pinre, have a son hy tliy wife (C, 3326) ; — theme : 
sungon be Godes bearne, sung of God's sod (El., 562) ; acaiad be pom 
cilde, ask about the child (Matt., ii, 8) ; be pam diege nan man ndt, of 
that da.y no man kooweth (Mc, xiii, 32) ; — command : Jerde be his hl3- 
fordes h&ie, went by bis loid'e command (Gen., xsiv, 10) ; — agent (raie, 
if ever) ; farl&d be pam lygeniim, Heduced by him by lies (C, 59S) ; ao 
Mffitzner, 1, 404, and Grein under lygen, but better by the lies (means). 
Goth, ii is not so used. In Middle English (Wycliffe) first common. 

Maimer : be fullan, fully (Psa., xxb, 37) ; be sumum d&le, parUy (Met, 
30, 96) ; — succession, likeness: pord be porde, word for word (Boeth., 
Pref.) ; — proportion: be gepyr/i!um, a^cotding to their wotka (An., 1613); 
— accompaniment : be hearpan singan, sing to the harp (Bed., 4, 34). 

Measure of difference (^ 302, d) : mare be dnum slsfe, mote by one let- 
ter (Xic, 33). 

b-aftan (+dat.) : gang Isifian me, get behind (by) me (Matt., ivi, 23) ; 

b.vflan pant hldfarde, except with the owner (Exod., xxii, 14), 
be-e^Btan, -pestan, etc. (+dal.) : bc-edstan Rlne, east of the Rhine 

(Oros, 1, 1; where also -pestan, etc.). 
be-foraa (+dat. or ace.) :— place : Mm be/oran, before him (C, 183, 17) ; 

— time (Psa., oiv, 15). Ace., place : beforan Pone cyning, in sight of 

the ting (Boeth., 16, 2). 
be-geondan (-|-dat. or ace.) : he pms begeondan larddne, he waa over 

by Jordan (John, Hi, 26). Ace.: com begeondan lorddnen, came by 

past Jordan (Matt., 19, 1). 
be-tealfe (-|-dat.) : beheiflfe minum hld/orde, beside of my lord (By., 

318). 
be-heonan (-|-dat.) : beheonan s£, this side the aea (Chr., 878). 
be-hindan (+dat.) : him behindan, behind him (Met,, 29, 53). 
b-innaa (-|-tiat.) :— place: binnan Pam dice, within the dike (B^d., I, 

1 1) ;— time : binnan prym dagum, within three days (John, ii, 19). 
be-oeoitan (+dat.) : beneodan cneSpe, below the knee {,iElf. LL., 63). 
b-ufan (-i-dat.) : bi'ifan p«m elribogan, above the elbow (54) ; a-b-ove 

<Orm. d-b-ufenn has not been found in Anglo-Saxon. 
b(e)-utan (a, o) (H-dat.) : bUlon burgum, out of towns (Edg., IV, 2, 3) ; 

Sil/onenrfc, without end (Sat., 315); bUton dnum, except one (B,,705). 
be-tpednnm, -Ipdm, -tppnan (-|-dat. or ace.) : be 3&m Ipeonum, by two 
seas (B., 858); him Jey>ynon, among them (Job, 166). Ace. : be-tpeSnum 
peallds, Qodest) between walls (Psa. cv, 9). Genitive: Rid., 30,2. 
bo-tpUi-(a), -tpEOX, Layamon betwixte {+dat. or aec): betpeox Jie and 

pam pi/e, betwixt thee and the woman (Gen., iii, 15). Ace. : betpeoi 

hia mogas, (sought him) among his kindred (Luc, ii, 44). 



162 EAC, FEOR, FOK, FOllE, FRAM, 

335. eao (§ 254, 1) + dative. Goth. adv. coDJ. 

Number : Py priddan gedre edc tpentigum, the third year in addition to 
twenty (B6d., 1, 13) ; freond Anigne edc pissum idesum, any friend be- 
sides these women (C, 2500) ; edc pam (pan^ Pon), thereupon, more- 
over (Met., 1, 44). 

330. feor (§ 259) + dative. 

Place : feor urum mynstre, far from our monastery (B6d., 6, 4) ; feor his 
f aider ^ far from his father (Luc, xv, 20) ; unfeor (vii, 6). 

337. for (§ 254, 2) + dat., or instr., or ace. Goth. ace. 

fore (§ 254, 2) + dat. or ace. Goth. dat. (/or- =/re^.) 

I. Dative and instrumental : (for^: for-manig, yeiy many, By., 230). 

Place : for his edgum^ before his eyes (C.,2429) ; fore edgum (Cri., 1324) ; 
for Abrahame, before Abraham (C.,2778) ; Jfore (Cri., 1233). 

Time : for pintrd fela^ many winters before (C, 2199) ; fore (Cri., 1031). 

Oauae — motive: propode for mannd lufan, suffered for love of men (Men., 
86) ; fore (Hell., 110) ; — occasion : for guman synnan, suflfered for man^s 
sin (Kr., 146) ; fore (Cri., 1095) ; — exciting object : for his life lyt sor- 
gedon, they cared little for his life (Ex., 116, 18) ; fore (B., 1442) ;— da- 
tive of advantage : for us gepropode, suffered for us (Sat., 665) ; fore 
(Cri., 1202) ; — theme : s&donfor manegum yfelum d&dum^ spoke of many 
evil deeds (Nic, 2) ; fore (Pa., 34) ; — oath : for drihtne, for God^s sake 
(Met., 1, 64) ; fore (Jul., 540) ; — reason : for pam {an, on)jforPy, there- 
fore; for hpam {an, on), for hpi, wherefore; — exchange: feounge for 
lufan, hate for love (Psa. cviii, 4) ; for eallum pissum, in spite of all that 
(Chr., 1006) ; for intingan, for the sake of (B^d., 3, 8). 

Marnier : for his peldsedum, according to his good works (Psa., Ixxvi, 7) ; 
— order: gyfe for gyfe, gift after gift (John, i, 16). 

II. Accusative. 

Place — after motion : gdn for pe andpeardne, go before thee (C, 871) ; 
fore (An., 1030). 

Time : for ealle men, (acted) before all men (Kr., 93) ; fore preo niht, be- 
fore three nights (An., 185). 

Cauae — motive: for plenco, for pride (B., 1206); — advantage = dative: 
for ehterds and t&lendum, pray for persecutors and calumniators (Matt., 
T, 44) ; — exchange : tod for tod, tooth for tooth (Matt., v, 38). 

Factitive Object (^ 286, b) : hine haefde for fulne cyning, held him for 
(as) full king (Chr., 1013). 

338. fram,/rom (§ 254, 2) -f ablative > dat. (instr.). Goth. dat. 

Place whence motion : comon fram edst-d&le, came from the east (Matt., 
ii, 1). 




GEIIENDE, GEOSD, IN, ON. 

Time : fram d.Tges orde, fcoDQ diybreik (El., 140). 

CondlUoDS and relations whence separation : ardt hSfram il&pe, he arose 
from Bleep (B*d., 4, 24); from synraim, from sina (El., 1309) ; feor 
fram me, (their heart) far from me (Mc, vii, G). InBtrumenla! : /rawi 
' Pj^ P'g-p^'g""! (turn) from this war-p!ay (By., 316). 

Caose — aoutce ; fram pam hit naman onfeng, from whom it took name 
(Bdd., 1, 1); — agent with the pasaive ; coitnod fram deofte, tempted by 
the devil (Matt., iv, 1) ; — theme : fram elhndMum secgan hprde, heard 
tell of hero-deeds (B,, 875). ~ 

339. gehende (§ 259) + dative. O. Sax. at handum. 
Place ; gehende pam scype, handj (near) to the ship (John, vi, 19). 

340. geond (io) (§ 255), tliitber+acc. of that intervening. 
Place 1 gS geond pegas, go through the highways (Luc, siv, 23) ; geanir 

pudu, tbxoagh the wood (In., 20) ; geond Jta Jieodc, among the people (An., 
SS); geond slSpa, thiovgh the places, all about (Luc.,xxi, II), 
Time : geond feopertig dagd, after forty (of) days (Nran., liii, 22). 

341. in (§ 254, l)+dat., instr., ace. Goth, dat., ace, genitiv) 
on {§ 254, ])+dat., ace. Goth, dat., ace. 

In 0\d Sason in is not fomid.nor in the Anglo-Saxon of Alfred's Meters, 
the Runes, or Byrhtn6d ; it is twice in the P3alms,'three times in Credmon'a 
Genesis ; elsewhere in the Anglo-Saxon poetry in and on freely inter- 
change ; but in prevails in the North, on in the South. The distinctive 
on has a vertical element (up or down), which easily luns to against or 
near. (See Grein, 2, 140,) 

I. Dative, Instrumental. 
Place where ; in tune ofakak, slay (a man) in town (iEftb., 5) ; on p<j 
cynence, in the kingdom (Chr., 871); in hcafde kpile locc&i, on llie head 
white locks (Bid., 41, 98) ; on baa also : on picge, on borse-back (B., 
280) ; on Temesan, winter quarters on (along) the Thames (Chr., 1009) ; 
—person : on hym sy gefylled, in them is fulfilled (the piophecyl (Matl., 
xiii, 14) ; on plfum, (blessed) among women (Luc., i, 28) ; — after verbs 
of taking away : blwdd name on tdgum, took iruit from the branches 
(C, 893). Compare ml. 
Time when: in geSr-dagvm, in old days (B.,1);— on: on pam eahti 
dirge, on the eighth day (Job, 164);— how long: on »ix dagum, 
days (he made the earth) (C, 266, 1) ; on Py ylcan gedre, in the 
year (Chr., 89B). 

Cause— theme: think on (Psa. cxvii, 8);— end ; on forgifennine.toi for- 
giveness of sins (Horn., ii, 268) ; — exciting object : pundredon on kit Idre, 
wondered at his lore (Mc, vi, 9) ; trust in (Psa, Ii, 6 ; ace, cxiiv, l). 
Ueana or instrument ; te pss beorht on hl&dum, that was bright with 



Iv^ 



r4 



164 iNNAN, on-bCtan, ON-EFN, ON-FORAN, ON-GEGN. 

flowers (Dan., 500) ; ic on mtnum mude andette, I confess with my 
mouth (Psa., cTiii, 29) ; sungon on tympanism they sang to the accompa- 
niment of drums (Psa., Ixvii, 24) ; psalterioy hearpe (cxliii, 10). 

Material : on pdm telgum timbran, to work upon the branches (Ph., 188). 

Maimer : comon on prim floccum, came in three companies (Job, 165) ; — 
condition : in gebede he stod^ he stood in prayer (B6d., 5, 12) ; on (B., 
1739) ; on onlicnesse purde,gTew into likeness (C.,2564). 

II. Accusative. 

Place whither : heo hine in pxt mynstre onfengy she took him into the 
monastery (B6d., 4, 24) ; — on : feollon on pornds^ fell (down) on thorns 
(Matt., xiii, 7) ; l&dde hine on munt, led him (up) on a mount (Matt., iv, 
8) ; datives are found in this sense : on heofenum cumant to come into 
heaven (Job, 166); — persons: com hungur on Bryttds^ hunger came 
among the Britons (B6d., 1, 14) ; he on ht feaht^ he fought against them 
(2, 9). 

Time how long: in ealle itd, for all time (Pa., 17); on pa ^fenttd, at 
eventide (Kr., 68). 

Cause — purpose: gan onjixod, go a fishing (John, xxi, 3); — price: be- 
bohte on seolfres sine, sold for a treasure of silver (C, 301, 7). 

Marnier: on Scyttisc, in Scottish (tongue) (B6d., 3, 27); — condition: on- 
pxcned in lify awakeneth into life (Ph., 649). 

Factitive : he up dr&rde redde stredmds in rand-gebeorhy he reared the 
red streams into (as) side defences (C, 196, 24). 

innan (^ 257, Goth. adv.)-|-dat., ace, gen. Dat. : he smt innan huse, 
he sat in the house (Matt., ix, 10) ; — ace. : fedl innan pd s&, fall into 
the sea (xxi, 22) ;' — gen. : gdst innan hredres, soul within the body 
(Psa. cxlii, 4). So time ; Dat. (Chr., 806) ; Ace. (Chr., 693). 

on-butan (rare), dbutan (^ 257) -|- dat. or ace: asteoped dbutan p&re 
sunnan, (ring) visible around the sun (Chr., 806) ; oributan pkre sun- 
nan (Chr., 1104) ;— -ace. (Exod., xix, 12). Nmnber : dbutan feoper 
hund mannd, about four hundred men (Chr., 1055). 

on-efii (O. Sax., O. H. Ger., ^ 258) + dat. : him on-efn liged, anent (= 
beside) him lies (B., 2903). Ace. (Grein) ; gen. (Gen., xvi, 12). 

on-foran (^ 257) + dat. (rare, see be-foran) : onforan pinter, before win- 
ter (Chr., 894). 

on-gegn, d-gen, -gedn (^ 258)+dat., ace. Place : pdm dselum ongegen, 
(Britain lies) opposite the regions (of Europe) (B6d., 1,1); ongen eop, 
opposite you (Matt., xxi, 2) ; — ^hostility : ongedn gramum, (go) against 
the fiends (B., 1034) ; ongedn his lustum, fight against his lusts (Job, 
l^'if)=pid. Ace. — place : dgen hine arn, ran to him (Luc, xv, 20) ; 
— hostility: cuman ongedn hine, come against him (Boet., 35, 6). 
Time: ongedn pinter ham tugon, against winter went home (Chr., 
1096). 

on-(ge)mong(e) (^ 258 ; 0. Sax. angimang)+ddit Place : Godum on- 



IN INNAN, 



— , IN-TO.— UES, MID, 1 



gemonge, stood amoDg the Gods (Psa., lasxi, l)=Je//mA, on r, 

Time ; onmang prnn gepimtan, dnring the light (Chr., 1106). 

in innan <in7ie), on innan {inne) (5 a57)+dat, aoc. : ofne on i 

the oven (Dan., 356). Ace. : in pone ofn innan, into the ove\ 



(Dan 



on-middaii, -middum (^ 26B)-|'<lat. : on-middan pam hpS^te, amidst the 

-wheat (Matt., xiii, 25); omiddan sceafum, amid your aheafa (Gen., 

sxivii, 7). See to-middes. 
on vlan (^ 267)-|-dcc. Place : locad ufan on helte, looketh from above 

on hell (A. R„ 25). Time: on-u/an Aor;.es(, after harveat (Cht., 923). 
on-uppan (^ 257)+dat. : on-uppan ^am assan, rode npon the ass (John, 

sii, 14). 
In-tfi (4 254, 1,3)4- dat.: com into Aco^/c, came into the hall (Matt., ix, 

3") ; inlo him, went unto him (Bed., 3, 13) ; into keom, locked the 

doors onto them (Chr., 1063). 

342. Ises (§ 259) +dat (instr.) : 

Number: tpd lies XXX iprittigum) ge&rd, two less (than) thirty (of) 
years (Chr., 642). 

343. mid (§ 254, 1) + dat. (instr.), ace. Goth. dat. 

I. Dative (instr.). 

Place— among whom : ic pass mid Hinum, I was among the Huns (TraT., 
57) ; — near whom ; mid EormanTieE, I was with Ennaoric (Tiav., 88). 

Time : mid wrdtrge, with the dawn (B., 136). 

Manner: mii/ ^e/edn, joyfully (An., 868) ; rairf ri A (e, rightfully (Jud.,97). 

Co-existenoe : se mid Idcum com, he came with gifts (C, 3103) ; peras 
mid pifum, men with their wives (C, 1738) ; (instrumental) gepdt him 
ham mid p<j here-tedmc, got himself home with the booty (C., 2163). 

Canae — means : mid his handum gesceSp, with his hands made (C, 351) ; 
(instrumental) p^ hungre, with hunger (Soul, 31) ; — instr. : mid p§ bills, 
with the Bword (C., 2931). 

II. Accusative. 

Place ; puna mid usic, dwell among us (C, 3732) ; mid aldor, lived with 

their lord (C.,20). 
Co-eziBtence : gepdt mid ci/ning, he departed with the king (C., 1210). 
Cause : ilSh tnid hdlige hand, smote with holy hand (C, 308, 18). 
Object of address or discrimination ; iprn'c mid Aine, spoke with him 

(Bed., 2, 13) 1 dema mid unc tpih, judge between us two (C, 2353). 

344. neah, nch, nmh; ne&r; nehst (| 250)+diit. Goth. dat. 
Place: ieo ed JlSped neah p&re eeattre pealle, the river flows nigh the 

town's wall (BfiJ., 1, 7) ; pille ic pam lige near, I wii! go nearer to the 
fire (C, 7G0) ; nthsl p^re eaxe, (the nave) turns nearest the ails (Boet., 
39,7). 



166 NEFNE, NEOBAN, OB, OF, OFER. 

345. nefhe, nemne (ne gif ne, Lat. non niaif but see § 259) 
+ dative. 

Separation : ealle fomam ncmne feaum dnum, took off all except a few 
(B., 1081). 

340. neodan (§ 257) + ace.? See be-neodariy under-neodan. 

He peard purhscoten neodan pet oder hreost^ he was shot through be- 
neath the other breast (Ores, 3, 9) ; so Koch, but the texts have under- 
neodan. The 0. H.Ger. nida is used as a prep., as is 0. Norse nedan 
with fyVi but I haye not found neodan so used. 

347. 6d (§ 254, 3) + ace, (rare) dat. Goth, ace, dat. 

Space — extent to : ealne 6d pone peal genoman^ they took all as far as to 

the waU (BM., 1, 12). 
Time: 6d pone dwg, until that day (B., 2399). Dative: 6d pisum daege, 

unto this day (Horn., ii, 132). 
Bffect: unrot 6d dead, sorrowful unto death (Mc, xiv, 34). 
Degree : ealrd 6d nytenu, (slew the first-born of the Egyptians) of all eyen 

to the cattle (Psa., cxxxiv, 8). 

348. of (§ 254, 2)+ dat. Gothic a/ translates afrdyfram oft- 
ener wro ; in space and time relations they interchange ; in cansal, 
af is material cause, fram is efficient ; both take a dative. 

Place whence : he dstdh ofpam psetere, he came out of the water (Matt., 
iii, 10). 

Time : ofpam dwge, from that day (John, xi, 53). 

State or circumstances : of sl&pe onpoc, awoke from sleep (C, 249, 2) ; 
dlys us of yfie, deliver us from evil (Matt., vi, 13) ; — any object of sepa- 
ration (^ 301) : hdl ofPysum, whole of this (Mc, v, 34 ; Luc, vii, 21). 

PartitiTe : dn ofPysum, one of these (Matt., vi, 29). 

Cause — material: of eordan geporht, made of earth (C, 305) ; dfedde 
of fixum, fed with fishes (An., 589) ; redf of hedrum, garment of hair 
(Matt., iii, 4) ; — source : of Geatd fruman syndon Cantpare, from the 
Geats are the people of Kent (B^d.,483,21); — author: geh^rde ofGode, 
heard from God (John, viii, 40) ; I do nothing of myself, of me sylfum 
(viii, 28); — agent: pxs of Myrcum gecoren, was chosen by the Mer- 
cians (Chr., 925). 

349. ofer (§ 252, b) + dat., ace. Gothic dat., ace. 

I. Dative. 
Place — point higher than : ofer since salo hlifian, over the treasure a hall 
stand (C, 2403) ; — surface on which : pind ofer ydum, wind upon the 
waves (B., 1907). 



oy, 'iiL, tO. 



Time: ofer pam draim gedre, (live) over (= longer than) the one year 

(Horn., ii, 146). 
Degxee : ofer snSpe scinende, sliinirg above (^brighter Ihm) snow (Psa. 

C, 73). 
Rule : afcr denflum ptalded, rules over <]Bviis (Dan., 705). 

Accusative senses are frequently found with datives. 

II. Accusatives, oftea used where geond or s/fer might be. 
Place — motion or preeeuce from side to side of an object: nfer s^ gfpi- 

lon, over sea tliey went (Chr., S85) ; p&ron Pyatru ofer ealle eardan, 

there was darkness over all the earlh (Matt., xxvii, 45) ; — above it : kbjpp 

ofer hcafod, (my sin) is gone over my head (Psa,., sxxvii, 4) ; ofer peal, 

got over a will (Psa., xvii, 28) ; alandende ofer hig, standing over her 

(Luc., iv, 39). Dative senses: ofer hrSf hand scedpedon, showed the 

hand above the roof (B., 983). 
Time — extent: ofer ealne dxg, through the whole ilay (Jud., 28). Dative 

sense ; ofer midne dieg, after mid-day (C, 853), common. 
Degree : ofer ynce, over an inch (jEdb., 67) ; — eminence : an sleorra oftr 

adre bsorhl, a star bright above others (Met., 29, IB). 
Rule: pealdedofer eat mannA cyn, ruleth over a!! mankind (Psa.,lxv,6). 
Conflict ; ofcT driktaes pord, against the lord's conmiand (C, 593) ; ofer 

pillan, against the will (B., 2409). 
Beparatdon; o/er j^^en, wiihont a weapon (B., 685). 
Eiciting ObJBOt (^ 315) : k blisaige ofer p'lnre spr&ce, I rejoice over thy 

speech (Psa., cxviii, 102). 
Theme : hi ofer benne sprmc, he talked about the wounds (B., 2724). 



On a 



I, Ece in. 



350. Sawod {^ 255)+dat. : lamod i&rifd^e, with dawn (B., 1311). 

351. til, Hortbumbiiac Bomelimes for iS (g 259)+dat. GolJi,, 
Ang.-Sax. adjective; O. Norae preposition + gen. 

Cped til him, said to them (Matt., x.wi, 31) ; infinitive: til eotanne, to 
eat (Matt., Mvi, 17) ; ho in Orm.— common in Chancer, WycliiTe ; often 
with to or info; used in time, place, and dative relations as late as 



352. to {§ 254, 3) -i- flat, (rare ace, gen., instr.). Goth. dat. 

(rare ace). 

Place — end of motion or extent: he Co healle geong, he to the hall went 
(B., S25) ; hu heah l6 hefone, how high to heaven (Boet., 35, 4) ; beieoh 
to me, look at me (Psa., xii, 3)— on+acc. ; — after verba of seeking, ask- 
ing : smcce lecean to HeoTole, seek a fight at Ileorot (B., 1900) ; akaode 
to Frysum, asked among (be Frisians (B., 1207) =fTom. Compare xt. on. 

Time— end of duration: 30000 ;-;n/ra iv phtum deadih-ge, 30000 years lu 



168 tO, t6-eaCiVN, tO-Peard. 

thy death-day (Soul, 37);— when: to dwge pissum, to-day (C, 1031); 
to non-tide t at noon-tide (Mc, xv, 34) ; — how long : to langre hpUe, for 
a long time (C, 489). 

Degree : ge etad to fylle^ ye shall eat to fullness (Lev., xxvi, 5). 

Price : geseald to prim hund penegum, sold for three hundred pence (Mc, 
xiv, 5). 

Order : hehstne to himy highest next to him (C, 254). 

Ziikeneu : God gesceop man to his anltcnesse, God made man in his like- 
ness (Gen., i, 27). 

End of action — object added to : to his anltcnesse, (add an ell) to his stat- 
ure (Luc, xii, 25) ; gecleojod to mtnum gomum, cleayed to my gums 
(Psa., xxi, 13) ;— of addr^/ss or gesture : cpasd to him, said to him (Matt., 
viii, 7) ; gebuge to, bow to a worse God (Jul., 361) ; — condition : ageaf 
ptf to gepealde, gave a wife into his power (C, 1867) ; — act prepared 
for : to gefeohte gearu, ready for fight (Num., xxi, 33) ; — purpose : Itg to 
prssce sende, sent fire for vengeance (C, 2584). FaotitiTeB: ceorfon 
to sticcon, cut to pieces (Lev., i, 6) ; pe hahbad Abraham to fxder, we 
have Abraham as father (Matt., iii, 9) ; hine to sylfcpale nemnad, name 
him a suicide (Ex., 330, 24). 

IL Accusatives (rare). 
Place: gongan to Galileam, go to Galilee (Sat, 627). Time: to mor- 
gen, this morning (C, 2438) ; to dasg, to-day (Psa., ii, 7). Condition: 
to dead deman^ doom to death (Gu., 521). To hamfaran, go home (B., 
124) ; to honda, at hand (Gu., 102) ; to gepealdf (Jul., 86) ; to sod, in 
truth ; and some other adverbial phrases are possibly accusatives. 
in. Genitives — mostly with pass, hpses, middes : to Pxs, to such a de- 
gree (B., 1616), ^thither (B., 2410) ; to hpses, whither (C. Exod., 192) ; to 
middes dseges, at mid-day (Psa., xxxvi, 6). 

IV. Instrumental : to hpi, wherefore (Horn., ii, 134). 

V. Infinitive — purpose or end : m&l is me to feran, it is time for me 
to go (B., 316). Gerund: he com eordan to demanne, he came to judge 
the earth (Psa., xcvii, 8). 

to-e^can (§ 258)+dat. : io-eacan pdm, in addition to these (Boet.,26,2). 

td-foran (^ 257) + dat. Place : toforan him gegaderode, gathered be- 
fore him (Matt., xxv, 32). Time : toforanpam dasge, before the day 
(Chr.,1106). 

td-gegnes, -genes, -gednes (^ 258) + dat., ace. : him togeanes rdd, rode 
against him (B., 1893). Time : togeanes Edstron, against Easter 
(Chr., 1095). Ace (Gen., xiv, 17). See further ongegn. 

to-middes (^ 258) + gen., dat. : to-middes heord, in the midst of them 
(John, viii, 3). Dative : to-middes p^sm pasterum, amidst the waters 
(Gen., i, 6). 

t6-peard, -peardes (§§ 259; 251, 1): topard Huntendune, lie toward 
Huntingdon (Chr., 656) ; ferdon topardes Ou, went towards Ou (Chr., 
1094). 



PUHH, JJEAS, UNDER 169 

td-pliera (^5 S55, 353) + dal., ace. : pradum topidere, answer to ( = 
againBt) enemies (Cti., 185) ; pig lopidir^, to hold against a fight (Ex„_ 
341, SD). ^ 

353. purh (I 253, 3) +acc. {rare dat,, gen.). Goth. ace. ^ 
Place — motion into and out Bit ttie opposite aide : gdn Jturh anre nitdle 

cage, go ttiTOngti a, needle's eye (Luc.,XTiii, S5) ; Jiurh lieora midlen,vteDt 
through their midst (Luc., iv, 30) ; — simple extent (^geond): l&rende 
purh eallc /uijeunt, teaching throughout all Judea (Luc, xxiii, 5). 

Time : purh ealne dmg, through the whole da; (Psa., Ixxiii, 21) ; PhtK 
sluip, (spoke to him) daiing sleep (C, 3641). 

Cause — agent : pxi geporhl Jiurh hme, was made b; him (Joim, i, 10) ; 
— means: purh dryhlnes pord, {light via.a named day) by God's word (C, 
130); — motive: purh feondseipe, tiirongh hatrSd (C,,610); lust (Es., 
33, 15) ; — reason; purh p^t, Lat. propter hoc, for that reason (Gen., 
xxxvii, 5) ; oath (Lat. per) : ic sperige purh me silfnc, I swear by my- 
self (Geo., xxii, 16). See on. 

Manner : pvrh endebi/rdnesse singan, sing in order (Bed., 4, 21) ; dcman 
purh his dsda, judge according to his deeds (Sat., G23). Co-eziatence : 
eennan purh sar micel 3unu,to bring forth with pain many a son (C, il2i). 
II. Dative — place : perh hiorA middum, went through their midst (North. 

Luc. iv, 30} ; means ; purh coUimngam gepenian, seduce by temptations 

(Job, 165). 
IIL Genitive — means; gcd&nsodi: purh P:ea huaelgangea,fan^\e&hy i\\Q 

sacrament (Horn., ii, tJGU). 
ut 1)utIi> Semi- Sax, purh il/>Eng. throughout ia comnon. _ 

354. ufan, adv. Sue hitfan, onvfan. ^| 

355. under {§ 255) -|-dat., ace. Gotb. undar,-\-aca\ undar6, 
4-dat. O. Sax. undar,-er; O. II. Ger. untar ; O. Norse undr. 
Place — where its object would fall, or overshadow; P&p&re under patn Jic- 

treSpe, tiion waat under the Gg-tree (John,i, 48); under beorgE,at the foot 
of the mountain (B., 2559) ; — or cover, or enclose : under hearmlocon, na- 
der lock^in prison (£1., 695; G.,6,19); — diess: under heime,iielaiBted 
(B., 342, 2539) ; under gyldnum hedge, wearing a golden diadem (B., 
1163). 

Time; unrfrr ^om, Lat. in/erAa'c, in the midst of these things {Chr.,876); 
so in O. Sax. 

PeiBonal — rank, role ; pegnat under me, servants under me {Matt., viii, 9) ; 
under Northmannutn, under the rule of the Northmen (Chr., 942) ; under 
onpealdc, under authority (901). 
n. Accusative. 

Plaoe— after motion : under hrof gefSr,wej\t under a roof (C, 1360) ; — di- 



170 UNDEU-NEODAN, Uri'AN, OtAN, PANA, PID. 

rcction : under bxc^ backwards (C.,2562) ;— extent like a dative : under 
roderd rum, under the expanse of the heavens (C, 1166). 
Personal: under helle ein, among the race of hell (Ex.,99,5)i so O. Sax- 
on ; under hand speordes, (give) to the sword (=under the hand oO (Pba-? 
Ixu, 8). 

under-neodan (+(lat). Not in Layamon, Orm.; rare O. 
English. 

pans undemwden his f die, (support which) was underneath his foot (Chi., 
1070). 

356. uppan (§ 257) 4-(lat., ace. Goth, iupa^ adv.; O. Saxon 
uppan, -€71 ; O. Norso upd; O. H. G. iifan. Perhaps two words, 
derivative uppan<iup^ and compound vp+ouy have mixed. 

Place— on a high object : ge-offrd hine uppon anre dune, offer him upon a 
hill (Gen., xxii, 2) ; uppan assene, lide upon an ass (Matt.,xxi,5) ;— over : 
him uppan, above him the cross was raised (El., 886). 

Time : uppon Edstron, afler Easter (Chr., 1095). 

Separation : uppon him genumen hxfde, had taken from them (Chr., 1106). 

II. Accusative. 
Place — afler motion : me dhof uppon hedhne stdn, raised me upon a high 

stone (Psa., xxvi, 6) ; but dat. and ace. mix (Exod., xxxiv, 2). 
Time : uppon Peniecosten, at Pentecost (Chr., 1095) ; — succession : &gder 

uppon odeme, one upon another (Chr., 1094). 
Oppoaition : uppon pone eorl pan, fought against the earl (Chr., 1095) ; 

tealde, charged against the king (Chr., 1094). 

357. utan (§ 257) +genitive. Goth. viana+gQu. 

Place : innon landes odde uton landes, within or out of the land {JEldS, vi, 
8, 2). See b-utan, on-h-utanipid-utan, t/mb-utan* 

358. pana (§ 259) +genitive. Goth, vans; O. N. wanr, adj. 

dnes pana prittigum, thirty less one (B^d., 1,1). Same idiom in Gothic, 
etc. See ^3 17, J. 

359. pid (§ 254, 1) +acc., dat, gen. Goth, vipra +acc.; O. 
Norse ace, dat. In senses analogous to Latin contra^ opposite ; 
but gradually absorbing mid^ § 343. The accusative and dative 
are not wholly separable in sense ; they often interchange in the 
same passage. 

I. Accusative. 
Space — beside, along : sum feol pid pone peg, some (seed) fell along the 
way (Luc.,viii, 5) ; eode pidpd s^, went along the sea-side (Matt., iv, 18) ; 



PIBEB, PIB.-£FTAX, PIB-EASTAX. 171 

pid peal^ (set their shields) against the wall (B., 326) ; pid ptu Hadendes 
Jii^ (sat) by the SaTior*8 feet (Lac, x, 39) 
Otiier RelatioiM — association : he pid puLf^ he with the wolf (stripped the 
dead) (B., 3027) ; luigoL pid fyr gemengedj hail with fire mixed (Exod., 
ix, 24) ;— conTersation : pid Abraham sprecanj to talk with Ahr^hmm (C, 
2405) ;— comparison : pid sunnan leoht^ (the brightness of the stars is not 
to be set) beside sunlight (Met., 0, 7) ; — hostility : pan pidpaldend, fooght 
against the lord (C, 303) ; yrre pid m^, angry against me (Gren., xli, 10) ; 
— defence : unc pid hranfixas perian^ to guard os against whales (B., 540) ; 
pid hearm, against harm (C, 245, 6) ; — friendship, agreement: beo pid 
Geatas gbed, be with the Geats friendly (B., 1173) ; acordedam pidhine, 
they agreed with him (Chr., 1120). 

II. Datire. 

Place — position of^Msite : sxpeal uplang gestod pid Israhelum^ the sea- 
wall stood upright next to the Israelites (C, 197, 8) ; — from hi to near 
(^ 299) : Uah hine pid hyre peard^ drew him toward her (Jnd., 99) ; so 
afier go near (Sat, 249) ; grasp after (B., 439) ; strike against (B., 
1566) ; — ^from onion to near : gesundrode leoht pid peastrum^ separated 
light from darkness (C, 127). 

Other RelatJOM — association : teof anode mghptflc pid odrum, iMwociatcd 
each with the others (Sch., 44) ; mengan lige pid sode, mingle falsehood 
with truth (£1., 307) ;— conTersation : pid Ahrahame sprxc, talked with 
Abraham (C, 2303) ;— exchange : he sealde iticon atnne penig pid hys 
dxges pearce^ he paid to each a penny for his day's work (Matt, xx, 2) ; 
— oj^wsition : ^ Gode punnam, fight against God (B., 113); pid pinde 
roped, rows against the wind (Ex., 345, 12) ; pid rihte, against right (B., 
144) ; — defence : helpan pid Itge, help against fire (B., 2341) ; pid cpealme 
gehearh cnihtum, shield the youths from death (C, 246, 7) ; — separation : 
mod pid dreamum gedxlde, mind from enjoyments sundered (Ex., 146, 18). 

in. Genitire. 

Place — towards an object exciting desire or dread (see ^ 315) : heseah tm- 
derhsBC pid pass ptfes, (Orpheus) looked back after the woman (Eurydice) 
(Boet., 35, 6) ; iet fieogan hdfoc pid psu holies, let the hawk fly to the 
wood (By., 8) ; pid fau ftestengeates ftdc onette, toward the city gate 
f(Jks hastened (Jud., 162) ; hnah aledt pid pau engles, louted low before 
the angel (Num., xxii, 31). 

Abstract — defence : Ueo pid hungres, protection against hunger (El., 616) ; 
pid yfeld gefreo us, delirer us from erils (Hy., 6, 31). 

pider (^ 255)-f-icc. : pider me pihron^ they were against me (Psa., 1t^ 

5). See to-pidere. 
pid-aeftan (^ 257)+icc. : pidsfftan his Jet, behind at his feet (Luc.,Tii, 

38; Mrc.,T,27). Better /^ af/^an. 
pid-eifltan, -nordan, -sudan, +acc., dat : next eastward of, etc. (Oros., 

1, 1). 



172 PIB-FORAN.— YMB(E).-AI>JECnVE. 

pid-foran (^ 257)+acc. : pidforan pa sunnan^ before the sun (Boet, 

39, 13). 
pid-geondan (^ 257)+acc. : pidgeondan lorddnen^ beyond Jordan (Matt, 

iii, 5). 
pid-innan (^ 257) + ace. : pidinnan pintan-ceastra, within Winchester 

(Chr.,963). 
pid-iktan (^ 257)4-acc., dat. Place : pidutan pd picstopc, without the 

camp (Lev., xx'iy, 14). Dat. (Ores., 2, 4, 6) ; — maimer : &lcon p&pnoriy 

without any weapons (Chr., 1087). 
pid peard (separate) : pid hcofonds peard^ towards heaven (Horn., i, 

46) ; pid hire peardy towards her (Jud., 99). 

360. yinb(e), €mb{e) (§ 254, 2) +acc. (rare dat.). O. Sax. ace. ; 
O. Norse ace, dat. 

Place : gyrdel ymhe lendenu, girdle around his loins (Matt, iii, 4) ; ymb 

hine stci, (a multitude) sat around him (Mc, iii, 32). 
Time : (1) ymb dntid, about the first hour (B., 219) ; (2) ymb ptican, aAer 

a week (C, 2769) ; (3) ymb dne niht, within one night (Chr., 878) ; 

(4) ymb pre niA/, three nights before (Sat., 426). 
Theme : ford sprecan ymb Grendel, to speak about Grendel (B., 2070) ; 

ymb pd fyrde pencean, to think about the expedition (C.,408). So after 

to wonder (El., 959) ; care (B., 1536) ; strive (6n. C.,55); and the like ; 

hig dydon yfnbe hyne, they acted about him=they did to him (Matt.,XTii, 

12). 
Dative (generally after its case) : him ymbe gestodon, around him stood (B., 

2597) ; sprasc ymb his m&ge, spoke of his kinsman (Hell., 25). 

ymb-utan (§ 257)+acc. ; — place : licgad me ymbutan, lieth round about 
me (C, 382) ; ymbutan eop, (why seek) without you (what is within) 
(Boet.,11, 2) 



ADJECTIVE. 

361. An Adjective agrees with its Substantive in gender^ 
number, and case. 

{a.) This rule applies to the articles, adjective pronouns, and participles. 

(b.) An infinitive or clause may take an adjective in the neuter singular : 
leofre is us gefbnfisCy to catch fish is pleasanter to us (^Elf.) ; god is pmt ic 
on God hyht sette, it is good that I hope in God (Psa., Ixxii, 33). 

(c.) Indefinite. An adjective is often used indefinitely in the masculine 
for a person, or neuter for a thing : se blinda,gifhe blindne Isbt, the blind, 
if he lead the blind (Matt., xv, 14) ; me pyrse gelampf a worse thing hap- 
pened to me (Sat, 175). 

(d.) Noun understood : Englisc ne cude, did not know English (speech) 
(Bed., 3, 3) ; pin spydre, thy right (hand) (Matt., vi, 3). 



ADJECTIVE, STRONG OR WEAE. 



173 



(e.) CoUeotiveB siogulai may take a plural by eynesis 
jiurdan adruncene,Vim herd were drowned (Mc.,5, 13). 

(/.) Copulative BingulBra may take a plural, or have a repeated eingu- 
lai understood : p&ron gehalgude Eadb^, and Boaa and Edta, Edhed, and 
Boaa, and Eala were consecrated (Bed., 4, 13); eddig ij je innod, and pd 
ireoJi, blessed is the womb, and the breaat (Le., 11,37). 

ig.) Partitives. Neuter partitives may be used for agreeing adjeclivea 
(^313, a): nan ping gTsnes,DoVa\Dg green (Eiod., 10,15). 

Stuong ok Weak, §§ 103 +. 

362. The iveak forma are used after the definito article, demon- 
stratives, aod possessives ; and often in attributive vocatives, in- 
strumentals, and genitives. The comparative forma aro all weak : 

1. Article ; se ofermbda cynmg, the proud king CC.,338). Exceptions 
ate rare: sio hSlig roii, the holy rood (El., 730); je wfcr, the other 
(B., 3061). FoT present participles, see § US, 6. 

The article is sometimea omttled before the weak farm of a current epi- 
thet, especially in epic forms: hrsfn blaca, black laven (B., 1801); 
mihligan dryhine, mighty lord (B., 1398). 

Dem.oiiBtTative : of pissum l&nan life, in this long life (C, 1311). 
EsceptiouB occur; on ptsaum l£num life (.Ki.,10S). 

3. PoBseasive : minne slronglican stSl, my strong throne (C, 36G). 
The article is often inserted : mm ^e heofenlica fanier, my heavenly 
father (Matt., sviii, 35). Strong forms are frequent: minne spetne 
hiaf, my sweet bread (Pa3., ci, 4). His, and other possesEivea of the 
the third person, are regularly followed by a strong form or inserted 
article : mid ha dgenum rcafe, with his own robe <Matt. ssvii., 31) ; 
hi! se deora sunu, his dear son (Sat., 343); stpie driorigne (B.,3789). 

3. Vocative: blindan latteopds, blind guides (Matt., ixiii, 16); ge 
blindan, ye blind; ge dysigan, ye foolish (Matt., sxiii, 17). For 
other examples, and inserted article, see (f 389. 

4. Inatrumental : hohtan .■r;?i?or.iE, with a bright sword (B., 3493). 

5. OeniUve : l£nan lifei, (end) of a long life (B., 3915) ; so C, 1, 13 ; 
231,13; Ex., 4, 35; 11,4. 

6. ComparativBB ; IMran landscipc, (I never saw a) loathlier landscape 
(C,,376); pas beicra ponne ic, he was better than I {B.,469). 



303. In other oases strong forms are used. 

1. No definitive : pu eart heard man, thou are a hard n 



n (Matt, s 



24) ;— vocative : pu rihl cyning, thou true king (Ex., 2, 13) ;— instru- 
mental : redde lege, with red flame (C, 44); — genitive: mihliges 
Godes mod, mighty God's wrath (C, 403) ; — predicate : Eadige lynd 
pd, blessed are they (Matt., v, 3) ; — superlative : se pics Icofost, he was 
dearest (B., 1306). For exceptions, see over, % 363. 



174 PERSONAL PROXOUNS. 

2. "With the indefinite article : of slogan Anne Bryttiscne cyning, slew 

a British king (Chr.,508) ; Anne Uofestne sunuy (ho had) a dearest son 

(Mrc, 12, 6). 

364. These uses are established in Gothic, except that with the possess- 

ives, and perhaps the demonstratives, of some of which examples do not 

occur. The weak form has spread in High German. See ^ 107. 



PRONOUNS. 

305. A Substantive Pronoun agrees with its antecedent 
in gender^ number^ and person. 

300.— 1. Personal Pronouns, §§ 130+. 

1. Omitted subject : — imperative (regular): am, arise (thou) (Matt., ii, 
20) ; — repeated in a concessive clause : punige paer he punige, dwell 
(he) where he may dwell (^Edr., 6, 0) ; — reflexives: pende hine^ (he) 
turned him (C.,34, 33); — other cases (rare): ndt pu fare, (I) know not 
whether thou come (C, 34, 2) ; hist ful hdlgan hyhtes, (thou) art full 
of holy joy (Ex., 4, 24). 

2. Repeated subject : ^ 287, definitive. 

3. First person plural for singular by authors and preachers : nu pUle 
pe reccan, now will we (I) recount (Oros., 1, 1, 11) ; — so (Hom.,2, 440). 
Kings say tc, or pe for themselves and council : ic JEdelstdn cyning 
(LL., 1) ; pe (LL. Ina. 1, 1), but Beowulf used the plural majestatis 
(B., 958, 1052) ; in Norman French nous (LL. William, 1, 41). Ye 
and you as pronomen reverentie appear first in Old English. 

4. Dual: — interchange with plural: gelyfe gyt, — jjrmad pxt ge ne 
secgon, believe ye * * take heed that ye tell not (Matt., ix, 28-30) ; — 
strengthened by bu, hu tu, bd, bd tpd (^ 141) : pit bu druncon, we two 
both drank (B6d., 5, 3) ; — with single appositive: unc^Adame, to us, 
(me and) Adam (C, 387, see ^ 287, ^). 

5. Hit may represent a definite object of any gender or person : etad 
pisne hldfy hit is min lichama, eat this bread, it is my body (Hom., 2, 
200) ; hit {seo sunne) p^re birnende stdn, it (the sun) is burning stone 
(A. R. Ett., 39) ; ic hit eom, I am it = he (Matt., xiv, 27) ; ic sylf hit 
eom (Luc, xxiv, 39) ; J)u hit eart (Matt., xiv, 28) ; — or a clause : hit is 
dpriten^ ne costnd PUf it is written, Do not thou tempt (Matt, iv, 7) ; — 
an indefinite subject — an operation of nature or chance : hit sntpd, it 
snows (^If. Gr., 24) ; hit gelimped, it happens (B., 1753) ; — a date: hit 
psBS pinter, it was winter (John x, 22) ; hit AfenlAcp^ it is evening (Luc, 
xxiv, 29) ; — appetites^ notions, and the like : (rare) hit licode Herode, 
it pleased Herod (Matt., xiv, 0). 

0. Indefinite persons are denoted by hi : ponne hig pyriad eop, when 
men shall revile you (Matt., v, 11). 



POSSESSIVES.— DEMONSTKATTVES. 175 

7. Cases mix, dative me with accusative mec, pe with jtec^ us with usic, 
eSp Willi eopic. The datire finally displaced the accusative ; so also 
have him and Ihem in Englieh. Nominatives also give place to the 
oblique caHes: he ii atrongra pon mec, lie ia stronger Ihan me:^I 
(Matt.,iii, ll.Northum.); Aimse//, etc.see ^ 36G, 10. 

8. Personal prcmoniiB are often reflexives : ic me reste, I rest myaelf 
(Ex., 494, 8); rejfaiZey;', rest yourselves (.^ifd., 3) ; gegadorode mkd 
folc hit, a great crowd gathered itself {Chr., 9S I). Sec 10. 

0. Personals reciprocals : hig ieipeox htm cpMon, they aiid among 
themselves (Mrc, 1,37). 

10. Strengthened by dgen, an, self {fox declensions, see (j^ 131+) ; p'm 
dgea J earn, thy own child (C, 144, 37); hire Sgen learn, hei oitn 
child (158, 6) ; pinum agnum fotum (173, 3) ; ic ana Mherst, I alone 
escaped (Job, 165) ; ic selfa, I myself (C, 35, 11) ; ^i! selfa, thyself 
(36, 12) ; ^i tylfa, feminine (Ex. 363, 33) ; ge syife (Zohn, iii, 38) ; he 
jy/y (C, 35, 18). Accusative for nominative: ^e *yi/ cyme, thyself 
come (Ex., 9, 8) j Pildlus hym sylf apraC, Pilate himself wrote all thia 
(Nic, 34) ; — reflexive ; lu/a /innc nehslan spa Jie sylfne, love thy 
neighbor as thyself (Matt., xis, 19) ; — poaaessive : ptn sylfes hsam, thy 
own child (C. 176, 34); hire sel/re juna, her own sons (B.,I1I5);— 
pronoun omitted : seolfes blMam, its own shoots (C, 348, 17), 

11. FersonalB with pe as relatives, see relatives. 

367. — 1. The possesslves couple with a demonstrative without weak 
flexion : pes ntin sunn pxs dead, this my son was dead (Luc. sv, 34) ; 
min sc gecorena sunv, my chosen son (Matt., iii, 17). 

2. sin and blfl : his hearran, drthten sinne, his lord (C, 19, 30). See 
^U2,b. 

3. For genitive ending: i'nac Aij cpnr^, Anak's children (Num., siii, 
29) ; Gode his naman cigdan, call on God his name (Psa. xcviii, 6), 
ilnubtful ; common in Layamon and Old English, where also her: Pallas 
her glass^Pallas^a glass (Bacon). 

4. Omitted : mid haudum, (I can work) with my hands (C, 18, 37). 

6. Without its substantive : ealle mine synd pint, all mine are thine 
(John, xvii, 10) ; heora is heo/enan rice, theirs is heaven's Iringdom 
(Matt., V, 10). In Layamon, hearen^Old Engl. Aeru?i>Engl. hers; 



Demossteatives, § 13 3. 
1. So, EcO, ^xt, as an article. 
368. The definite article marks its object, 

(a.) As before mentioned or well known : porhle fen, and smyrede 
mid pam fcnne, he made clay, and anointed with the clay (John, ix, 6) ; se 



i; 






• ••••% 



•njL. 






3- 
ivcs, 
occui 



365. 
in ge/ii' 



1. Om 
20); 
(he) 
turnc. 
wheth 
of hoi \ 

2. Repec 

3. FlTBt } 

pe recc 
Kings t 
(LL., 1) 
(B., 958, 
and you s 

4. Dual : — i 
secgon, bcJ 
strengthenc 
both drank 
(me and) At. 

5. Hit may re^ 
pisne hlaff hi 
266) ; hit (sca 
(A. R. Ett., 39, 
com (Luc, xxi\ 
dpriten, ne cost 
an indefinite s 
snows (iElf.Gr., 
psBs pinter, it was 
xxiv, 29) ;—appet. 
it pleased Herod (. 

6. Indefinite persor 
men shall revile you 



POSSESSIVE^.— DEMOSSTRATIVES. 

z, dativi 



175 



I 



7. Caaea miir , dative mc with accusative mec, pi with pee, ds with iisic, 
cup with eopic. The doitlTe finally displaced the accusative ; so olau 
have kira Bud them in English, Nominative a also give place to the 
obliqne cases: he is alroiigra pan mee, he is stronger than roe — I 
(Matt., iii, 11, Nortlmm,) ; himaetf, etc., see i) 366, 10. 

8. Fenonal proaonna are often leflexiveB : ic me Teste, I rest myself 
(Ex., 494, 8) ; rejdjrfeo;!, rest yourselves (.^Ifd., 3) ; gegadorode mice! 
falc hit, a great crowd gathered itself (Chr., 021). See 10. 

0. Fersonala reciprocals : hig helpeoz him cpgi/o7i,they said among 
themselves (Mre., 1,27), 

10. Strengthened by agen, an, self {(or declensioDs, see ^^ 131+) : pin 
agen beam, tliy own child (C, 144, 37) ; Aire dg-en beam, her own 
child (158, e); pinum agnumfotum (173,3); ie ana xlbiETst,! alone 
escaped (Job, 165); ic selfa.l myself (C, 35, H) ; pi M//a, thyself 
(36, IS) i pi sylfa, feminine (Ex. 263, 33) ; ge tylfe (John, iii, 38) ; he 
SI/// (C, 35, 18). Accusative for nominative : pS sylf cyme, thyself 
come (Ex., 8, 8) ; Pildlus hym sylf dprat, Pilate himself wrote all this 
(Nic, 34) ; — reflexive : iw/a pinne nihslan spa pe lylfne, love thy 
neighbor as thyself (Matt, xii, 10); — possessive: ^in tylfes bearn,lhy 
own child (0.176,34); hire sdfre Juiia.her own sons (B.,1U5);— 
pronoun omitted : leoSfes bMdum, its own shoots (C.,248, 17). 

1 1 . Personals with pe as relatives, see relatives. 



Posses; 



;,§ 133. 



367. — t. The possesBlTea couple nith a demonatrative without weak 
flexion : pei min sunu pa^s dead, this my son was dead (Luc. sv, 24) ; 
min se gecorena sunu, my chosen son (Matt., iii, 17). 

a. Sin and hla : Aw hearran, drthten timie, his lord {C, 19, 20). See 
4 132, 6. 

3. For genitlTe eading : Enae his tynryn, Anak's children (Nam., xiii, 
29) ; Gode his naman cigdan, call on God his name (Psa. xcvijl, 6), 
doubtful; common in Layamon and Old English, where also her: Pallas 
her glass^^Paltas's glass (Bacon). 

4. Omitted; mid handum, (I can work) with my hands (C, 18,27). 

5. Witliont its Bobstantive : eaile mine synd p'lne, all mine are thine 
(John, xvii, 10) ; heora is heafenan rice, theirs is heaven's kingdom 
(Matt., V, 10). In Layamon, Acorc7i>01d Engl. Acrua>Engl. hers; 
ourujC>ouri, etc. 



Demonstrat 
1. Sc, seii, l)iGl, as an article. 



;,§133. 



i. The definite article marks its object, 
(o.) As before mentionBd or well known : porhte fen, and smyrede 
nid pam fcnne, he made clay, and anointed with the clay (John, ix, 6) ; se 



176 THE ARTICLE USED, OMITTED. 

Hxlcndj tho Savior (Luc, x, 38) ; pAre eordan, tho earth (John, viii, 6) ;— 
propor names : Illodpiges sunu, Se Hlodpigpxs Carles brwtor (Chr., 885) ; 
J>spne Iltrodem, tho (famous) Herod (Matt, ii, 22). 

(b.) As iiirther doBCribed, by a clause : pam bure Par heo inne laeg^ the 
bower wherein she lay (Ap., 1) ; se Beopulf^ se pe pid Brecon purine, the 
Beowulf, who fought with Breca (B., 60G) ; — by an appositive : pses muntes 
<Syon, tho mount Sion (Psa., xlvii, 2) ; — by an adjective : pact betste hors, 
the best horse (B6d., 3, 14) ; se hdlga Gudldc, the holy Guthlac (St G., 4) ; 
seo Magdalcnisce Maria, tho Mary called Magdalene (Matt., xxvii, 56) ; — 
by a possessive : pam hldforde pass huses, the lord of the house (B6d., 3, 
10) ; — by relation to other objects mentioned (often possessive) : gefyldon 
pd 6d pone brerd, they filled it to the (=its) brim (John, ii, 7) ; pam geate, 
(into the sheepfold) at the (=its) gate (John, x, 1). 

(c.) As a deflnita whole : pd ludeds, the Jews (John, vii, 1) ; pd cl&n- 
Acor/an, blessed are the pure in heart (Matt, v, 8) ; — a personified abstract: 
se pisdom, Wisdom (Boet, 3, 3). 

869. Tbe article is often omitted where it might be used. It is used less in Anglo- 
Saxon than in Gothic or Old High German, and very rarely in the oldest poetry, e. g., 
twice in the Traveler's Song, 19 times in the first 587 lines of Beownlf; 12 times in 268 lines 
of Csedmon (Grimm D. G., 4, 420). The steadiest nses are those in 868, b. Proper names 
of places and times, which are compounded with or described by appellatives, often take 
the article without ftirther reason. Folk names under e vary. 

(a.) Marked cases of the omission of articles are (1) after a genitive, (2) with an ol^ect 
compared, (8) with a negative, (4) superlatives, (5) copulative or dii^unctive singulars mean- 
ing many, (6) a repeated word in correlation, (7) predicate nominative, (8) factitive object, 
(9), after prepositions with names of places, parts of a house, parts of the body, (10), before 
an attributive adjective, genitive, or appositive. 

(1) Mid Godes gife, by God's gift (In. LL. 1) ; pses folces priterds, the 
scribes of the people (Matt, ii, 4, so oftenest) ; psere Godes lufan, the love 
of God (St. G., 2) ; § 367, 1 ; (2) strengre ponne rose, more fragrant than 
(the) rose (Rid., 41, 24) ; (3)Pe6fne cymef, thief comes not (John x, 10); 
(4) idesd scenost, fairest of women (C, 626) ; (5) berad bord and ord, 
(chosen men) bear shield and spear (EL, 1187); (6) pxs dd&led pxter of 
pmtrum, then was parted (the) water from (the) waters (C, 152) ; (7) he 
pses man-slaga, he was (a) murderer (John, viii, 44) ; (8) hine heold for 
fulne cyningy took him for full king (Chr., 1013); to hldforde (921);. (9) 
on ssb, on (the) sea (Ap., 19) ; on sande (C, 242) ; a^t huse, at home (Psa., 
cxi, 3) ; ut ofhealle, out of (the) hall (B., 663) ; beforan dura, before (the) 
door (Mc, 11, 4) ; on bed gdn, go to bed (C, 2234) ; cpMan on heortan, 
said in heart (Psa., Ixxiii, 8) ; ast fotum (B., 500) ; on cneopum (C, 227, 2), 
etc., abundantly ; (10) hsfdon langne speoran, they had (a) long neck (St. 
G., 5) ; clypiendes stefn, the voice of one crying (Matt., iii, 3) ; Mlfred 
cyningy AUred king (Chr., 894). 

370. The article Tvlth an adjective is frequent, to point out persons : 
se dumba sprxc, the dumb spake (Matt., ix, 33) ;— or things (rare) : pd 
topeardan, the future things (St. G., 13) ; — in apposition with a proper 
name: Sidroc se geonga, Sidroc the younger (Chr., 871) ; — so also; helle 




DEMONSTRATITES. 177 

pAre hdtan, hell the hot (C, 362). Just ao participles : J,d timbriendan, 
those huilding (Milt,, xxi, 42) ; for pam geearenum, for the choaen [xsiv, 
22) ; pi geladodan, those invited (ixii, 3). 

,371. With a numeral : >i tpelfe,\he twelve (Mc.,4, 10} ; pxt on (Matt., 
V, 47) ; se cahloda dieg, the eighth day (St, G., 3). 

372. With prouomiB: pd odre, the others (Matt., xxvii,4d) ; se pe,lhe 
vrhich (Bed., 2, 5) 1 ealpiet fanr^, all the land (MBtt.,ix, 3C); buiupd scypu, 
both the ships (Luc, v, 7) ; so ; healfnc pone ipeoran, half the neck (Jud., 
105) ; — poEsessivea, see ^ 367. 

373. The article is repealed with copulative words oftener than in En- 
glish: pes gold and Part sco!/or,tiie gold and the silver (Apol.,14) ; — some- 
timea a plural is used with two singulars ; /ii/rc pd leu/slan hlaford and sunu, 
her (the) dearest lord and son (Chr., 10<)3). 

Se, sou, l)a!t; Jiea, l)eo9, Jdis, g 133. 

374. Se 13 less emphatic tlicin ^es. Bolh denote tbe near ob- 
ject, or an antecedent to a relative. 

1. Sc is often nearly the third pronoun : spungon Kg Pone, andforUton 
hine, they beat that one (him), and sent him away (Mc., xii, 3). Note seo 
>Eng.ihe,pa>En5.llie'j; Lat. hie. 

2. pst and pis are often uaed without agreement in gender or number: 
pxt p3!S god eyning, that was a good king (B., 1 1) ; pxt p&ron pd Hrestan 
scipu, that (those) were the first sliips (Chr., 787) ; /i» is seo eorde, this ia 
tlie earth (C, 1787) ; pis lint pd bebodu, this (these) are the statutes (Lev., 
xxvi,4ll). Compare /ill,!} 306, 5. German es nnd. 

3. Antecedent : se pe bryde hsjfit, se is br^dguma, be is bridegroom, 
(the which), who has the bride (John, iii, 29) ; pmt pe dcenned is offi&scc, 
]■:(■( it a&se, that ia flesh, the which ia born of the fiesh (iii, 6) ; rare with 
/.(■.I (John, i, 15, North.). 

4. oil pis, till now (Baa. Hex,, C) ; hut generally these two years=nii tpd 
gear (Gen.,xlT, 6). 

5. This and that:=the former, the latter, are not expressed by pis. Part ; 
but se *rra, ae sftera (Bed., 4, S3). A discriminated remoter object is 

6. pij tna, Lat. e5 magis, more by that (ao much the more) (C, 54, 33) ; 
py heardra, the harder^harder by that (80, 8) ; ^ 303, d, 

SlS.ylcpyk, spyle (^ 133, 3). Ylc couples with the article or demon- 
Btrative | Pylc and spylc may be uaed as adjectives or substantives ; pxl ylce 
/eoft(.the same light (C, 301, 34); such (Luc., ii. 0) ; ^ijjHic, such (Boet,, 
39,3; MalL,xviii,5); j;>yic,Euch (Mc.,iv,33; Boet., 39, 2). 

376. Self if) 131), with personal pronouns (^ 366, lO), wilh substantives : 

pAre sylfan slope, tbc same place (John, xi, 0)j se ryning sijifa, the king 

himself (Ex., S, 1) ; le peSden self, the Lord himself (C, 9, 10) ; on pn:! 

dxgrSd lytf, at ibo dawn exactly (Jud., 201). 

M 



178 SYNTAX.-ISTEUUOGATIVEa 

Intebrogatives. 

377. Ilpa, hpa?t (§ 1:J5). 

///>ci asks mostly for persons : hpd prat bucstafds &r€$U who wrote letters 
first? (A. K.,40). 

Ilpvt asks (1) for neuters, (*2) for an answer without regard to gender or 
iiiiinlicr, (3) for a s|)ecial character or part of an object: 
(1) llpu't nwddercynnd si on eontan, what of snake kind are on the 
carihl (A. U.,4l); (2) hpa't jynt/on ^e, what (who) are you ? (B.,237); 
fip:vt is se cymn^, who is the king (of glory) ? (Psa., xxiii, 10) : com- 
pare Piri, pis (<^ 374, *2) ; (3) hpwt godes do ic, what (oQ good thing 
must 1 do ? (Matt., xix, IC) ; hpwt nipes, vrlal of new? (Ex., 441, 22) ; 
hpj'l peorces^ what kind of work ? (iElf.)>OId English adjective use : 
xchatt tccorrc (Orm., 1833). 
(a.) Ilpxt is se pe me xthrdn^ what is he who touched me (=emphatic 
\cho)y Lat. quis est qui (Luc, viii, 45). 
ib.) Interjection, opening poems, etc. jJIpxt! pe Gdr-Dend (B.)* 
(r.) Jfpame secgad men Jtsct sy mannes sunu^ whom say men that the Son 
of Man may be ? Hpwne (Thorpe), North, huelcne is used for hpmt of other 
A. Sax. versions in imitation of the Latin Quern dicunt homines esse JFilium 
hominis (Matt., xvi, 13), making anacoluthon, ^ 293. 

378. Ilpsedcr (which of two), and hpilc (what kind of, which among 
like), may agree as adjectives, or govern a genitive : hpssder uncer tpegd^ 
which of us two (B., 2530 ; Matt., xxi, 31 ; A. R., 39) ; hpylc man (A. R., 
40) ; hpilc manna (iElfc). 

For interrogatives as indefinites and relatives, see ^^ 382, 390. 

Relatives, § 134. 

379. Relative clauses in the Teutonic tongues are oftenest con- 
structed like leading clauses with a demonstrative, persona], or 
interrogative pronoun. They are made relative, i. e., subordinate 
adjective, by tone alone, or by a relative particle J>e added. The 
Sanskrit and Greek have peculiar forms for the relative; the 
Latin qui is from the interrogative ><2'WZ5. 

380 — A. Demonstrative FormB. 

1. Se^ seo, past alone : pd feng Nero to rice^ se forlet Britene, then came 
Nero to the kingdom, who (that one) lost Britain (Chr., 47) ; se purhjninadj 
se byd hdl, who endureth, he shall be saved (Matt., x, 22) ; — ^antecedent 
omitted : pxt ge gehyrad, bodiad, that ye hear, preach (it) (Matt., x, 27). 

2. PiBt pxt, whatever : part pset lator bid,piBt hwfd angin, whatever later 
is, that has beginning (Horn., i, 284). 

3. Se, se6,psBt with indeclinable sign pe : Augustinum, pone pe hi gecoren 
hsefdon, Augustine, whom (the one that) they had chosen (B6d., 1, 23) ; pd 
ungeledfsuman, pdrd pe hi pd gereorde ne cudan, the unbelievers, of whom 




HELATIYES. 



179 



they the speech did not know {B6d., 1, 23) ; pmi pe>pwUe may refer to a 
sentence (Bed., 2, 7). 

4. pe alone : se stan, /c, the stone, that (the builders rejected) (Mc, iii, 
10); pd mddmas, pe, the treasures, that (thou gavest me) (B., 1483); — an 

'antecedent omitted; nil synd fordfarene pe Joi(on, now are gone (those) who 
sought (Matt., ii, 80). 

From pe a preposition ia usually separated : pset bed, pe se lama on !mg, 
the bed that the lame one on lay (Mc, ii, 4). 

5. Spi/lc — spylc : he tiee apylcne hlaford, spylcne he pillc, he may seek 
such a lord, as he may choose {Mis., r, 1, 1) ; spylce hurh, ipyke sea pm, 
such a city, as it was (Oros., ii, 4, 6). 



•ife, of auch miseries, s 
Compare German so, Engl, i 






6. Spa : spylcTa yrmda, spa pic i 
to us before assigned (Ex., 373,3). 
4 383,3. 

3S1. — B. Peraonal Pronouiis. 

1. Alone. In O. H. German, clauses with the personal pronouns arc 
made relative without I'urtlier sign : Fater unsh du, pist in liiiniliim, our 
Father, who (thou) art in heayen (Scbade, 8 ; Grimm, iii, 17). 

2. PersonaU vrith indeolinable pe or se: hpxt ic halte, pe ic lend 
reafige, what am I called, who (i. e. I) the land ravage 1 (Hid., 13, 14) ; se 
mec, whom (i. e. me) (Ex., 144, 9) ; pe pe, (we) who (Cri., 35) ; Fmdcr 
ire, pu pe earl on htofenum, our Father, who (thou) art in heaven (Malt., 
vi, 9) ; pe pu (Hy., 8, 13) ; pe he (Psa., Ixvii, 4) ; pe his, whose (Psa., 
xxxix,4); pe Aim, to whom (Psa., cslv, 4)=m him (C, 201, 31);— /e sep- 
arated ; hpat se god pEbre, pe pa his bedcen pms, of what sort the god was, 
that this was his sign=whose sign this was (El,, 162). The German re- 
tains t|ji9 Idiom, da, der du hist, etc. The Gothic nses ikei (ik+ei), Puei, 

3. Personals wltli se pe: se bid leofast, se pe him God sylcd,\ia is 
dearest, (he) to whom God givclh (Vid,, 133). Compare ^ 384, a. 

382— C. IntenosatiTea. 

1. Ilpiet ;— indirect interrogativc> relative ; ne r&dde ge p^et hpwt Dauid 
dyde, have ye not read (that) what David did (Lnc., vi, 3) ; na^fdon hpset 
hig &ton, they had not what they might eat (Mc, viii, 1). 

llpa (who) appears as a proper relative first in its dative warn, wan in 
Layamon (2, 633 ; 3, 50), in its genitive tehas and dative wham in Or- 
ninlum (3425, 103T0). The nominative who ia foond sometimes with 
a pronominal antecedent in Wycliffe. A.D. 1303-3 (Isa., ], 10), and be- 
comes common as a full relative in Berners' Frolssait, A.D. IS23. 

2. Spa hpa spa, spa hpiet spa, spa hpyle (spa), whosoever, whatsoever, 
whichsoever: S&te ic kine, spa hpa spa eymed,\ will let him, whosoever 
oometh (sit by me) (C, 28,20); spa hpaU spa (Matt., xvi, 19); spa kpylc 
Vd (Matt, s, 43 ; B6d.,a,2); i/pa A;iy/c (Psa.,CMtsvii,4). 

Hpylc (which) appears by itself as n relative in Lajamon, 

383. Attraction, (a.) The relative ia soineiimes attracted to the casp 



180 RELATIVES.— INDEFINITES. 

of its aDtecedent : haligu treopt seo pu healdest, holy troth, which thou hold- 
est (C, 2119). Bat see ^ 384, a, 

(b.) The relative is sometimes attracted to the gender of a noun in its own 
clause : fulpiht-tid^ pane (hi) Tpclfta-diBg hdlad, baptism-time, which they 
Twelfth-day call (Men., 13). 

(c.) For relative adverbs, see ^^ 396-308. 

384. Incorporation. The same word may represent both antecedent 
and relative. It may have the case (a.) of the antecedent : gebyrgde Jubs 
gepeoxt tasted of what grew (C, 483) ; such cases are frequent, ^j=^b5 
pe. Those in ^ 383, a, may be similar, seo^seo pe, seo appositive with 
treop. Compare ^ 381, 3. (b,) Of the relative : hi nafdon hpxt htg &ton, 
they had not what they might eat (Mc, 8, 1). Here the clause hpst hlg 
Aton is the object of rue/don, (c.) The case of pe is not discriminated. 
For examples, see ^ 380, 4. 

385. Omission. Phrases of naming often lack their subject : an munacn 
Brihtnod pass gehdlen, a monk (who) was called Brihtnoth (Chr., 963) ; 
sealde dne peopene, Bala hdtte^ gave her a maid, (who) was called Bilhah 
=OId Eng. Bilhah hight (Gen. xxix, 20). M. H. German used the same 
idiom. Similar phrases sometimes have a relative expressed, sometimes a 
personal pronoun : se pas hdten Penpald, who was called Penwald (St. G., 
1) ; Agado he pas gehdien (Chr., 675). Compare gefor Mlfred, pas gerefa, 
Alfred died (who) was sheriff (Chr., 906). But the Anglo-Saxon does not 
omit the relative freely, like the English. 

Indefinites, § 136. 

386. An : — indefinite article : an man hafde tpegen sund, a man had 
two sons (Matt.,xxi,28) ; dstdh an hine spa an culfre^ (the Spirit) descended 
on him, like a dove (Luc, iii, 22) ; seldom, if ever, in poetry ; but a pretty 
indefinite an after its noun occurs ; he eordsele dnne pisse, he knew a cav- 
ern (B., 2410) ; — with numeral or measure : an f if tig sealmds, a fifty 
psahns (iEds., 5, 3) ; dne healfe tide, a half time (W. P. T., 12) ; an gedr 
dn man, they ruled a year a man=each man one year (Oros., 2, 2, 3) ; 
dne fedpa pordd, a few words (Nic, 11), dne is plural and means only, 

(a.) The English aTC>a has several shades of meaning. A nurse aaidj " a epwmfvA an 
hour is a dose for a ehUd tiU a doctor eomet^^=zA certain narse said, **one spoonftil each 
hour is what is eaUed dose for any child till some doctor comes.** The first, second, and 
third of these nses are sometimes fonnd in Anglo-Saxon, as in Latin (unus). Oar sec- 
ond example is nearly the fourth use, which is the most characteristic use of the proper 
article, i. e., simple sign of a singular use of a generic term : but compare Ufa a dove 
with it is like a dove. Ndn means not any : is ndn caru, is there not any care ? (Mc., 10, 
40). The Goth, ains translates Gr. ctr ; sums^ nr. O. Norse einns is sometimes pro- 
clitic, so Germ, einer. See sum, 

(b) An (indefinite pronoun) is adjective or substantive. Peculiar uses : 
(1) his dnes crxft, his oipn power (C, 272) ; — (2)puhte pe dnum, it seemed to 
thy *cZ/(Sat., 55) ; — (3) an after dnum (Sal., 385)=awne and dnne (Oros., 
2, 3)=fl/i after eallum (B., 2268)=an afier odrum (Sat., 26)=:dnes and 



NUM 

odres (Met., 25, 52), one after another ; — (4) buCan pom dnum, except the 
onea (Sat., 117) ; for unc dmm Ipdm, for us two alone (Rid., 61, 15) ;— 
(5) an junu, only son (Rid., 81, 10) i — (6) pst pmi an cyning, that was a 
(trae) king (B., 1885) ;^7) anrd with indefinite pronouns : dura gehpylc, 
each one «or ones) (Matt, xxri, 22) ; so Sghpylc (Gd., 4) ; hpa, gehpa, 
etc., compare gehpyle pegtta, each of thaQeB=eaeh thane (B., 1673) ; — (8) 
oTtes hpict, somewhat, in any degree (Boet., 18, 3) ; — (9) on an, in one, to- 
gether, once for all (Psa,., cxxxii, 1 ; Ixxxii, 9 ; lii, 4). 

387. Kan, &nig^ Tt&nig have both substantive and adjective syntax. 

388. Bum; (!) indefinite arlicle=:on: sum man kxfde tpfgen juna, a 
man had two sons (Luc., xv, 11), see ^ 386 ; — (2) pronoun : anuTn he sealde 
ftf pund, aumum tpd, to one he gave five pounds, to another two (Matt., 
3txv, 15) ;— (3) code cahta sum, he went one of eight (B., 3123) ;— (4) sum 
feSl, some (seed) fell by the way (Mc, 4, 4); — (5) sums pi bocerus, some 
CoO ^Q scribes (Matt., ix, 3) -, same ge, some of you (John,,vi, 64), Bee ^ 
287, c ,— (6) sume ten gedr, some ten years (Boet., 38, 1), see ^ 148. 

389. Uon, pihl, opikl, ndpihl; gif man pif ofileS, if one a woman 
slay <^lf B., 9} ; l&de man hider, some one led hither (Bed., S, S) ; lait^s 
pihl, anything of pain (painful) (Ex., 144, 1) ; opihl elles, anything else, 
something (Bed.. 3, 22) ; nopiht yfeles, notliing evil (Bed., 2, IS) ; so nan 
lung grcnes, nothing green (Exod., x, 15). 

390. Hpd and compounds ; hpa-=man, any one (Malt., xxi, 3 ; Mrc, 12, 
19) i spi/lccs hp^l, some what (B., 880), summ wkall appeais in Orm, 958; 
gehpd, each (Mc., 15, 34) ; ^ghpa, each (Rid., 66, 2) ; hpsrl-huga, some 
what (Bed., 1,27). 

391. Gehpmder, each of two, dlipsxter, any, arc substantive, i&ghpwder, 
either of two (B6d.,2, 3; 1,7), of many (B., 1630), snbst. and adj. 

392. Compounds of -lie are used substanlively and adjectively: mtc,^ 
each, every (Matt., vii, 17 ; xx, 2), muer xlc^everyckeycvery appears in 
Layamon, 2814 i sic with oder, aro both inflected : hi cpSdon xlc to odrum, 
they said, each to the others (Mc, 4, 41) ; xlc odres jet, each wash the 
other's feet (John, siii, 14); spHcc pri,BOiae three f Luc, 1,50). 

NUUEBALS, §g 13 8-14 8. 

393. Cardinale: oftenest substantive with gen. : feopertig dagd, forty 
(of) days (C, 1351): with o/.- ai» o/^r«um, one of these (M[itt.,v, 19); 
— apposition: an fifilg scatmdi, a fifty psalms (^ds., 5, 3); — with 
pronoun: Ai^ry,they three (Ex., 190, 11);— alone ; pdforman tpd, the 
firsttwo(— pair), Adam and Eve (C, 194); — adjective: mid L scipum, 
with fifty ships (Chi., 1052); lyn pusend, ten thousand (Matt., xviii, 
24). Compounds with anii.- six and /if tig, 5S (BSd,,2, 5) ;— with fei, 
pana, bulan ! tpd Ites XXX, 2S (Cht.,641); dnes pana prfttigum. 
thirty less one (B«d„ 1, 1] ; Ipenttg butan dn, 19 (B^d., 5, 19) ; numerals 
with IU71J, see ^ 388, and compare French guelque, Gr.ri;. 



182 NUMERALS.— ADVERBS. 

For ordinal dates : sixtigum pintra^ 60 yeart (=60th year) B.C. (BM., 
1,2) ; — multipUcatiTO : six spa micelf six tiinoa as much (LL., p. 398) ; 
— distribntlTe : ipanij by twos (Lc., 10, 1) ; dnne and annef one by one 
(Oros., 2, 3, 4); — how oflen : sixtjne sktum, 10 times (An., 490) ; — 
division : on tpa, in two (Ap. 11). 

304. Ordinals. Adjective, with or without an article : se eahioda dssgf 
the eighth day (St. G., 3) ; priddan dssge^ the third day (Lc., 0, 9S) ; — 
with of (rare) : oder of his leoming-cnihtum^ a second of his disciples 
(Matt, viii, 21), an operr appears in Orm., 5T78 ;^ompounds : (1) or- 
dtnal+ordinal : Py tpintigdan and Py feordan^ the 24th (day of Sep- 
tember) (Bed., 4, 6) ; (2) cardinal + ordinal : an and tpentigodan^ Slst 
(Exod., xii, 18) ; (3) ordinal +cardinal : sixta eac feopertigum^ 46th 
(B6d., 1, 15). 

Division : seofedan d&U seventh part (Oros., 2, 4, 6) ; before healf (^ 
147) : nigonteode healf gedr^ 18^ years (Chr.,855) ; feorde healf hund 
scipe, 350 ships (Chr., 851). 

395. Indefinites (1.) eal : eal here^ the whole mob (C, 150, 12) ; perod 
ealj the host all (C, 184, 1) ; eal seo A, all the law (Matt, xxii, 40) ; 
uninflected (B., 2042, and often when parted from its noun) ; — ^with 
pronouns : pe ealle, we all (C, 268, 27) ; ealles pass, all that (186, 25) ; 
hig eallct they all (Matt., xiv, 20) ; — substantive : eallum gumend 
cynnest all of mankind (B., 1057) ; geomdst ealles^ eagerest of sU (Psa., 
83, 12) ; hpa^t ealles^ what on the whole (cxix, 3) ; ealrd ncost^ richest 
of all (Vid. 15, ^ 312, c) ; tpelfd ea/ra, twelve in all (B.,3171). 

(2.) Manig ; — adjective : manige men, many men (B., 337) ; rinc manig, 
many (a) man, Germ, mancher mann, Lat. mtUtus vir (An., 11JL8) ; 
mony enne king, many a king, appears in Layamon (6591). Note the 
noun nuBntgeOf a crowd (Matt, viii, 18; iv, 25); and oflen (>Shake- 
speare^s the rank-scented many, a great many ; — substantive : moniges 
pintrd, many (of) winters (C, 1230). 

(3.) Micel, much ; md, mdrd, more. 

(4.) Fe&pa, few ; fed{p)um dnum, few only, a few (B., 1081) ; fed(pe)rd 
sumne, one of few=:with few companions (B., 3061). 

(5.) Lyt: lyt freondd, kw (of) friends (C, 2626); cynnes It/t-hpony few 
of the race (Jud.,311). For hpon, see Grein. 



ADVERBS. 

395* Adverbs modify verbs^ adjectives^ and other adverbs. 

Adverbs could for the most part be parsed as cases of nouns, as they were, 
^251. They make 
Adverbial combinations : he peop hiterlice, he wept bitterly (Matt., 
xxvi, 75) ; spa geongum, so young (B., 1843) ; spa miceles gepdh, he 
throve so greatly (C, 186, 24). 



INTERROGATIVE.— DEMONSTRATIVE. 183 

Predicative, mostly adverbs of place : hpsbr is se luded cyning^ where 
is the Jews^ king? (Matt^ ii, 2) ; pe her beouyvre are here (Mc, 9, 5) ; 
pser ic eom, there I am (Matt., xviii, 20) ; — expletives, so called, J^^er 
peard geporden mycel eordbifung, there was a great earthquake 
(Matt, xxviii, 2). 

Attributive, rare ; min tu magtster, my of-yore master (B^d., 5, 10). 

396. Interrogative and demonstrative adverbs may be used like 
their pronouns, §§ 252, 260. 

A. To govern a case : hp&r eordan Abel p&r^, where (=in what part) 
of the earth Abel was (C, 1003) ; hpider (Jul., 700) : — governed : sell p&r 
pu on sitestj seat where on thou sittest (Hy., 7, 41), so other prep, often. 

B. To introduce clauses. 

397. — ^I. Leading Clauses. 

Declarative : J>^r may introduce a clause like an indefinite hit (^ 365, 
5) : psBj' peard geporden mycel eordbifung, there was a great earthquake, 
Germ, es geschah etn gross erdbeben, Gr. aeurfibc iysviro, Lat. terra motus. 
f actus est (Matt., xxviii, 2) ; hence English so-called expletive there. 

Interrogative. — Interrogation may relate to the general affirmation of 
a sentence, or to some particular point connected with it, the subject, ob- 
ject, time, place, manner', 
(1.) General questions are expressed hy inversion or tone : hsefst Pu 
hafoc, hast thou a hawk % (-^Ifc.) ;— by hpssder with the subjunctive : 
hpseder ge nu pillen pMan, will ye now hunti (Met., 19, 15). 
(2.) Particular questions are expressed by interrogative pronouiy or 
adverbs : hp&r is heord God, where is their God ? (Psa., cxiii, 10) ; 
^/^irfcr, whither 1 (C, 2269); A/»anon, whence ? (B., 333). For pro- 
nouns, see § 377-8. 
(a,) Negative questions add ne: ne drincst Pu pin, dost thou not drink 
wine? (iElfc). 

(5.) The particles ac, aA, At^, M, are used to strengthen ques- 
tions. 

Ac for hpam, wherefore then? (Sal., 342) ; ah ne pe fordrifon, did we 
not cast out (devils) % Matt., vii, 22 ; North.) ; hu ne synd ge selran, 
are not ye better 1 (Matt., vi, 26) ; hpxt is pis Id mannd, who is this 
{Id) man? (EL, 903) ; so are used forms of secgan and cpedan, say : 
segst Pu mipg se blinda pone blindan l&dan, (sayst thou) can the blind 
lead the blind ? (Luc, vi, 39) ; cpede ge hasbbe ge sufol, (say ye) have 
ye any meat ? (John, xxi, 5) ; cpede pe ys pes Dauides sunu, (say we) 
is this David*8 son? (Matt, xii, 24). 

(3.) Disjunctive questions may have inverted clauses, or the sign 
hpxder : ys hit riht pxt man pam Casere gafol sylle, pe nd, is it right 
to give tribute to Caesar, or no? (Luc. xx, 21); hpxder first: hpseder 
is mdre,pe psBt gold,pe tempi, which is greater, the gold or the temple? 



184 ADVEIUJS.-rAUTlCLICS. 

(Matt, xxiii, 17) ; — before second clause : pxs Johannes fulluht of 
heofone^ hpxder pe oj mannum^ was John*8 baptism of heayen, or of 
men? (Luc., xx, 4). 

3 98. — II. SUBOBDINATE CLAUSES. 

1. Indirect questioiis : frspgn, hpubr Abel p&rc, asked where Abel was 
(C, 1003). See further, ^^ 424, 425. 

2. Relative clanseB : hus, panon xc ut eode, house whence (^from 
which) I went out (Matt., xii, 44) ; J>d dagdsj ponne se brydguma byd 
afyrred^ the days when the bridegroom shall be taken away (Lc., 5, 35) ; 
on st&nihte^ p&r hyt nwjde mycle eontan, on stony ground, where it had not 
much earth (Matt., xiii, 5). 

(a.) The relative adverb is often made a conjunction by incorporation 
(^ 384) : ne mage ge cuman pidcr ic farcj ye may not come whither I go 
(John, viii, 21). 

Particles of Affirmation and Negation, § 261. 

399. Answers. The particles gea, gese, ne, nese, nd, ia 

answer to general questions, have the syntax of declaratiye 
clauses. (Other tongues have particles of like syntax.) 

(a.) They are quasi-clauses, ^ 278, d: lufast Pu met ged, lovest thou me, 
Yea (=1 love thee) (John, xxi, 16) ; gise. Id gese^ yes, yes (Boet., 16, 
4) ;— object of a verb : nc, secge ic eop, I say to you, no (Luc, xii, 61) ; nd 
(xiii, 3) ; nese (i, 60) ; cpyst pit, eart pu of Pyses leoming-cnihtum t niCy ne 
com \c, art thou of his disciples? Not I, I am not (John, xviii, 17). 

400. Negative Adverbs. Repeated negatives strengthen 
the negation. (So in old Teutonic and Greek, not in Latin.) 

1. General negation is expressed by ne. It may be repeated before the 
verb, subject, object, adverb : ne on mode ne mum, do not mourn in mind 
(An., 99) ; nan spile ne cpom, none such comes (Cri., 290) ; ne nan ne 
dorste nan ping dcsian, no one durst ask him anything (Matt., xxii, 46) ; ne 
pep Pu nd, weep not at all (Lc, 7, 13). 

(a.) A positive word of emphasis may be added : ic ne forhtige piht, 
1 shall not fear a whit (Psa., Ixi, 2) ; often ndpiht (Matt., xxvii, 24) ; so 
French point, pas. 

2. Particular negation is expressed by un-, -leas, nd, nalxs, noht : nalses 
rtdende on horse, ac on his fotum gangende, not riding on horseback, but 
going on his feet (Bed., 3, 28) ; nalses micelre tide, no long time (4, 6) ; heo 
tiliad to cpemanne Gode mid pordum, nass mid peorcum, they try to please 
God with words, not with works (Psa., xl viii, 12) ; nohtfeor, not far (4, 3). 



USES OF THE VERB-FORMS. 
FSB.BQS A.L Endings. 



401. A finite Terb a 



with its subject in number and 



pevsoD. 

(a.) Paitdolples in compound tcnaea agree ; — passives ; pes jbu gehlelsad, 
he thou bleat (An., 540) ; pesad ge gelileltddc,he ye bleat (Psi., cxiii, 23) ; 
—perfect ; her xyndon geferede, here ^love come (B., 3Qi). After hal/baii, 
transitive participles agree with llie object, intransilives have no ending : 
ke hxfii man geporhlne.lie has man made (C, 25,18); hie gegan ho'fdon, 
they had gone (Jud., 140). But the endings early fell awaj. See further 
examples, ^^ 412-119. 

402, Simple Subject. — I. Its fomiB. 1. A Bubstnntive. 2. An adjec- 
tive used as a Bubstanlive. 3. A pronoun. 4. A numeral. 5. An infin- 
itive. 0. Any word or phraae as such. 7. A clause, or clausea. So in all 
tongues. Impersonali generally have their subject hit. For examples, 
see ^ 36G, 5. See /ar, ^ 3B7. Indefinite personals (man, etc)., see fj^ 
389, 390. 

3. CollectiveH singular may lake a plural verb by syneais : se here 
gcbrohlon, the army brought (their shipa) (Chr., 1016); — a einguiar and 
plural : pstfolc net ■ ", and orison, the people sot, and they arose (Esod,, 
xxxii, 6) ; se here spor patt hie poldon, the army swore that they would 
(Chr., 921) ; Jiin ofspring sceal dgan heord feondd gala,ii\j offspring shall 
possess the gates o( (heir foea (Gen., xxii, 17), 

3. Numerals plnial may take a singular verb, generally before them : 
J,d ps!s agin V pintra, then waa gon& 5000 years (Chr., 616, 655). Com- 
pare him gelicade hire fiedpds, him pleased her manners C^) (Chr., lOGT). 

403. Compotmd subject, ^ QS3. 

Copulate singulars take a plural (I) after them regularly : Maria and 
Martha p£ron tpa gespyslru, Mary and Martha were two sisters (Horn., I, 
130); — before them Bomelimes; pd cpSidon Annanias, Azarias, Misahel, 
then said Hananiah, Azariah, Miahael (Horn., 3, 18); — oftener: pd peard 
hi gedrefed, and eal Hierosolim-paru, then was he iroubied, and all Jeru- 
salem folks (Matt, iii, S). 

(a.) Copulate words may be really a simple subject, 1, a repetition of 
the same notion, ollen a climax : niin sapl and mm mind is spyde gedrijed, 
my soul and my mind is greatly troubled (Psa.,vi, 3; Millon, P. L., 1,130); 
— 2, complements of one notion : fi^c and Mod ne xleApde pi, fleah and 
blood hath not showed to thee (Matt., xvi, 17, North, ; so Lat.. Greek, etc.) ; 
(orandhurh slud,lov/CT and burg stood (C, 102,17; Milton, P. L.,3,4a5; 
6, 814, etc.). 

(p.) Logical copulates connected by a preposition may take a plural by 



186 VERB.— AGREEMENT.— KINDS. 

synesis : se febnd mid his geferum feollon, the fiend with (=aDd) his 
mates fell (d 306). So in Latin, Greek, and elsewhere. 

404. Agreement "with a predicate may take place 

1. When the subject is J>is or past : pis synt pa bebodu, these are the 
statutes (Lev., xxvi, 46) ; psBt p&ron pd sbrestan scipu^ those were the first 
ships (Chr., 787). 

2. When the subject is remote : gyfp^t leoht pe on pe ysy synt pystru, 
if the light that is in thee is darkness, Lat. tenebra sunt (Matt., vi, 23), and 
in other cases when the predicate is the more important to the thought. 

405. OmiBBion of the subject occurs (1) with imperatives, (2) where 
it would be repeated, (3) with reflexives, (4) in other rare cases, mostly of 
the first and secohd persons (for examples, see ^ 366) ;— of the verb : 
(1) the verb to be in exclamatory clauses : pd eop, woe (be) to you (Matt., 
xxiii, 13, Cambridge) ; pel gesund, Apolloni, (may you be) very well, Apol- 
lonius (Ap., 7) ; — elsewhere (rare) : pabr leoht and lifj in heaven, where (is) 
light and life (C, 212, 26) ; (2) to give in certain phrases: edge for edge, 
and tod for tod, an eye (must be given) for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth 
(Matt., V, 38). For hpast, what, § 377, b. For omission of the infinitive 
with auxiliaries, ^^ 435-443. Answers, ^ 399. 

406. The Kinds op Vk'rbs. 
Notional, § 55. 

Intransitive, ^ 275, a. 
Transitive, ^^ 275, a ; 290, b. 
Copulative, §^ 273, b ; 286, c. 

Impersonal, §^ 290, c ; 299, a ; 366, 5. 

Reflexive, ^^ 150, a; 290, d; 298, c. 

Factitive, ^^ 275, a ; 294, a. 

Causative, ^ 292, c. 

Relational, §§ 150-152; 176; 212; 435-443. 

(a.) The emphatic form in do (^ 177, 2) : spa dod nu pd peostro pidstan- 
dan, (as a great rock withstands), so does now the darkness withstand 
(Boet., 6). This perhaps never occurs in Anglo-Saxon except as a repeti- 
tion of a verb just used. See a possible example (Psa., cxviii, 25) Grein. 
But do-\'2in object clause occurs as an emphatic form : ne do pu ^fre, past 
pu oncyrre=ne avertas, do not (thou ever, that thou) turn away (Psa., 
cxxxi, 10) ; so cxviii, 97, 174, 170, etc. 

(fi.) The same verb may l>e in the same author notional in one connection, relational in 
another ; so also transitive and intransitive, reflexive and not, causative and not, and the 
like. 

(c.) Historically verbs change from one kind to another: especially from notional to 
relational, from intransitive to transitive (causal), from transitive to intransitive. They 
acquire factitive, reflexive, or passive senses, or drop them. Such changes may be noted 
in comparing Anglo-Saxon verbs with their English descendants. See impersonal and 
reflexive examples at the U referred to above. 




407. A transilive verb miy lake two forms as the agent or the object is 
made more prominent. 

408. Active. The active voice is used to make the agent 
tlio suliject of predication. 

(a.) It is ttie common form of ull verbs. 

409. Passive. Tbe passive voice is used to make the direct 
object of the action the subject of predication. 

For its forms, see ^^ 178-183, and tenses, Ij^ 412-410. 

(a.) The agent is expressed with passive verba by an oblique case after 
/ram, purh, or the lilte : from SUuestre i&Tde p&ron, they were taught by 
Silvester (El., 190). 

(fi.) A facUtlTO object becomes a predicate nominative : Cnst pais 
H&lend gehdten, Christ was called HMend (Suvioor) (Men., 4) ; bnt if 
expressed with a preposition, it is unchanged : pms to papan geset, was 
made (to a) pope (Clir., 1038). 

(c.) Other objeofB are unchanged with passives : (dative) pxa Arende 
wdelum cempum dboden, the message was given to the noble knights (An., 
S30)j — impersonals; ts me gepuht^me pgncd, it seems to tne (Ex., 163, 
G) ; — genitive : bedmas p&ron ofietei gehisidenc, trees were laden with fruit 
(C, 30( 4) ; — instrumental : Johannes pws hcafde Seeor/en, John was cut 
off from his head (Bed., 1, 27), 

410. Middle. For liiiddle forms, see ijlj 150, a ; SOO, d; 298, c. 

Tense, § 152. 

41 1. In relation to time action is represented by A.-Sas. verbs 
OS in its own nature indefinite, continved, or completed; and in 
regard to the time of speaking &s prese7U, past, or future. 



i 



Present^. . , ' 
1 1 take. 

f ic nime, 

Poturo } ic tceal (pUle) mm, 

i I shall (will) take. 



Con tinned. 

ic com nitnende, 
I am taking-. 
ie beo mmende, 
I shall be taking. 



ComplBled. 
ic hmbbe numen 
I have taken. 



c piEi nimende, 
I was taking. 
For sabordinate clauses, see ^ 418. 

412. The endings of the Anglo-Saxon verb discnminate only 
past time from other time. 

1. Tbe so-called present tense is nsed for present ani future acts. 

2. The so-called Impeifect is used for all past acts. 




188 INDICATIVE TENSES. 

3. Compound forms in which the auxiliary has the preBent form discrim- 
inate varieties o( present dind future action. 

4. Compound forms in which the auxiliary has the imperfect form dis- 
criminate varieties o(past action. 

(a.) The present, future, and perfect are called principal tenses ; the 
imperfect and pluperfect, historical tenses. 

Indicative Tenses. 

413. The Present expresses 

(I.) What exists or is taking place now : J>one maddum byred^ he bears 
the treasure (D., 2055) ; — progressive : peos eorde is berendsj the land 
is bearing (=produce8) (diverse birds) (Bdd., 1, 1) ; — passive: ic earn 
gelujodf I am loved (iElf. Gr., 26) ; eorde is gecpeden Godes fot^ 
sceamelt earth is called God^s foot-stool (Hom., 2, 448) ; pyrd bered/ad 
(Met., 28,42) ; beodfangene (B6d., 1, 1). 

(2.) Customs and truths : p&r pin goldheord is, p&r is ptn heorte^ where 
thy treasure is, there is thy heart (Matt., vi, 21). 

(3.) Author's language : se pitega v^ manad, the prophet exhorts us 
(Horn., 2, 124, rare). 

(4.) Future : wfter prim dagon ic arise ^ afler three days I shall arise 
(Matt., xxvii, 63) ; ne g&st pu panone, &r Pu dgilde^ thou shalt not go 
thence, till thou shalt have paid (Matt., v, 26). 

(5.) Imperative : six dagds pu pircst, ^ 420, c, 

(6.) Narrative clause dependent on a past tense : hpi noldest Pu secgan 
pxt heo pin pif isy why didst thou not say that she is thy wife ? (Gen., 
xii, 18, frequent). ^ 419, III. 

414. The Imperfect (preterit) expresses 

(1.) What took place or was occurring in time fully past: he ssegde, 
he said (they were magicians) (Jul., 301) ; — progressive: spd ic &r 
secgende pass, as I was saying before (An., 951); — ^passive: ic pass 
gelufod, I was loved (^If. Gr., 26) ; pd pass pridpord sprecen, then a 
mighty word was spoken (B., 642) ; purdon heofends ontynede, the 
heavens were opened (Matt., iii, 16). 

(2.) Perfect : nu Pu Isetst pinne peop, forpam mine edgan gesdpon pine 
h&le, now lettest thou thy servant depart, for mine eyes have seen thy 
salvation (Luc, 2, 30). 

(3.) Pluperfect : pd hi pxt gebod gehyrdon, pd ferdon htg, when they had 
heard the command, they went (Matt., ii, 9). 

415. The Future is expressed (1.) by the present, § 412 (future perfect, 
§ 413, 4) ; — progressive : beodfeohtende, will be fighting (Jos., x, 25) ; 
— passive : ic bed gelufod, I shall be loved (-^If. Gr., 26) ; ailc treop 
byd forcorfen^ each tree shall be hewn down (Matt, iii, lO ; Luc, 6, 38) ; 
pyrd him pite gegearpod, punishment shall be prepared for them (C, 
28, 6). 



INDICATIVE TENSES. 



180 



(2.) By sceal .- ic Pe tceal mine gel£)tan freSde, I shall keep my regard 
for thee (B., 1T06); pi icealt peordan, thaa ehalt be {=wiit be) a 
comfort to Ibe people (B., 1707); sceal gar pesan hwfea on handa, 
spear shall be raiaed in hand (B.,3D31): he sceal peaan Ismahel haten, 
he shall be called Ishmael {C.,S386); aeeal pesan pridende (C, 1763). 

(3.) By pille : pene ic pint he gyldan pille, I think that he will pay (B., 
1 184) ; pi pill secgan, thou wilt say (Met., 24, 48) ; Northurab. has 
oden uuillo in the first person (Matt., xii, 44 ; x, 33). 

(4.) Tiy ga: ki g^ rSdan, Litpergit lectti>n,hs is going to reid (j£1f. 
Gr.,25), Fr. Je vaii lire. See If 445, 6, and nton, ^ 443. 

(5.) By kmbbe: pone calic Pe ic to drincenne hicbbe. North, done ic drinca 
tiuillo, the cup that I have to (= shall) drink of, Lat. bibilvrvs sum 
(Matt., SK, 22): rare. SeeH53,o. So in Goth., Romanic. 

(6.) By eom: Mannes Sunu is to jy(/(;7ine. North- »Bnu monnes gesald 
bid, the Bon of Man is to (^ shall) be betrayed, Lat. tradettdut est 
(Matt., xvii, 23). See ^ 4!>1. The three last forms perhaps give no 
pure futures in the Anglo-Saxon literature. 

(7.) The fatora perfect is not discriminateii. In its place may be a fu- 
ture : £r Pa dgilde, thou shalC not go thence, before (=till) thou shilt 
have paid (Malt., v, 20) ; a perfect ; pit ejt evmad siddan pit agifen 
habbad, we will come again, after we (shall) have completed (C, 174, 
35). 

(fl.) The future forma are sometimes imperative, ^ 420, c. 

(b.) Pure futures in sceal and pille are not sure in largo numbers, and the 
Englisli distinction between the persona is not made out. 

416. The Perfect represents an action as now come to completion. It 
is denoted 

(1.) By lisebbe: he harfd man geporhlne, ho has made man (C, 25, 18) ; 
pe habbad lydre gefered, v/e have got along badly (Sal., 62). 

(3.) By com, with a few inlranaitives mostly of being and going: ic eom 
Aider gefered, I am (have) hither Journeyed (C, 498) ; so synd ford- 
farene, have departed (died) (Matt., ii, 20) ; agdn, gone (El., 1227) : 
geporden, geietcn, urnen, 

Fassive .- eom ■{■ pp. of transitivea : ealle ping me lynd gcsealde, all 
things have been given me (Matt., xi, 27) \—eom geporden+p. p. : nu 
syndon hi gepordene lolysde (Psa., Ixxii, 15; ic pms fulfremedlke 
geluf3d=amalus sum {JElf. Gr., 26). 

41 7. The Pluperfect represents an action as completed at some definite 
past time. It is denoted 

(1.) By hm/de: hiefde hme £tporhlne,he had made him (C, 17, 4) ; 
gefaren hmfdon, they had gone (B6d., 1, 23). 

(2.) By pms with such as have a perfect In eom : pas pa lenclen agan, 
spring haJ gone (El., 1227). Paoslva :^'a-«+p. p. of Iranaitivea : pa 
se li&lend gefullod pus, he asldh, when the Saviour had been baptized, 
he came up (Matt., iii, 10) ; — pas gepordcn+p. p. ; ccaru pxs genipad 



lyO TENSES.— MODES. 

gepordcn, caro had been renewed (B., 1304) ; ic /kcs gefym gelu/od= 
Lat. amatus eram {JEK. Crr., 20). 

SuBJUNCTivK Tenses. 

418. The tenses follow in general those of tbe indicative, bat 
time is indefinitely expressed in relation to tbe speaker. Faturity 
runs with doubtful possibility. In indirect sentences the time is 
to be taken in relation to that of the principal verb. 

The Imperfect of\en expresses time as future from a past of the prin- 
eipal verb : ic spor pxt ic hi'nc ham brohte^ I swore that I would bring him 
homo (Gen., xHv, 32) ; — with auxiliary : pohtan Jaet hit ofergdn sceolde^ 
they tliought that it would ^o by (Chr., 1053) ; pold pxt sceoldon hodian^ 
wished that they should preach (Ilom., 2, 20) ; — Future perfect: Jast polde 
Pyncan pundorllc^ ff'f^^^g ^r pam s&de pset hit spa gepurdan sceolde^ that 
xcould have seemed wonderful if any before that had said that it should so 
happen (Chr., 1052). 

Sequence of Tenses. 

419. Principal tenses depend on principal tenses; historical on 
historical. 

Exceptions. — I. Present + Past, (a.) A present narration or question of 
a past fact : eart pu se mon pe pt&re dfedj art thou the man who was fed ? 
(Boet., 3, 1) ; — comparison of present and past : he is gen spa he pass^ he is 
still as he was (Ex., 334, 5). II. Perfect + Past: Pu hsfst forgiten para 
piBpnd pe ic pe sealde^ thou hast forgotten the weapons that I gave thee 
(Boet, 3, 1). III. Past + Present; — a truth in narrative: pd Sciddeds,pe 
on odre healfe bugiad, ne geheordon^ the Scythians, \^io live on the other 
side, had not heard (the Roman name) (Boet., 18, 2); — quasi oratio directa 
in past narration : ^413, 6. Compare ^ 288, e. 



MODES. 

The Indicative, § 151. 

420. The indicative is used in assertions, questions, and 
assumptions to express simple predication. 

(a.) Primary. It is the primary form, to be used every where unless 
there is reason for some other. 

{b.) Real. — Since there is ^ special mode for what may be and might be, 
the indicative is used in contrast to speak of things as real or fact. So in 
a protasis, ^431. 

(c.) Imperative. — The indicative future may be used for the imperative : 
six dagds Pu pircst, six days shalt thou labor (Exod., xxxi, 15) ; ne pylt Pu 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

mi' gesci)ndan, Lat. nott me cortfunderc, please not confound me (Psa., 
cxTiii, 31). Ho in Greek (Hadley, 710) and Latin (Harkness, 470). 

The SuiiJUNCTivE, § 151. 
421. The subjunctive is used to express mere possibil- 
ity, doubt, or wish. 

The Teutonic subjunctive has the general range of the Latin subjunctive, 
together with tlie infinitive having a subject accusative. Compare ^ 393, a. 

1. In deolarativo sentences (hypothetical) : ndJrc min brodor dead, my 
brother would not have died {Joh., xi, 21) ; pumge p&r he punige, he may 
dwell where he may dwell^wherevei he may dwell (iEdr., ti, 3, 1). So 
in Greek (Hadley, 732) and Latin (Harkness, 486). 

3. luteiToeatlTe sentences (doubt) : hpa ne mi&ge j>EJ/ian,who can fail 
to wonder 1 (Met., 28, 43) ; kpi pH afre polde, liow couldst thou ever wish 1 
(Met, 4, 33). So in Greek (Hadley, 720, c] and Latin (Harkneaa, 486). 

3. Imperative sentences ; 1st person (eihortation or request) ; fare pe 
on tunas, go we to the towns (Mc, i, 38) ; up-aliebben pi kU naman, exalt 
we his name (Paa., suciii, 3) ; uloa gan, let us go (Mc, 14, 43);— 2d 
person (command) i ne speri^en ge, swear not {Mlf. LL. 48) ; neilon ge 
pcsan, do not be (Matt., vj, 16); — 3d person (wish, demand) ; ii Gode lof, 
praise be to God (Chr., 1000) ; iib si mid eopic, [leace be with yon (Ex., 
S82, 25) ; heon gegadcTode pd pxteru, let the waters be gathered (Gen., i, 
0). So in Greek (Hadley, 730, a) and Latin CHarkness, 487). 

4. ExclamEttoTT (wish, abridged snbordinates) : Ea la ! pisC hit purde. 
Oh ! that it might be (Met., 8, 39) ; Ea la ! gif ic mosle gsefenlScan, Oh I 
if I might imitate (tlie blessed Lawrence) (Horn., I, 132) : Ed Id! g'f pH 
p&re hand. Ah L if (=woul(l) thou wert a dog {Hom., 3, 308), So in Greek 
(Hadley, 721) and Latin (Harkness, 488, 1). 

5. In Co-ordinate and Subordinate clauses the subjunctive may every 
where be used as in tlie above examples to express a separate possibility, 
doubt, or wish. DlajonctlvBa (doubt): sam pe pillan, sam pi nyllan, 
whether ws will, or niil (Boet., 34, 12) ; /A hit man, si hit ni/tan, be it man, 
be it beast (Esod., xix, 13). For adveraatives, ^ 432; for causals, 



(a.) Snbordlnatea eiu 

la take llio aiibjnnctive id 
EDce Ibo following dlacua: 



In Ibe Benera] poastbility, donbt, or deBiro of tlielr Mntence, 
my caaeawbereit is not obvionaly the expreaalon of eUhBr. 
a, fi 492-434. m 



The Subjunctive in Suboedinatg Clauses, H 
422. Tlie subjunctive may be used by attraction in clansesP 
subordinate to a subjunctive. 

{a.) Cases of so-called attraction are mostly better explained as illogical 
: ponne pfi £n!g ping begite , 



Pe pa pene pa:t me ti 



) of the other rule 
, when thou a 



ly thing mayst lake of that thou 



192 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 

mayst know {=iknowest) tliat may please me (=/ iikc) (Gen., XZTii, 3). 
Compare Latin (llarkncss, (»'J7), Greek (iladlcy, 738). 

A. SuiiSTANTivE Clauses, § 283. 

423. The sabjunctive may bo used in a substantiTe clause 

expressing something said^ askedy thoughty toishedy or done* 

(a.) Tb« indioatiTe Lb nsfd in the Mune claiues to emphislxe rtality or/acf, 1 4iO^ 6. 
(6.) ThcM clanvM uflenent reprnwot an inflnitiTe with a ratiject acciuatlTe in Latin and 
Greek, but Bometimes in them also the rabJonctlTe la naed (llarknesa, 6«8u0OB • Hadlej» 

TO+). 

424 — I. The clause may be a subject, oftenest of a copula, impersonal 
or passive. 

(a.) An indirect assertion or question : hit is s&d pxt he ahofe^ it is said 
tliat ho raised (up his hands) (B6d., 3, IG); ne ptes me cvdy hptsder egesa 
pt^re, it was not known to mc, whether there was fear (of God) (C, 2710). 

(b.) Something cognized : puhte htm Jast faegre stode pudubeam, it seem- 
ed to him that a forest tree stood fair (C, 247, 17). 

(c.) Something to bo desired, as fit, necessary, enough, pleasant, etc. : 
pS ys hetere, post an pinrd forpeorde, it is better for thee that one of thy 
members perish (Matt., v, 30) ; gedafenad past hi heord Idre gfmon, it be- 
seems (priests) that they their lore heed (Hom., 2, 342). 

425. — n. The clause may be an object. 

(a.) An indirect assertion or question : cpedad pxt Pu sie hl&fdige, they 
say that thou art a lady (Ex., 18, 15) ; sspged past hit come, he says that it 
came (from God) (C, 683) ; he sasgde past Sarra his speostor p&re, he said 
that Sarah was his sister (C, 158, 27) ; — hpast secge ge pxt ic sig, what say 
ye that I ami (Matt., xvi, 15); Gregortus befran hpasder folc Cristen 
pd^re, pe h&den, Gregory asked whether the people Christian were or 
heathen (Hom., 2, 120) ; frxgn gif him p&re, asked if to him were (a 
pleasant night) (B., 1319). 

{h.) Object of cognition : pende pxt se msbsta dael psbre, weened that the 
most was (aboard) (Chr., 911) ; gelyfe pxt hit come, I believe that it came 
(from God) (C, 679). 

(c.) Object of desire or fear (hope, heed, doubt, pray, etc.), see § 315 : 
ic pylle pxt he punige, I will that he wait (John, xxi, 22) ; hopode past he 
gesdpe, hoped that he might see (Luc, 23, 8) ; so onegan, fear (C, 110, 1) ; 
begymad, heed (Matt., vi, 1) ; biddad, pray (Exod., ix, 28), etc. 

{d.) Object done : do symble pxt ic &> pine metige, I do continually that I 
meditate thy law=English emphatic form I do meditate (Psa., cxviii, 174); 
see further § 406, a. 

426 in. The clause may limit a noun or adjective : sylle ponne ddpxt 

he nelle pebf bebn, take the oath that he will not a thief be (LL. Cnut., ii, 
21) ; heo georndst bid pxt heo dfsbre flebgan, she is earnest to (that she) 
frighten flies (Ps., 89, 10). 




B. Adjective Clauses, g 283. 
427. The subjanctive may bo used in indefinite adjective 

clauses. 

Hypothetical relativo sentence (Harkness, 501 ; Ilacilef, 757) '■ 'V'' 
Jiam pe pe bidde, give to him that asketh thee=if any one ask (Matt.,T, 43J; j 
gehyre ae pe earan hxbbe, let him hesr who haa eara (Mc., 4, 9) ; pyrea J 
hpa Pb;1 p^et he pyrce, odJe do p.vt pxC he do, one may work that, Ihiit (what- 1 
ever) lie may work, or do that, that he may do (Boet., 37, 3). 

C. Adtehbial Clauses, § 283. 
428. — I. Clauses of Place. The sut^iui^ctiTe may be | 

used iu indefinite adverbial clauses of place. Compare g 427. 

FaT,p&r pa freondd pene, go where thou hopeat for friends (Gl., 263) ; 
haja bleliunge P&r pH fere, bJio a blessing wherever thou goest (An., 334); 
pic geceos peer JtS leofSaC lie, choose a residence where to thee pleaaantest 
may be (C, 2723). Otleneat indicntive ; puna p&r pi leqfoal ys, dwell 
where to thee pleasantest ia (Gen,, xi, 15) ; so with spa hpar spa, wher- 
ever (Cbr., 1130) ; spa hpider spa, whithersoever (Mc, 14, 14). 

429.— II. Clanses of Time. 

The silllJtinctiTe may be used in adverbial clauses of ftature 
or indefinite time. {Compare Hark., 518-523; Iladley, 76S.) 

(a.) Future : ite g&st pi panone atr pi agylde, thou goest not thence 
beroie thou sbalt pay (Matt., v, 20) ; ic pxs &r pam pe Abraham pAre, 
I was before Abiaham was (John, viii, 5S) ; geipmc BeSpulf, &t he stige, 
Beowulf said before he mounted (B., 676) ; puniad par od pxt ge utgan, 
stay there till ye depart (Mc, 6, 10) ; he sohle aC he fimde, he sought till 
he found (the cap) (Gen., xliv, IS), In Greek, irpiv with an infinitive, 
Hadley, 769. 

(i.) Indefinite : potine pi fmste, smyra pin heafod, when thon fasteat, 
anoint thy head (Matt., vi, 17) ; bad, hponne peard Teste ageafe, waited, 
(for the time) when the Lord should give rest (C, 1438) ; so with penden, 
until (B., 1224) ; spa lange spa (Deut., xiii, 29) ; /d hpile pe (LL. jEftr., 
vi, 12). 

430.— m. Clauses of Manner (intensity). 

The subjunctive may be iised iu clauses of comparison 
expressing that which is imagined oi- indefinite, or descrip- 
tive of a force (Hark., 501, 4), 

(a.) pss se mona, splice hi pAre mid blade begaten, the moon was as if 

it were with blood washed (Chr., 734) ; bete spa hit rlhl sir, lot him pay ss 

N 



194 SUBJUNCTIVE.--CONDITIONAL.— CONCESSIVE.— FINAL. 

it may be right (LL. ^If., 38) ; strengre ponne rose sy, (I am) more fra- 
grant than any rose may be (Ex., 423, 19) ; pu gesyhst mare J)onne pis sy^ 
thou shalt see more than this is (John, i, 50), an extreme case. 

{b.) Consecutive clauses, descriptive of a force : spa stearc pinter past ic 
durre lutian, winter so severe that I dare to stay at home (iElfc. CoL). 
Compare ^ 434. 

431.— IV. Conditional Clauses, § 283, p. 141. 

The* subjunctive is used ia a protasis when proposed as 
possible, the imperfect when assumed as unreal. (So in Latin 
and Greek, Hark., 602+ ; Had., 1U+.) 

(The indicative proposes as real : gif gi Abrahcmet beam ij/nd, since ye Abraham*s chil- 
dren are (do his works) (John, Tiii, 89).) 

(a.) Present: gif mec hild nime^ onsend Higeldce, if me battle take, 
send to HigeUc (B., 452). For inverted clauses, ^ 485, 6, c. 

(J.) Imperfect : gif pu p&re her, n&re min hrodor dead, if thou hadst 
been here, my brother had not died (John, xi, 32). 

(c.) So with on pwt gerdd piBt,oa condition that (Chr., 945) ; pid pam pe, 
same (Gen.,xxix, 27). 

((/ .) Negative condition : buton hpd beo ednipan gecennedj unless one be 
born again (he shall not see God^s kingdom) (John, iii, 3) ; so nefne (6., 
1056); nemne (Ex., 124, 12) ; nymde (C, 205, 19) ; butan p3Bnne,( pa) ex- 
cept when (Men., 32 ; Sat., 391). 

432. — Y. Concessive Clauses. 

The sutDJimotive may be used in a concessive clause. 

Hpset fremad, peak he gestryne, what profiteth it, though he gain (the 
whole world) (Matt., xvi, 26); pu scealt dreogan, pedh pin pit duge, thou 
shalt suffer, though thy wit is good (B., 589) ; pedh pu to banan purde, 
though thou wast a murderer (B., 587). For inverted clauses, ^ 485, 6, c. 

(a.) The indicative ia used in similar clauses. The English discrimination between the 
first and second examples was growing. 
(6.) So in Latin (Hark., 614-f ) ; for Greek, see Hadlej, 874. 

433. — YI. Final Clauses. The subjunctive is used in 
clauses expressing purpose. (So in Latin and Greek, Hark., 
600+ ; Had., 739+.) 

(a.) Present : sete pine hand ofer hig, pxt heo hdl sy and libbe, lay thy 
hand upon her, that she may be whole and live (Mc, 5, 23). 

(b.) Imperfect : genam pxt ptfpxt he bespice, (the devil) took the woman 
(as aid) that he might deceive (the man) (Job, 166). 

(c.) Negative clauses with py Ixs, Lat. quo-minus , or py lass ^e>Eng. 
lest: s&lde scip, Py Ixs pdd prym forprecan meahte, fastened the ship, 
lest the waves' force might wreck it (B., 1918) ; beron, p^ lass pe pin fot 
xtspome, they bear (thee), lest (so that less by that) thy foot may dash 
against (a stone) (Matt., iv, 6). 



POTENTIAI.. 



1^5 



434.— VIL Consecutive Clauses. 
The subjunctive may be used to express a result 
Gi/mon lie dumb odite deaf geborcn, pict he ne ntAge hit aynna oasec- 
gan, if one bE born dumb or deaf, so that he cm not deny his crimes (^If. 
LL,, 14). Consecutive modal clauses in spa jKei,Bee f) 430, b. So in Lat,, 
Hark., 501; in Greek, uarf with an infinitive (Hadley, 770). 



I 



Toe Potential, §§ 151, 176. 

435. The potential expresses power, liberty, permission, 
iieceasity, or duty. 

(a.) In some cases it is only a periphiastic form of the subjanctive or im- 
perative; in mast cascs'it adds a distinct notion of power in some foirm. 

(b.) The indicative form of the auxiliary sometimes takes the place of the 
subjunctive ending of the principal verb, but generally a subjunctive clRUse 
retains the subjunctive form of the auxiliary, making a doubly-expressed 
possibility, at doubt, or with ; ie nu tyllan polde, I now would wish to give 
(B., 3739). 

(c.) The principal verb takes the infinitive, except aflec earn and habban, 
where the gerund is used. 

(rf,) The principal verb is often omitted, especially a verb of motion before 
an adverb of place. Examples under each. 

430. — 1. Mceg (^^ 176. 213), physical power; — declarative: ie mag 
pesan God, 1 can be God (C, 18, 35) ;— (hypothetical), eaite mihle Criil 
;iunian,easily might Christ have dwelt (Horn., 1,164); — subordinate clauses, 
e.g. conditional; gifheo meahle, if she might, (she chose) (B6il., 4, 33) ; — 
final : kco polde hire edel farlMen, pmt heo meahle geeamian, she would 
give up her estate, that she might earn (one in heaven) (same) ; — principal 
verb omitted : helle galu ne magon ongedit Pa, hell's gates can not (prevail) 
against it (Malt, ivi, 18). 

437.-3. Can(H 176,312): ne can ic cop, I know you not (Matt.,s][v, 
13; frequent). Intellectual power; — declarative: ie can tup l^ran,l can 
teach you (Sat., 250) i — subordinate clauses ; — conditional : fionne he ne can 
ongilan, if ho can not understand (Boet., 39, 2) ; — principal verb omitted : 
saga,gifp't cunne, say, if thou can (say) (El., 857); Jyion spa hie cuitoTi, 
did as they could (do) (C, 233, 1 1). 

438. — 3. Slot (l)^ 176, 212), possibility through permission ; Ji&t ic sittan 
mot sumorlangne dmg,thetB I may sit the summer-long day (Ex., 443,28); 
— doty : mot ie him forgtfan, should I forgive him (seven times) 1 (Matt., 
xviii, 21) ; — necessity (rare) : talle pe moton speltan, all wo must die (Exod., 
xii, 33) ; — subordinate clauses; — object: bmdjimt he moite niman, besought 
that he might take (away the body) (lohn, »ix, 38) ; — omission of principal 
verb: gifipe) pidcr mofon, if wa thither, might (go) (Sat., 303). 

439. — 4. Dear, dorsle {^^ 17G, 212), power of will in danger: ne dear 



196 POTENTIAL.— IMPERATIVE. 

fordgdriyl dare not go forth (C, 54, 1) ; subordinate clauses; — ^result: he 
pass td'gefultumiendey pmt him mon noht hefiges gedon dorstCj Lat. ipse 
juvans, ne qui (iis) quicquam molestia inferret, he was helping, so that 
no one might (dare) do anything "grievous to them (B^d., 5, 11); rarely 
auxiliary. 

440. — 5. pille (§^ 176, 212). Present; — declarative future indicative, 
see ^ 415 ; — imperative : ne pille pu pepan, Lat. noli plorare (Hark., 538), 
please not weep (Bdd., 4, 29) ; ne pylt pu, same (Psa., cii, 2). Imperfect : 
— declarative : ic sund minum syllan polde, I to my son would give (if I had 
one) (B., 2729). Subordinate clauses ; — purpose, result : pass gepunod past 
he polde gdn to 5iS, was wont to go to the sea (Hom., 2, 138) ; — principal 
verb omitted : hpxnne pu me pylle to, when thou wilt (come) to me (Psa., 
c, 1, and often). 

441. — 6. Sceal, sceolde (^^ 176, 212) : hu micel scealt pu, how much 
owest thou '? (Luc, 16, 5 . Matt., xviii, 24) ;— necessity under law or external 
force : he ure & he sceal speltan, by our law he ought to die (John, xix, 7) ; 
— necessity for a purpose : ic hie sceal &rest gepinnian, pxt ic siddan mAge, 
I must first dispel them, that I afterward may (bring light (Boet., 5, 3) ; — a 
future sign, see § 415 ; — imperative : ge sculon herigean, Lat. laudaie,ipT?Lise 
ye (the name of the Lord) (Psa., cxii, 3). Imperfect : spylc sceolde secg 
pesan pegn, such a warrior should a thane be (B., 2708) ; — subordinate 
clauses: he cpasd past helle healdan sceolde, he said that he should inhabit 
hell (C, 530) ; — passive : forhtianpxt he gel&ded beon sceolde, to fear that 
he should be led (to hell) (B^d., 3, 13) ;— result : npdpast he hrasdlicor Jeran 
sceolde, need that he should travel more rapidly (Bed., 3, 14) ; — ^principal 
verb omitted : ic him asfter sceal,l shall (go) after him (B.,2816). 

442. — 7. ^ear^ need (^^ 176, 212), common as a notional verb, rare as 
an auxiliary : syle me past pxter,pxt me ne pyrste, ne ic nepurfe herfeccan, 
Lat. ut non sitiam neque veniam hue haurire, give me the water, that I may 
not thirst, nor need (come) here to draw (John, iv, 15). 

443, — 8, 'U^X)nf putun, 0. Saxon wita (^^ 176, 224, c), pres. subj. plur. 
1st of pttan, to go. Compare Lat. eamus, age, It. andiamo, Fr. allons; — 
imperative clauses : putun gangan to, let us advance (B., 2648) ; utan to- 
brecan, let us break (their bonds) (Psa., ii, 3) ; uten is in Layamon, but the 
common form is the subjunctive with we : lete we peos ferde bilasue, and 
speke we of Ard^re, let we this host remain, and speak we of Arthur (25407). 
The English pure auxiliary 7e/ is later yet. 

For potential eom, ^§ 451 ; 415, 6. For hsebbe, ^^ 453, a ; 415, 5, 

The Imperative, §§ 149,161. 
444. The imperative is used in commands. 

Gd, go (Mc, 5, 8) ; gang pu, go^thou (Matt., iv, 10) ; gad, go ye (Exod., 
V, 18) ; ne beod ge,he not ye (C, i94, 11). 



INFramVE AND GEEUMD.— INFINrnVE. !< 

(a.) In hypothetical sentences : sccaii and ge hitfindad, seek and (= 
S-e seek) ye shall find (Matt., vii, 7). 
(e.) SabjtmctiTe for imperative, ^ 431, 3.> 
lo^catlve fur imperative, ^ 420, c. 
Potential, /liWe, ^ 440 ; scvlon,^ ii\. 
(c.) So through the lodo-European tongues. 



I 

I 



The Infinitive and Gerdnd. 

445. Their fonns, §§ 173-175, 177, 181, 352, V. 

1. The infinitive in an rarely uses t6 : micel is Id lecgan, there is much 
to say (Gil., 503) J a/y^ei^iiif ft) it^ciin.it is piepaied to seek (Ph,,275) ; so 
B.,3ie; C, 320, 25; Ex. 187, 27, etc. Grein, 

3. The gerund in -ende appears in the later manuscripts of the Chronicle, 
and spreads: Nero agan C6 rixiende, Nero began to rule (Chr., 49) he 
sende tu bodiende, he sent to preach (604) ; coman Crist to purdiende, they 
came to honor Christ (3). See 1} 460. So in JEltiic's Grammar. 

3. The infinitive and gerund sometimes interchange in most of their uses, 
if not all. 

4. Tlio progressive future is rare : ongeale kine habbcnde loan, he knew 
himself to be abont having, Lat. sefaiase habilurum (Q£d., 5, S). 

5. Future passive : ne Ipeoge ic me gelled beSn, I did not doubt myself 
about to be led, La(. mc rapiendum esse (Bgd., 3, 13). 

6. jElfric gives as the Latin future active amatum ire eel amalurufn esse, 
Anglo-Sason/arau liiJian,to be going to love; vis doelum ire, pill pu gan 
ieornian, will you go to learning (.£!f. Grant., p. 25). The English is a 
true futnre;=fo be about lo love. Sure examples ol/aran or gan, without 
notiond force, aia needed from Anglo-Saxon literature. See ^^ 443 ; 415,4. 



Infinitive, §g 149, 151. 
44G. The inflnitive is construed as a neuter noun. (So iu 

other toiignes : Latin, Havk., S48 ; Greek, Had., 762-|-.) 

447. — 1. A subject : hine ridan lyste, to ride pleases him (Boet., 34, 
7) ; Myfd on Reste-dagum pel don, is to do well lawful on Sabbath days "i 
(Luc, 6, 9) i sometimes with to : is alyfed on RestC'dagum pel to donne, it 
is lawful on Sabbath days to do well (Matt., xii, 13). 

448, — 3. Direct object. — (I) Of beginning and ending (acts exerted 
on other acts) : ongunnon riiran rihl, began to establish right (C., 2, 17) ; 
Romdne blunnun ricsian, Romans ceased to rule (B&d., 1, 11); — (2) of 
motive (acta moving to other acts — desire, seek, intend, expect, dare, dread, 
etc.) : pille faran, I wish to go (Hom., 3, 373) ; secad to (John, viii, 40) ; 
Jiencad (C, 3436); mijnlan (B., 712); n« dear ie faran, 1 dare not go 
(Gen., xliv, 34) ; eeara (C„ 3370) ;— (3) definitive object of ability, doty, 
habit (acts and states defined by acts) : ic mirg lecgan, I am able to say 



198 mFDOnVR-GEBUND. 

(Cri.,317); eudon <fon, were able to do (C, 189); he sceal spelian^he 
ought to die (John, xix, 7) ; gepunedon moder c^gean, they were wont to 
call (her) mother (Bed., 4, 23) ;— (4) general motion defined by specific 
motion: fleon gepat,he went to fly = he flew away (C, 136, 23); cam 
fleogan, came flying (89, 10) ; com gongan (B., 710) ; com drifan, came 
driving=:fell (on a rock) (B6d., 5, 6) ; so with faran^feran^ gltdan, ridan, 
scridan, sutian^ tredan^ etc. See further under Participles, ^ 458, 2. 
(a.) These forms nm to periphrastic forma of the Aitnre and potential, see SS 4Vi, 485+. 

449. — 3. The inflniUve is used as a final oltloct to express 
an act of the first object. 

This occurs oftenest after verbs of 

(a.) Cognition : geseah rincd manige spefan, saw many heroes sleep 
(B., 729) ; leode secgan hyrde, heard people say (B., 1346) ; ongeate hine 
habhende beon^ he knew (himself to be having) that he should have (this 
number of years) (B^d., 5, 8) ; so after seon^ geh^ran, gefrignarit Jtndan, 
(difandiafif gemetan, etc. The direct object is sometimes omitted : secgan 
hyrde, I heard say (B., 582). Teaching: l^ us gebiddan, teach us to 
pray (Luc, 11, 1). 

(b.) Bidding: bsed hine /aran, bade him go (Chr., 1050); hdtan men 
gepyrcean^ ordered men to build (B., 69) ; so with {J)e)be6dan^ forbeodan^ 
etc. Direct object omitted : h&t fealdan past segl, orders to furl the sail 
(Boet, 41, S). 

(c.) Let : leton holm beran, let the sea bear him (B., 48) ; l^tad J>d 
lytlingds to me cuman, suffer the little ones to come to me (Luc, 18, 16). 
So forlMan^ alyfan, 

(d.) Make : dedhi ealle beofian, makes it all tremble (Psa., ciii, 30). 

(a, b, c) "With paasives : pses gesepen Mod peallan, blood was seen to 
spring from the ground (Chr., 1100); hard and spyn synt forbodene to 
^^Arinenne, hares and swine are forbidden to touch (Lev.,xi, 6-8) ; — wish- 
ing: polde hyne genemnedne beon, he wished him to be named (Luc, 1, 
62). 

Note.— This construction gives rise to the accusative before the infinitive, for which see 
§293. 

Geeund, §§ 173, 115. 

450. The so-called gerund usually answers to the Latin gerund, supine, 
or ut with the subjunctive. But see \ 445, 3. 

451. — L The gerund after the copula expresses what micsty 
may^ or should be done. 

Mannes sunu is to syllanne, the Son of Man must be delivered up (Matt., 
xvii, 22) ; his apostolus tofarenne p^ron, his apostles were to go (LL. 
uElf.,49, 1) ; seo lufu is da on mode to healdanne,\oYe should always 
be kept in mind (Bed., 1, 27). 




and -di« <Hark., (f m-S3Sj. 

452.— II. Attributive. The geniud ia sometiinea used to 
describe or define a notin. 

Neod 13 l3 duntie, there is need of acting (LL. ^dr., vi, 42) ; gepeald 
to gyrpanne, power of working (C., 280) ; in&l to feran, time to go 
(B., 31G) \ mihte tS forlMenne, power to forgive (Jofao, xis, 10 ; Mc, 
S, 10). 

(a.) Latin genlUva of the gemnfl (Hark., EC3). 

453. — III. Objective. Tlie gerund may bo used as a final 
ottJBCt to express aa act oa the first object. 
After verba of having and giving: I'c hmbbe mete to elantte,! have meat 
to eat (John, iv, 33) ; sylit mi hldf Id etemie, gives me bread to eat 
(Gen.,xsTiti,20) ; ic sendefl&sa to elanne,! send flesh to eat (Exod., 
svi, 12). 
Note nim pmt ic Jie Id iUtenne habie, take that I to thee to give have, 
(Ap., 13) ; ic hmibe pe to secgenne mm ping, I hare aomelhing to say 
to thee (Luc, 7, 40), Lit. kae dicere habeo (Cic. N. D., 3, 39), Oiiiv 
aimiiritv tx'^ (lEsch. Prom., 51); — direct object omitted: hire ti/ltan 
etan, to give to her to eat, Lat. bibere dari (Liv., 40, 47), loB^vai ^ayilv 
(Luc, 8, 55). 
(a.) Henm B petiphraetli: tntnre I have to drink = 1 elmll drink, { US, 6. 
(6.) Tha gamnd aa genitiye objoot la pretty eommon : nmtred li /anuiTie, dreaded to go 
(Matt,,!!, t2J; wished to see (liii, IT.) Other ol^lcctB occur, ( UB, 2). 

454. — IV", Adverbial. 1. Tho gerund ia used to denote 
the purpose of motion. 

h't elide se sMcre to sdpenne, the sower went out to sow (Mc, 4, 3) ; so 
often without to: gretan e ode, went to greet (C, 146, 31); gepat 
ncosean, went to see (B., 116) ; sende bodian, sent to preach (B6d., 3, 
33). 

(o.) The Latin anpino in -um (Hark., OOfl). 

2. The gemnd -with an adjective may express an act for 
which any thing ia ready. 

Hriblc biod to Ageatanne, reidy to shed blood (Psa., xiii, 6); fust to 
farenne, ready la go (B,, 1805); so gearu, rcope, split, etc. Compaie 
hit p&re pa dyrslig ofstidan bar, how could yoa he daring (=how 
dared you) sUb a boar 1 (.lElfrc), ^ 448, 3 1 gearpe gehyran, ready to 
hear (.^Ifrc). 

(0.) LaUn Buplno In -u, and lnDoitiTO (Hark., !4 570, 601, 9). 

3. The genmd with an adjective may express on act in 
respect to which any thing iapieasan(,«n75&(MaHf, easy, toortAy, 

§§ 321,302. 



200 PARTICIPLES. 

Gladu on to locienne, pleasant to look on (Boet.,6) ; grimlic to geseonne, 
grisly to see (Ex., 57, 15) ; ede on tofindanne, easy to find (Psa.,lxxvi, 
16) ; pyrde to dl&tenne, worthy to receive pardon (C, 622; Matt., iii, 
11). 
(Ow) The Latin rapine in -u, for which often an infinitive (Hark., 670). 



PARTICIPLES. 
455. The Edation of the Forms, 

1. The -nd of the present denotes continuance ; the -en, -d of the past 
denote completion. The completed acts are naturally iised to describe the 
things completed, i. e., are passive. 

(a.) A few past participles are active, druncen, forsporen, gesprecen, 
etc. : beore druncen, drunken with beer (B., 531, and often) ; forsporen, 
forsworn, perjured (Gen., xxiv, 8, and elsewhere) \ heom pus'gesprecenum, 
they thus having spoken (Nic, 27, and elsewhere); gelyfed folc, people 
having believed (Horn., 1, 144) ; so Gothic (Mc, xv, 28), Lat. potusyjura- 
tus, etc. 

(2.) The participles have (1) adjective endings, and agree with nonns ; but the dif- 
ference is so slight between an act asserted as done by the agent, and as descriptive of the 
agent, that the participles are used (2) like infinitives, and (8) as abridged claoses. 
The two last ases are less common in Anglo-Saxon than in Latin or Greek (Harkness, 671- 
681 ; Hadley, 786-806). 

(3.) Weak and strong forms, see §3 862, 119, b. 

The Combinations. 

456. A participle agrees with its substantive in gender^ 
number y and case^ § 361. 
A participle may govern the case of its verb. 

I. Attributive : man rihtpU and ondr&dende God, a man righteous and 
fearing God (Horn., 2, 446) ; seo fores&de boc, the aforesaid book (Horn., 
2,118). 

(a.) Abridged.— Here belong many abridged clauses, § 281 : onlpht 
sdcne man cumendne to Pysum middanearde,\i^\jdi\i every man coming 
(who comes) to this world (W. P. T., 4). 

{b) Subject omitted : — persons : ealrd libbendrd modor, mother of all 
living (Gen., iii, 20) ; Godes gecorenan, God's chosen (Hom., 2, 454) ; — 
things : frumnpan gongendes and peaxendes, first fruits of that going and 
growing (LL. -^If., 38). 

(c.) Compounds with un- abound in the Teutonic tongues. 

457. — II. Predicative : ic secgende pass,! was saying (An., 951) ; pses 
first dgdn, the time was gone (An., 147) ; fet sint gebundene, feet are 



VERBALS. 201 

bound (C, 24, 18) ; paldend licgad dredme bedrorene, the powerful lie be. 
reftofjoy (Ex.,291,8). 

{a.) Hence the progressive forms, §$ 177, 411 ; the perfect of intransitives, §S ItfS, 416 ; the 
passives, S§ 178, 409. 

458. — III. Objective: (1.) direct object after verbs o( beginning and 
ending: geeridude bebeodende, he stopped giving commands (Matt., xi, 1). 

(2.) Definitive after verbs of motion : com rtdende, came riding (Horn., 
2, 134); com gangende (Matt., xiv, 25, and often); cpom gefered (Sal., 
178 ; perhaps never exactly the Germ, kam gegangen) ; pind pedende fiered, 
(£1., 1274) ; purhpunedon dcsiende,ihey continued asking (John, viii, 7). 

(3.) Genitive object after verbs of emotion : ondredon htne dcsigende, 
dreaded asking him, iipofiovvro EireputTfjffai (Mc, ix, 32) ; pundredon geseonde 
dumbe specende^ they wondered to see the dumb speaking (Matt., xv, 31). 

(4.) Final object after verbs of cognition : hine geseah sittendne, saw 
him sitting (Luc.,xxii, 56) ; geseah his hus dfylled, saw his house filled (St. 
G., 6) ; gehyrdon hine specende, heard him speaking (John, i, 37). 

(5.) Final after having : he haefde hine geporhtne, he had him wrought 
(C, 17,4). Hence the perfect in Teutonic, Romanic, Romaic, rare Gr., Lat. 

(a.) These correspond with infinitives, SS 448, 449, 453. 

459. — IV. Adverbial. (1.) Time : he pseccende geseah, he, when he 
walced, saw (St. G., 4) ; nolde, gelaitod, sidian, he would not, when invited, 
go (Hom., 1, 128). 

(2.) Cause: dyde &gder to dnum, topurpende feondscipds, made both at 
one by abolishing enmities (Hom., 1, 106). 

(3.) ConcesBion : syllad^ nan ping gehyhtende, lend, though hoping 
nothing (Luc, vi, 35). 

(4.) Co-ezi8tence : gecyrdonpd hyrdds puldrigende and herigende God^ 
the shepherds returned, glorifying and praising God (Hom., 1,32). 

(a.) Sach constnictions are often abridged clauses, S 881. 
{p.) For the absolute constniction, see §S 304, d; 295^ b, 

Veebals. 

460, 1. The Anglo-Saxon verbal in -ung, -ing (§ 233), is a true noun, 
e. g.i governed by a preposition : ic pms on huntunge^'^u^, I was a hunt- 
ing (iElfc). 

2. The gerund in -ende (§ 445, 2) changed to -ing (Layamon, 2647), 
and hence the old English use of the form in -^ng as a verb : I am to aC' 
cusinge you (John, v, 45, Wycliffe, Oxford edition). 

3. The present participle in -^nde changed to -Ang ; and, in English, 
noun, participle, adjective, and infinitive (gerund) mix. 



202 . INTERJECTIONS. —CONJUNCTIONS. —COPULATIVES. 



INTERJECTIONS,^ 263. 
461. The interjection has the syntax of a clause, § 278,(21 

(a.) Compare vocative, ^ 289, d; answers, ^ 399. 

(6.) For the dative after so-called interjections, see ^ 298, b. 



CONJUNCTIONS,^ 262. 

CO-OBDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 

462. Oo-ordinate conjunctions connect sentences and 
like parts of a sentence. 

463. Copulatives. 

1. And connects like clauses ; cum and geseoh, come and see (John, 
i, 46) ; "words, oflen an emphatic repetition : litlan and litlan, by littles 
and littles (Chr., 1110) ; spidor and spidor, worse and worse (Chr., 1086) ; — 
correlatives : feor and nedh, far and nigh (C, 177, 27). 

It is a general sign of connected discourse ; — introductory to a sentence : 
And ne forseoh pu cyrliscne man^ (Hail to thee, Apollonius), And do not 
neglect a plain man (Ap., 7) ; so Shakespeare, "Fei ajA;." ^^And shall I 
havef^^ (Rich. II., iv, 1) ; and often beginning a lyric, Southey, Moore; so 
in German, Goethe. 

Strengthened : sunu andfxder &gder, son and father both (Hy., 7,42) ; 
and butu, and both (Ex., 125, 8) ; and eac^ and also (Chr., 894) ; and edc 
spa (896) ; and edc spa ilce (same), and also (Psa., xxx, 10; EL, 1278); 
and ealspd, and likewise (Luc, v, 33) ; and samod, and together (C, 456) ; 
and sodlice, and verily (Matt., ii, 9) ; and to, (nine hundred), and (seventy) 
too (C, 1224). 

Correlative: and .... a7i^,both .... and (John, xii, 28) ; soWyclifie, 
Mc, ix, 21, and oflen). 

&gder (ge) .... and (edc) both .... and (By., 224) ; bu (bdtpa) .... 
and', both .... and (Ex., 64, 12). 

ge , , , , and, both .... and (C, 46, 31) ; samod .... and, both .... 
and (C. 239, 27). 

(a.) As a general connective, and may connect clauses having varioos 
logical relations, and with or without other specific conjunctions. 

Adversative : God geseah pone deofol, and se deofol spd-pedh pxs 
bed&led Godes gesihde, God saw the devil, and the devil though was 
deprived of the sight of God (Horn., 2, 448) ; and nd pe lass, and never- 
theless (Chr., 1011); ic pylle mild-heortnysse, and nd onsasgdnysse^ 
I wish mercy, and not sacrifice (Matt., xii, 7) ; so beginning a sentence 



COPULATIVES. 203 

to enforce a contrast : And do you now put on your best attire f (Shake- 
sipeare, J. C.,i, 1). 
Causal: gelyf^ and heo bid hdl^ believe, and^she shall be whole (Luc, 

viii, 50) ; andforpon ne, and not for that (Deut, i, 32). 
Distributive : tpdm and tpdm^ by two and two (Mc, vi, 7). See ^ 392. 
(b.) And is often an emphatic particle (Gr. cm) : se J>e mpfd, and past 
Pe he haefdi him bid xtbroden, whosoever hath not, even that which he hath, 
from him shall be taken away (Matt., xiii, 13) ; And Pu p&re midpam Gali- 
leiscean, thou also wast with the Galilean (Matt., xxvi, 69) ; so in Wycliffe : 
Go and yee, go ye also (Matt., xx, 4, and often) ; not in use now. 

2. Bu, correlative with and; which see. 

3. Bao, ec, eke ; — with like clauses : eordan porhie, Itfedc gesceop^God 
earth wrought, life also created (B., 97). It is also used as an emphatic 
particle alone, and with and^ ge, hpasdre^ ne, odde^ spa, spilce, peak, 

Bal spi, see spa, 

Bomostlice, see sodUce, ^ 463, 8. 

4. Ge ; — ^with like clauses : s& brasc ge sieorran forleton, the sea broke, 
and the stars ceased their light (Ex., 70, 33, rare) ; — -words : ealde ge 
geonge, old and young (Jud., 166). 

Strengthened : Sghpwder ge, both (^ds. LL., 1) ; buiu ge, both (C, 46, 
30) ; ge edc, and also (Cri., 1170) ; ge edc spa same, and also likewise 
(Met., 11, 10) ,* somod ge, at once both (B6d., 2, 9) ; ge spylce, and so also 
(B., 2258). 

Correlative : ge , .. . ge, both . . . and (B., 1864) ; &gder ge , , , ge, 
both . . . and (Joh., XV, 24) ; ge , . , and,hoih . . . and (C, 752), see and. 

5. Gelice, likewise ; — he pundrode, and ealle ; gelice lacobum, i. e. laco- 
bus, he wondered, and all (that were with him) ; likewise James (Luc, v, 9). 

6. Ne, nd, with like clauses : beorgas p&r ne muntds stedpe ne stondad, 
there hills nor mountains steep stand (Ex., 199, 6) ; — general connective : 
Ne ne eton ge, neither do you eat (Exod., xii, 8). 

Correlative : ne . . . ne, not . . . nor (GA., 670). 
ndderne . . . ne (ne), neither . . . nor (Levit.,iii, 17; Psa., xxxiv, 12). 
ndd:6r . . . ne, neither . . . nor (Matt., vi, 20) . . . nor (repeated). 
ne , » , ne edc ne,not . . . nor (also not) (Boet., 16, 1). 
nd (nalms) pxt an , , , ac edc spylce (spa) ; and nalses pxt an pxt him 
pd fugelds, ac edc spd pd fixds, and not only that the birds (were sub- 
ject) to him, but also the fishes (St. G., 9) ; so Goth., ni pat ain . , , ac 
jah{\ Tim., V, 13). 

Strengthenings, see ^ 400. Note piston and ne pendon, knew (not) and 
hoped not (that they should see) (B., 1604). 

7. Sam : bid oferfroren, sam hit sy sumor sam pinter, is frozen over 
both when it is summer and winter (Oros., 1, 1,23), compare ^ 464, 5; spd 
same spd, see after, spd. 

Samodf see and, 

8. Sddlioe ; — general sign of connected discourse : Sodltce Philippus 



204 DISJUNCTIVES.— ADVERS^VTIVEi?. 

farj, Now Philip was (from Bcthsaida) (John, i, 44), sec under and; simi- 
lar are eomostlice (Matt, ii, 1) ; pitodlice (iii, 11). 

0. Spa* correlative : sprecan spd yfel spa god, to apeak as well evil as 
good (Nic.,6); for other uses o^ spd, see ^ 473 ; spd same 5/»a, beasts have 
these natures the same as men (Boet., 33, 4) ; eal spft* also (Matt, xxi, 
30). 

10. T6, see under and ; pitodlicoi see sodlicc, 

404. Disjunctives, § 202. 

1. Apder, dder, strengthens oe/t/^, which see. 

3. EUes: hegymad; elles nwbbe ge med€,i9ko heed; else ye have no 
reward (Matt, vi, 1). ^ 202, b. 

3. Hpasder : correlative with pe and oddc, which sec. See also ^ 397. 

4. Odde ; — alternative olauaea : hi ne mihton, odde hi noldon, they 
could not, or they would not (Chr., 1052) ; — ^worda : feor odde nedh^ 
far or nigh (C, 1029 ; B., 2870). 

Strengthened : dder odde on boclande odde on folclande, either on book- 
land or on folkland (LL. Edw., 1, 2) ; odde edc, or also (Psa., cxvii, 12) ; 
odde hpwder (Gen., xliii, 27). 
Correlatives : odde . . . odde, either ... or ; odde gemetan, odde geiellan, 
odde dpegan, either measure, or count, or weigh (LL. i£ds., 1) ; 
dder . . . odde, either ... or (Hy., 10,42) ; 
hpatder . . . odde, whether ... or (Num., xiii, 20) ; 

hpssder . . . odde A/?/B(fffr, whether ... or whether (Gen., xliii, 27); 
oder tpegd . . . odde, other of two (=either) ... or (By., 208). 

5. Sam : sam pe pillan, sam pe nyllan, whether we will or nill (Boet., 
34, 12). 

6. J)ei or ; — alternative clauses : is hit dlyfed pe nd, is it lawful or no ? 
(Matt, xxii, 17) ; — ^words : pifhddes pe peres, of female or male (Ph., 
357). 

Strengthened : gehMan hpxder pe forspillan, to heal (whether) or to de- 
stroy (Mc.,iii, 4). 
Correlatives : pe , , . ^e, whether ... or (Mc, xiii, 35) : hpasder . , , pe 

(Ex., 95, 8); hpmder pe , . , pe (Matt, xxiii, 17) ; hpasder . . . hpssder 
/g, whether ... or whether (Joh.,vii, 17). 

465. Adversative s, § 262. 

1. Ac, ach, ah, but ; — contrasted clauses : nis pis m&den dedd, ac heo 
slSpd(p) (Mc.,v,39). 

Strengthened: ac sptdor, hut rather (Ap.,20); ac nddemd, hut none the 
more (Chr., 1127) ; acpedh hpasdere, but however (Horn., 1, 276). 

2. Butan, see ^ 431, d, 

3. Git, yet, correlative with concessive pedh is not yet found in Anglo- 
Saxon. 



CAUSAL.— ILLATIVE.— SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 205 

4. Ono hpxtjhut yet (B^d., 3, 24, Smith's ed.). 

5. J)ea]i» yet ; — contrasted olauaes : &r ne cudon ; peak hie fela piston, 
they did not know before ; yet they knew many things (C, 179, 16). 

Strengthened : and ne eode peak in, and (=but) he did not go in though 
(John, XX, 5) ; and spa pedh^ Goth, sve pauh^ and yet even so (Horn., 2, 
448) ; emn spa pedh (Met., 9, 38) ; spa pedh hpasdere, yet however (Psa., 
cxviii, 157) ; sparse (GA., 934, and often) ; ac pedh hpsedere, see ac. 
Correlative oftenest with a concessive although. 

pedh (pe) . . . pedh, although . . . yet (Boet., 16, 3). 
spa . . . spa pedhi although . . . yet (EL, 498). 

6. And nk J)d Ises (Chr., 1011) ; ac nape md (Chr., 1127), nevertheless; 
forpon^ notwithstanding (Beut., i, 32). 

466. Causal. — ^Illative. 

1. Nu, now that, since ; — causal : Pu me ne forpyme, nu ic pus feorran 
com^ (I pray) that thou wilt not deny me, since I thus far have come 
(B., 430) ; nu pe^ since that (An., 485). 

2. J)i, since (causal) ; pd hie ofgifen haefde^ (now he could replenish the 
earth) since they had given it up (C, 96), see ^ 252, II. 

3. Be })am J)e, by this that ; because : ongist Pu hi he pam pe heo on 
nihte seined, thou mayst know it because it shineth in the night 
(Mandr.). 

4. For J)ani J)e {pam ^pan, pon), causal : for pam pe Drihien hehet 
god, we will do thee good, /or this that (=because) the Lord has 
promised good (Num., x, 29). 

For J)ani (causal) : because (Boet., 19) ; — illative : therefore (C, 97). 

5. ^onne, since (causal) : hpd sceal to his rice fon, ponne he broder 
nasfd, who shall to his throne succeed, since he has no brother (or chil- 
dren) (Hom.,2, 146). 

6. J)y, therefore (illative) (C, 34, 24) ; Py pe, because (Chr., 836). 
Correlative : py » , . Py pe, on this account . . . because (Chr., 836). 

7. For J)^ (pi, Pe) ;— causal (John, vii, 22). 

Correlative : for pi , . , for pan pe, for this reason . . . because 
(Horn., 1,288). 

Subordinate Conjunctions. 
467. A snbordinate conjunction connects a subordinate 

clause and the word with which it combines, § 278, b. 

(a.) Most are really relative adverbs, or adverbial phrases modifying a word in the prin- 
cipal and another in the subordinate clause. - 

(b.) The same word or phrase may denote diflferent logical relations between different 
pairs of phrases, bat we will follow our usual analysis of the subordinate clauses, S 888L 



20G SUBSTANTIVE CLAUj^ES.— DECLARATIVE C0N^UNCTIOX& 

A. Substantive Clauses. 
408. Declaiiativb Conjunctions, 

1'. \)dd% substantive sign (tho article of a clause). 

1 . With a subject clause : pttr gecyded peard pxt God helpe gtfre- 
medct there was made known that God help gave (An., 01) ;— cor- 
relative p^t or hit : nis pxt Jeor heonon pxt se mere stonded^ it is 
not far hence that the mere stands (B , 13G3) ; hit gelamp pmt {hie) 
cpomon^ it happened that they came (El., 272) ;— quasi-appositive : 
pedtdccn pxt hie gcsohton^ the fatal sign (was spread) that they 
should seek (his death) (An., 1123). 

2. With an object clause (a) accusative : ic pat pxt pu eart^ I know 
that thou art (El., 815); — correlative pxt or hit: pxt gecyded 
mxnig pxt pxt gepeorded, that the multitude shall show that it shall 
happen (An., 1439) ;— apposition : pa pead&d to pr&ce ne sette^ 
pxt hie ber&ddon^ he would not avenge the' wicked deed^ that they 
deprived (of life the guiltless) (El., 406). 

{b.) Dative: to pam arod^pxt he nedde, ready for this, that he ventured 
(Jud.,275). 

(c.) Genitive : gemyndig pxt hid gesohte, mindful that she sought (El., 
208) ; — correlative pxs : pe pxs sculon hycgan, pxt pe, we should strive for 
this, that we, etc. (C, 398) ;— appositive : crxftes, pxt Pu me get&hte^ I 
would ask knowledge^ that thou teach me (An., 485). 

(d.) ]>8et is also used in final clauses, ^ 433 ; modal, ^ 473 ; consecutive, 
^ 434 ; to introduce a wish or lamentation, ^ 421, 4. 

The uses of pxt correspond with those of Goth, patei, O. H. Ger. daz^ 
and generally with Lat. «/, quod, Gr. on, a»c, iW, and birtuc, Sansk.^'a/,^a<Aa. 

2. }^\X^<ipxt pe has the same uses 2ispxt; for examples, see Grein. 

3. J)aBt is, introduces an explanatory clause : ongunnon hi pxt apostolice 
lif onhyrigearif pxt t>, on singalum gebedum Drihtne pedpdon,ihey began 
to imitate the apostolic life, that is, they served the Lord in continual pray- 
ers (B6d., 1, 26) ; midfedpum brodrum^pxt w, seofenum odde eahtum^ (he 
lived) with few brothers, that is, seven or eight (B6d., 4, 3). 

Nemlice is given by Koch and Thorpe for Lat. videlicet, like English 
namely; but it does not occur in the passages cited by them. i£lfric 
translates videlicet by pitodlice, Gram., p. 40. 

4. Hu, how, object of cognition : pe gehyrdon hu ge ofslogon„yfe heard 
how (that) ye slew (two kings) (Jos., ii, 10) ; gesdpon hu he pxs astigende, 
we saw how (that) he ascended into heaven (Nic, 18), frequent. 

Prepositions sometimes govern clauses : stod ofer p&r pxt cild pxs, stood 
over where the child was (Matt., ii, 9). 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.— ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 207 

469. Interrogative Conjunctions. 

1. Hpaeder: he f ran hpxderfolc Cristen psbre, asked whether the people 
were Christian (Horn., 2, 120). 

2. Gif : frsBgn gif him pxre, asked if to him were (B., 1319). 

3. Similar is the use of A/»ano7i, whence ; hp&r^ where; hpsenne, when; 
hpider, whither ; hu, how, and the like, see ^ 397-8. 

4. For ne, ac, ahy hu^Jid^ as strengthening particles, see ^ 397. 



470. — B. Adjective Clauses, 

These are connected to their substantive, 

1. By relative pronouns, ^§ 379-385, 427. 

2. By relative adverbs, \ 398, 2. 

(a.) Adverbs of place connect to names of places ; of time, to names of 
time, etc. ; on sumum cUege, pd pd Godes englds comon^ on a day when 
God's angels came (Horn., 2, 446). 

C. Adverbial Clauses. 

471. — L Place. — The connectives are relative adverbs: /^r, where 
(^ 428) ; p&r pa^r, North* sud huer, wherever (John, xii, 26) ; ne m&ge ge 
cuman Pyder ic fare^ ye can not come whither I go (John, viii, 21) ; huer, 
where (North., Matt., vi, 21) ; spd hpdr 5/>a, wherever (§ 428); spd hpider 
spdi whithersoever (§ 428). 

Correlative /^r .. .^^r (Matt., vi, 21). 

472. — II. Tinie. . 1. Adverbial Conjunctives mentioned under the sub- 
junctive, ^ 429 : ^ pon p^t (John, iv, 49, North.), sbr pon pe (Jud., 252), 
&r pon (C, 2, 20), ^r, before (B., 676) \ &r . , . s^r (B., 1370) ;— od pmt, 
6d^ till (^ 429, a) ^—ponne, hponne, penden^ spd lange spd^ pd hpile pd 
(§ 429, b). 

2. Others with prepositions : aefter pam pe ic arise, ic cume, after I arise 
I will come (Mc, xiv, 28) ; mid pam pe (Horn., 2, 136), mid Py pe (Matt, 
xxvii, 12), mid py, whilst (B6d., 1, 1) ^—of pon, since (Mc, ix. 20, North.) ; 
—on-mang (dmang) pam pe he p&r pass, while he was there (Chr. j 1091), 
on pam pe, while (Chr., 1050) ; — si(t pan, since (B., 650), as soon as (604), 
after that (106) ; siddon p<zt (Chr., 1128) ;— to pon past, until (B., 2591). 

3. Without prepositions, — pronominal: J)a, when (B.,632); pd . » , pd 
(Matt., ii, 3), pd pd , . . pd (Matt., iv, 2),pd pe . . . pd (Chr., 1013). 
when . . . then ; — mid pam Pe . ^ , pd (Horn., 2, 450), mid P$ Pe . . . pd 
(Ap., 5), on Pam pe , . , pd (Chr., 1049), dmang pam pe , , , pd (Nic, 15), 
whilst . .. . then ; on sumum daege . . . pd, on a day . . . then (Horn., 2, 
446) ; sona pass pe . , . pd, as soon after as . . . then (Bed., 1, 12) ;-«-J)aeB 
pe, after that (B6d., 1,11) ; — ^nu (with causal shade), now that (Sat, 387) ; 
nu . , , Tzu, now . . . since (C.,403). 



208 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. —CONJUNCTIONS OMITTED. 

4. From nouns : hpilum (-on, -an) . . . hpilum (Ex., 156, 30), hpile 
. . . hpUe (Hy., 3, 44, 45), sometimes . . . sometimes ; pa hpile pe , . , pd 
hpile, while . . . then (Oros., 2, 4, 5) ; — sona spa . . . spa, as soon as . . . 
so soon (Bed., 1, 1); sona pxs pe . . . pd, as soon (after) as . . . then (B^d., 
1, 12). 

473. — in. Maimer : aefter pam pe, after the manner that (Luc, ii, 24) ; 
— eal spa, see spd ;— on efii, efen spa, likewise (Ps., 138, 6) ; — gelice : 
elpendes hyd pyle drincan pselan gelice and spinge did, elephant's hide 
will soak up water like (as) a sponge doth (Oros., 5, 7, 2) ; spylce gelice and 
seo p&re, such as if she were (Oros., 2, 4, 6) ; — ^hu, see § 468, 4 ; — spd: 
heod gledpe spd nasddran,he wise as serpents (Matt., x, 16) ; spd spd, so as 
(Hom., 2, 452) ; gelicost spd, most as if (Ex., 53, 15) ; eal spd, wholly as 
(iElfrc); spd . . »pd, as soon as . . . then (Ex., 200, 16) ; spd spd . . . 
spd, as ... so (Hom., 2, 450). Before and after an adjective or adverb : 
spd fela spd, so many as (iElfrc.) ; spd lange spd, so long as (Mc, ii, 19) ; 
spd same spd, just as (Oros., 2, 4, 8) ; etc. Interrogatives : spd.hp&r spd, 
(to such place as) = wheresoever (Matt., xxiv, 28) ; — with comparatives : spd 
he hyd yldrd, spd hefxgerra hyd, as it becomes older, so it becomes fairer 
(Bed., 1, 1) ;— spilce, as if (§ 430). 

(a,) Intensity : {to) p£es pset, to such a degree that (Bed., 4, 28) ; (to) pass 
Pe, so far as (B., 2410, 1350) \ Py » , . Py: hid Py heardra,pe sptdor hedtad, 
it becomes the harder, the stronger they beat agaiqst it (C, 80, 8). 

(h.) Comparison : J)onne : seo sdpul is md ponne se lichama, the soul is 
more than the body (Luc, xii, 23). 

(c.) Consecutive : spd, ^ 430, h ; past ; spd past, ^ 434. 

474 — IV. Causal, ^ 466. 

475. — ^V. Conditional : gif, on past gerdd, pid pam pe, and the nega- 
tive huton, nefne, nemne, nymde, hutan pasnne, hutan pd, are illustrated in 
^ 431 ^—P&r, if (C, 797) ; se pe pille, whoever will, spd hpd 'spd, who- 
ever, see hypothetical relatives, § 427) ; — n&re past, if it were not that (Chr., 
943) ; one nu, if now (Bed., 1, 27) ; ono gif, same ; compare gelice and, 
^ 473, III; an and and for i/* occur in Layamon, and ar6 common in old 
English. 

476. — VI. Concessive : pedh, though, see ^ 432 ; spd ; forgifus gyltds, 
spd pe pid pi oft dhylgead, forgive us our debts, though we against thee often 
sin (Hy., 6, 22). 

477: — VH. Final : past, and the negative Py lass pe, see § 433 ; to pam 
Past, to the end that (John, i, 31). 

Conjunctions Omitted, 
478. Copulatives are often omitted. 

1. Where clauses are numbered by adverbs : first . . . secondly, etc. 

2. Where recurring words mark the related clauses : edld, past ic earn 
ealles leas . . .,pxt ic ne masg ger&can, Al&s, that /am of all bereft 



PlllNCIPAL KULES OF SYNTAX. 209 

that /may not reach (heaven) (C, 275, 7) ; singad, singad, sing, sing 
(Psa., xlvi, 6) ; not so common as in English. 

3. Between circumstances closely related, especially a climax : he is 
rmegnd sped, heafod ealra hedhgesceaftd^fred sdmihtig^ he is of power 
the essence, head of all high creatures, Lord Almighty (C, 3). 

4. Between antithetic clauses or words : pudu basr sunu,fasderfyr, wood 
the son bore, the father fire (C, 2887). 

(a.) Sometimes they are omitted from part only of a row of copulates : 
fyr^forst^ hwgel, and snap, fire, frost, hail, and snow (Ps., cxlviii, 8) ; — 
especially between sets of pairs ; frige and j^eope, sedele and unasdele, free 
and serf, noble and unnoble (Ap., 12). 

479. Disjunctives are seldom omitted. 

Sometimes between sets of pairs : gif pind cymd pes tan odde edsian, 
Sudan odde nordan, if wind come from west or east, (or) from south or 
north (C, 50, 10). 

480. Adversatives are often omitted. 

Between antithetic clauses or words, especially between a positive and 
negative : ne gelyfe pe . . , pe sylfe geh^rdon, we do not believe (on 
your report), we ourselves heard (John, iv,42). 

481. Oausals and illatives are very often omitted, John, ii, 
25; Gen., xi, 30. 



482. PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Substantives. 

Agreement 

I. A predicate noun denoting the same person or thing as its subject, 
agrees with it in case, § 286. 
n. An appositlve agrees in case with its subject, § 287. 

Nominative Case. 
in. The subject of definite verb is put in the nominative, § 288. 

Vocative Case. 
lY. A compellative is put in the vocative, § 289. 

Accusative Case. 
Objective Combinations. 

Y. The direct object of a verb is put in the accusative, § 290. 
YI. Impersonals of appetite or passion govern an accusative of the 
person suffering, § 290, c, 

O 



210 nUNCIPAL KULES OF SYNTAX. 

MI. Some vcriM of asking and taaohlng may bavc two aoouMitiTei^ 
GDC of a penony and the other of a thing^ { 202. 

Quasi'ivredicative Combinations. 

VIIL Tlic aul^aot of an infinitire b put in tho aoooMtlTe, f 298. 

IX. Some Tprbft of inakixii;, naming, and ragarding may have two 
accnaatiTaa of the mmc perwn or thing, $ 204. 

.1 dverbial ( ^ombinationB. 

X. Tlic aocuaatlTa is used to cxpreas extent of time and Bpaoe after 
vcrtis, \ 205. 

XI. The aconaative is used with prepoaitiona, % 205, e, 

Dativk and Instuumextal Cases. 
Objective Combinations. 

XII. An object of influence or interest is put in the dative, % 207. 

XIII. VeriM of granting, refusing, and thanking may take a dativo 
and genitive, { 207, d, 

XIV. Words of nearness and likeness govern the dative, t 200. 

XV. The instrumental or dative may denote on object of mastery, 
§300. 

XVI. Some words of separation may take an object from whloh in 
the dative or instrumental, § 801. 

Adverbial Combinations. 

XVn. The instrumental or dative may denote instrument, means, 
manner, or cause, § 802. 

XVn. The instrumental or dative may denote price, § 802, e. 

XVm. The instrumental or dative may denote measure of diifor- 
ence, § 802, d, 

XIX. The instrumental or dative may denote an object sworn by, 
§ 802, e. 

XX. The comparative degree may govern a dative, § 808. 

XXL The dative may denote time when or place where, § 304. 

XXn. A substantive and participle in the dative may make an ad- 
verbial clause of time, cause, or co-ezistence, § 804, d, 

XXIII The dative with a preposition may denote an object of .influ- 
ence or interest, association, mastery, or separation ; or an instrumental, 
ablative, or locative adverbial relation, § 805. Instrumental, §§ 306-808. 



PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 211 

Genitive. 
AttribiUive Combinations. 

XXlV. An attributive genitive may denote the poBsesBor or author 
of its subject^ § 310. 

XXY. An attributive genitive may denote the subject or object of 
a verbal, § 311. 

XXVL An attributive genitive may denote the whole of which its 
subject is part, § 312. 

XXyn. An attributive genitive may denote a characteristic of its 
subject, § 313. 

I 

Ptedicative Combinations, 

XXVUL A predicate substantive may be put in the genitive to de- 
note a possessor or characteristic of the subject, or the whole of 
which it is part, § 314. 

Objective Combinations. 

XXIX. The genitive may denote an exciting object, § 315. 

XXX. Verbs of asking, accusing, reminding, may take an accusative 
and genitive, § 315, a, 

XXXI. Verbs of granting, refusing, and thanking may take a dative 
and genitive, § 315, l. 

XXXn. The genitive may denote an object afifected in part, § 316. 
XXXIII. The genitive may denote an object of separation, § 317. 
XXXrV. The genitive may denote an object of supremacy or use, 
§ 318. 

XXXV. The genitive or instrumental may denote the material of 
which any thing is made or full, § 319. 

XXXVI. The genitive in combmation with adjectives may denote 
measure, § 320. 

xxx vii. The genitive in combmation with adjectives may denote the 
part or relation in which the quality is conceived, § 321. 

Adverbial Combinations. 

XXXVm. The genitive may denote by what way. § 322. 

3 XIX. The genitive may denote time when, § 323. 
. The genitive may denote means, cause* or manner, {§ 324, 
325. 

"XTJ. The. genitive with a preposition is sometimes used to denote in- 
strumental, ablative, or locative adverbial relations, § 826. 



212 PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Prsposxtionb. 

XLII. A preposltioii p^ovrmii a substantlTe, and shows its relation 
to some other word in the clause, § 327. 

Adjectives. 

XLIII. An adjective nga>es with its substantive in gender^ nuniber, 
and m**, § 301. 

XLIV. The weak fonns arc used after the definite artiole, demon- 
stratives, and possessives; and often in attributive tocatite$^ instru- 
mrntaU, and genitices. Comparative forms arc all weak, § 362. 

Pronouns. 
XLV. A substantive pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender^ 
numher^ and jtcrson^ | 305. 

Adverbs. 
XLVL Adverbs modify terbs, adjecticesy and other adverbs, { 895. 

Verbs. 
Agreement, 

XLVn. A finite verb agrees with its sul^ject in number and penm, 
§401. 

Yoicea. 

XLVllL The active voice is used to make the agent the vubjed, of 
predication, § 408. 

XLIX. The passive voice is used to make the direct objed of the action 
the wibject of predication, § 409. 

Tenses, 

L. Principal tenses depend on principal tenses, historical on histor- 
ical, § 419. 

Modes, 

4 

LI. The Indicative is used in (mertions^ questims^ and assumptions to 
express simple predication, § 420. 

Ln. The subjunctive is used to express mere possibility, doubt, or 
wlBh, § 421. 

Lm. The subjunctive may be used by attraction in clauses subor- 
dinate to a subjunctive, § 42^. 



PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 213 

LIV. The Bubjiinctive may be used in a substantive clause expresB- 
ing something said^ asked^ tJurngJit, wuhed, or done, § 423. 

LV. The subjunctive may be used in indefinite adjective clauses, 
§ 427. 

1 LVI. The subjunctive may be used in indefinite adverbial clauses 
of place, § 428. 

LVII. The subjunctive may be used in adverbial clauses of future or 
indefinite time, § 429. 

LVm. The subjunctive may be used in clauses of compa^on ex- 
pressing that which is imagined or indefinite, or descriptive of sl farce, 

LIX The subjunctive is used in a protasis when proposed as pos- 
sible, the imperfect when assumed as ^unreal, § 431. 

LX. The subjunctive may be used in a concessive clause, § 432. 

LXI. The subjunctive is used in clauses expressing purpose, § 433. 

LXll. The subjunctive may express a result, § 434. 

LXin. The potential expresses power, liberty, permission, necessity, 
or duty, § 435. 

LXiV. The imperative is used in commands, § 444. 

XLY. The infinitive is construed as a neuter noun, § 446. 

XLYI. The gerund after the copula expresses what must, may, or 
BhovM be done, § 451. 

LXVn. The gerund is sometimes used to describe or define a noun, 
§452. 

La Yin. The gerund may bo used as a final object to express an act 
on the first object, § 453. 

LXIX. The gerund is used to denote the purpose of motion, § 454. 

LXX. The gerund with an adjective may express an act for which 
any thing is ready, or in respect to which any thing is pleasant, unpleas- 
ant, easy, worthy, % 454. 

LXXI. A participle agrees with its substantive in gender, number, and 
case, % 456. 

LXXII. A participle may govern the case of its verb, § 456. 

Interjections. 
LXXm. The intexjection has the syntax of a clause, § 461. 

Conjunctions. 

LXXIV. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect sentences or like parts 

of a sentence, § 462. 

LXXV. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause 
and the word with which it combines, § 467. 



214 ARRANGEBIENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES. 



ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES. 

483. Oeneral mles for the arraogemeDt of words and clauses are foand 
in OTery language. 

The Latin order is, 1. subject; 3. attributlTes ; 3. adverbial fiictors; 4. 
objectiTO factors ; 5. yerb. 

The German is, 1. attributlTes; 3. subject; 3. adTcrbial factors; 4. ob- 
jectiTO factors ; 5. yerb. 

The Anglo-Saxon is, 1. attributiyes ; 3. subject ; 3. yerb ; 4. objectiye fac- 
tors ; 6. adyerbial. 

Deviation from the general rules is frequent in all languages. This is 
either rhetorioal or poetical, for perspicuity, emphasis, or euphony, or 
historical, preserring relics of old habits of the language. When any word 
is remoyed from its normal place, its attraction may take other words from 
their places. 

(a.) Theio deriatioiis are generally freest In the early literature of early nations. Ol^ecta 
are there presented concretely with numy attributes pictoresqnely grouped, and inverted 
oonstmctions and nnosoal combinations are sought as part of the art of the poet and era- 
tor. There is hardly a conceivable collocation of which examples may not be found in the 
Anglo-Saxon poetry, and the artificial meters and ornate periods of the Greeks and Boouulb. 
Very much of this freedom is still retained by the English poets and ornate prose wrltera. 
But the tendency of advancing speech is to an analysis of objects of thought, and to the use 
of simple clauses, orderly arranged. 

The inflected languages allow more fireedom in the placing of adjectives. In other com- 
binations, the separable signs of inversion and of specific relations, possessed by the later 
analytic languages, would seem to leave them flreer. 

(b.) The additions of Alfred to Orosiua, and his preCeu»B, have been specially studied as 
models of natural arrangement in Anglo-Saxon. 

Pbedicative Combinations. 
484. — 1. The subject precedes the predicate. 

(a.) So throughout the Indo-European tongues ; in the Semitic the verb leads. 
(6.) The rule holds for quasi-dauses, i 281. 

2. The copulative verb or auxiliary precedes the predicative noun or yerb. 

485. Mccqptions. 
1. Declarative clauses. 

(a.) Emphasia. The verb or predicative noun may begin a clause for 
emphasis : (verb very common in poetry, rare in prose) stod se jtrada hoda^ 
stood the fell envoy (C.,686) ; pass sefeondful nedh,w^ the fiend full nigh 
(C, 688) ; — (noun, not very common even in poetry) mycel is se fasder^ 
great is the father (St. Bas. 6) ; para p&ron six stsel-hrdnds, of these were 
six deepy deers (Oros., 1, 1, 15). 

(b.) Attraction. When an object or adverbial factor begins a clause, the 
predicate is often drawn before the subject : (direct object) fela spelld him 
s^don J)d Beormds, many tales to him told the Beorms (Oros., 1, 1, 14) ; — 



PREDICATIVE COMBINATIONS.— EXCEPTIONS. 215 

(dative) and him pass a pid ss^, to him was always a wide sea (1, 1, 13) ; — 
(adverb) ne mette he &r nan gebun land, not met he before any inhabited 
land (1, 1, 13) ; pd for he nordrihte, then went he northward (1, 1, 13) ; Jf&r 
sceal heon gedrinc^ there shall be drinking (1, 1,21); Jt^r ts mtd Estum 
Pedpjihere is among the Esthonians a custom (1, 1,21) ; on pdm morum 
eardiad Finnds, in the moors dwell Finns (1, 1, 16). 

(c.) Inserted clauseB are often inverted : tc pdty cpaed Orosius, I know, 
quoth Orosius (5, 1, 1, and often ; but in Alfred's own narration, he cpasd, 1, 
1, 16). See also correlatives, ^ 485, 5, a. 

2. Interrogative clauses. 

In interrogative clauses the verb regularly precedes the subject, unless the 
subject contains the interrogative pronoun (so in other tongues) : lufdst 
Pu me,lovest thou me? (John, xxi, 15) ; but with an interrogative par- 
ticle there is . often no inversion. See, for examples, ^^ 397-399. 
Questions of suggestion with no interrogative particle occur : odde pe 

odres sceolon abidan, or we for another shall look ? (Matt., xi, 3). 

^ 

3. Exclamatory clauses. 

Exclamations with interrogative words often have the verb before the 
subject : ed la / hu unpi'ist is pela, alas ! how unstable is wealth (Chr., 
1087) ; often : ed Id, hu egeslic peos stop is, how awful this place is 
(Gen., xxviii, 17) ; so in other tongues, ^ 421, 4. 

4. Imperative clauses. 

In imperative clauses the verb precedes the subject (so in other tongues) : 
hdl p^s pu, be thou whole (Matt., xxvii, 29) ; purde god se ende, may 
the end be good (Chr., 1066). The subject sometimes precedes a sub- 
junctive form : sib si mid eopic, peace be with you (Ex., 282, 25) ; for 
other examples, see ^ 421, 3. 

5. Co-ordinate clauses. 

The verb often follows next to the conjunction: and licgad pUde mords 

pid edstan, and lie wild moors eastward (Oros., 1, 1, 16) ; and herad 

pd Cpends hyrd scypu ofer land, and the Cwens bear their ships over 

land (1, 1, 17) ; ac htm pass peste /and, but to him was waste land (1, 1, 

13). Compare ^ 485, b. 

(a.) Correlatives often have the second clause inverted : ponne his ges- 
treon beod pus eal dspended, ponne byrdman hine u/, when his wealth 
is thus all spent, then beareth one him out (1, 1,22).. FaralleliBm is 
a marked feature of poetry ; the second clause is often inverted : gdr- 
secg hlynede, beoton brtmstredmds, ocean roared, beat the sea waves 
(An., 239). 

6. Subordinate clauses. 

(a.) Substantive clauses generally have the subject first, even though 
an interrogative (in oratio obliqua) : he dxode hu P&re peode nama pAre, he 
asked what the people*s name might be (Horn., 3, 120). 



216 ARRANGEMENT.—ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATIONS. 

(b.) Adjective clauses are inverted when the relative is governed by a 
preposition : eal fl&sc, on pam pe is lifes gdst, all flesh in which is the 
breath of life (Gen., vi, 17) ; — sometimes with no preposition : &nne, pam 
pass ludas nama, one, to whom was Judas a name (EL, 584). 

(c.) Adverbial clauses of place and time are rarely inverted : ponne 
p&r bid man deddy he /irf, when there is one dead, he lieth (Oros., 1, 1, 21) ; 
— modal sometimes : spa stod se deofol spa spa did se blinde, so stood the 
devil as doth the blind man (Hom., 2, 446) ; — conditioxial and conces- 
sive, if without sign : bid se tor Pyrel, be the door opened (Jul., 402) ; 
nasfde he naefre spa mycel yfel gedon^ had he never so much evil done 
(=though he had) (Chr., 1087) ; — sometimes with : nxfde he pedh, he had 
not though (Oros., 1, 1, 15). 

7. Quasi-<;laases. 

(a.) Participles sometimes precede their subjects : ealle niht spincende 
pe, all night toiling, we (took nothing) (Luc, v, 5) ; — absolute : rixiendum 
Eddbaldum^EdidhM ruling, (MeUitus departed) (Chr., 616). 

(b.) Factitives sometimes precede for emphasis : bearnledsne ge habbad 
me gedonne, childless ye have made me (Gen., xlii, 36). 

486. Exceptions to the second rule are frequent, § 484, 2. 

Gefaren hsefdon, they had gone (B6d., 1, 23) ; he gyldan pille, he will 
pay (B., 1184); oferseon m&ge, may look over (Oros., 1, 1, 18); eal 
past his man erian masg, all that his man may till (1, 1, 16) ; pser hit 
smalost p&re, wherever it smallest were (1, 1, 16) ; odde hyi eal died 
bid, till it all laid is (1, 1, 22) ; polde hyne genemnedne beon, wished 
him to be named (Luc, i, 62). So in the old French and other early 
Romanic tongues (Diez, 3, 439). 

ArTEiBUTivE Combinations. 

487. Attributive adjectives or genitives stand next before their 
substantive, appositives or preposijtions with their cases next 
after. 

So in the Teutonic tongues. In Latin, attrfcutives generally follow their substantive. 
The Greek is freer. The old Komanic were free, the new have different habits for 
different words piez, 3, 433). 

1. Before. Descriptives : pilde mords, wild moors (Oros., 1, 1, 16) ; 
hpxles bdne, whale's bone (1, 1, 15) ; — definitives, pronominal: on 
sumum stopum, in some places (1, 1, 16) ; heord spedd, their wealth 
(1, 1, 15) ; — numerals : tpdm pucum, in two weeks (1, 1, 16). 

2. After. Appositive : his hldforde JElfrede, (said to) his lord, Alfred 
(1, 1, 13) ; SidroCi se geonga, Sidroc, the ^ouhg (Chr., 871), so in 
Romanic (Diez, 3, 431); — with prepositioA: redf of h^rum, garment 
of hair (Matt.,iii,4). 

488. A definitive precedes a descriptive. 



ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATIONS.— EXCEPTIONS. 217 

Se betsta hpxl-huntad, the best whale hunting (Oros., 1, 1, 14) ; pa pildan 
hrdnds, the wild rein-deer (1, 1, 15) ; an mycel ed, a great river (1, 1, 
13) ; pone ylcan sabs earm, (they have) the same sea's arm (1, 1, 12) ; 
fram his dgnum hdme, from his own home (1, 1, 13). So in other 
tongues. 

489. Of definitives, quantitatives precede demonstratives, ■which 
precede possessives, which precede articles, which precede nu- 
merals. 

Quantitatives: eal peos poruld, all this world (C, 604); ealle his 
spedd, all his goods (Oros., 1, 1, 22) ; ealle pa men, all the men (1, 1, 
22) ; butu pd scypu, both the ships (Luc., v, 7) ; healfne pone speoran, 
half the 'neck (Jud., 105 ; Mc, vi, 23) ; sume pd hocerds, some of the 
scribes (Matt., ix, 3) ; mid fedpum pdm getrypestum mannum, with 
a few of the truest men (Ap., 6) ; sanig oder ping, any other thing 
(John, X, 29). So in Romanic (Diez, 3, 438). 
Pemonstratives : pds mine pord, these my words (Matt., vii, 24). 
PossesBives : min se gecorena sunu, my (the) chosen son (Matt., iii, 

17). 
Articles : on p^re dnre mile, in the one mile (Oros., 1, 1, 22) ; on p&m 
odrum prim dagum, in the second three days (Oros., 1, 1, 13 ; Chr., 
897). So in Romanic (Diez, 3, 436). 
(a.) Forma (first) and oder (second, other) are sometimes used in the 
plural describing a class, and are then arranged as descriptives, ^ 488 .* pd 
preo forman gebedUfthe three first prayers (Hom., 1,270); tpegen odre 
mdnfulle, two other malefactors (Luc, xxiii, 32), so in other languages : 
tTrra tclq ktrxdrag, Lat. septem novissimas, the seven last (plagues) (English 
Bible, Rev., xv, 1 ; xxi, 9) ; I read to Albert the three first cantos of the 
Lay of the Last Minstrel (Queen Victoria, Life in the Highlands, p. 46) ; 
our two eldest children (Same, 76, 234) ; two other keepers (Same, 70) ; 
In den sechs ersten conjugationen (J. Grimm, D. G., 1, 1038) ; les onze pre- 
miers chapitres, the eleven first chapters (Renan, Hist. Sem. Lang., 1, 27) ; 
las dos primeras partes (Don Carlos, quoted in Motley, R. D. R., iii, 193) ; 
las cuatro primeras (Don Quijote, 352) ; i dieciprimi libri (Diez, 3, 436). 

(&.) The English a, an, after many, mch, half, too (great), «o (great), ^oto (great), ob (great), 
etc., is in the Old English, bnt not in Anglo-Saxon: manig Inirh, many (a) town (Oros., 1, 
1, 20), etc. 

490. Exceptions. 
1. Descriptive adjectives sometimes follow. 

(a.) Two descriptives the substantive often stands between (so in the 
Romanic tongues [Diez, 3, 435]) : spide micle merds fersce, very large seas 
fresh (Oros., 1, 1, 17) ; tamrd deord unbebohtrd, tame deer unbought (1, 1, 
15) ;^-often iS^rith a conjunction : god man and cl&ne, good man and pure 
(Chr., 1056) ; — sometimes both precede : pam fxgerestan reddan hipe, of 



218 ARRANGEMENT.— OBJECTIVE COMBINATION& 

tho fiiirest red hue (Gt. G., 1) ; for p^bm miiUicum and manigfealdum 
pcoruld'bisgum, for tho various and manifold secular occupatioDa (Boet.« 
Prof.) ; — sometimes both follow : ealrd ^ngd, gesepenlicrd and ungesepen^ 
Herd, of all things seen and unseen (Ilom., 1,274). 

(6.) In poetry : glSd-egesa grim, fire-fear grim (B., 2660) ; magopegfi 
modlg, hero spirited (B., 2757) ; mihiig (1510), etc. Poetic inTcrsion is 
used in all languages (Diez, 3, 430). 

2. Deflnitivei often follow. 

(a.) Quantitatives : p^r bid medo genoh, there is mead enough (Oros., 1, 
1} 20) f Pos land eal hyrad, those lands all belong (to Denmark) (1, 1, 20) ; 
land eal, all lands (Sal., 185) ; ure ealrd moder, mother of us all (Bas. Hex., 
11) ; magodriht micel, great youth-throng (B.,67) ; manig (B.,838) ; heard 
bcgrd edgan, eyes of them both (Gen., iii, 7) ; — (b.) possessives, in poetry 
often : peoden tnln, master mine (B., 365) ; hldford pinne, lord thine (B., 
267) ; stnne, his (B., 2789) ; useme, our (B., 3107) ; eopemCf your (B., 
2889) ; — (c.) numerals, rare {pdm sedelestum ceastrum ones pana prittigum, 
with the noblest towns, thirty less one (B6d., 1,1). So sometimes Romanic 
derivatives of totus, tanius, talis, and possessives (Diez, 3, 436, 437). 

3. Genitives partitive and characteristic freely follow. 

Numerals (regularly) ; tpentig scedpd, twenty of sheep (Ores., 1, 1, 15) ; — 
other words (occasionally) : on odre healfe pws mores, on the other side of 
the moor (1, 1, 17) ; nan ping grenes, nothing green (Exod., x, 15) ; feoper 
circulds hpites hipes, four circles of white hue (Chr., 1104) ; — possessive and 
other genitives may sometimes follow, ^^ 810-813. 

4. AppositiveB in the genitive are often separated by a governing word : 

Aldpulfes dohtor psBS cyntn^e^, daughter of Aldwulf the king (St. G., 18): 
this was common as late as the Morte d^Arthure. 

5. Any attribntiye may be separated by words which modify it, from its subject Poetry 
allows the interposition of parenthetic clauses even, between the adjective and nonn. 

6. For participles and adjectives in qnasi-predicative combinations, see 484, b. 

491. Objective Combinations. 

1. Objects follow the verb or predicate adjective. 

2. A genitive follows a dative which follows an accusative. 
For the factitive object, see §§ 484, b; 485, 7, b. 

Hi brohtorH^sume psem cyninge, they brought some to the king (Oros.,1, 
1, 14) ; ben&man nergendne Crist roderd rices, to deprive the Savior 
Christ of heaven's kingdom (C, 286, 3) ; ondred he him pass, he took 
dread to himself at that (John, xix, 8). A dative and genitive are seldom 
found after the same verb, § 492, 3. See aft«r adjectives, §§ 315-319. 

492. JEkc^tions, 

1. Emphasis. An object often begins a clause for emphasis : pa deor hi 
hdtad hrdnds, these deer they call rein-deer (Ores., 1, 1, 15) ; sometimes 



ADVERBIAL COMBINATIONS. 219 

a repeating pronoun follows : pd ted hi brohton sume pmn cyninge, 
these teeth they brought some (of) to the king (1, 1, 15). 
(a.) So the interrogative regularly : hpset godes do ic, what good must I 
do? (Matt., xix, 16). 
3. Relics. In German objects precede their verb, and their order is (1) 

dative, (2) accusative, (3) genitive. 
(a.) A genitive object very often immediately precedes the verb or adjec- 
tive. For examples, see ^^ 315-319. 

(b.) The dative of the personal pronoun generally precedes impersonals 
and copulatives : him Jtuhte, it seemed to him (Ores., 1, 1, 14) ; him pass, to 
him was (=he had) (1, 1, 13). 

(c.) A direct object often stands between the subject and verb : pe hit 
piton,vre it knew (Ores., 1, 1, 11) ; ^e spy f teste hors habbad,yfho swiflest 
horses have (1, 1,22). 

(J.) An object often stands between the auxiliary and verb : Hi mdgon 
cyle gepyrcan, they can cold produce (Ores., 1, 1, 23). 
3. Attraction. Inversion of one part of the predicate draws odiers. 
Two objects very often precede the verb : fela spelld hims&don, many 
tales to him told (they) (Ores., 1, 1, 14). See more examples, ^^ 297, a, 
315, a, d. 
(a.) The relative is regularly attracted to the beginning of its clau|e : 
gdrsecg,pe man Cpen-sA h^tfthe sea, which one calls Owen-sea (Ores., 1, 
1, 11) ; gafole,pe fid Finnds him ^/{/o^, tribute, which the Finns to them 
pay (1, 1, 15). 

493. Adyebbial Combinations. 

1. An adverb follows its verbj hnt precedes its aclfective or 
adverb. 

2. A preposition with its following (attribatiyes+) noun 
follows next the word to which it shows the relation. 

494. JSxceptions. 

1. Emphasis. Any adverbial factor may begin its clause for emphasis. 
On p&m landum eardodon Engle,ia those lands dwelt Angles (Oros., 
1, 1, 19) ; Edsteperd hit mwg bion syxtig mild brad, eastward it may 
be sixty miles broad (1, 1, 16) ; Ne mette he, he met not (1, 1, 13). 

(a.) Adverbs of time, place, order, very often begin a clause : fid for he, 
then went he (1, 1, 13) ; Pyder,he c/?^ thither, he said (1, 1, 18); ponne 
asmad hi ealle, next run they all (1, 1, 22). 

(b.) Interrogatives regularly begin their clause : hp&r is heord God, 
where is their God? (Psa., cxiii, 10). 

2. Ferspionity. When two or more adverbial factors modify the same 
word, their order is free. They are usually some before and some after 
the word : pa he piderpeard seglode fram Sciringes heale, when he 



220 ARRAXGEI^IENT.— ADVERBIAL COMBINATIONS. 

thither Bailed from Sciringsheal (Oros., 1, 1, 19) ; ealle pa hpUe he sceal 
seglian be lande^zSX the while he must sail along the land (1, 1, 18). 

(a.) In German the order \b 0) time^ (2) jilaM^ (8) flOtiM, (4) co-^xUtenot^ (6) modaUty or ne- 
gation, (0) maniwr, all before the verb. There U more or less approach to the same order 
in AnglO'^Saxon. 

3. Old habits, (a.) Adverbial factors are very often found between 
the subject and verb : pa hpxl-huntan fyrrest farad^ the whale hunters 
furthest go (Oros., 1, 1, 13) ; he f ram his agnum hdme for, he from his 
own home went (1, 1, 13) ; so regularly the Jiegative: h$ tie dorston, 
they durst not (1, 1, 13). 

(b.) Adverbial factors are very often found between an auxiliary and its 
verb, or the copula and predicate : he mihte onfeoper dagum geseglian,he 
might in four days sail (1, 1, 13, and everywhere) ; pwt land is edstepeard 
brddost, the land is eastward broadest (1, 1, 16). 

(c.) The adverb before its adjective or adverb is regular : hyrd hyd bid 
spide god, their hide is very good (1, 1, 14). 

(d) The prepoaition is sometimes separated from its case to take the 
place of an adverb ; Se here him fiedh beforan, the army him flee before 
(Chr., 1016) ; pe he on bude,vi\i\(i\i he dwelt on (Oros., 1, 1, 18) ; pe heord 
spedd on bebd, which their riches are in (1, 1, 15; 1, 1, 22). Sometimes 
it ibllows its case : hi pyrcad pone cyle hine on, they produce cold on 
him (1, 1,23) ; ne dorstbn pvbr on cuman,they durst not there on come (1, 
1,13), 

4. Attraction Relative adverbs begin their clause : hus,panon ic eode, 
house whence I went (Matt., xii, 44). For other cases, see ^ 485, b, 
and examples in ^ 494, 2. 

495. Aeeangement of Clauses. 

1. Co-ordinate clauses are free to follow the order of thought. 

(fl.) Courtesy. — Copulate subjects of different persons should have the 
first person follow the third, and the third follow the second. 

A royal speaker may perhaps be an exception : *' I and the girls," " I 
and Alice" (Queen Vict., Life in Highlands, 173). 

SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES. 

1. Substantive clauses regularly follow their leading clause. For ex- 
amples, see ^ 468. 

2. Adjective clauses regularly follow the word they describe. For ex- 

amples, see § 470, and sections there referred to. 

3. Adverbial clauses freely take any place in the sentence according to 
the demands of emphasis, perspicuity, or euphony. They incline to the 
order of adverbial factors of a clause, ^^ 493, 494. 

(a.) Conditional and concessive clauses oflenest precede. Examples, 
§H3 1,432. 



CLAUSES. 221 

{b.) Insertion. — Leading clauses are sometimes inserted in subordinates : 
and nordepeard., he cpxdyp^r hit smalost p^re,p3Rt hit mihte heon^ etc., and 
northward, he said, where it was narrowest, that it might be (three miles 
broad) (Oros., 1, 1, 16). 

(c.) Variations are found with substantive and adjective clauses after the 
analogy of substantives and adjectives, §^ 485-490. 



^ . 



PART IV. 



PROSODY. 

406. Proiody treats of the rhythm of Poetry. 

407. Rhythm is an orderly Baccession of beats of sonnd. 

This beat is called an ictus or anis, and the syllable on which it falls is 
also called the arsis. The alternate remission of voice, and the sylla- 
bles so uttered, are called the thesis. 

408. Feet are the elementary combinations of syllables in verse. 

(a.) Feet are named from tbe order and make of their arsiB and thesla. A monosyllabic 
anU^K monosyllabic ihetU ia a trochee; +a diMyUablc thetU is a da/etyU^ etc 
Stress. In Anglo-Saxon these depend on the oosented syllables, whidi are deter- 
mined by the stress they wonld, if the passage were prose, reoeiye to dJsttngniah 
them from other syllables of the same word, or tram, other words in the sentence. 
Accent is therefore yerbal, syntactical, or rhetorici^ An nnemphatic dissyllable may 
count as two unaccented syllables, like the second part of a compoond. Secandaiy 
accents may take the arsis. 

1. A tonic is a single accented syllable+a panse. 

2. A trochee is an accented+an unaccented syllable. 

3. A dactyle is an accented+two unaccented syllables. 

4. A peeon is an accented + three unaccented syllables. 

5. A pyrrhic is two unaccented syllables ; a spondee is two accented ; 
an iambus is an unaccented+an accented ; an anapaest is two unac- 
cented+an accented; a tribrach is three unaccented; a single unac- 
cented syllable is called an atonic; and unaccented syllables prelim- 
inary to the normal feet of a line are called an anacmsis (striking up) 
or base, 

(5.) Time. The time from each ictus to the next is the same in any section. It is 
not always filled up with sound. More time is given to an accented than an nnac^ 
cented syllable. 

(c) Fitch. The English and most other Indo-Europeans raise the pitch with the 
verbal accent ; the Scots lower it. With the rhetorical accent the pitch varies every 
way. 

(d.) Expression. Feet of two syllables are most conversational ; those of three are 
more ornate; those of one syllable are emphatic, like a thud or the blows of a ham- 
mer. The trochee, dactyle, and pseon, in which the accented syllable precedes, have 
more ease, grace, and vivacity. Those feet in which the accented syllable comes last 
have more decision, emphasis, and strength (Crosby, S 696). The Anglo-Saxon me- 
tera are trochaic and dactylic ; the English oftener iambic and anapaestic. 

499. A verse is an elementary division of a poem. 



VERSE.— C^SURA.— RIME. 223 

It has a twofold nature ; it is a series of feet, and also a series 
of words. 

(a.) As a series of feet, it is a sing-song of regular nps and downs, snch as children 
sometimes give in repeating rhymes. 

As a series of words, each word and pause would be the same as if it were prose, as 
persons who do not catch the meter often read poetry. , 

The cantilation never is the same as the prose utterance ; lines in which it should be 
wonld be prosaic. 

The art of yersiflcation consists in so arranging the prose speech in the ideal Arame> 
work of the line that t^ie reader may adjust one to the other without obscuring ei- 
ther, and with continual happy variety. 

(6.) The manner of adapting the araia and thesis to the prose pronunciation is different 
in different languages. In Sanskrit, and classical Greek and Latin, the arsis was 
laid on syllables having a long sounds and variety was found in the play of the prose 
accent. In other languages, including modem Greek and Latin, the arsis is made to 
fkll on aeeented syllables, and free play is given to long and short vowel sounds, and 
combinations of consonants. The Sanskrit and Greek varied fitrther from prose 
speech In the recitation of poetry than modem habits and ears allow. ' The Hindoos 
stftl repeat Sanskrit poetry in recitative. 

500. Verses are named from the prevailing foot trochaic, dactylic, iam- 
bic, and anapasticy etc. 

Verses are named from the number of feet. A monometer is a verse 

of one foot ; a dimeter of two ; a trimeter of three ; a tetrameter 

of four ; a pentameter of five ; a hexameter of six ; a heptameter 

of seven ; an octometer of eight. 

(a.) A verse is cataleetie when it wants a syllable, acataUetie when complete, hypereata- 
leetie when redundant. 

501. Caesura. — ^Anglo-Saxon verses are made in two sections or hemi- 
stichs. The pause between these sections is called the caesura. Afoot 
c<Bsura is made by the cutting of ^ foot by the end of 2l word. 

(a.) Ezpression. The character of versification depends much on the management 
of the caesuras. When the weight of a verse precedes the caesura, the movement has 
more vivacity; when it follows, more gravity. 

502. Rime. — Rime is the rhythmical repetition of letters. 

Nations who unite arsis and prose accent need to mark off their verses 
plainly. They do it by rime. Other nations shun rime. 

1. When the riming letters begin their words, it is called alliteration. 

2. When the accented vowels and following letters are alike, it is called 
perfect rime (= rhyme). 

3. When only the consonants are alike, it is called half rime. 

4. When the accented syllable is final, the rime is single ; when one un- 
accented syllable follows, the rime is double ; when two, it is triple, 

(a.) Line-rime is between two words in the same section. Final-rime 
between the last words of two sections or verses. 

503. Alliteration is the recurrence of the same initial sound 
in the first accented syllables of words. 

1. Consonants. — The first initial consonant of alliterating syllables must 
be the same, the other consonants of a combination need not be ; 



224 ALLITERATION. 

Bebpulf: bremellbl&d (B., 18) ; Caines : cynnellcpealm (107) ; Cris- 
tenrd : : Cyriacus (El., 1069) ; cude : : cniht (B., 372) ; funden : ifrofre 
(1); frastpumiflet (2054); geong igeardumllGod (13); geogodei: 
gledpost (C, 221, 1); grimma:g&st (B., 102); heofenum \ hlasste 
(52); ha^ledd'.hryreWhpate (2052); hnttanllhrmgum (Rid., 87, 4) : 
sodliceWspeotolan (B., 141); scearp : scyldwscdd (288); scridendei: 
sceapum (Trav., 135) ; ScottdWscip (Chr., 938) ; peodwprym (B., 2) ; 
pen : plenco : Ipribc (338). 

2. Vowels. — A perfect vowel alliteration demands different vowels : 
isig : utfusWssdelinges (B., 33) ; — sometimes the same vowels repeat: 
eorld : eordan : : eoper (R., 248). 

(a.) 8C, sp, or St seldom illiterate without repeating the whole combina- 
tion; but: scyppend:: serif en (B., 106); spere : sprengdei: sprang (By., 
137) ; str^ld : storm : : strengum (B., 31 17). 

(b.) Words in la-, 16-, iu-, Hie-, alliterate with those in g-. They are 
mostly foreign proper names. See ^^ 28, 34. 

lacobesWgode (Psa.,lxxxvi,l, and often) ; lafed : gumrtncum (C.,1552) ; 
lordane : ',grene (C, 1921) ; lobes : : God (Met., 26, 47) ; goda : gedsne 
::Iudas fEl., 924); ludedl'.God (El., 209); gledp: Godei: Juliana 
(Jul., 131, and often) ; gomen : gearduml'.iu (B., 2459), so frequently 
iu=.ge6i gio (formerly) and its compounds ; Hierusolme :: God (Ps. C, 
50, 134) ; gongad : gegnunga : : Hierusalem (Giith., 785) ; written gold : 
Gerusalem : : luded (C, 260, 11). 

(c.) It is said that p may alliterate with s by Dietrich (Haupt Zeit., x, 
323, 362). No^sure examples found. C, 287, 23, is a defective line. 

504. A perfect Anglo-Saxon verse has three alliterating sylla- 
bles, two in the first section, the other in the second. 

Frum'\scea/t' \ Fir'\d' \\ Feorr'|an' | recc'lan" (B., 91). 
the origin of men from far relate. 

(a.) The repeated letter is called the nme-letter; the one in the second 
couplet the chief -letter^ the others the sub-letters. The P ai feorran 
in the line above is the chief -letter \ the P ixi frumsceaft ^.tidjird the' 
sub-letters. 

(b.) One of the sub-letters is often wanting. 

(c.) Four or more rime-letters are sometimes found. 

"Lednes . . "Leohte . . || . . "Lete . . "Lange (C, 258). 

In pairs : pset' he \ God's \ pold'W II geong^ra"" \ peord'\an\ 

that he to God would a vassal be (C, 277), where ^ 
and p both rime, and so often. 

505. The Anglo-Saxons used line-rime and final-rime as an oc- 
casional grace of verse. See § 511. 

506. Verse in which alliteration is essential, and other rime ornamental, is the pre- 
vailing form in Anglo-Saxon, Icelandic, Old Saxon. Specimens are foond in Old High 



COMMON NARRATIVE VERSE. 225 

German. Alliteration in these languages even ran into prose, and is one of the causes 
of the thoroughness with which the shilTting of the initial consonants has affected the 
whole speeclf, i 41, K 

507. Verse with final rime, and with alliteration as an occasional grace, is the common 
form in English and the modem Germanic and Romanic languages. It is conmion in the 
Low-Latin verses of the Ang|o-Saxon poets, and it is by many supposed to have spread 
from the Celtic. 

Common Narrative Verse. 

508. Beda says of rhythm: "It is a modulated composition of words, not according 
.to the laws of meter, but adapted in the number of its syllables to the judgment of the ear, 
as are the yerses of our vulgar poets. • • • Yet, for the most part, you may find, by a sort 
of chance, some rule in rhythm ; but this is not from an artificial government of the syl- 
lables. It arises because the sound and the modulation lead to it The vulgar poets effect 
this rustically, the skillful attain it by their skul.**— Bed., 1, 67. These remarks on the 
native poets are doubtless applicable to their Anglo-Saxon verses as well as their Latin ; 
and whatever general rules we may find running through these poems, we may expect to 
find many exceptional lines, which belong in their places only because they can be recited 
with a cadence somewhat like the verses around them. 

609. The common narrative verse has four feet in each section. 

A. 1. An axsia falls on every prose accent, ^ 15, and the last syllable* of 
every section. But note contractions below, 7. 

2. At least one arsis on a primary accent, or two on other syllables follow 
the chief alliterating letter, ^ 504. 

3. An arsis should ML on the former of two unaccented syllables after an 
accented long (the vowel long or followed by two consonants), and on the 
latter after an accented short. 

aoyld'\um^ hi\acer'e\de\ \\ Boynd'\an^ ge\ner'e\de^ (Rime Song, 84). 

4. An arsis should not fall on an unaccented proper prefix (a-, he-<, ge-y 
etc.,^ 15), or proclitic monosyllables (Jc, se^pe, etc.), or short endings of 
dissyllabic particles (nefne^ odde, ponncy etc.), or short tense-endings between 
two accented shorts in the same section. 

5. An arsis may fall on a long, on a short between two accents (after a 
long frequent, after a short, less so), on the former of two unaccented shorts. 

grorn' I torn' \ %rxf'\ed\ || %rxft' \ rxft' hmf\ed' (Rime Song, 66). 

spyWe I gi' | gant' \ as' \pd' pid \ Ood'e \punn' \ on' (B., 1J3). 

mpY I mhtf-\peard' || iiydY \ sceol'W (C, 185, 1). 

pord' purdf\i' \ an\ || VeoV \ him' on \ inn' \ an' (C, 353). 

hurh' I tim'\bre' \ de' (C, 2840). Rare with short penult oi trisyllable. 

B. 6. The thesis is mute or monosyllabic ; but syncope, elision, synizesis, 
or synaloepha is oflen needed to reduce two syllables. 

7. An anacrusis may introduce any section. It is of one syllable, rarely 
two, sometimes apparently three, with the same contractions as the tkesis. 
Let'on\p{d) ofer \ ttfel \p&g' || fdm'\i'ge \ scr^\an' (El., 237). 
puld'orVcyn'ing\es' \ pord' \\ ge)peot'an \ pd' pa \ pit'(i)gan \ pry\k\i,fi(&). 
spic'6d\{e) ymh' pd \ adp'\le' ye) hir'e \ &r' pd \ wen'{e) on\ldh' (C, 607). 

P 



226 COMMON NARRATIVE VKliSK. 

Synizesia of -annefltct'Scipetpenden^hnd the likr. Synalatpha of^e-, 
/e, and the like. 

morh' is \ mt to \ uecg'\anne^ | on' \ uej*an \ min\um' (13., 473). 

pratltc'ne \pund'or\'madtr\um' | (B.,2174). 

tyrd'l-sear'o \ ius' \ Itcu' (B., 232). ^ 

etihtlo'don \ eorl'l-scipe' I (B.,3174). 

pes'an \pend'en ic\pcaldy ) (B., 1859). 

Pegn'as \ synd'on ge\-I>pArY I (B., 1230). 

Para pe \ pitt spa \ mic'\lum' I (C, 2095). 

Paft n^fre )Qtrend'\€V spa \fel'W I ^Vd' ge\frem'e \ de' (B., 591). 
So we find hpxdere (B., 573), diAsyllabic ; hine (B., 688), ofer (B., 1273), 
monosyllabic ; and many anomalous slurs in the thesis or anacrusis. 

8. The order of the feet is free, varying with the sense. In later poetr}% 
as more particles are used, the fuller thesis grows more common. 

0. The Anglo-Saxons like to end a sentence at the cssora. So Chancer and his French 
masters stop at the end of the first line of a rhyming couplet. So Milton says that ** tme 
maslcal delight** is to be found in having the sense **Yarioas]y drawn oat from one Terec 
into another.** 

10. The two alliterating feet in the first section, and the corresponding pair in the sec- 
ond section, are chief feet Some read all the rest as thesis. 

510. Irregular sections are found with three feet, or two. 

1. Sections with contracted words where the full form would complete the 
four feet. 

hedn huses-=hea\harC \ hu\ses^ (B., 116). 
deadpic se6n=.dedd'\pic^ \ s€o'\han' (B., 1275). 

2. Sections with three feet and a thesis : * 

prym' \ (g€)Vfrun'\on' (B.,2). 
Uf\edc'\ (^c)|5ceo/(B.,97). 

Heyne finds in Beowulf feet of this kind with a-, «/-, le-^ for-^ ge-^ of-^ 
on-, to-, purh-. Similar sections with proclitic particles are found : men* \ 
(ne)\cunn'\on' (B., 60); {be)\y(t\ldfV (B., 566); Let' \ (se)\heard'\a' (B., 
2977) ; (pe)\him' \ past' \ pif (C.,707). 

3. Sections with Proper Names. Foreign Names are irregular : 

Sem' I and' \ Cham' \ (C, 1551), and so often. 

4. Sections with two feet and a thesis : 

man' \ (ge)\pe6n (B., 25). Loth' \ (on)\f6n' (C, 1938). 

511. Rhyme is found occasionally in most Anglo-Saxon poems. A few 
contain rhyming passages of some length. One has been found which is 
plainly a Task Poem to display riming skill. All sorts of rimes are crowded 
together in it. It has eighty-seven verses. 

UNE-RIME. 

Half-rime : sar' | and' | aoT'\ge'; || susl' \ pr6p'\€d'\on\ 

pain and sorrow ; sulphur suffered they (C, 75). 



LONG NARRATIVE VERSE. 227 

Perfect-rime : 

Single : fldh' \ mah' \fr%f\ed^, \fldn' \ man' \ hjnt'\ed^, [62). 

foul fiend fighteth, darts the devil whetteth (Rime-song, 
gdst'\d' \peard'\um\ || Hxfd'\on' \ glekm! and \ ifream', 

They had light and joy (C, 
Double : /r6d'|ne^ and \ ^6d'|ne^ I fasd'er \ Un'\pen'\es\ [12). 

wise and good father of Unwen(Trav., 114). 
Triple : /er'|ed|e^ and \ ner'e|de\ || F%f\ten'\a' \ stod'—, 
(God) led and saved (C, 1397). 
FINAL-RIME. 

Half-rime : spa' \ lif \ spa' \ rfeAd', || spa' him \ le6f\re' I ^ict'- 

either life or death, as to him liefer be (Ex., 
37, 20 ; Crist., 596, and a riming passage). 
Perfect-rime : 

Single : nc' \forst'\es' l/n^st', | ne' \fyr'\es' WAst', 

no frosCs rage, nor fire's blast. 
Double : ne) hmgl'\es' \ Aryr'|e\ || ne) hnm'\es' \ drjT'\e\ 

nor haiPs fall, nor rime's descent (Phoenix, 15, 
16 ; Ex., 198, 25, where see more). 
Triple: hlud'W I hlyne\de'; ( hle6d'\or' \ dyn'e\de\ 
(The harp) loud sounded ; the sound dinned (Rime-song. 28). 

Long Nabbativb Vebse. 

512. The common narrative verse is varied by occasional passages in 
longer verses. The alliteration and general structure of the long verse is 
the same as of the common ; but the length of the section is six feet. Feet 
are oflenest added between the two alliterating syllables of the first section, 
and before the alliterating syllable of the second, section. 

Spa I cpsBd' I Bnott'\or on \ mod'\e\ g 

ge) B^t' I him' \ Bund'\or' a^t \ run'\e\ \\ 
Til' bid I se'pe hts \ treop'W ge\hedld'\ed' : || 

ne) sceaV \ n&fre his \ torn' to \ ryc'e\ne^ 
heom' I of his \ hre6st'\um^ d\cyd'\an\ 

nemtte he \ &r' Jtd \ h6t'\e^ \ cunn'\€\ 
eorV I mid^ \ eln\e ge\fremm'\an\' 

pel' bid I Pom' pe him \ kr\e' \ sec'\ed\ 
fr6f\re' to \ Fmd'\er' on \ heofon\um\ 

P&r I us' I eat seo \ fxst'nung \ */onrf>rf^ (Wanderer, 1 11+). 

(a.) Sometimes a section of four feet is coupled with one of six : 
ge) pinn'les' \ pid' \ heord \ pald'\end^ || pt^W I poV\iad (C.,323). 

{b,) Four or more alliterative letters are found oftener than in common 
verse. Three seldom fail. A secondary weak alliteration is some- 
times found in one of the sections. 



228 BNGLI8H PROSE RHYTHM. 

(c.) This Terse is rather a Tariety of the Common NarratiTe than another 
kind. 

513. The Common Narrative is the regular Old Germanic verse. 
Rales 1,2,3, 4, 6, 7, of § 500, are rules of that verse. In the 5th 
the Anglo-SaxoQ uses greater freedom. It also corresponds with 
the Old 'SoT»e/amf/r<talaf/. In it Old English alliterating poems 
are written. 

In a I mom'er \ mes'\on^ || whan) moft' \ was the \ ftonn'\e^ 
I) shop'e I me in \ shroud' \e3^ ^ as) T a \ shep'e \ wer\e^ 
In) hab'ite | as an \ her'e\mite' || tin)ho/'|y' of \ work*\es^ 
Went' I toyd'e \ in' pis | world' || wond'\res^ to \ her'\e\ 
Ac) on a \ May' \ mom'yng\e^ || on) Mal'\uem^e \ huir\es^ 
Me by\fel' a \fer\ly' \\ of) fair \y' me \ thou^t'\e\ 

Piers the Plowman, 1-6. 

(a.) The anacrusis has a tendency to unite with the following accented 
syllable, and start an iambic or anapastic movement. The change of 
inflection endings for prepositions and auxiliaries has also favored the 
same movement. In OIH English it oflen runs through the verses. 
See Final perfect-rime,^ 511. 



Allitbrativk Prose. 

514. Some of the Anglo-Saxon prose has a striking rhythm, and frequent 
alliteration, though not divided by it into verses. Some of the Homilies of 
^Ifric are so written (St. C(l(tbert). Parts of the Chronicle have mixed 
line-rime and alliteration. 

515. Verses with the same general form as the Anglo-Saxon continued 
to be written in English to the middle of the fifteenth century. Alliteration 
is still found as an ornament of our poetry, and the old dactylic cadence runs 
through all racy Anglo-Saxon English style. 

So they went | up to the | Moantalos I to be|hold the | gardens and | orchards* 

The I vineyards and | fountains of | water ; I where | also they | drank and | washed themselves, 

And did | freely | eat of the | vineyards. P Now there | were on the | tops of those | Mountains, 

Shepherds feeding their flocks; and they stood by the highway side. 

The pilgrims therefore went to them, and leaning upon their staffs, 

As is common with weary pilgrims, when they stand to talk with any by the way, 

They asked, Whose Delectable Mountains are these? 

And whose be the sheep, that feed upon them f— Bumtan, Pilgrim^ » Progres*, 



INDEX OF WORDS. 



For ooMPOUNDs, look at the simples. 
[The flgnres refer to seotions. V prefixed, marks a root ; — prefixed, marks a suffix ; — • 
suffixed, marks a prefix ; < or > is placed between two words when one is derived 
from the other, the angle pointing to the derived word ; = means equivalent to.] 



ANGLO-SAXON. 

a, 14, 16, 23. 

— <a»228,24(]L268. 

— <i<ra7», 228, 240, 268. 

—a<jan, 228. 

—0,246. 

— «,251. 

^,24. 

--<1251. 

4—, 16, 254. 

a. 129, 254. 

ahbudisfie^ 232, 268. 

dbufan, 257, 334. 

dlrCi^n, 341. 

oc, 260, 262, 397, 465. 

aca7»,207. 

aeh, see oc 

<:2c8ta7», 292. 

4ctred,266. 

<2(2&n^25S. 

— arf;228. 

ddaparingf 266. 
n/',129. 
agan, 212. 
<2^e^258. 
<!^*en,866. 

/imjlaan, 297. 

ah, see axi, 

dhy 212. 

dh8ie,B5. 

dhty 136. 

dMey 36,<12. 

dhpseder, 136, 391. 

—at, 228. 

aton, 207. 

dmangj 341. 

— aw» 251, 257. 

an — , 15. % 

an, 264. 

arCtC^nrum^ 212. 

—dn, 247. 

dn, 13G, 138, 366, 886. 

— ana, 176. 

ancor, 270. 

and-, 15, 254, 828, 830. 

and, 138, 139, 262, 894, 463. 

andlonp, 259, 829, 830. 

and nd pi up«,465. 

am{«par-ta7^ 16, 297 ; — i/, 265. 

dnedge, 266. 

4n4<70d,26G. 

<2nAende, 266. 

4no, 262. 



ApreliSf 88. 
dr/a^ 229, 243. 
dr/M, 229. 
drian, 297. 
<iri«e, 233. 
dr{e(Mj229. 
om<tman. 
aron, 213. 
<!tr«£^, 229, 235. 
aa«^—e, 268. 
dateUan^ 189. 
4/7,228. 
dpa,26i, 
dpacan. 267. 
<i/'(£9r,136,464. 
dptX 136, 389. 
aa;e,85. 

a, 14, 16, 23. 
i^,24. 

/e,ioo. 

i^, 129, 263. 

i^— ,254. 

«<;er,228. 

SBdding, 228, 236. 

JSdelpulfing, 237. 

a/—, 129, 264. 

&fre, 261. 

a:/lt,331. 

a/tan, WL 

aftemeat, 127. 

at/'ter, 15, 126, 129, 265, 328, 831, 

472,473. 
mfterOt 127. 
siifterpeardee, 251. 
wg, wgru, 82, 228. 
i^^— , 254; —hpd, —hpader, 

etc., 186, 890, m, 463. 
i^at^.186,463. 
al—, 259. 
i^2e,136,892. 
« V, — ewj 268. 
almeahttg, 266. 
J^ne,145. 

i^ni^,186,887,489. 
^,126,269,832,472. 
^est, 127, 129. 
«rn, 229. 

«^ 15, 254, 328, 333. 
at—, 257. 

a;tA>ran, 833. 

b, 27, 30. 
M,141. 

taean, 168, 191, 207. 



bdd<CMdcm. 

bal{dJ6am, 50, 270. 

tonnaTk 208. 

64^280. 

bac-ere, —estre, 268, 228. 

baclingcL 261. 

&a;d<ouiaan. 

&aU%m, 257, 334 

&^,230. 

—b^e, 229, 243. 

ba!rf6t, 266. 

&«rn-et, — 4engr, 283. 

be<bi. 

bedeni<m,297, 

&eadu,82,9Q,228. 

beoduule, 288. 

bedh<Cbitgan, 

bedk.2S0. 

beala,m. 

bealu, 30, 32, 86 ; —ftis, 242. 

beam, 230, 284» 268. 

bedtan, 208. 

bea^/ton, 257. 

6e2>eMa7», 297. 

becyme, 209, 

b&idstan. —forcm, ■•^aieondan. 

—healfe, etc, 884. 
begen, 141, 490. 
be-heiman, —hindmu —neodcn, 

257,834. 
beZ/ia?!^ 203, 290. 
beUan,2/0d, 
ben±9l28, 
bed, 100, 
be6dan,2M. 
bedgan^^biigafk 
bedn, in-182, 218. 286, 208, 

415. 
beoran^beran, 
beordfiSO. 
beorgan, 191, 804. 
6eorinan,204. 
bep^ete, 189. 

ber-an, 200, 819 ; — e, 228. 
bere,230. 
bergan=^beorgan. 
bernan,24S. 
bemif^, 233. 
berstan, 192, 202. 
besdrgian, 297. 
6e»ldan, 268. 
ftrtro, 6et8<, 129. 
6^189. 
betpebhs («), —tpe^uni, 258, 

829,834. 
6ef/n<a;^ 49. 



INDEX OF WORDS. 



cm,bt,tn,ta. 

raran,t». 

rati-. -eat, -JVfil,t\t.,itS, 

r4«Ti>,SSS, 

-/ul, — tadt, SU, too, 



fl-lif, cAild. S4, 41. SI, MS: 

—Add, ISSi — <K, ns, ML 
;l* 100. 

:MVan,toe. 

rf&oisioa. 

dl^ I8». 



iSffnn.a4S. 

br^ix, 33S. 

bvT(t<ihrran. 



c«Ain,lM. 



wnnvniA)c, 110, lOT 
■ 8W.I0B. 

... .JB,»O0. 

CT-ff/^n, 191, fiOG. 

fTinflUB, (tffj'.CTl. 
crfp;i, IM. 

«li(,m. 

r4uli, SI, Its, £1!. 



furcn, BO, IflT. 
rfwfdf, leo! 



;pafrin,lm,199,S* 

QV(Ian,SO». 

pt-cp^imm, KT. 
•v4n,£S8,$08. 
~'mon,soa 



(i/drJr<cTrtM, MI. 




ilnl'r. (AXdAgoH. 
dBi<-.1I0,lll,Wt. 



ifnirnlrviirf, !a, S< 



-drr^S, lot, ai 
- --*«». lS8,Si(7. 



dBn, ISO, lea, 171. no, K 



fr&pan, 1&1. UQ, ?£0. 
ti^r-fln, — (, ife, aOB, 

drtuMTi,*— ftl»4,!01. 

drttron<drfl^flart. 

diuian, 2ia. 
--», lltl. 



ipealditijipeaa 
apelan.mi. 



INDEX OF WOBOa 




7, S19, 220, !«>, 2K, 



*x1tv. 463. 



/fif, 41, M, 100. 



/ecnon, 190. 
jM|ei), 190. 

/jMn,-Mn,M- 
/<la,129,13C!CII. 
/eld, MB. 
/«Wa,fl3. 



JMLIOO. 
/mAm, 1M. 
/uMiit,S04. 

/iilU</aiJI<in. 

/(«l,ia. 

fcbld<rfcaUan. 

-'-^itO-Mfton,lW,24t,MT, 

. iB<>lM9iiB, weak. 

/eSiuI, 81, lUO. 

/tar. lU,\'iS,'m,iU,^a, S3«. 

/wrran,2SS. 

/«»JW,«.1SH-. 

/jroo, «4S, 2B;. 

fiOfl^e, —ettn, !G3. 
JW(™,1I10, 
/V,8T,13S+. 
finiaa. Ml, m. 
j(rd>,llW.!C3. 

^, sai, 28S. 

^__.'<a«)(o>l. 
yM«in»leAn, sot. 
judum >IMin, IW, !00. 

/fftn=jfcfln. 



/w, 10, iM, see. MS, B3T, 

/or— l^ aiM, 8SB| .-taMan, 
sail -171/an.SOT: -fltftad- 
IIb, M2; — jiiaii, 88 i — I«e- 
«n, IST : — ifandiin, 3W i 
^-«piirrn,*SB: ~pgmaH,t>T. 

/wan, MS, SOT, 3»S. 

/Willi, sa. 

/ord, IS, IJD. 

fore, IS, 121), SM, Bra, 8*9, ^. 

/marine!, (sa. 

/DTB-pamf, 128, 

/or Spam, 200. 

/or (iifinjon, S3T. 



131. 



/ram, IB. 254, 338, «a. 
/rS, iM, US. 
fymtpt, 100. 



A<«fld, 81, 100: — r^dM, «!>, 

AfOM", 111. 
/^(t07^ IBB. 

/ricmni,l«,ilS. 

/rVjwuL sot SIT. 
/Wnon, ioj, 4m. 
/riiiffan, BS, 901. 

/»md(, IB 1 carl-flmol. MS. 
Al, l^ «5e i — /S/fim, Ml. 



.^liEon. Se7. 
/WTa,li«. 
/Jmh, -de, ISO. 

-V^,MO. 
(«'/<fft''aB. 

.fldr^'aa, ita, tis, ut, mb, i^-s. 



^twa»,SO 



-hmdisSHI.Eag: — AHt,I3l 
-ftOHfei-, 801 -, -M><S W< 
-ife, awi —Iter, 4CS, 411 



INDEX OP WOBDS. 




lou 1 — ((ra^nI, WO : — «M 
aSB: — fciW,M8,BMi — >»-, 
<i»: —piht, 9»; — pfCSDS. 
For oilier words !n [»-, 
drop ije—, and look for Ibr 






gialpati<siatpt, 100. 

J«n,lB. 
S«nii,Ml. 

SMHii, IS, la, isa, isE, S!?, mo. 

ffFondsn, Ki7. 
fBini(r,li,1U,«B. 

fMTwanrVOi' 



SSiBi,SO! 
. panOpSlB. 



. panOpSlB. 

ffUpan (ft, 1/), Kia. 
aman, veuk. 

SfimoK. SOI. 

0pm, m. 
gtTrait=ijeorTan, 
fftrpan, tU. 

ifftpmn., iaO,!ST,SOO. 
(Won (Vr, ;;), IW. 

IT'fi'an, SOB. 



UddtiU SIS. 



5rfB.™.njmL 
iTrfRdBn, 101. 
fj/iMan, 801. 
flripan,W)0. 
[iriwn, SOS. 
inV,»SO. 
OTiivn, 191, IDS. 

[fT/ndon, weak. 
grvrthpit, MS. 



^;* 



fxi, Ad, 2«B. 
hdlitan.Sl.lOS.SIl. 
— Mii^. 

U«vJl,101,2Bl. 
Adni-jwoni,iw,201i— jwordet, 



Aannwi, SD3, SIO, K4. 
Jid«,eo,ST. 
Jidfon, MS, !S& 

habte, lOS, 169, ti^ tiO, tfS. 
fi^ft*, 1B9. 
A#(ii, toD. 

Atifu, G3fi. ' 



a ^httfd, pp-Mfxalt (weak). 



A«riiin,iee. 
AJAf, IM, SIS. 
felon, KHb 
Ac»an, IBS. 
A(fl«>>,8t,I03,!gT. 

AwroAtn, iti. 
A«rU,!IUL 



hMm, S03, S». 
Jiinifcr, ie». 
Afc^sA, 230. 
»l(,lS«,S8T,BSfl. 



'.ses. 



hUahlor, US, ET 

AlcMoH (i, V) {6, a), SOI. 
hltidrtdi, Wa. 
htr/ni<hteipiat, warm. 
U(Alitn,!Oe. 

n, 1». 

Uldan,e0S. 
Af^nn, weok. 

Iilipan, SOS. 

(y.(art,BOT. 
..ndCoTi, 203. 
Afif^pon, SOS. 
hnl{^ S05, SETT. 

ftii&^SOS.' 

*aA, ioa ' " ' 

Mb, SOB, SIB, M4. 



■<4/a»,sM. 

..■*6Mn,m,S( 
firebpa-n, 200. 



hrSpariy 208. 

hrinan, 205, 293. 

hrindan, 201. 

hrdpan^ 208. 

Aroren<[Aredsan, 

hruron<:jwed8an. 

hrdtan, 206. 

hri^man. 248. 

A&, 262, 260, 262, S97, 468, 469. 

M, interj., 263. 

Mdan^ hudonf 206. . 

—hdgu^ 136. 

At^ic, 135. 

AwTMf, 1384-. 

hurUrKid^ —ddf —nadf 233. 

Mainclet 22& 

A^2, 87. 

Ap<i, 136. 377, 882, 390. 

—hpdj 136, 390. 

hpanan, 262, 260, 469. 

hpanney 252, 469. 

A/>a;(^, 126, 135, 260, 378, 464, 

469. 
hpibr^ 262, 260, 469. 
hpastf 125. 

Apar«,136,263.877,382. 
hpaet gddeSy 312. 
hpathugu, ISO, 390. 
hpelan, 200. 
hpeorfan^ 204. 
hpetan. 199. 
hpetatdfif 266. 
A/>i, 136, 252, 260. 
ftf^ider, 262, 260, 262, 469. 
^pl/*, 262. 

hpUum, 251, 262, 472. 
hplnan^ 205. • 

^pon, 135, 396. 
hpdpan^ 208. 
hpurforKjipeor/an, 
hpylc, 135. 378, 382. 
hycgarij 211, 222. 
^m 86 ; —aceaft, 229, 236. 
hyldan, 248. 
hpnan, 248. 
/i^ran. 183, 189, 297. 
hyreman, 260. 
ge-hymedj 243. 
«7e-A^r8um-t'an, 297. 
Ayrfe, 189. 
hyse-cildt 268. 

V,23. 

124. 

— <i, 228, 240, 268. 

— <;a»228. 

ia=ea, 33. 

—io, 246, 247. 

*»— ,603 

to, 261. 

iVi,26. 

ic. 41, 130, 366. 

idssgea. 251. 

tde«, 101. 

— trf, 164. 

ii=edt e6t 26. 

— ie^jOj 228. 

— i<7, 228, 248. 

—ige^ 268. 

—I A, 228. 

— t A<, 228, 243. 

tn, 16, 264, 328. 841. 

»nc, tncer, <»kJ«, 130, 182. 

—ing (verbal), 228, 460. 

—ing. 228, 237. 

in middum, 258. 



INDEX OF WORDS. 

innon, 252, 267, 828, 829, 341. 

inncj 262. 

inruma, 126. 

tnnera, 129. 

inniaUf 67. 

tnt^ 341. 

inpeardllcef 15. 

io=:eo,. 33. 

to—, 503. 

I'd, 26. 

tman, 204* 

i«<e<mi. 

— isc, 228, 241. 

iagicelf 266. 

tt*— , 503. 

lu. 252, 396. 

twjfc, 228. 

tuf 4^1 28. 

2, 27, 29, 83, 35. 

—l<ra, 228. 

2<:2,260,263,397. 

— Mc,229. 

2<ioan, 191, 208. 

ldd<:iidan. 

ldg<m<liegan. 

Iagufl6af266. 

ldh<Clthan. 

lamb, 82, 268. 

lamv<Climpan, 

lanOj 101 ; —mail, 266; —«ceap, 

229, 236 ; — «ct>^ 88, 236. 
2an^, 124. 
Um^ad, 297. 
l&caii, 250. 

lAce-cra^f —cf/n, —d&m, 236. 
I^dan, 248. 

l^nan, 297. 

Zi^ran, 292. 

to8, 259, 342, 893. 

lasaa, 127, 129. 

l^stes, 166. 

tet, 12& 

toton (i), 20& 

tetemo, 126. 

Iedg<^le6gan, 88. 

leahan, 207. 

2e<27», 207. 

lednian, 297. 

— 2ed«. 229, 243, 400. 

lectin, 209. 

lecoan, 188, 209, 248. 

{^,189,209,224. 

legds,189. 

lendenu, 100. 

Zeddan, 206. 

2edde,86. 

led/, 297. 

Ubfan, 206. 

{ecLAur,222. 

{ec/<^ 228, 232. 

Udgan, 192, 194^ 206. 

leohU, 189, 209. 

ledlc, 169, 208, 21& 

lebvid, 77. 

I^drt. 169, 206, 218. 

/or4e6aan, 197, 206. 

Ie6t,2m. 

lesan, 192. 

1^208. 

Mton, 208. 

libban, 222. 

21e 269 

— /ic, 183, 186, 229, 241, 242, 892. 



233 

—llee, 261. 

ge'liee am?, 473. 

licdt^e, 299. 

liegran (lic^/can), 192, 199, 248, 

286. 
Itdan, 206. 
lidon, 197. 
ittf 37. 
2&ftin^205. 
Itfan, 205. 
Ii/ian, 222. 
ltget<ilicgan, 193. 
H-U/Uin* 205, 297. 
lilie, 270. 
limpan, 201. 
— migr, 228. 
b-hnnan, 201. 
It'tJt'an, 249. 
liUum, 261. 
Zd/si^nL 242. 
io7?ip<Winpan. 
litean, 206. 
{Kfe(te,38. 

iw/-i<ir», 183 ; — jV^can, 86. 
lu/-mm.U2; —/^mc, 229, 242. 
I/undent0e, 241. 
2u7}j7e, 97. 
lunn&n<Clinrian, 
1^91,100, 
lu8t,269; --6igr«,229. 
Idtan, 206. 
{yccan (Grein) ? 
gelatin, 297. 
ty^te, 290. 
Zy«, 129, 186, 885. 
lytd, 129. 
Iffade, 189. 
Z^xte, 189. 

m, 27, 80, 83, 35, 44. 

—m,<ima, 228. 

— wo<ww7i, 228. 

9n<!t, 129, 251. 

mdcian, 286. 

fn<2<^ maddum, 290. 

mdg-a^ —e, 268. 

ma^n, 212. 

mdgon, 212. 

Tnagru, 281. 

man, 84, 100, 101, 136, 889; 

—cUd, 2C8 ; —cyn, 229 ; 

— cpelere, 266 ; —eme, 208. 
(^e-man, 212. 
—4nan, 229. 
manig, 136, 896, 489, 490; 

—feald, 229, 266. 
m^ira, 129. 
mdpan,2(iS. 
mJ^den^cUd. —famme, —won, 

269; — M<f,229. 
mssg, 176, 212, 486. 
mi^^,26S. 
m^gden, 228, 286. 
m^gd^iSS. 

magenheard, 229, 243. 
nUbgriiden, 229. 
— miSt, 229. 
9ni^«ian, 260. 
fni^«e,129. 
ge-mJitan, 290. 
fn^ 24, 87, 180, 866. 
meaJUe, 176. 212. 
mearfi, 88, 80, 268. 
?n«c, 180, 866. 
meaema, 126. 
m«^»n, 203. 
meltan, 208. 




MtvL lit. M4. in. 

nM/md. Ul. 
rnldiat, m. 

mid, W, SH,'K1^ t2i, US. K 

HMd<, 114. 
■.M-J,.^, WW. 
viUltn,ixt. 

MSCtrTllJ. 
vifUA(or['K(, S3G. 
pbmHMan, fel, 
Mtn, ISO, 183, MI, 430. 



M^I^BM 



nJre M^, 470. 
B^4^ 213, sei. 

•u, 301, 2fl3, 39T, S«9. 400. 



INDEX OF WORDS. 



•w<U.lt4t51,!6«,344 




tlftrfttpim^Kl 

af-piMf,m. 

-»i,K8. 

M<iilan. 



—luK, m -. biian, wi, sn, 

Wl; -d.W, we; — «W% 
IfM, S4l, 4TS : -i/Bron, KB, 

—WTh «!*, a«, Ml ; -*e- 



— uppfl^ttiT.aw,«i: -fuv. 



-Arlttku 



D.tS. 

--o<u, M.-S. 
-^<hM!2S,!4T. 

ly, Itt, 254, 329, 848, 412. 
ofer, is, 12«, 2J«, 2W, 328, 849, 



j>««oI, 48, KO. 

plumo,'41. 

prbjlan.'isa. 

r.K, ». 

-r<:ro,K8. 

-r<rt, JM. 

— TO, comp»r,, IWt, Sua. 

f^(l<rl<Ian. 

Mnn, iOS, 297, 800. 



ridatrt, 296. 



rlM, SB, 101, aaj,, 123. 
rWan,203. 

WAEplj, s'29, 242. 



INDPS OF WORDS. 



235 



n'nnanj. 61, 201. 
rtpanf 205. 
rinauy 205. 
ge-Hsed, 299. 
r6hte<:^rSea7i, 
Jiomdne^ 8d. 
Jtdmdnisc, 241. 
ntympare, 229, 238. 
rdpan, 208. 

«, 2T, 29. 
— «— , 250. 

sagiaUf 222. 

«^{, 269. 

sanij 254, 262, 463, 464. 

aJm, 129. 

8dm—, 254, 259. 

«a9ne, 133. 

«amod, 255, 262, 350, 463. 

»ang<^8ingan. 

sang^ 230. 

eang-erCf —estrCt 832, 268. 

adparif 208. 

sdporiy 19T. 

81^, 24, 100. 

B&cant 210. 

MPce, 88. 

M;e»)Nsan, 209. 

«/^a, 269. 

8/^(2e, 37, 209, 224. 

sagde^ 209, 224. 

B^Qon^ 197. 

«a;M;36. 

«a;e, 199, 248, 29a 

Sagtemesdseg, 265. 

8ca<?an>ac«aca)i. 

scddan, 208. 

8ca/an, 207. 

M;(2n, 38, 206. 

scdnan^WQ, 

ecapan^sceajyaii, 

sc^hian^ weak. 
scar^aceran, 
aceacaUf 207. 
aceddarif 208. 
«ce(uton,207. 
—dcea/t^ 229. 
8eeal,212,415,44L 
sceoZ^, 166. 167. 

aceamddef 297. 
p«-«ceapan, 280. 
«oe<iton,208. 
«cedd<8cea£ton. 
«ce6dc<«ce6». 
aceolde^ 176, 441. 
«cedn, weak. 
sceoran^ 200. 
sceorp, 269. 
«cft>r£, 124. 
sceortltcet 251. 
«ccdton, 206. 
sceppan, 207. 
«ccran, 200. 
8cma7», IBS. 
«ct7dc, 189. 
scinariy 205. 
Hciolde, 212. 

ucfp, 70. 
—fvnpe, 229. 

/«'-op,230. 
Hcoreiij 200. 



scridon^serldan. 

9cridan.206. 

8crtdena{n)e^ 119. 

acri/an, 205. 

M»n'nca7», 201. 

acil/an, 191, 206. 

scuton, 212. 

8c;^de<8cedn. 

eeyUf 169. 

«c2/;>pa?i, 207. 

8<^ 133, 134, 368H-. 

86 pe pille, 475. 

— 8c,261. 

8^,132. 

sede^ 38. 

8edd<jae6dan. 

seah. 199. 

seaM, 190. 

sealdeSf 166. 

8ea2/Se, 165. 

8ealf6de, 160, 247. 

aealm, 33. 

aedmesfre, 268. 

«6(;(c)an, 37, 46, 210. 

sScean^ 188. 

sceqanj 209, 297, 897. 

«^/te, 114. 

/^{, 128. 

aeldiuTn, 251. 

«eZ«, 86. 

gglcfi 234. 

««;/, 131, 133, 366, 376. 

adlan^ 188, 189, 209. 

aencauy cans, of ainca?!. 

sendCf 189. 

«eruZ(ed). 190. 

8ed, pupil, 100. 

«c^>she, 133, 363-}-. 

sedt see, 199. 

8ed, yerb, 205, 206. 

aed, be* 169. 

9e&can<C8iican, 

8ed<tanf206, 

seofun. 32, 138+. 

seoJie. 199. 

sedn, 197, 199, 286w 

8edn, 220, 205,806. 

eereaeKCaerpan, 

aerpan, 224i. 

aetf 190. 

aeUdj 190. 

aett, 228, 238. 

aettan, 188, 189, 248. 

ge-aettauy 286. 

A^pen, 197. 

«ep-te, — de, 189. 

8i, 1(», 213. 

aid=ae6f 133. 

^Isan, 205. 

«i:/, 37, 128, 269, 472. 

atddan^ 472. 

82d<»na, 126. 

««3, 213. 

aigan. 205. 

aigericef 229. 

8{Aan, 205. 

n^AeTit 228. 

«in— , 254, 259. 

atn, 131, 182, 867, 490. 

aincanj 201. 

«fnd(on), 213. 

aingaUf 201. 

dinTiaru 201. 

m'nneaAfea, 251. 

aint, 213. 

«fte, 199. 

aittan, 199, 248. 



«iaJ, 138+. 

elagen {a. e), 207. 

82i^n (4 ^), 208. 

alih)em, 829. 

«Zed,192. 

sJeaAe, 207. 

«I«!ln, 33, 192, 197, 207, 247. 

alidant 205. 

alidarif 205. 

alV'an, 206. 

alipan, 805. 

«Ziton, 205. 

««^(on), 35, 197, 207. 

al6\ 35. 

alUkpan^ 206. 

arniddoiuC.ameagdon^arnedn. 

ameagarijMl, 

amedn,2^7. 

amedcan. 206. 

+8mi(f, 229. 

smiton^ 205. 

anvCkgan^ 206. 

anadan, an&d, ? B., 1944. 

«)i<!}p Apif, 266. 

anioan, 205. 

8nf dioiTi, 205. 

87)i/>i^ weak, 866. 

socerKlaiican, 

add, 37. 

addlica, 261, 463. 

«Vte,3T,124. 

ge-adht, 190. 

«()Ate,36,36,189,210. 

«dna, 24, 851, 478. 

a&neaf 261. ' 

809U7, 830. 

apanan, 207. 

Apan7ian,208. 

«pecan<«pr«5an. 

apeoman, 204. 
8pereft«a^, 269. 
Mpi2de,189. 
apindthecUf, 268. 
«pinnan, 201. 
aptpan, 205. 
apOpan, 208. 
«pra;can, 199. 
Aprecan, 199. 
«preoo2, 242. 
apringarif 201. 
apyrian, 188. 
««, 67. 

stondan, 207, 216, 28a 
atd^uig, —iht, 243. 
atdnpeal, 266. 
stopan, 207. 
«^d^«8e, 229. 
+«te/, 229. 
atafcraeft, 229. 
8f^7i«n, 243. 
ataniht, 228. 
atecUdarit 208. 
«fcaide<«teZta7i* 
«£e2an, 200. 
atellan, 209. 
«tomn, 35. 
«2ln<, 36. 
atintat, 35. 
ateorfany 204 
«teppan, 207. 
««pte, 85. 
att^aUf 205. 
«f *H 205. 
>r*i7de, 189. 
«fi72an, 297. 



INDEX OP WOBDS. 



•lAp, W)7. 



IBjillw. Ml. 
-cmtaTi,Wli 



Unrffmtlim, ii!), SI 



tSitnian, JB9. 



IllOan, WD. tn. 



M*<fIAan. 



falfan, 1S8, lOI, « 
—lime, S». 



•urniK lUl, !S1. 

(umsrIA<aR, 2S0. 

ninu, M, titi. 

iiipan,i<)a. 

(nL IM, HSl, ME, S§0, 430, «4, 

tpO-hpO^pO, ISA, DSS, 4;i 
■/III A;>^r ipd, 4T1. 
flPfl kpider apd, 4T1. 
*^ Ai>(Ii aA iSt, SBl. 
iipd ipd, sgr. 
■/•dpan, t08. 
</i(t/an, MS. 



JfE;! 



a/<(o«Mr, 100, S32. 

»/>W, 3T, lai 
«py-an, 206. 
spfoan, aw. 

Vilw. WSi aso, 8M, 4J3, 4*3. 



in<lUum 



-ligida. 140. 
tthan, toe, S». 



M-muJilM, lei, SEB, S», 3S2. 

'■mon), aw.SBl 
■pi^tre, a», 868. 



(anen<fc Sb, MO, 
tried, 1(9, 298. 
(TBlan, 199. 
tre6p,ioa. 
tvtbfKyn, 329. 

(Hd^ ((«, J,), 199, 
fffr*^p^S9I. 

(H!7i(|l9J,a)«. 



MmMTvn Arlm, 489. 
Mr, EKL Ml, NT, 411, 471, 



prtaie»-CP' 



pred^an> >rean, ttrt&fit, SO, 

pTtfKbTl. 

ireCtSiu, 13S, 141, KB. 

PfrSpan,Vie. 
Arl,41,JS8,IS9,Ul. 
>tlV«im, S48. 
pTiidiBi^bri«taa. 
pringan, 201, 
^ntan,201. 

fitM/i^pynean. 



ppmlian>pftAn, Vfl. 

{»!»£» 

/(jtron, »», rat 

Pfiyig^an. 

PpUan,10B. 

pI'ih(ff)<:tipfAn. 

pporeruCpperan. 

Jile, 133, 315. 

?SM5,138. 
^fllf, IBS, SIE. 
Simeon, 811, aiB, S8S. 



«,14,M,S8,M,B 

-<u,»ai 

— u<d,K8,E«). 



— um.sei. 

nn,lB,Ma,SH,«>0,4HL 



»?Ktj^l«S 



INDEX OP WORDS. 

fii, 130, Boa. 

Il«r, SI, IBO, 132. 

tlHriw,490. 

4l«c, 1^, BOB. 

fit 15, 2M i — om BBS, S57, 329, 

1S7; -*,SRi; -mm,lM, 
ufon, SOS, £24, 443. 




IQI, 95S, SiS, BCS, 303. 



pj»n, 1S8< pe«n. 
pir«</««n,l«S,41T, 
/'JMfm,2B4; — Mrf,243. 

PK(-», — e, ass. 



PKilIan, SOS. 

—peoTdjiia,!* 

pearft*Cp^da; 



jwl,«)l,!l 



. !M,M!,S98. 

pcI<nl«,10B; 

ptmde, isa. 
pende, taS. 
pMe^^peakan. 

pAp<.ptpiBt. 

ramMm, ill. 
/wiHMan,M«,tSCil^ 

/■AffTBTLSM. 
JWOlTlldABa. 

ptpan,K& 
ptrcane^pyrcaii. 

peaan, lil, IW, SIB, SSli, SSB. 
nM, £M 1 -.on, !H; —tmei 



piit, IB, 264, 2B5i 323, 8M, 8G9, 
-■impoandB, —Bflan, —fii- 

- -'- "■- "IS m, 8W; 



—/Triad, 268; — tili, 



f Iftsire, 466. 

f tarn, 266. 

pfgamid, *S9, SSS. 

(inDpiAt 136, S36, a», SSe, 400. 

;>iIe,S98. 



pHTScn^ipiarda^i, 



prekt^PTBCcan, 
prefm, adfl, B». 
jn-tdan, sua. 

prthaii, mi, eso. 



m,"»l7Sl- "" 



238 



INDEX OF WOllDS. 



?if, li, 28, 02. 
^.«4.82. 
7>tnn. 189. 
M, 87, 124. 
Hfel, 1». 

vie, 188, 188, 875. 

yldan. 248. 

Vmbifi, 1& 254, 298, 828, 080: 

—Atan, 257, 8<Kll 
T/mfi,43. 
Vppan, 67, 248. 
2/rman,248. 

^fan, 248. 

GOTHIC. 

a,l& 

-a, 71, 72, 22a 

— a<— 4 or —6a, 251. 

— a>A.-8ax. — «, 259L 

—a— ,267. 

<^r(A254,848. 

ouTor (after), 881. 

<Ci^timV/ito, 127. 

aois. 228. 

ahtau^ 139. 

oAfudan, 123. 

a J, 18, 88. 

--a<,l«0. 

df, 18, 24, 158, 159. 

ai/Uif, 189. 

atru, 139. 

dir Uir), 332. 

aib-pau, 202. 

</ip, 254, 201. 

ato«, 228. 

ol^ 262. 

akrSj 228. 

0)1^268. 

ana (pn), 264, 841. 

atuf , 254, 880, 847. 

ofMte, declined, 89. 

anparor—t 120. 

— ar;a, 288. 

at {set), 254, 833. 

au, 18, 33. 

— au-, 211. 

thi, 18, 25, 93, 158, 159. 

^iui;(edc),254,335. 

asg&j 61. 

6,19. 
—60,251. 
baira{da)t 219, 228. 
6aZ^, 36. 
6and,153. 
6andt', 228. 
6am, 228. 
bamiska, 228. 
6duan, 213. 
6aii^, 158. 
61,254,334. 
Mugan, 168. 
blinds, declined, 107. 
b6karei8, 228. 
brdthar, 228. 
btigum, 158. 
6u}idum, 158. 

<?,19. 
—da, 219. 
dad, 168. 
daga, 229. 
dairsan, 212. 
daur«ta, 212. 



datt^tUL 828. 

dtda, indected, 168. 

di*-,254. 

— dr^8&2. 

du (10), 854, 852. 

^,18,24,86,71,168,100. 

fi, 18, 168. 

a«,180. 

/.19. 

fader, 888. 

fairra (few), 189, 851, 854, 

faipa, 229. 

/aran, 248. 

farjan, 248. 

/aur (/or), 2S4, 837. 

faiira (fore), 129, 254, 887. 

yWror, 47, 1U9. 

/imf, 189. 

/ro— ,254. 

/ram, 854. 

/rt4ma,126i. 

-A 194. 

/ui/«, 229. 

f7,19. 

ax;=n((7),19,28. 

flw— ,254. 

gaggan, 218. 

^Zan, 248. 

gourds, 84. 

yifrHi, -di,-^«, 28,888; 

clined, 88. 
^M^an, 848. 
(/rida^ 888. 
gudjiruuaua, 82a 

A, 19, 83. 

Aat'MtY, 159. 

AdtAa2d,150. 

hdim,U, 

hairdeiB, declinedi 88, 831. 

hditada, 819. 

hditan, 159. 

haidati 159. 

Aatia, declined, 05. 

handu, 228. 

hardua, 110. 229. 

harjia, declined, 83. 

AauA«, iia 

Mr, 252. 

A^>rd, 252. 

Atdrl, 262. 

hindana, 252. 

Atndtemo, 126. 

hva, 136. 

hvadri, 71, 252. 

Av<l(tra, 262. 

AraTi, 252. 

Avar, 262. 

hvaa, 185. 

Awi/>, — rd, 252. 

hvcLpara, 120. 

AtJ^, 71. 

hvb, 135. 

118, 83, 15a 

i><Ji, 159. 

t6a, 262. 

id— ,254 

tdd;a,2ia 

igqar, 182. 

igq-^ra,, —ia, 130. 

iia, 130. 

tk, declined, 130. 

iikei,3Sl. 



836. 



de- 



im, inflected, 818. 
in, 254, 841. 
innano. 868. 
is, declined, 180. 
i«, verb. 818. 
ita, declined, 18a 
i>,268. 
tu, 18, 158. 
iup, 854; —0,356. 
-izo, 828; irei, 881. 
izvenr, 132. 
izv-ara, —ia, 180. 

i,19. 
ja, 261. 

>a6di, 262. 
jah, 268. 
jdi, 261. 
jdins, 183, 255. 

^''^^^ 
juks,iiS, 

jus, ISO. 

jut, 180. 

jupan, 262. 

A-, 19. 

— *,18a 

ArundA, 229. 

kuni, declined, 83. 

kunpa, 212. 

kvina,2l2&. 

1,19. 
—1,236. 
Mian, 159. 
Miton, 160. 
{difo,289. 
Idildik, 169. 
Idi/d, 159. 
idildt, 159. 
kuiM, 129. 
— {<Um,229. 
-leik8,9l2Q. 
man, 159. 
{i6aini, 828. 

in, 19. 

md-iata, —iza, 123. 

7nan«, 229. 

fyiar«t, sa 

meina, 180. 

meina, 132. 

— wi^£, 229. 

midjia, 114. 

wt<§i«,114,228. 

miil;, 130. 

mi«, 130. 

mtMO — , miaad, 254 

Tni7> (mid), 254, 343. 

munpa, 24, 22a 

n, 19. 

nam, inflected, 166. 

namd, 22a 

naaida, inflected, 168. 

naail>(a)a, 176. 

na«7a, inflected, 166. 

nas^an, —ida, — idcdttw, 160, 

n# div, 261. 

n4Ao (nedA), 344 

nihvOy 261. 

n^mj<m, inflected, 171. 

nSpla, 22a 

ni, 254. 

nim, inflected, 174. 

ninui, inflected, 165. 

niman, 176. 



INDEX OF WOKDS. 



239 



nimaml{a)tt, 175. 
uwuiu, iiiliecied, 110, 
niujis, 1B9. 
niuTiy 189. 
numans, 176w 

0,18,24,95,163,159. 
— d, 261. 
— dr, 123. 
—ostf 123. 

J), 19, 30. 

jaUru8t declined, 101. 

q=kv, 

r, 19, 83. 
rdirop, 159. 
rozn, 229. 
t^an, 169. 
—reiks, 229. 

«, 19, 123. 

-«<— tA<— «, ICCw 

Ml, declined, 1U4. 

«at— , 24 

«aiA«, 139. 

aaihvan^ 197. 

«a{6d-n, —do, — ffeJttnt, 160. 

wi^fcd, inflected, Kib. 

mmot 133, 264. 

aamapf 262, 360. 

Mi^lbS. 

«aO'an, 243. 

0^,132. 

aeina, 132. 

sitwm, 168. 

tff, declined, 130. 

«i6un, 86, 139. 

m'&unt^un({, 139. 

eijaUy 213. 

«t({>a, 181. 

«tludr, 2d. 

silubreina, 223. 

8tnd, 218. 

sinteinaf 264. 

mton, 168, 248. 

«fete, 228. 

«d, declined, 103. 

sUiiiadiU, 159. 

tftautOTi, 169. 

tftetnoAo, 228. 

«unu«, declined, 93, 228. 

«oaA,262. 

svaihra, 268. 

«r^71,262. 

gvileik8t 133. 

r,19. 

— «<— «^ 160. 

tat A, — um, 168. 

taiAuTi, 139. 

tdikns, 243. 

tShwidt 189. 

feiAan, 168, 248. 

ti{, 361. 

timrjan^ 60. 

trivo, 26, 85. 

— te,lG6. 

twit, 139; — t»V)!^ti<, 109. 

toalif^ 139; — t^ttfid, 159. 

^,19. 

— /),194. 

iba(/ef,262. 

AiirA(^(rA},S54,853. 



/Kin, verb, 168. 

>in,262. 

pandiy 262. 

/>ar, 252. 

pat€u declined, 103. 

/lotei, 46S. 

baprb^ 862. 

^xuA,262. 

M71. 

Aetna, 130. 

pHns, 132. 

ib^mm, 153. 

iMX:,130. 

/>t«,130. 

>rei8, 139; — tffy'iM, 139. 

Prijataihuny 139. 

/m, declined, 130. 

/>ti«, 381. 

puhtvs. 228. 

P&sundif 139. 

u, 18, 23, 168. 

— u— ,106. 

ii,ia 

ti/ar (Qf(pr), 252, 349. 

t^rto, 261. 

ugkar^ 132. 

ugkHirOy — 1«, 180. 

— uA,133. 

un — ,254. 

undar, 865. 

una, — aro, — is, 130. 

un«ar, 182. 

unpoy not fonnd, 212. 

««— ,264. 

M, 63, 254. 

&tona, 252, 357. 

t>,19. 

vafujjan, 153. 
v<2i. 268. 
vaiuit 261. 
rai'r, 229. 
vairpSy 229 
vdtt, 158. 
va2dan, 300. 
van«, 868. 
vann. 228. 
~t>a«> — ^,106. 
vatd,228. 
vei9,180. 
vilda, 212. 
vUjdUyin, 
vit,130. 
vitum, 158. 
vV^o, 254, 859. 
vohSy — tim, 158. 
vu^8t declined, 70. 

OLD SAXON. 

—0,251,252. 
4— ,254. 
d=i, 170. 
cu;, 268. 
ddar, 196. 
a/, 864. 
fliif¥ar,831. 
oA/d, 189. 
an, 254. 
and, 854. 
andi, 262. 
angimaiMy 841. 
anst, decliaed, 89. 
ant, 864. 

atU-«ibunia, "Uhunta, "tue- 
I</to,139. 



aty 254 ; Tiandumt 339. 

6>/, 80. 

be, 254. 

&i,254. 

bist, 213. 

biuniy 213. 

5{ind, declined, 107. 

6^91. 

— <f=— tA,194. 
da<7,229. 
damungdf 251. 
ddn, 213. 

^=4,170. 
<•/, 262. 
««<r, 139. 
in, 139. 
^,254. 
ettAa,262. 

/<ft,30. 
/ar, 254. 
/«r,254. 
/<r, 189. 
/SiMW, 139. 
/oro, 264. 
/WTOO, 120. 
/ram, 854. 
— /mZ,829. 
/urtf, 254. 

r7<2n, 213. 

i^^lSO. 

{^^oo. declined, 88. 

firi, 130. 

rn'-,264 

(/incrid, 175. 

<7it, 130. 

((U)Juindumy 889. 

Aano, declined, 95. 

A^,258. 

Aerod,252. 

Atrdi, declined, 83. 

Aihan, 252. 

huanafit 258. 

Aiiar,852. 

AKarod,862. 

Atiat,185. 

Aue, 186. 

huedeff 120. 

Aitnd,189. 



<-itAa,106. 
fa, 261. 

fc, declined, isa 
idur. 264. 
ine, 180. 
ineOy 132. 
tnna,254. 
fro, 130. 

iSy inflected, 213, 
f«,130. 
ii0a,138. 
iiear, 18a 

ia,862. 
iae,a69L 

kunni, 889. 
— Zd«, 220. 
— maAaZ,229L 



240 



INDEX OF WOBDS. 



—man, 289. 


thAttmdig, 139. 


^nn, 189. 


miro^ 123. 




eJL declined, 18a 
elii/ii, 189. 


mitt, m. 


—u, neater, 78. 
timk, 254, 860. 


int, 180. 


— «in*>— ende, 176. 


iiu'if, !ttM. 


im-^2&4. 


eptir, 831. 


mik (mic), 123, 130. 

tiiK 130, iss. 




^r, 130. 


uncy 130. 


fr— , 264. 


iut'<— ,2M. 


unea^ 138. 






ttiurr, —0, 130. 


-/aWr, 229. 


nartiy inflected. lOA. 
ndmi, iuflectea, 171. 


utulor, 856. 


-fMtr, 229. 


«frf,854. * 


>iarrt, 254. 


ite.VA. 


Ap,2&4. 


^mwi, 189. 


iteHdOj inflected, 1C8. 


A«, 130. 


yl^nr, 189. 


»*«/ti, inflected, 105. 


/}iMi, 138. 


/or— ,264. 


titer, 180. 


/y-an** 264. 


91^,854. 


/2r,254. 


/rtiwi, 120. 


niawi, 189. 




—/u«r, 889. 


tiitn, inflected, 174. 


ir^268. 


/&i,242. 


Yijman, 175. 


tr^ prononn, 180. 


/l/ri, 264. 


uimana^ 176. 


uwr, 289. 




fiimannid«, 176. 


ufAtj inflected, 818. 


/7-,264. 


ti^mi, inflected, 170. 


irt, 130. 


gitt/t declined, 8& 


niviUf inflected, 10& 


tru<,854. 




numati, 176. 


-irW,229. 


Aani, declined, 96. 


—0,861. 


irit.180. 

uftu/, declined, 70. 


hardr, 229. 
A«dStin,262. 


obhar, 852. 


umnnia, 281. 


A«d»Yi,258. 


dit,26i. 




Mr, 862. 


-WVr, 123. 
— o<»t,123. 


OLD FBTKSia 


herTt declined, 88. 
hundrad, 139. 




6>/, 80. 


hvadan^ 862. 


roJur, 83. 


blind, declension, 107. 


Avar, 135, 252. 
hvdrr, 126. 


*,213. 


-e<-ia, 83. 


Ava^.186. 


^m-,864. 




Avert, 268. 


ttama^ 183, 264. 


fiskf declined, 70. 




— «ec^£829. 
scatoo-oa, —dun, 160. 
«cato6n,100; inflectedi 166. 


hona, declined, 96. 


—iy adv., 862. 
1,264. 


Aomar, 82. 


»a, 201. 


—«cep<, 829. 


Atoa, hwet, 186. 


id—, 2M. 


8^132. 




inn, 264. 


«eA«,189. 


M262.^^ ^ 


ft, 180. 


aeeeian, 848. 


jeve, declined, 88. 




«f<l,187. 




*aHa,160; inflected, IfA 


9ibun, 139. 


Uiufero, 82. 


kallnda, 100. 


(anO«i&unta, 139. 




kdUtidum, 160. 


•fn-,854. 


nSdf declined, 80. 


iT/nni, 229. 


6tn, 132. 






mVuf, 213. 


«unti, declined, 93. 


—Zau«, 229. 


sindurrif 813. 




legr, 229. 


«tttian,848. 
menu, declined, 93. 


-tigOsta, 140. 


leiir, 229. 




/Ut,829. 




— «, neuter, 72. 




^^,264. 




— tnadr, 229. 


te-,264. 


OLD NORSE. 


— nuil, 229. 


tehan, 139. 


^^ JLAA^ A^ *"* "i \^ r ^-^w 


tn«d;264. 


W,264. 


—cty adv., 261. 


meiH, 123. 


tmlif, 139. 


<^264 


meiatr, 123. 


{ant)tuelifta, 139. 


a«,264. 


ni«r, 130. 


^tf^no, 139. 


of, 254. 


mik^^mei, 123. 


^K^n^i^, 139. 


and, 254. 


miik, 180. 




annar, 126. 


Tni?i, 130. 


/)=fA. 


—ar, 123. 


mtnn, 182. 




-<M«,123. 


mi««— ,264. 


-tA=— d,194. 


dat, declined, 89. 




thanan, 852. 


at, 264. 


narrij inflected, 1G6. 


^Aar, — od, 262. 


dUa^lSQ. 


ni^Tni, inflected, 171. 


tAes-«, — u, declined, 133. 


auk,25i. 


ne,2S4. 


tht, 130. 




nedan^BiO. 


r«c,130. 


6>/, 30. 


neniy inflected, 165. 


«/il7^ 130. 


6^,229. 


nemy imperative, 174. 


thiL declined, 133. 
thdh, 262. 


&;tnd, declined, 107. 


nema, 176. 




nemandi, 176. 
newii, inflected, 170. 


thHa, 139. 


daflT,229. 


tArttfi7, 139. 


—domr, 229 


nttif 139. 


Mu, declined, 130. 




numinrif 176. 


thurh,26i. 


eda, 260, 





INDEX OF WORDS. 



241 



ok. 262. 

okkar, 130, 132. 
okkr, 130. 
or, 254. 

—rddj 229. 
ranri^ 229. 
—rekTy 229. 

8d, declined, 133. 
sam — ,254. 
sarnVf 133, 229. 
seapr^ 229. 
eetiaf 248. 
sex, 139. 
81,254. 
8tau, 139. 
sinnj 132. 
siottfirt, 139. 
sitia, 248. 
ami rfr, 229. 
6onr, aecliued,93. 
—stafr. 229. 
«i^, deciiued, 133. 

to2(?a,160; ioflected, 168. 

toidr, 176. 

feZ, inflected, 165. 

tdja, 160. 

<i7, 351. 

«u,139; —tJu, 139. 

tnlaum, 160. 

tdZ/,139; — rtu,139. 

tv^aatif 140. 

tt^<U£)ru, 139. 

frcir, 139. 

j^o^n, 252. 

padra^ 252. 

/>ar, 252. 

j^, declined, 133. 

/>er, 130. 

/>i*,130. 

pin, 130. 

Ainn, 132. 

M 130. 

M260. 

Prettian, 139. 

priatiaij 139. 

/>rfr, 139. 

M, declined, 130. 

puiBundt 139. 

^l— ,254. 

W» declined, 70. 

um (3/mbe), 254, 360. 

undr, 855. 

ilngr,28. 

14712,254. 

ttixi, 356. 
ui>p, 254. 
«r— , 254. 
itt,25i. 

vanr, 353. 
t;<Jr, 130. 
vdrr, 132. 
re, Swed., 263. 
t?er, 130. 
rtrf, 254, 859. 
—vUj 229. 
t?y^ 130. 

j/rfar, 130, 132. 
2/rfr, 130. 
2//i;A»r, 130, 132. 
ykkr, 130. 



HIGH GERMAN, 

MOSTLY 

OLD HIGH GERMAN. 



;, 251, 252. 
4<or— , 254. 
a&a, 254. 
aftar, 331. 
aAre, 269. 
an, 262. 
ana, 254. 
andero, 126. 
ane, 254. 
antif 262. 
auA, 254. 
02,254. 

6«,25. 
Badu—, 32. 
bolo, 32. 
bezerrorOf 127. 
&{a^ 269. 
&t«;A,269. 
Imocheri, 228. 

cA, see k. 

dananoj 252. 

dan^a, 262. 

ddr, 252. 

dar-a; — di, 262. 

(^02, declined, 104. 

(2az,468. 

(?er, declined, 104. 

dtnir, 132. 

di«^, 133. 

diti, declined, 104. 

dd, 252. 

doh, 262. 

dr«, 41. 

d^, declined, 130. 

durali, 254. 

eddo, 262. 
ediline, 228. 
6910,262. 
ed,254. 
eogar, 254. 
MtliTicAiliTt, 228. 

/a**, 36. 
—/alt, 229. 
/or, 253. 
/oter unsSr, 881. 
/er,254. 
/e8te,269. 
/Ito.26. 
—fol, 229. 
/oro, 254. 
/ram, 254. 
/rami, 120. 
>^n8, 242. 
/uott!M2,22a 
fuoz, 41. 
/uH,263. 

^ner^ 175. 
gdnomanir, 17B> 
p^n, 213. 
gesieht, 269. 
pii<,252. 
j^rfMrni, 114 
(jt(a'n,228. 

haltan, 159. 

Aatu^, 41. 

Aano, declined, 95. 



—hart, 229. 

Aeer, 269. 

heiek, 169. 

Aet7, 269. 

hevm,^. 

—heit, 229. 

Aero, 252. 

Aero^ 252. 

A«rr, 269. 

hialt, 159. 

Mar, 252. 

hinarui, 252. 

Airfo', declined, 83, a. 

/m)A, 118. 

Aouptt, 41. 

huieo, 262. 

AtronoTia, 262. 

hwdr, 252. 

hwar-a; — ot, 252. 

Atroz, 136. 

htoeddr, 126. 

Awer, 135. 

-d^Cr-itha, 166. 

ia, 261. 

t&u, 262. 

Jezuo, 262. 

ih, 41. 

tn,254. 

tnu, 262. 

ioh, 262. 

— tro, 82, 228. 

t«— ,254. 

itoar^r, 132. 

jftt, 262. 
juna, 28. 
junAi;{i7u;, 228. 

*a— ,263. 

kana, 37. 

AeZ6. — ir, 82. 

kind, 41. 

A;It>)pe, 269. 

komo, 41. • 

*ra/e {ehrafi), 229, 269. 

cAund, 229. 

cAunn^ 229. 

kunni, declined, 83, a, 

-1,236. 
—lao8,22Q. 
Ieiclui,2e9. 
—leih, 229. 
—lih. 229. 
—liche, 25L 

ma^ofi, 228. 
— moAol, 229. 
— nia7»,229. 
m^no, 24. 
Tiuiri, 88. 
miluc, 82. 
mf n^r, 182. 
mi«— ,254. 
miti.254. 
mutA, 269. 

noon, inflected, 166. 
ndmi, inflected, 171. 
n«,254. 
neben, 258. 
fiein,261. 
9i€9nan,lTB. 
nefma/nii,\11^ 
neme, inflected, 170. 
furita, inflected, 168. 



Q 



242 

nerUa, — f um^ 1«0. 

nerju^ inflected, 1C6. 
ni.'iXA. 

ftiVlo,VC1. 

ittnt, inflected, ITi. 

ntfittf, inflected, ICS. 

o, 861. 
od— , 862. 

—Ar, 123. 

ml-u, — «u««, 81. 

Jrt'm, inflected. 213. 
yf ini, declined, loT. 

-rd/,22». 
ratiaa/, 228. 
— r^,22». 

•a/i^»^ Ota, — (utn&i, 100. 

— «iw,«20. 

«ama, 254. 

Mamt, 254. 

Miino, 183. 

«dn,24. 

geJidrpe, 2QX 
«eil, 200. 
aenfti, 87. 
«1,213. 
M'n— , 264. 
8tnir, 132. 
— «ni<d,«29. 
«o,184. 
—stop, 229. 
steinoM, 228. 
Ateoz, 169. 
«t^rdz,169. 
Atior, 169. 
«tozan, 16ft. 
eunu, declined, 93. 

toe, 229. 

tamunkiinj 251. 
toe, 168. 

f«to, inflected, ICS. 
tior, 41. 
(or/, 269. 
—tturnij 229. 
toon, 213. 

A, 71. 
uftar, 252. 
il/,264 
&/an.36d. 
umpif 264. 
un— ,264. 
tensor^r, 132. 
tint—, 264. 
tmtor, 365. 
t/r— , 254. 
1/2,264. 

-w«te(M.n.G.),229. 

ir, 30. 
waffe, 269. 



INDEX OF WOUDS. 

iMimunpa, 228. 

— ifarf,22V. 

tf^,208. 

tcftn,2<t9. 

wtiz, inflected, 212. 

irtUj 203. 

— irerf,229. 

inVAt, 209. 

iHdar, 264. 

icu^, declined, 70. 
wuste^ 269. 

r(7/ii^269. 
zawd, 87, 41. 
rar, 264. 
2«-,2M. 
z<,264. 
tugb^j 140. 
ruo,264. 
wetf^, 209. 



LATIN. 

a,18.88,«. 
—a, neuter, 64, 72. 
-a<<l,228. 
4, 18. 

_d— ,100. 
a&,264. 
abWitMO, 208 
aci£«, 228. 

admir-e, — cr, — allon, ST. 

a;, 18. 

arro-,228,264. 

aae,443. 
o^o-, 228. 
at, 18. 

—al=art 80. 
aliquiB^ 186. 
a/I<m«(Fr.),448. 

afteru*, 126. 
arno^wmiw, 445. 
amaturum «««e, 445. 
amdvi, 160. 
omb — , 254. 
an, 254. 

an-, 254. ^ ^.^ 
arujora(ancor),2«0. 

andlamo (Ital.), ^>;^. 
AndredSj declined, 101. 
_<Jneo— ,228. 
anguifi^ 228. 
ante, 264. 
aper, 36. 
aperio. 38. 

ilprflis, 38. 

— ar= — all S6. 

-ard(O.Fr.),229. 

— <Jri+to,228. 

-<i8, 101. 

asintis, 41. 

— astro— y 228. 

ati, 18. 

audi&z, 100. 

^19,36. 

balaamwm (6al«am), 2*0. 

beHtco— ,228. 

— M, 63, 264. 

Wber« dan, 463. 

bibiturvs turn, 415. 

brevity, 37. 

brief, — er, 37. 

{ma;u«,270. 

<;,19. 



c=e,27. 

rotiiera^86. 

MinnaftM, 41. 

caput tA\. 

rtiiwr, 2'.'9. 

rtwfrwm (cwwfer), 83, 84, £70. 

— <v,183. 

etttvavm^ 189. 

emturia, 1B9. 

CAW»ft«, declined. 101. 

dneri«, 86. 
citro, 262. 
eivUtB, 84. 
1,230. 
,264. 
-J, 228. 
ealitus, 63. 
cflplum>cerulean, 80. 
coMutn5>«mi 41. 
con, 63. 
eondnnno^ 8S. 
contra, 869. 
eorrectum, 38. 
credo (credo), 270. 
cum, 264 
—cunque^ \^. 



d,19. 

datnno, 38. 
-de, 63. 
daxniy 1.S9. 
denft«, 37, 41. 
destter, 126. 
dl«o,168. 
drtiV^o, 88. 
dingiM, 189. 
dt«,264. 
docui, 100. 
doctum ire, 445. 
domo — , 228. 
domuneulo—, 2*23. 
donum, 176. 
du2ci«, 41. 
— dum eM6, 446. 
duo, 139. 
duodecim, 139. 
— diM, 461. 



e,18. 

^,18. 

— e, ablative, 251. 

edmua, 443. 

edonia, 228. 

officio, 38. , ^^^ 

e(7o, 41 ; decbned, 130. 

et, 18. 

eTne, inflected, 174. 

ew^m. inflected, 170. 
emffnao, 175. 
ernen(i«, 175. 
^mt, inflected, ICO. 

emo, 165. 
emptus, 176. 
_cn<— an, 22S. 
«d magis, 374. 
eptacoptw, 43. 
epi«tota(pt«tot),43. 
eoutM, declined, 70. 
-ler, 122, 129, 228. 
—er<a«, 228. 
— €m,229. 

—€8,101. 

e8pa<5e(Fr.),48. 
eat, 213. 
I et, 2^2. 
ear, 254. 

ea;— ,4S. 



INDEX OF WORDS. 



24 



exeludo, 48. 
exatUtOtBS, 
externa— ^ 228. 
extra, 228. 
extrdneo—i 228. 

faeio. 88. ♦ 

facillimo—f 12(J. 

/aro, 41. 

/ero^ 228. 

— /«n«L229. 

>E2tu«, declined, S3. 

/ormo— ,228. 

/r<2ter, 88, 41, 228. 

fraxino—t 228. 

/r^j/f, — tmM«,168. 

/ructtM, declined, 98. 

/rtior,300. 

/u^o, 228. 

/%!, — t'TOtw, 168. 

fugio, 158. 

/ui, 160, 213. 

fuisae habiturumf 440. 

r,19. 

— i;«tia,229. 

—gerirtta, —eris^ 34, 228, 229. 

—^nti, 139. 

(^)no9nen, 228. 

A, 19. 

habeo. perfect 408. 

hcee dicer e haJoeo, 403. 

J7«eu5a,30. 

Hir6di8f declined, 101. 

hie, 133, 202, 374. 

hine, 202. 

^odie, 130. 

^onu>, 41, 71 ; declined, 9SL 

Auc,202. 

hymnuSf 43. 

<^, 18, 228. 

?< jd, 228. 

i,18. 

— i-,160; — i-,267. 

ignis, 228. 

t'it,204. 

tn^,204. 

—ifuKdnjOt 228. 

indefGB. 

ir^fero, 38. 

in«idia,228. 

in^er, 126; hcee,ZS6. 

—io<ja, 228. 

— iofi<;a»i 228. 
—for, 123. 
<r«,10a 
—i»co—, 228. 
— iMa,232. 
— t'Mtmo — , 126. 
inU, declined, 103. 
lYo, 202. 
ttert<m,204. 

jam, 202. 262. 
joewO>gioeo, 84. 
Jove^Giove, 84. 
jup«>— ,228. 
/uratiM,40S. 
juveniSt 28. 

2,19,30w 
—1, 23a 
^Ia,228. 



{atema,229. 
legionia, 228. 
I^o,S8. 
lMioni8,22S, 
liberal, 36. 
librdrio^. 228. 
-Wc, 229. 
liftttw (h7i«), 270. 
— Zt'mo— , 126. 
h'yi^iia, 139. 
literal, 36. 
lucemcL, 229. 
2upiM, 41. 

m, 19, .% 
mocAzVio, 30. 
maj-or, -h(«, 123. 
t»anu«,228. 
ira«8tnis8a, 30. 
m^l3a 
mia;>mS, 130. 
medio—, 228. 
7n«f, 130. 

— men/Cr-man, 228. 
mentis, 228. 
ni«tru7n,0O. 
Tn«U8, 132. 
mihi, 130. 
mtlfia, 139. 
mirac-le, — ulons, 37. 
—mo, 228. 
modulationis, 34. 
mulgeo, 60. 
7nu2Cu« rtr, 394 

n,19. 

notionis, 84. 
naturo, 34. 
^ncttio— ,228. 
fi«,204. 
ne— , 228. 
91^204. 
ne5uto,30. 
— ni,228. 
— tio,228. 
no&is, 130. 
noli, anziL, 420. 
(^)tk)men, 228. 
tion,261: Mi«f,340. 
n^na (ndn), 270. 
n68, 130. 
?io8ter, 132. 
ncwtr-i, — wm, 130. 
nou9 (Fr.), 866. 
noveni,139. 
notm«,139. 
— ntt,228. 
— nM<— wo, 228. 
ntenc, 262. 

0,18. 

— 0, nonn, 228. 

—0, verb, 228. 

d,ia 

—6, ablative, 261. 

ob^fero, S.'S. 

oeeanuA, 34. 

octo, 139. 

06,18. 

oi, 18. 

otvuM>t£nti«, 139. 
dn<— a«,228. 
opua est, 212. 

p, 19, 30w 

potoMum (poZanf), 270. 

i>ar<o,88. 



pater, 38, 228. 
peeten,2S8, 
pedis, 4\, 
pensu)nis,B^ 
per, i64. 
jt>cr— , 204. 
pcr«n—, 204. 
pergit lectum, 410. 
p«r«ictt« (persuc), 270. 
Pctrtw, declined, lOL 
planua^piano, 4L 
plenus, 229. 
poitastre (Fr.), 228. 
porro, 204. 
potior, 300. 
potu«, 406. 
pro;, 40, 204. 
primus, 126. 
prttM(]ruam, 832. 
pro, 204. 
prufmm, 41. 
ptUcherrimo—, 126. 

g,19. 

gtia|.lS0. 

qualisque'^quelque, 148. 

gtiarto— , 123. 

guotuor, 139. 

— gu«.133. • 

qvestionis, 34. 

qui, 879. 

gieingu^ 139. 

9Ut9, 13j^ 879. 

quisque,13S, 

quoad, SSS, 

guocZ, 130, 468. 

guornocfo, 202. 

quwn, 252. 

r,19. 

rapiefuf tim esse, 44SL 

re^no, 22a 

regtUa (regol), 270. 

r«r, 228. 

—ro, 228. 

— rt«,401. 

«,19. 
salto, 88. 
^Sarmatee, 60. 
scientia, 84. 
scolymos, 00. 
«ctttri«JO— , 223. 
8^,63,182. 
Mcunaum, 881. 
0eet(rtM^84. 
«Mfeo, 168. 
«^-l, — ^mtM, 16SL 
seaa,2fiB. 
9em{per), 264. 
«^i,41,264. 
septem, 139, 4$9. 
septuaginta, 189. 
septu/mus, 120. 
«ea;,139. 
8f,264. 
«fc, 262. 
«lm, 218. 
«tTnt7t8, 183. 
simul, 204. 
sinister, 126. 
Mcer, 868. 
«oeru«, 268. 
solar, 86. 
solidariuSjH, 
somnus, 228. 
^potium, 48. 



244 



INDEX OF WORDS. 



ItfHtttlUl^ S&, 

Htellar, 8d. 

«ru»i, inflected, 213. 
«uprr, 252, SfrL 
ntper-ne^ — tio— ^ 282. 
nurdaatro—f 228. 
sitiiA^ 182. 
.S' ri«»— , 228. 

M9. 

rabtmOf 229. 
raZi«, 1S3, 490. 
tarn. 252. 
faruz^m, 262. 
ranftM, 490. 
/«<,18a 
MO^^*, 180. 
— <<T.228. 

thatauruB^ M. 

-<i*,22a 

tibi, 63, 130. 

totus^ 490. 

tram, 254. 

tredeeim^ 139. 

trM, 41, 189. 

triffinta, 189. 

— tu(Umbrian),«3. 

— <w, —don, — atn, 228. 

^tl, deelinedf 180. 

tti<— , 130. 

turn, 252. 

— turn ire, 44S. 

— tttrum 0M0, — :Aii80^ 41& 

— turus sum, 415. 

— <u«,fi3. 

— <ttfi, 228. 

turn, 132. 

tjmpanum {timpane), 270. 

t/, IS, 35. 
tt=i>, 30. 
~M,454. 
f«, IS. 

--ui<C/ui, 160. 
Ulysses, 139. 
und«, 63. 
undecim, 139. 
untM, 386. 
— tM, 101, 228* 
ut, 252, 468. 
u£eru8, 126w 

V, 19, 30. 
ve,254. 
vertere, 229. 
vester, 132. 
i;t,254. 
vi<Jui, 160. 
videlicet, 468. 
v^i, inflected, 212. 
vidtmtM, 158. 
{d)viginti, 139. 
t>ir, 229. 
— i?o<_ra, 223. 
vd&is, 130. 
v6s, 130. 

t>3«<r-i, — 4tm, 130. 
vtt=p, 30. 

GREEK. 

a, 18 
i— , 254 

— o, neater, 64. 



ufpot, 228. 
ai, IH. 

a;Fe4,254. 
aiFMy, 338. 
— oiva, 333. 
u/Lia, 354. 

uM^'f 254. 
uv, 363. 
uir— ,354. 
uvct, 354. 
Cttrri, 354. 
uiro, 354, 848. 
dcriip, 48. 
FAirrv, 338. 
d», 18,38. 
aKTir), 354. 

/9,19. 

fiifintii, 213. 

Y,I9. 

le, 130. 

— yev^, 239. 

-f4vot, 338. 

7\vicvr, 41. 

7VM/uiovor, 228. » 

d, 19. 
--i«,254. 

d^dcixa, — H€v, 158. 
deiKw/mi, 158. 
d^Ka, 139. 
3^,253,362. 
dm, 254. 
dvo, 139. 
(dF)etico<ri, 139. 
dwdetca, 139. 

e,18. 

— e<— or, 238. 
i, 63, 133. 
'^fiiofiov, 126. 
kfibonilKovra, 139. 
^Yti'eTo, 897. 
^7w, declined, 130. 
Uoa, 228. 
€€>«, 24. 
t^o/xof, 157. 
£(,18,24. 
ei, 262. 
etriv, 213. 
etKoi'or, 328. 
(dF)6iKo<ri, 139. 
emi, inflected, 213. 
emi, 158,213. 
etr<tvr, 139, 386. 
'EKd/3n,35. 
^Karoi/, 139. 
iKvptK, 268. 
^/i<if. 132. 
^/jiov, 130. 
hv, 254. 
— ev, 228. 
evdcKo, 139. 
?v€poi, 255. 
^i/e^a, 252. 
^v6»dd6, 252. 
^ve^ev, 252. 
*w,254. 
Ivvea, 139. 
^for, 254. 
^f, 254. 



;f, 139. 

jirrd, 139. 
ippmyat —ntv, 158. 
J<rTi, 213. 
crepov, 126. 
?Ti, 262. 
ix*^ 228. 
ev, 18, 38. 

C.I9. 
Cnov, 228. 

fif 18,38. 

— n,238. 

n, declined, 103,63. 

n, declined, 103. 

n; M, m; t|, 158. 

^,18. 

riMCt^^t 130. 
hfiirepot, 132. 
nM(— .41,254. 
— npo-l-io, 228. 
npwf , 229. 
»iv, 18. 

e^«>^«'tfnM*. 160. 
eiatva, 238. 
— tfey, 63. 
tfepMor, 228. 
eiip, il. 
Ophvvt, 228. 
(o)()i,254. 

1,18. 

—1. 228. 

f,18. 

iVo, 468. 

— <yyo, 228. 

—to<Ja, 228. 

iwwov, declined, 70. 

fier/itv, 158. 

—icKo, 228. 

— «r«ro, 268. 

ic, 19. 

Ka/mdpa, 35. 
Kfdpii'of , 228. 
— Ko, 228. 
Kof, 135. 
— Kovrt, 139. 
KOTCpor, 126. 

X,19. 
—\iK, 229. 
Xo7(K6f, 228. 
Xvicof, 41. 

M,19. 

Ma<ravd<r<rrit, 35. 
HeytOTov, 123. 
McICov, 123. 
M^<r<roi', 228. 
Mcrd, 254. 
fxnvit, 228. 
/tinrir, 228. 
/jtnxovi^, 35. 
— /jio, 228. 
— /uioi/, 228. 

ve,228. 
v^fav, 139. 
v€icvr, declined, 93. 
v€ne, inflected, 174. 
vefAetv, 175. 
ire/xfiTor, 175. 



ci«NW<,inf)ected,i;o. 



i,fi,To,dMlli»d,«3,l03. 

Folk, ISSi tiifled£d,2t!. 
fir.c, declined, B9. 



roifiiii, dwllaed, 96. 



INDEX OP WORDS. 



T«™., ITS. 



rnco^nv.asi. 


oirfdr<aiia-tara, !Ki 


-7T.,!S». 


Jaa 




tI>-Som"',^>">,M' 


-aiQ,flI. 


T,t,ua,3M. 






— ania, «3. 


-.^,128: 


?^»- 


1%'r^lk 


ovd^m, declined, isa 




dBf«. declined, 89. 




atma, declined, 63, 


ri,d«Ui«d,l30. 


.Sn™, declined, JO. 


— TU, 238. 


ofBi declined, SS. 
iMA{<fn,IB». 




-m,KSi-ii»,62. 




S^&m ' 








«^.l'n, m'o. 


E;il: 


<>««t, Inflected, 213, 
omtiK 130. 


Fa.FoT^etc. S<«£,««a,ete. 


I>l..<c.^»ed.l30. ' 




h^Tip^.m. 


aA^m, declined, 139, 


^p,W.SH. 


<i«,sa8. 




^^ 




-»,62. 




dhmln,131. 




-.5«t<-aniil,!53. 


>*,«riu,218. 
>«P-,2a8. 




3S*"- 


fi!l.,m 




v},«. ...,=.. 






ifmn.SW. 



5^»- 



—at, 02. 

Midi. 



246 



INDEX OF WOKDS. 



&i, U, 18. 
c><aii,18. 
du, &n, 18. 

i,k,l». 
— fc,23C. 
M, 130. 
— te,228. 

katard^ 12A. 
katatar, 139. 
Vtor, 168, 160. 
kar^'mi, 158. 
kas.ias. 
kird'miy 168. 
ikuecM, irufro, 852. 
kitrmdSy 158. 

iA<k, 19. 

r7, g, 19, 
— ga, 130. 

y/gd^igdmit 213. 
V^en,228. 
(7(ina, 38. 
Vgna, 228. 
(/n^'man, 223. 

!7A<gh, 19. 
— ^7Aa, 130. 
^/ghar^ 228. 
gliarmd, 228. 

9<, n, 19. 

^^(rrchXk, 19. 
i'oftj^ir, 139. 
VlCit, 158. 
k'i'tdmi, 156. 

f7'(Engli8hJ)<:g,19. 
^dmcM, 228. 
iT'fiydmi, 213. 

9'h<g, 91. 

rf, dh<d, 
n<n. 

Kt, 19, 

—to, 139, 163. 22a 

fa^63: declined, 104. 

tato,163. 

<«to'7ia, 168. 

tdZ-tM, — ^ro, 252. 

tatinimdf 158. 

Vton, 168. 

— tanuit 126. 

tar, 139. 

—tor, 228. 

—tore, 126. 

— to«, 166. 

taamdi, 104. 

to^mtn, 63. 

tasJa, 104. 

^tWr'ifca'o, 133. 

tiiva, 180. 

— ei,228. 

tird'mi, 168. 

^Trd«, 264. 

liHsar, 189. 



— «u,828. 
fu^uHd'm, 158. 
tvhhfam, 63, 130. 
— f^ 219. 
«<ta,104. 
f^<tva, 180. 
e^iia,104. 
Unimd, 158w 
UbMa», 104. 
e^Jm,104. 
— <ra<— trt, 252. 
traj6dacan, 189. 
<rf, 139. 
v^fri, 139. 
Mmiti^ 189. 
— f pa>— ta, 163. 
tvadi'ja, 132. 
fraiTi, 130. 
^VS, 130. 
tr^ 130. 

th<X 10. 
— tAcw, 166. 

<f, d, 19. 
dakaD, 139. 
dakanta, 139. 
dadhdmi, 218. 
(2a^n,139. 
didicimd, 168. 
did^'jKi, 168. 
V^d{{i, 158, 248. 
digd'mi, 158. 
rfrife, 229. 
d^i',22a 
di'caia, 158. 
diQdjdmi, 243. 
ivo, 180, 189. 
ivd'dofvn, 139. 
(d)v<,264. 
(d)t;<m(do)f<iW, 13I». 

rfA<dh, 19. 

», n, 19. 

no— ,264. 

-no. 1T6» 228. 

nandmot inflected, 166. 

Danamma, inflected, 166. 

ndmoj inflected, 174. 

udmandiOt 176. 

ndmantjOf 175. 

ndmarUf 176. 

ndmdmif inflected, 166. 

namAmi, inflected, 165. 

namaim, inflected, 170. 

ndmSjam^ inflected, 170. 

na{m)td, 176. 

ndvan^ 189. 

navaSj 139. 

naSy 130. 

ndu. 130. 

— ni, 228, 265. 

— nti, 228. 

nfi, 262. 

n^miwki, Inflected. 106. 

nSmjd'mj inflected, 171. 

p,p,19. 
•v/pa,228. 
paflVdrit 139. 
/Kira, 264. 
M^am, 254. 
pdrdj 254. 
iKiW,264. 
•\/p<Jr, 248. 
pdrdjdmif 248. 
pi'Wr, 228. 



J>tird«,264. 
l>iir,229. 
j>ra, 264. 
prathamdf 126w 
l)A^p, 19. 
j>Aaana, 228. 

fr, b, 19. 
yfbandh, 158. 
babdndha^ 168. 
beUtandhimd. 158. 
v^budA, 168. 
btibhug'imd, 153. 
btt6A6ya,l&8. 
M'dMmi, 158. 

2>A, bh, 19. 
y/dW, 168. 
ohavdmi, 213. 
bhdraU, 219. 
bhdrdmif ^^ 
-Wi, 68. 
6Ai«, 62. 
6At^n<^176b 
v/2>Ai^, 158, 228, 243. 
6Att^4', 22a 
bhua'd'mi, 16a 
bhd'ff'aja, 16a 
frM(7'<y4m<,248. 
bhjams^ 68. 
bhjdmSf 68. 
^bkrag', 158. 
&Ard'tor,S28. 

m, th, m, 19. 
7110,130. 
—mo, 103. 
— tno, 126, 228. 
—moia, 168. 
m<ie^228. 
madifja, 132. 
madAu.8a 
madhjd't 22a 
—roan, 22a 
V'wian,22a 
nt<ma, 130. 
mdhWfha, 123. 
mt^AljaTTW. 128. 
TiuiAjant, 180. 
nul, 63, 130. 
mdm. 63, 130. 
mithds, 264. 
wirifT', 50. 
md, 180. 

;J,19. 

;a, 252. 

;a, 262. 

-ja, 22a 

M 468. 

jaf A<:2, 468. 

}ad, 104. 

ja(f , 262. 

-:;an, 22a 

iapi, 262. 

ja«, 104. 

;a, 104. 

-:?4><, 22a 

>i^tf, 228. 

jujdmj 130. 

^'uvavif 28. 

jutd'trtt declined, 130. 

jus'madt'Ja, 132. 

juafmi'f declined, ISO. 

r, r<r, 19. 
—ra^ 120, 228. 



Tdm,130. 
nijiint,13a. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 

— vjVJ,a23. 

—cati,' 13V.' 
VKKrfl,20e, 



id)tSSi{ia)aiti, 139. 

c(cfdm<!,U8. 

vfcidnuuf, Sia. 

ifRiftfniii, S12. 

pfsydo, 168. 

ctr(U,SI9. 

I J'diLtaflected, SIB. 



"'""as: 

a,'«S: decllDiid, IM. 
jo-,6B. 
VmA IBS, ?■<?. 



V«i,2i8. 

alViiiM, declined, 3R. 2e 

v'st'Hi.aSS; — loni,22i 

™in,im 

mas, Inflected, !13. 

-jim, ai3. 

\/sEap, 228. 
fljiipjia, JS8, 
— im«,(™. 

A<gh,10. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



blslorj of. 11 
deio/wordi 



a,+liiflnitlTB,lK. 
e, BB, 1», lis, IBl, 
103,104107. 
ilant, table, T,9,ia;hlBL 
comp.ctTm.TS-SO; caojneB- 
tions, S3, 90, 100, 103, 1(% OS, 
107; mlsed,I16; etenumnn, 



obridBedMntences,: 

sea, loo. 
ubsolnts case, comp. »yntu, 

sbsLTicU. geoder ni; aT; de- 

cleiielon oCtt, 03. 
acsUteeUc, KS. 
■mouit. Tales fOr ; nToor of, S : 

-rariatlnn ttota, 8 ; bint ol, 

In Sanikcic, Greek, etc^ 30 ; 

klndaortO: inpnwndr.KS, 
acccnU written, fi; with con- 

accompiuilnient, bco dwocfo- 

HccuBilive, 34 : sjntu: of, IW 
-148; ending, so; predlcalf 
143, 141; -Finflnftlve, 14! 

140; 14t'i +EaiiillTe, IM 



li 
imponndB, 



111 prepnslEInas, 
lntfve,miarra 



[The flgnres refer to pages.] 
Bccnse, Byntax ot, ISfl. 
acUon, Bafflies of, 124; with 



bjite, ludeanlte, 00: 
Btrong, 06, OS, W. 
patodlgnis, M, 68, £ 
of, 01, 09; Nortbu 

flies, IS^ ISO ; prep 
and predxee froi 
equlviiTenU of, 1_39 

genillYe,103,106,10I 
lonuB, 173 ; ngreen 
Bad other ejntai, ; 

iidjectiYeclBnee,140; mibJiinc 
live Id, 193 : coDjimctloD in 
BOIi »mingenianl,«S,MO. 

ndjnoct, 1ST. 

HdViintage, wUh dative, 14B. 

sflverbs, 'U ; coDipBrif- -' 

rodldee, S3 : 



uiui., in, 130: eqiJTiilEntf' 
or, lD9i B^ntai at, \Si+: 
pred, atlrlb., iDterrog., de- 



HOT, SOS; 



'Bfntnr 



> other 



sfflnnallon, partlclea oC t3!. 

1S4. 
age, BTntox of, 104, 107. 
Bgent, fbnns to express tbe, 
123; doUve of, lot. 
aggregation, sTnUx of; IK4. 
agieflment, of case-eDdlnin, 

HS+i «diectlveB,I7«! pro- 



ed Bhiftlng, Ke : Becondarj, 
227; In Eoglleh, 228. 

atpbabet, 4. 

am, 114, 110; as fntare eign. 



an,ble(arrof,lSfl. 



Algto-Nnnnin, 1. 
Ancln-Saxon, blslor; of; 1 -)- ; 



•nlmil*. g«Dd<r, It 
■ulRWdcm. lit, IM 



alpodlnll^ 111. 

Bpolbegl*,vll(L,'u. 
nplKtltc, ■jmUii or, 14II. 
spliinitlre, 1B7, 1'* — '" 



I ullele wlui, lilt: u- 

raDOTnieQl "'" 

an. lU, 110, 

■rmnREineat of wont), lit- 



71: comp. ctjm., 8 
with ■dfieclfvB.lT 



u. .ue'dsi:'ilTllcl~e,K&in 
oinluionof.lTO; IndallnUi 
dlKBulaaD^lBOi Iirsiigt 

01, Riluite, 111; 

uk, iToUi or, IM, 14T, IW. 

ujanlet, It;^ =roiigb, I. IT. 






kallaed.SiW'itiiB- 

juon, ezunplei, T, SD, 
deaned, «, «, IS^ M; 
isuisl, W, 83, lOB: nittiirBl, 
M ; bT v, 14, 18, 111, ira ; 1, 
14,l§,»,aa; m,11. It, 13, 

la, n, SO, 8S, ai, loo; n, ii. 

Ij, 13,107, lOBi r,«),Mj «, 
94,07,70; with nrogrenaun], 
87 : eclfallnid*, ai ; & Imper- 
recti.Mi bpnMntB,M,87; 

Btilf(lDenappiidtaT,41. 
AMOrliticni, n^Ui datlTe, IBO. 

^^rangemenl. s'lt 81». SM. ^^ 

flned,13I,14n,I43i □omlni- 

Hcla wiOi, ITfl ; partlcfpleii, 
SOO 1 arrangemeat o^ 210, 
«1S,!!ig; compoand), lU. 

jinUior, BBniMTe of, IBS; pres- 

snxlllaries. U, SO, 87, SB, IKI ; 

irTniigeRientDf,314,31B.Z19, 

sao; reUUoiitovane,n& 

t, how mide, Ifi; hift of, 18, 
SO, aod Beeinduxof worda. 
bailing,, 148. 
SactrUn, S. 
bA0e=tinafTti#£v, 
lib^ir, 10. 
(K,d>Uie aner,lfiO; omitted, 



begln+liitlDltiTe, IBT ; +pHr- 

udple, SOI. 
bttwixti, ISl. 
bh>m, 80, 4^ 4». 
bid+infinitlie, IffS. 



ENGLISH LNDEX. 



CdcKribed,III,!B,lS; 1 



carcllnalB, T\74, 711, TO; «; 
lai, 181, lit. 

CUTS 34; bl'L of aadlnn, 
BB, M i aarnmar)', B?; u- 
wrlM from, ]BS-|- : ngree- 
tnont of, I4i+! Quei mix- 
ed ITS. 

cDDi!^ bBHE, TV : componndi, 
lB4j teiilencM, 141 ; pBrU- 
clpleii, eoi ; coDjunctionB, 
»ia,«OT,!U». 

cbdsbUvb verba, I»T, ISO. 

cauee,dilivBof 1S1. 

Celtic, Ml rime in,'iIG. 



niimeB of llie i 
cbameterlBtlc, IK 



dtitu, tuuiiDB of. declined, K. 
cloaeicBpeecbidenl.ll. 
cUbbc, ueflaed,13B: principal 



ordlDB 



ITS, 184,310; BrrBneamenl 

oi; SM, Ml. 
ctenn, ejnlBi (if, IGT. 
close vowelfl, 0. 

GoeilBleicel 14l] SOU 

S™.14S; daflvcisi: etul- 

t<ve,l04. 
oogntttoni witb aDhJanclivp, 

IW : with iaflDitive, IBS : 

withpanlclpla,»l. 
coUeclives, 18^ lis, ISR 
comblnaUona of letl*tB, 1,10, 

IT ; of words, 191, and see 

adterl/ial, iKfrfftuti'w, o6ia> 

tive, predtcoTiw. 

coiDpimlive, 02+, in. 

oompariBon, 88+ ! double, 64 ; 
defective, 04, OS: endiosant, 
is prepoatilans, 101, t33i 

eotdpenBHtlon (cnrapenaatli 



puaitton, IDS. 
complex >eiilenc& 1S>, ItO. 
compoBliioa,IS.lfs,ll»i -de- 

fiAedilB4jDoaDa,lU;Terbis 

134,1811, 1B8 ; In lente. 81, 68 ; 

with un-, 800. 
compoDDdt, gender of; 07; do- 

, ]3>, 140, 

174, IM, 

i»i, tig^ 



801, MS. 818, i 
condlUonal cl(i 

808.' 



Conj 



ifDmutlon, 9, IS, 47, 7ft BS, 
es,87. -.>""-. 

iHlngaiiira, TS ; flret, 84+, 
09+, 118, 188, 187! Hwond. 
103, 113, )«0, 187: third, 105, 
llB,la7: fonrth,liyT,114,llS, 
187; firth, 10»i dxib, 110: 
Orimtn'a, T8 ; Sanskrit, TO. 

-SUK-. p'nbordlrnlp, S0S-4(iS; 
omitted, 108, 108, 
DDnectIng Towel, 8(1,114,119. 

acriptlou of, 10+, and eee 
naatd, cbangea, and atenu. 



copnla, 137, 118, !14, 880. 
coDDlate, nonns, Ui, 170, 170, 

fas, MO. ^ 

copolotlve verbB, IS7, 148, 186; 
lentences, 141 ; coiHanc- 
tlonts 803-804, 208. 

conntriea, uamea of, declined. 

64. 
ccasle, 10, 38. 
; crime, ayntai of, 107. 

' cnatome, syntax of; 133. 

d, 10, 17, IS, 30, TO, », and seo 

other iodei. 
dactfle, 812, 8i0i in EngUsb, 

Danee,8. 

HarUing, 1!& 

dative, M,S{'; la~<l,4l! com- 
ponndB, 134; object, 188 1 
sjntai nf, Ilft-IBE: uTinfln- 
cnce. 118 ; +genltlve, 140, 
106; of lot^reat, 148 ; poe- 

ethlcai, 150': eipleUve. 160 1 



IM I for nccnBBtlTe, ITS 
altec iDterjectlDD, 2ui; m 
HingeniBnt of. S18, BIO, aw 
fee ander eaca dfclentioA. 

y, pbonetlc Sft, KL es, 72. 

arallve BeQteace, IBS, 181 



junctuiD, 200. 

declensiDCi, table ot nibstsn- 
IlYCST: flrat,83+,4fl: aec 
nnd,44-f-.49; tblld, 484-. 4^; 
rmrth. MH- ; proper names, 
M+: sflJL'ctlvefi.KI-l-: de- 
uionBtradveandHrticlB.B;; 
pnrtJGiplea, 01 J InfliiIl1ie,Sl, 
^ ; prononns, 06+ j Nortb- 
nmbrlan, 19, 01, lil ; EoEllab, 
fiB,8Ma. 

rfwr, -m. 

dcl^ctlve 'tioaDE, BS t verbs, 

iia_+. 

deflDitlTe,USi □Iiject,]4S,21l>, 

«», TO, i«,iia, ITO, aiT: ad- 

vurb, 1 83. 
rteaominaliTes, IIB, IST, 128. 
deulal,! 10, 1T,1»,S»: =lln- 

ndjecUtes, 140+ ; verbal 

IM+i adverbs, las-' 

otLtlona and pielln 

isai interjections,: 
aeacriptlver "° 

dete'nn ' 



DImdB,18 



diphthane. 0, 14. 

direct object, 138, 197, SOI ; i 

[Hngeiiieotor,!l4,aiS. 
digluiictive, 141, 183, W4, SOB. 
dlspmiUuD, aufflx of. 110. 



dnnbtB obl'ect, 14& 
itmntanLlW. 
dnHl,34+,«l+,S3,8ai sppni 



itlfe 



1, lA H 



: uLbe 



, ByntaioqiBI. 






Dalcb,S. 

1,1S; =ir.e»,ll;>y,l!. 

f:>«,li:>r,I».80i 

eM™" 

eaev, ayntai with, tgt. 
ectbiipaia, 9, ID, 18, It, S], Gl, 
07, IIT. 



EKGLISR INDEX. 



em..iloii+EenUive,ia5: +in- 
H I liiive, m ; +par! Id pie, SU 1 . 



eiid,+lii(ln1tlve,ie7; +i»tti- 
eud^ge, Bce ciuc, in/Uetinn, 

EDElisc, 1- 

EugJisb, 1; relation to Anglo- 
fason, 1,17: flaalhUatfon. 
SI ; precosBion in, K7 ; com- 
penaatlDD,aC; case-endlnRS 
kooi conipflnaon,M; db- 
elension of afllectlve, 66; 
prononni, TS i abisvt, SO 
iM.Uffl, 105,109, 107; ion 
tracted rednplicntion, 108 
lOe.llD: weali verb, 111, IIS. 

ve^bal^»ll^veraBt^^,W. 
eo>y, IS. 
efl,14,l(i. 

epenlbeals, 9, 11, 19, 31, IB, GT. 
epicene, S8, 130. 
epitbcelB,»,11,SI,0T. 
eguiml e ntfl, BrammBlical , 138. 

ethical dative, IBO. 
elymologr, B3+. 
ElyraolDBi', companillve. (Al 

ed the ronni In BaaBkriT, 
Greek, Latin, Oolhlc, OM 
SnioD, Did Norse, Old aiib 
tierman.) Tba jetlen, 8; 
Noona. a-aleoi?, 3»: 1a- 






al,63,07i poereaiiive,e9: 
monatrative.TO, 07: article, 
07; lDterroi;Mlve. 71 . Nu- 
merals, T4+; VerbjOb- 

fect, 81 ! compound imper- 
l%ct,81: active In d. present, 
83 i (Imjperfect. 8B , aub- 



B vertN 11 



_lxea, llB- 

lilt: diml[iiiUvee,I»; Ad-- 

■■tlonB and pteflies.lao- 
131; ConJnnctloiiB. 
lB3;Inteijeetloii9|l33 
Compoaltlou, 130. 

enpbonic variation, D. 

eicltlng object, ISO.IIK, iOI, 
exclanuttory eenteacr, 1 3>, 181, 



f 8, 15, 18, IB, II). 28. 
14a, 144, 147, 16S,'l 
HiUfeniealof,ai6iv 

-/u«f, 121. 

teor, wilh dntlve, IH 

reulit;ii,«iibEeuillve, 
tfeel'lQ^erje.aH; or 



/rtendaMpiin. 

(Old) rriedca,S,18: comp. 

etjm.,S8,4].4a,44,4fl,48,rD, 
BO : proD- to, Tl ; nnni., TC , 
verb, Bi^ 81, SB, SS, G7, 8i ; 

PrDlBsiirt, 118. 

-/UII.1I1. 

nillneaa, eyiiUi nitli, loT. 

rutare, Ta,»,8!t,B!l; nuxllia- 
ries, les ; lor Impemtlve, 
1B9; syntax, 183, l!i9; pac- 



13, SB, 76, BO 



81, 41, 48,07, 



geoder.SIS: history of. Sd; fcrn- 

tn'eiprne, IBS ; kerivntlvea, 

nllivD,34,^7, coniponndf, 
ol(lect,lB8i Byntai,geu- 



SlS 



tive.lBO; D^ective, 1S^ IM, 

live, 149; datlve+gei]., 149. 
104 i neaines*. teo I aeparn- 
tjon.m, sbKlnteilSii rnb 
JflctlvB,IBBi olyectlrOjlM; 
partltim 141,11)4,100: wllb 
prepodElona, IW : adjective 
vrllb, ITS: poaMaalve for, 
17B: article. mnltted, no i ar- 
rangement, S18, SK, and ecu 
nnder each deaauton. 

gentile detlvatlvei, IK. 

German,!; prtnlinEoTAnirlo- 
BaxDD,4; Old High, letlem, 
8; w. 18; nmlant. IB; a^- 

aibiiatton, n ; >himiie,ai'; 

nltfitractafa -ln,tf ; rime In,' 
K4,M0,S«.«i 



BMtnre. wtlh duive, 1*9. 
irlie+diillve, 14S; -l-ceniDd, 

IWi omULsd. ISfl. 
glixmaa, IM. 
KOjWiib diitiTa,lao; asdini™ 

wdJM»,p«J!i/, 132. 



iJolhlc Man 



!rt,S. 






grant, with da t.«udgBn.,l«, 
gravtiatlon, »,_M, BO, B«, «, «, 



Grin 



_, KB, aS 

etyvuAm^i rompariUivt, 



t,iinii. ». >'- 

euUnrali, fl, T, 1CI, 10, £3, IIS. 

ti,IT; X'.Aia.lITi break- 
ing, eo, los ; iblti[ne, », 
311. 

ha1iit+)Da[i[llie,l»T. 

hETe, aign for tiitnre, perfect, 
plDperr., VH, 101 ; -f RVcaiKl. 
IW; 4.paitldple, 201. 

headlonff, 12S. 

/iral/. with DnmecaJe, <T, 182. 

Hellenic, 3, 8. ' 
help+ceniilve, IDS. 
hemlellcb, !!3. 



Hev!e.M. 

ftiilJ.t, 160. 
hU, se, ITO. 

' Aflinf, 12S ; -inv^. 122. 



hypercatalecUc, m. 
hjpotheCic lelstlv 
cIbdh, ISI. 



iin1an1,18;b[eakli: 



iliirtinc, 



ENGLISH IKUEX. 



r.fltemi, ^d-fteDu, pee «6 



iirMiiecoii]iiiictlan,t06,!IW. 

tmltstion+ditlvfl.lM. 

Imperative, TT, TS J la-siom.liB, 
108,110; BentencBiiaOi Evn- 
lax, 171,188,187; iDdicatlre 
for,lS»,ie(l:«ibJnDEllvefar, 
ISI; Dtraneemenl ot SIfli 

lmpeifect,18i ablaat, B3 : con. 
tract, SI ; compotmABl ! In- 
flcctloD Indie, Bl, 8S, M. K, 



iciimnrollon of relallTe. 180. 

idcrtuila declenaioa, W- ^ 
prouoon, Tt, T2, 174, 180 
Hiiffiies, ISS, l!B: Bdjecllv 

al.lt^i ver^liMVS. 
JndeppnUBut nominaUm Hi 

ndicBllve,7T: slronB activi 
m-JX: p!iBi>lve, SO; nea 
active, 8a : form of potei 
t!al, S», 81: Fynlai, teoai 
of, 188+; roodftlMi 

dtlirecC object, IBS; asH 
lira, IDS; opeeUan, IH 

ndo-Buropean, S ; vowai aj. 

pyntiix, ISn, 140 ; accnsi 
llve-f , lii, 14T( genersl dl 
cuhbIou, 107+ '. fliljectlvc 

nBectlnn, 1)j vowel changea, 
79-SSi mode enfflieB, ta; 
perBonni ebdinaB, SB-f-: in- 
die prcient, 83,84 ^ imperC, 
H s5; atroDB veTb-SI^l; 
ireal[ierb,»£«E: variation 
in pTeseul, BO, SI ; In Imper- 
fec t. 08; tables of ^rlalton, 
BT-llS: irregolar, llS-118; 
Northnmbrinn, IIT; decaf 
oreniibiEB,EncUiib,ll8; re- 
Inlion to vendflcaUDn, £28. 

nfluence, object of, 148, 149. 

nKenedtlanaes,! 



iutraDgitive 

ISO, iso!' 



U, (fa, 08, OS; arntaj:,n 

lUlle,S,a 

iterativea, aee how ^en 

], pecnllar cbi 

Jntea, 

-tind, ISl. 

l!newltdge,lSi. 

1,1,16,10,18; ul<a,lBi mcl- 
aUie3le,10:<d,O0,IB. 
iblal, 0, 7, 1M8, 83, W, M, 103, 



lon^ltrn, JQl. 



s. SB, 8S, 39. 



: asalbtln- 
uoD, XI ; anetii, 30 ; neii- 
lerB^fbmiDinee, 80 ; proper 
nanie«,B4; perlectB,SS: nb- 
iMliea, liO; anls and Ibc- 
alp,SS8; rlmeluLow LhiIii, 
926 : Tarsea of AuRlo-Sainn 
poets, SSO; and see el-rmol- 

tax, eomparatiti. 
laugh, Bjnliix vilb, ino. 



Layamon, dec] 
adjective, f- 
OG; pronon 



;h.ine. 



.3; nreporitlo 
■Ao,l'0; *Mlc, 
}1;verbaU,iDl 
..ajaUx^th. 



(tb:(— f^),TI),lK,181. 
llkenese, avataE nitb, 100. 
IlnRnil, I. is. 
llqnid, T. 

listen, svnt">-"i'-i!ui 
Utbnanlc, 
SS : weak adjective, 



loca^vecase, 
II, or, 143,1 
^calatib|e< 
iBvowele,! 
iiprnofo 



S': monoaylla- 



make, ryntai with, 147, IVS. 



.JciM 



18 or, 13 






Ivss,3n8! BmngemenCiSUI. 
mucnliae, GT. - Sea nmder. 
maMerj, ejntas irtth,lW,lE1. 
material, enffli or, 116 ; com- 

pODndB of, 134: BTiitax ot, 

le4,lBT. 
mat) (nwff), IWi. 
IDSHIIB, mifflx or,l!3. ^yutiii. 

measoreis jnt nj;of, 105,101,161. 
meet,i;niBx wItb.lGD. 
menul action, eyntax vlth, 

ICO. See BomiUion, /eeHnn. 
meuplaBt, OS, 
meUlhealB, a, 11, 13, ID, SO, 03, 

«1, OT, loa, IIT. 
meter, iw. 
middle inate«, T, S, 29 ; loice. 

140, IBO, 1ST. 
Milton, verae, 149, 2M. 
mimetic va^llDO, B, iS. 
ml9a, syntnx wltb, lOI. 
mode,Tl,S2; Ejntni, IM-SM. 
Alcesa-ODthic, see Quthic. 

mouoeyUnblcs, long, 13, 41. 

move, BTntoi iritb, 100, 911. 
mnltlplicativeB, n. 
mnltltade, nonu of, 142. 
mntei, 1, ii, W, 9s. 

n,T,8,10:>J,l(l:>!,m,S9; 
Btopa umlanl aod ehlfllog, 



uflealB, Ti 10, S4 ; noEiiIiaiiiE, 

io,iu,iao.iii. 



neentloD, psrtfclea or; ISa: 
cen't'l, partlcnlar, slrengtb. 

i article wltbi 

ptreogtbeoecl 



ENGLISH INDEX. 

ladle presenf, S3; ioiperC, 



obey, ByntBi with, 14S. 

oliJect, dlrecl, 140, l»7, SO 
nntllve^ li«, Ml ; di 
140 ; of Inflneace, 14e 
tnteiBBl,14S; HBDlIln ,._ 
cltlDg), 100, m ! parti^TB, 
10* ; Beparatlon, 166, lol r 
Willi pnasivep, 1ST: of cog 

1»E ; ilrrBogemeot, ll's, SIS 
Boe factitin. 
objintlve combiDitinnB, 1RT 
139, 140, IM, 148, ISO, «18 



CODdiU0D,l» 

neater, 80. 39: 

:>f^iniD'e,^ 

nominative, ill 

144: vleldB, 

Norraai 
(Old) M 



' Xortimmbriant 1 T TOwe 
Mnmde, Ug gnttnrtlf, IS 
dentaU,N; ecthlipalB, met 
ntbeslB, epentbeaiB, prott he 
■ia, U ; labial^ 1> ; declen 
■loo, BtroDK, n: weali, 01 
Irr^lulliei, 01 : proaonD 
M; poMBMlTe, 08 : article 
G>: demonstnttire, TO; In 
terrog«U>-e, n : verb, m 



J-^ 



- tlve^sa. CT? ' 

Drdinale, 13, T6, 

Ormulmn, declei 

60; proDo'aan.TS; namerslr; 
IS; conJngation, Blrong. Sf, 
100) weak. Ill; enmsi^ 
llSi preposiUor- ""■ '"" 
ITD : tcluSt, ITS; 

onhoirmphy, *. 

oi, 1^; ^lxen,a^. 

p, 16,19,21). 



particular lotCmiK., tSS ; ne- 



BBBlYfl Tolce, W, 91, 110, IKT, 
189+ i origin of form, SMI. 

jitrlal adjective, ItO. 

atronymtcs, ISO, 

«Dtameter, iW. 

leople'B Domes declined, 04. 

erTect, IS, S2: tianaitlTe, S4, 
BS,S6; lDtranB.,B4,S6: bvii- 
tax, 1S9: origin of fiirm,^, 
peripnraBtto pert, 88; condi- 
tional, 80; htnie,UB. 



perapknlty aSbcting arrange- 

plionetlc decay, 86, SI. 
phoDoloey, 8-38. 
pi ten, m. 

ploce, nonoB of, Itt; adjeo- 
lives of, ISO: adverba, cor- 

134: rymai'i accnaatlTS of, 
US; dotof,IOi; sen., 107, 
lOB; mode, lUj connectliea 
of, !0T: ammgement, QO, 
aiB, and ece locative. 



plarol endings, SO, Si ; foi eln- 

alysyndetoD, 141. 

DBBeBBlve,6S,60j compoandaj 
IH; arrangement, ilS. 

oBBesBor, da^ve ot, 100 : gen- 
itive of, IM. 

otentlBl mDde,>8, eg, B9; lyn- 
tai,19fL19I. 



1, 4S, ill, tJ,TB,83| 60,114^ 
predicate, 13T; granmiatical. 



itic Bonnde, :o, 00;i 

Erneyuliiot3,fl,lM, 
renlSpeerh,a^8:caie-( 



a8,ra,04; pronouna lu, M 
07, OS ; nnmends, TD, TO 

dlgm of ludlc. preeent, 63; 
of^lmpertect, 80; robjimc- 

deIlYBtiDnlD,'llS-|-. 
pBTtB of Bpeech, S4. 
I)arlldpIe«,78,».9B; Bynto 

pBMiclei of inlerrosallon, t 
Entlon,elG,lBS. 



prenieaTo, is/h-. 

preposition, S3, 34, 1304- : fyn- 
tsx, 108-1T9 1 article nHer, 
170 : BrrsngemeaC of, HO, 
91», HO; relation to vene, 

present, T8: nctlre indie, K); 

M, 98, 91 : rsdnpllcate, llo! 

forma of, 1S7-J-. 
proletltlTe verb, 90, 11»-I1*. 
price, Bj-nlai ofj 101, 10T. 



pmirranlnn, t, ft, II, TS, VO, 

proKnuini fi'<niii, isa-f-, IR : 
orlfiln ul, tut. 



al,«a,it,il4,na,int! pot- 

Kpwlve, n V*i 1^ lTt,m, 
■nd K« iltaumtlraUrt, nlit- 

pri'licr D*fnc», U. 



roUiegKV.IR 



■liUDlltatlva 



r, 7. e. IS, 18, IS. 8*e Sreatt B(7, 

radicle, 93; tn proaDiin>,M; 

Dumerele, T3 : durivaUou, 

118; eufilies,119. 
read J, Byoutx, IM. 

receive, svntai, ItUL 

reciprocalB, ITS. 

Kduplicatlon, S ; roDtmcled. 
13,14,111: in nomenlSiTD: 
verlw, M, 8M08, 1« : pm- 
cnts.ll5,nS; in derlvBtlan, 

reflexive. «a; ■yntu, !«, IS), 



re^rd, BjDtu, 14 
Tefstluml, 33. lil 



UoiLim: i>mialDn,iS 
* elaii>e% idTerbs 1 



npeated inbtect, IM, IT4. 
repelilton, ISi. 
reepect o£151. IK. 
ieiQlt,iaffli, IM; mode, ISJ, 

]». See fvnMcu/i'K. 
Rhymliig Poem, S2& 

tbytbiidcal ucanL 3lli 

Time (Ajma).ta: letters, m. 



Upopnlsce,! 



KNUUaU INDEX. 

uhI.IOO; I«» cmnunaiitu, >p.Ba, 1]T: d>l,»,T5; n> 

lW,luS.llWi-i-,lll»;-D-, *,S«I; *>/.T6: iii>",«! t* 

li«, — i-, _l_, 101, los. ■>im. «, 4«; •»*, t, W, Sil, 

IIBl; _1_, -o»- -*-. 63; «>r, 80. 

— (I-. -1-, -0-. 10»,U0: *r«tvoweI«,«,S,lL 

— a-. 1 1 1 . —a—, 111 : (a d«- UMing, IIS. 

rlvuiuii, US. rimple words, 118 ; wnleDcea, 

niBDh niutce, I. lA: tnbjecl, IBS. 

rOfkumlmil, tee umlaut. (i!mu1uioD,»,ES, 131. 

niiieis4,ls, «!ngiilu',l4,Ut.l8a, 

nine, iTDtai oT. IIM. 
l,ll.Ma;<41V.M,B9:>r,gn, Hiavonic^S; u^nuion, ll^; 



fandnlch Isiandnt, in 



"(«um)','^ih'i 






tH; conliiinlluii Cio^- 
114-nfti fir^niDeii 



WBtlve.TB.WJ: VBtBl- 
,tt3:aildHeefiim«:- 



^znn, WhC Stuan, Ah)jIo- 

^, 10,11+; breaking, W. 
^andioaviui. 3, iH. See Ii»- 
Iniidfr, AVk. 
(i«:<lDD,lllTer8e,E23, 



leiaitlc,TS; TDwel chaagc I 
tnflecUun. Si; aynCai, iU 



enBatiuti, syntax of, 14 
abridged, 1*0, and eei 



SbalieBpeEi^, double compD 
— .W: BfUectlvo endfnj 
»arh eudiDsa, IIS: p 



ahtfXiiig {laiifverKklebvJI^f da- 
flnef B. ^ »i vonelB> 
vowela, S8; o>B. 11. E7, 41, 
4li,l)a,«fl.(B,BT. M,1»T: a> 
jr>!.im.llH!;o>.,Sl';a>(, 

S7. d>*>4si,flo,t(B,ir' 

til>4 13, 14,108; t6>*, 
18,106,108,109; J/X, 11 
voweiB>ciU]BonBnie, Mi 

>vowclB, 68, a»; cudfionm 



ApecidcatiuD <adjuiict],IM,]E>I. 

1piran,.J. 
ipondec, 321. 
-at, law rur. AT. 

Mral/Oul, ISL. 

«Uin[Doiuie),deniiedM; end- 
iDgiSSIt; Iii-a,mH-,n; -la, 
41,42,43,41,80; -,in,41i -ha, 
41, »l! -Hl,41,81i -<i,44, 
40; -l.ti-A.bU ^48,4B, 

«,M,«i -oMSftOl,!"; -r, 

asa; -nd,4a,Si; relicH of 
er nmacniaiit swaia, a<L 

InatloD, ST; ln'-Cdi, », lOG, 
115; tenae ateDUvBSE n !n- 
Mned,ll8;TednptteaCed,11^ 
118; relational adveiiiial, 
129. Sec thfiM. 
elrenEtbeaiae(tnir,a3; sterna 



IraDE 'inans, S8, 411: adjee- 

tlvaa. Be : BjDtai, 118; vertw, 
T8.8S+.»8,1M. 
iibJect,lBT; grannnatlcai, log- 
lcal.lS0fnpeUed,l4S; nom. 
tnallve, 144 ; acciuatlve, I4T r 



omJlWdTw'; ar- 
'verb,138; genlU™, 

anbjunctive. 17 : present, Im- 
peifect, 88, ST; endinn in 
tLQElllariea, ST ; potentiu.SB, 
Bvnlai,. 1M+; in leading 
e1anBeB,lin; in eubordinate 
sobetantive, IM ; adjectiye, 
1*8; adverts 113-195; rurim- 
peratlve, lOT. 

Dtt-letteis, a*. 

nbordlnue claose, 138 : qaea- 

ai6,K0; cimjancffima, a»I 

nbetantivcB, eqniialenU of, 
IS>: clBueeB, 140, IWi, 2n«; 
BrTaiigcDieaIof,i!lli,£«L Sw 

afith, 70, 



■ufTerlng object, ISft. 
■HJBses, relational, as ; nfco: 

■nperlatlvB, aiif- tn numi 
alBiTA, VQ: prcpoflltloiia b 
pTvAxoB, 13^; B;njtu, ID 

Miptemaigr, ajnUw oT, IBT. 
Hi]Td,T,ia,S; roIiiB for change, 

nrauJDB, nnUx of, 1D2. 

Bymereata, 10, 1\, St 
■ynalflphti, lo, St. 
•?ncope,9,aaBl,«,4I,6 
In imperfecta sod p.-pBr 
■rnea)B,14i, 143,144,m,.l 

«jTitiui,13I-^ai : flpipei 

■tlve (Saaak., Lat'^e- 
U. H. Q., O. Nor., Pr.), 1 
l*4i Nomlnmtl — *-■ 

tint (aauet, Or., 
H. Q.), IM J V« 
(San^, Ut, Ft.). 



a,a 



t, T, S, IB, W ; <d, 19 i Gothic, 
-t, nenter ending, BI, OT. 

:eac!i, Bpitiuc 148, 1«, 189. 



141: in adTsrbial coniblTia- 
tlona (Saoek., Qreeli, LaL, 
Goth.),14B; D«UTe,ufin- 
fineuce (Sauelt.,arMli, LaC, 
Golll.,(I.H,Q.),l«; ofpOH- 
ee»nr (Sanak., i3reek, Lai.), 
150; nearneu {Banak., Gr. 

Nurse, O. 'iL G. ,M. H. G. ), i.-. I 

adterbial {SangbL, Gr.', Lai 
iu), lel : Bgeal (Samk., Gr. 
LaL), 151 ; afier compan 
livea(S»ii»lt.,Gr.,L»t,Teiv 
(DOic), IM : alwnintB (San 
akrit. Or., Lat, Ten!)., IM . 
liutnunentsl (Sbd»Ic. 
Gr., Lat., Oa[h„ O. Sai., O. 



H.'ber.),'! 

oatB (O.Noibb),'i'm: aggni- 
gtSioa (Bandi.), IH: cGa^ 
adcilatic (Sanak- Or., Lat.) 
IW; ofnaine(ar.,Lat.,Fr.. 
SeidI-Sbi.},1W; predtCBllve 
<Or.,l«l.),llM; eiclOnE"'- 
Ject (3anik.,Gr.,La[.,Tei 
IM; partitive (Roman 
IM; PrepoBltlo 
iOoUl, O. H.%., a None 
Sax., Lat., Greek, Laran 
Orm., Chancer, Wyeil .. 
Spen«D, ISt-lTI: Adjre- 
tlTe (Goth., H. Oer.!, IM; 
Prvnonn (I4nnaaii.O." 
U.,O.Nor«e), 174,144; p 
aeaiive (Ltjamon, EnBliB ,. 
IIS : deiDonetr. and snicio 
(Golh-p. H. a, LaL, Oer.) 
Ut, ITT ; ialenoB. (Onn. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 

tat.), 178; relatl™ (Sanak., 
Or.,Lst.,Galh.,O.H.B.,Ger„ 
Keml-Sax., EugL), 13S, IJB; 
anicle (Gr., Lat., Golli., Ger., 
a Korse), 130 ; Advcrb- 
<0r., Lm., Teol.l, 183, 154 
Verb, anliject df (Lat., Gr. 
£iigL, etc), IBS, ISSi Tolc 
jSausk., Greek, Lat., Oolli 

(Lat, EngL), 1SB, IM ;' mod 
(Gr., Lafin), 190-aoi ; Af 



BtMb. CDinb. (Or., Lat., 

„ Bomanic), US, (Qr., 

id., Ger., Pr., Span., 



End., Ger., Pr., 
IT, (Komaruc) 3 



bemfl,S4i.arin>noB in 
■A^ -lb, -K, 41 1 plomls — 
rfw.«; -unff.4T, i,(il,f>u 
>o,h,n, verb, 78; ui-o- 
-lL,-c, 111: naeal,lll; [;ut 



inbjun 



jinpoandg, 13 
9, IbT, 1S8, a 



3 of, 

.: in 

fti,'l«I+-;'with aie inflnil'ive, 
ISrr ■*>■/, lis. 

loni<i,SK,t»9. ^ 

Toncli, Bvnlai, ISO. 

-'-- yerbB, 138. 146, 158, 

irf^t, plnnerfocL, 88, 
X itirect object. 



0,6,8,1.8,11.18; >.V,1S; . 

14; =c,ia: >IB, l>P,41,47. 
u-declenBloa tOr Latin, Greek 

a^ecl.,M. 
u-gronp, T. S6L 
umlauC 8, 19, fi3; roia,10i ii: 

— ^- — ■,. BlemBnT)m,l*3; 



TU1£ EXD. 



ilopped by n, lOS ! o-nm- 
laut, eiampleB, It, Ifi, 63, 97, 
«9, 100, 1U2, 103, lOe, 114 ; I- 
nmlaot, 11, la, 18, 14, 19, 43, 
46,47, 80, ^ er, 100, 106, 101, 
l«e,10«, 110, 111,118: v-am- 
lant,ll,li,4o,41, 

nuderiutak, 170. 

nse, aynux, KM), ISl, 1ST. 



vBristion,>,n,«Si table aC In 
verba, 9e-l<B, IIT. 

veJ% S4, TT ; cnOagatiotii ■«> : 

freteritiye, ses; irreenlar, 
M-lIB; theBiibniiitlTe,114T 
derivall<ni,118: i ■■ 



134; a; 



trl; kind 



of, 18*; t„ , , 

omle8l0D,188; arraiigemeni, 

vnrtial, in -ubji, -f nj, -frtdt, !01 : 
arntai, 16S, 101 ; accent, t£S. 

YCr»^M2,«3; common nar- 
rative, SU; ]ong,t27. 

V[icaichordB,ll; nlteraoee,11. 

vocative, 84, 86 ; ajntai, 130, 

vi>lce,IT! middle,146,lM,lB"; 

vawelarei Indo-European ta- 
bl^B; eTonps,8 7; Aiiglo- 
Saion, 11-16 ; cbangcg, IH- 



w<p,IS,10. 
H'aQt=n«{f, 16T. 
watcb, arntai, ISO. 

weaknonn^B«,BO' adjectivea, 
66, W, 80, 173; verba, 78, 88, 
80l n+, 94 ; mixed, irreg., 
lie, 117, 188,187. 

wealth, syntai, IBS. 

weathering of cndiDga, 83, 66, 

u:eSoct,in. 
weight, ^lax, 154. 
irflddan, 198: 
West &ion>,L 
uAoClTS. 
i(>AlIi>m,188. 

whole, aee jiorffCfiw. 
iriU, 189, 1 At. 

ivish,eT'><ax,ltin. 
mmumin. 

worthv, eyotai, 199, 

W»cllfflte,l,lT9. 

I.RT.I7. 

y,Il; <Q,B«,eo, 1,8, £8,11 



w 



r r 



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