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• ♦
..S^SaJ.....,..2! ^.... "^..^.^^.L
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w
COMPENDIOUS GRAMMAR
' * OP THE
OLD-NORTHERN OR ICELANDIC
LANGUAGE:
COMPILED AND TRANSLATED
FKOMTHE
GRAMMARS OF RASK,
BY
GEORGE P. MARSH.
BVRLIX6TOX ;
HIRAM JOHNSON&Co.
1838.
1
University Press
PREFACE.
The following compend was prepared for the
press some years since, under circumstances
unfavorable to its careful or judicious execu-
tion. The want of proper characters and
other obstacles had delayed the printing of
the manuscript, until the Translator had almost
abandoned the idea of publication, but the
appearance of Prof. Rafii's great work, the
Antiquitates Americanae, recently published
at Copenhagen, seemed to him likely to awa-
ken the attention of American scholars to the
remarkable language in which the ancient
and curious memorials contained in that vol-
ume are embodied, and thereby to furnish a
fit occasion for bringing out a manual designed
to facilitate access to the literary treasures
IV PREFACE.
of which the Old-Northem tongue is the ve-
hicle.
A hasty revision has accordingly been giv-
en to the manuscript, and the first Icelandic
Grammar in the English language is now of*
fered to the Public, in such dress as the typo-
graphical facilities within the reach of the
Translator afforded.
The work is compiled from the following
sources :.
Vejledning til det Islandske eller gamle
Nordiske Sprog. Kjob. 1811.
Anvisning till Isl^ndskan eller Nordiska
Fomspriket. Stockholm, 1818.
Kortfattet Vejledning til det oldnordiske
eller gamle islandske Sprog. Kjdb« 1832 ; all
by the late celebrated Erasmus Christian
Rask.
The first of these is the earliest grammar
of the language, which has any pretensions to
completeness, and though inferior to the later
grammars of the same author, is a very learn-
ed and philosophical work.
The second is an enlarged and greatly im-
proved edition, in Swedish, of the first.
The third, which has been made the basis
PBBFAC£.
of the present translation, is a 12mo. vol. of
76 pages, mtended chiefly to exhibit the ma-
tured views of the author upon the ancient
grammatical forms of the language, as gath-
ered from its earliest written monuments.
•
The Enghsh, French, and German exem- .
plifications of the sounds of the letters were .
kindly furnished to the Translator by Prof.
Rafn and the late Mr. Mc Dougall of Copen-
hagen, and the type for the Runic characters,
by the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries,
of the same city.
The notes and other additions by the Trans-
lator are neither suflSciently numerous nor im-
portant to deserve special notice.
In the doctrine of Forms and Inflections
(Formlaere), the treatises of Rask leave noth-
ing to be desired, but the Syntax in these,
and indeed in all the other grammars of that
great philologist, seems less happy in arrange-
ment and execution, and less complete in de-
tail. It is however to be remembered that
Rask wrote for the Danes and Swedes, whose
native languages, being the daughters of the
Icelandic, so nearly resemble the parent stock
in structure and grammatical character, that a
VI PBEFACE.
more systematic and detailed view of the syn-
tax might well be dispensed with.
The Translator has made a copious collec-
tion of rules and examples in syntax, selected
with special reference to the analogies and
discrepancies between the Icelandic and Eng-
lish, which he purposes to publish, if the sub-
ject shall be found to excite sufficient interest
to warrant the undertaking.
No attempt has been made to transfer to
the English the new grammatical nomencla-
ture, which Rask and other Northern philolo-
gists have introduced ; for, however expressive
and appropriate the newly framed terms may
be in themselves, it is obvious that the struc-
ture of our language will not admit of similar
or corresponding compounds and derivatives,
though gome of them, such asBindeord,
bindword (conjunction), Hjaelpeord, help-
word (auxiliary), and the Hke, might perhaps
be allowable.
The deviation from the usual arrangement
of the cases and genders in the substantives,
adjectives, and pronouns will be new to many
scholars, and by some may be thought an ar-
bitrary innovation.
PREFACK. VU
But the reasons assigned by the author for
these changes appear sulGficient. The usual
arrangement of the cases, he remarks, seems
to have been altogether an accidental one, as
it is impossible to discover any principle on
which it is founded, and it manifestly contra-
venes the obvious rule of proceeding from the
primitive and simple to the derivative and ar-
tificial, as well as that of placing together the
cases which most nearly resemble each other
in form, or in use and signification.
The arrangement here followed, he consid-
ers generally applicable to all the European
languages, whether ancient or modem, and
gives the following exemplifications.
Nom. ^alrip fructus ) j o j „x«*«
^r ^^ c * > aer Band voxtr
Yog. *italsp tructus J
Ace. ifalspa fructum den Band voxt
(Abi.) *"^*P' {fS} demBande vexti
Gen. iralspag fructus des Bandes vaxtar
In these examples, it will be readily ob-
served that the cases folloW each other in the
probable order of their developement from the
root, and that the analogous forms are classed
together. Thus the nominative and vocative
are both appellatives, and in most languages
Tin PREFACS.
are identical in form, and the accusative and
dative are both objective forms. The ablative
on the one hand has a close resemblance to
the dative, and on the other, to the genitive,
as appears from its use in Latin, where it often
corresponds to the Greek genitive.
The genders seem to have been arranged
according to the supposed dignity of the
sexes. This would not be a very philosophical
prmciple, even in languages, if there be any
such, where the sex determines the gender,
but in those where the gender is entirely in-
dependent of sex, and where gender is but
another name for ending^ such a principle can
have no application. The neuter is generally
the nearest to the root-form, and the feminine
the most remote from it, and this suggests the
obvious and natural principle of arrangement
which the author has adopted.
In practice, it will be found that Rask's pro-
gressive order^ both of the genders and of the
cases has great advantages, as a help to the
memory, over the arbitrary system hitherto so
generally received.
The reason assigned by the author for clas-
sing the numerals among the pronouns, name-
PBBFACX. IX
ly that two stands in the place of one and one^
three in the place of one and one and one^ and
so o( the rest,* will not perhaps be deemed
altogether so satisfactory, but the Translator
has chosen to acquiesce in the authority of
that most eminent grammarian.
The Translator cannot here enter upon so
copious a subject as the character and value
of the literature of Iceland ; and it must suffice
to remark, that in the opinion of those most
competent to judge, it has never been surpas-
sed, if equalled, in all that gives value to
that portion of history which consists in spiri-
ted delineations of character, and faithful and
lively pictures of events, among nations in a
rude state of society.
That the study of the Old-Northern tongue
may have an important bearing on English
grammar and etymology will be obvious, when
it is known that the Icelandic is most closely
allied to the Anglo-Saxon, of which so few
monuments are extant, and a slight examina-
tion of its structure and remarkable syntacti-
cal character will satisfy the reader, that it
may well deserve the attention of the phildo-
•Spansk Sproglierc^ Kjob. 1824, Fortale, 21.
niSFACK.
gist, as a subject of curious interest in itself,
especially since Rask, in his prize essay, Un*
dersogelse oih det gamle Nordiske eller Is-
landske Sprogs Oprindelse, has shown, with
equal learning, ingenuity, and success, that
diverse as the Icelandic appears from the
Greek, both to the eye and the ear, it is yet,
beyond doubt, nearly allied to that noble
tongue.
A remark or two upon the character of the
language will not here be out of place.
It is strikingly characterized by copiousness,
flexibility, and force, and in the power of en-
larging its stock of words from its own resour-
ces, it yields to no language, the Greek itself
not excepted, though inferior to some langua-
ges in the power of varying and modifying
the signification bf words by mere change of
form. Compounds occur less frequently than
in Greek, because the primitives are much
more numerous, but inasmuch as less use is
made of particles, or mere words of qualifica-
tion, in composition, (though the Icelanders
have many very forcible inseparable particles),
and all the members of the compound word
PREFACE. XI
are usually distinctly significant, the compounds
are more expressive and readily intelligible.
The inflections are few and simple, but so
ingeniously varied in the different classes of
words, that there are few combinations in
which there can be any doubt as to the case
or relations of any of the words composing
them.
But the limits, which the Translator has
prescribed to himself, forbid the further prose-
cution of this subject, and it only remains to
desire the student to make the corrections in-
dicated in the Errata, before commencing the
study of the volume.
GEORGE p. MARSH.
Burlington, Vt. Feb. 1, 1838.
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.
p. 13 M. 23 (note) after genders, insert: of substantives.
" 19 " 7 under lykill insert ; lykli.
" 21 « 7 after oru insert : (or)
*' 21 " 22 for nes read : ness.
"24 '* 10 for gen. read : ace.
«• 30 " 7 for drdtt read ; draetti.
u 42 <« 7 after spoku insert ; (spokum), in each column.
"53 " 23 for 28 read: 218.>
*< 55 " 21 for {)raungra-i -i read t {>reingra -i -i
" 56 *• 8 for -St read : -usf
<■ 56 •' 10 for -St read : -ust
*' 67 last line, dele s engis instead of eingis, and
** 72 " 13 and 14 dele : founded on the terminal syllables of
the past tense.
« 84 '* 6 for munna read : muna.
*< 91 " 11 middle of line, for verd read : vard*
'< 95 at bottom, insert as Translator's note to (192): The
phrase b A i n n at with the infinitive sometimes corresponds
in signification to the English ready, thus: var hann bdin n
at g e r a , hvat er Haraldr vildi, ke was ready to do what'
eeer Harold desired. Fms. 6. 187. So, bdnir at veita ho-
num lid, Fms. 6. 190 ; bdnir at kanpa Fms. 6. 218.
p. 103 1. 14 for sdr.kdl^r read : sdr-kaldr.
** 114 ** 3 for compounded read : confounded.
« 115 *< 27 for honour read : power.
COMPENDIOUS VIEW
OP
ICELANDIC GRAMMAR.
PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY.
1, PRONUNCIATION.
1. The vowels and diphthongs are these :
Simple vowels. Diphthongs,
a a 83
au ey
e - ei
• /
1 - 1
6 oe
u u
y - ^
The following is what Rask conceives to have been
the true pronunciation of the vowels and diphthongs
in the ancient Icelandic, when spoken in its purity.
2. a like a in father^ or the Italian a.
1
X FRONUNCIATION.
3. like eu in (Fr.) hauteury pleurs, leur, or near-
ly like i in circle.
The introduction of o into the Icelandic orthography is com-
parative! j modern. Anciently its place was supplied by au or
avj which were used indiscriminately, as s a t g a r for s o g a r .
The next step was to distinguish between au and av, the lat-
ter only being used for o. In some printed works, as in Nj 41 a,
both av and o are used for o.
4. e like ai in (Fr.) palais, bienfait, or like e in
meiy wet. e like ie in ( Fr.) bancmierypiedf or as if a
short t or y were inserted before it, as in yes, yet.
The accent is often omitted, and i is sometimes inserted, as
I)ier for |>^r. But ^ is not to be regiarded as a diphthong. In
some printed works, as for example in Haldorsen^s Icelandic
lexicon, the acute accent {6) is used instead of the grave (^).
5. i where long, approached the sound of e in (Fr.)
essuiy essuyer ; where short, it resembled i mpit,
pin,
6. where short, like o in (Fr.) officej opter, or
like in hot, not ; when long, like o in morn, bom.
[a, often interchanged with o, had also the latter
sound.)
7. u like ou in (Fr.) mou; u in (Ger.) AnJamft,
or 00 in good.
8. y like u in (Fr.) il mue, mere, or u in (Ger.)
durr.
9. a like ow in now, how, but not so broad ; or like
the Italian au in aura^ or Danish av in Havre.
10. €6 as near as possible, like the English ay, or
ai in (Fr.) email*
•
• «
^
PRONUNCIATION. O
11. ott like ow in nowy how, or like au in (Ger.)
Auge.
12. ey like eu in (Ger.) LeutCy approaching oy in
boy.
18. ei \i)sjd et in (Fr^) reveiU
14. i like i in magf^ine^ or ee in <ee.
15. 6 like in (Fr.) ^o«, encZo^, like eau in (Fr.)
chattaUy bwrtaUy or like oo in (Ger.) Moosyfrohy or a
in tro?7i, borne.
16. <B like (Bu m (Fr.) ceuvre.
In manj good ancient manuscriptB, this diphthong is con-
founded with a, and in the modern dialect, e ia in all cases
substituted for it Few editions of aqcient works distinguish
between them.
17. u like ou in (Fr.) ga(U, um (Ger.) Schuhy or
00 in fnood, rood.
18. i like u in (Ger.) Tkur.
The modern pronunciation <lifiers from the above,
in several particulars, for example ;
19. u (7) is now pronounced like CBum (Fr.)
(BUvrCy or 6 in (Ger.) hbren.
20. y (8)like i (^) and y (18) like i (14)
21. au '( 11) iike oy in boy, ot in 6ot/, coi7, or like
eu in (Ger.) LeutCy Treue.
22. ey (12) like c£ (13)
23. Of the simple vowels a, (>, o, u, are called Aarc/,
and By i, y, soft.
The diphthongs formed by the coalescence of v with
a vowel, viz. a, 6, A, are hard, as is also au. Those
formed with j are soft. They are ic, cy, c£, i, a, ^.
PBONVNCIATION.
S4. The consonants are as follows :
1 ) MUTES.
labials, lingtuilsM palatals.
hard
P»
f,
t, f>,
k,
h,
soft
b,
▼,
d, 8.
g>
j>
2)
LIQUIDS.
m,
n,
1, r.
8.
z.
3) DOUBLIU
X, (z,)
The consonants in general are pronounced as in
the other Eluropean languages^ but it is to be observed
that
S5. /had two sounds. 1 ) Its pfoper sound at the
beginning of words, and when doubled, as f a r a ,
f r a, vaf f. 3) In all other cases, the sound oS ii,
as haf, nafn, hofn, stafni. The modem
pronunciation of /, when followed by Z, n, d, t, is like
h or i6, as tafia, pron. tabla; nafn, pron.
nabbn; haf di, pron. habdi; haft, pron, habt.
If yh be followed by another consonant, especially by df,
or t, the sound becomes mn. For instance, n e f n a, to
name, is pronounced n e b n a , but the past n e f n d i ,
as if written nemndi; nefnt like nemnt;
h e f n d like h e m n d • This is the uniform pro-
nunciation, when fn is followed by d, but when
followed by tj or «, it i? often pronounced yy^, or
PRONUNCIATIOK* 5
ff^s, as jafnt, pron. jaff't; jafns pron.
jafrs.
26. ptf after a simple yowel, approaches the sound
of fty and pt and ft are often interchanged.
27. p has the sound of ^A in thinks thaught. It
occurs only at the beginning of words and is nevei
doubled.
r
28. d preceded by n and followed by « is generally
silenty as 1 a B d s proa. lan«.
29. d is pronounced like th ia breathe^ father. It
never begins a word, nor is it ever doubled. In such
case, dd is substituted, as gleiS^ gladdi; ryd.
ryddi.
The ancients often wrote p for tf, as the position
was sufficient to distinguish them, but the use of d for
4 is a modem innovation. The early 'editions of
the Icelandic classics have generally d for d, and
some of them p for d, bnt in the late Copenhagen
editions, these letters are accurately distinguished.
30. k has 1) before the hard vowels and diphthongs
(23) its common English sound as in king ; 2) when
followed by a soft vowel or diphthong, it is pronoun-
ced as if y ( English y consonant) were inserted be-
tween it and the vowel, as (hard) kann, kottr,
koma, kunna, kal, kaup, kol, kuga;and
(soft)kenni, kirkja, kyrki, kaert, keypt,
keypr, kif, koeli, kyr.
e was anciently often used for ft, even before the soft vowels,
Mscip for skip; dryccr fordrykkr. But at present it
1*
b PBONUNCIATION.
is hardly used, except before k aeplock«, f>dck, and in
the latest and best editions is rejected altogether. In modern
Icelandic, g is in many words used for k final, as eg, o g t
mig, mjog,for ek,ok,mik,mjdk. But this is ra-
ther a grammatical, than an orthographical innOTation.
31. g* 1) before the bard vowels and dipbtbongs
has its common English bard sound; 2) before the
soft, it is pronounced as in guard; 3) preceded by
a vowel, and at the end of words and syllables, it bad
anciently an aspirated sound, which was sometimes
designated by gh, as logh, vegh, but it had in no
case the sound oij.
4) according to the modern pronunciation, g prece-
ded by a vowel, and followed by a soft vowel, or by/,
takes the sound ofj, (English y consonant) as bogi ,
agi, pron. boye, ahye.
5) when gn is foUowied by a consonant, especially
d or t, it takes the nasal sound ngn^ as 1 y g n d i , pron.
1 y n g n d i . 6) but if gn be followed by 5, the n is
silent, as til gagns, pron. til gagg's*
32. h is always strongly aspirated, even before a
consonant, at the beginning of a word, as hnottr,
h r i n g r . It is sometimes interchanged with Tc^ as
knifr and hnifr, knottr and hnottr .
33. j corresponds to the English y consonant in
yes, yet. Its place is often supplied by t, as in NjUs
Saga, Copenhagen, 1772.
34. nn preceded by a diphthong is pronounced
nearly like dn, as steinn, pron. steidn. But
after a simple vowel, or where it is brought in connec-
PBONUNCIAXION. 7
tion with a diphthong by.con)positiony it retains its
proper sound, asa-nni, ku-nni.
35. II, after vowels and diphthongs, is pronounced
nearly like <2/, askallyall^ill, pron. k a d 1 , a d 1,
i d 1 ; but much softer when followed by t, d, or <,
asallt, felldi, fulls. So when the two Z/ be-
long to different syllables astil-lag, Hal-land,
Hol-land, litil-lktr. // and dl are sometimes
interchanged, as a m i 1 1 i and a m i d 1 i , f r i 1 1 a and
fridla«
36. m nearly like rdn, as barn, born, horn,
and s t e i r n is sometimes found for s t e i n n . rl
nearly like rdl, and we find both jarl and jail,
karl and kail, kerling and kelling.
37. q is used only before v, and kv and qv are in-
terchanged.
38. s always hard.
39. z like s, and is used only where t, d, or i has
been dropped before «, as veizla (for veitsla)
islenzkr (for islendskr,) gerzkr (for
gerdskr.)
In ancient manuscripts,- and in many printed books, z is used
as a contraction for ss, and sometimes for st, the sign of the
passive voice.
40. X like Jcs or gs, but never like gz.
41. Vowels before single consonants are rather long,
whether the consonant be hard or soft ; but if the con-
sonant is doubled, as in egg, s e 1 1 , the vowel is
short. So although the second consonant be a differ-
8 P«OMXmCI4TIOK.
eot one, as h of u d with long o, h o f 3 i with short o.
When three or more consonants follow each other
in the same syllable, the weakest are generally silent,
ashalft, hvirfli, (dat. of hvirfill) volgt,
margt, pronounced nearly h alt, hvirrli, volt,
marrt. Margt is often written mart. So we
find yrmlingf, yrflingi', yrlingf, a small
worm. In islenzskt, danskt, k is scarcely
heard. Ingagns, hrafns, vatns, n is scarcely
heard, for which reason, v a t n s is often written v a t z,
or sometimes v a z , as the t also is nearly silent. Be-
fore sty ndy and nt, r is suppressed in speaking, as
vers tt, worstf f yrstt, firsts al stirn dt, star-
ry, stellated, ferhyrnt, fourcornered, which are
pronounced nearly, vesst^, fisstf, alstinndf,
ferhinn t.
42. In the division of words into syllables, all con-
sonants are considered as belonging to the next prece-
ding vowel, asask-a, sett-u, hofd-in-u,
vild-i, marg-ir, hest-ar.
43. To this ruley and v are exceptions, and belong
to the vowel following, aslegg-jum,hogg-va.
So r, which never connects itself with a preceding
consonant, (unless when it coalesces with it, as in
steinn, groenn, heell, full, (see No. 54.)
but either belongs to the syllable following, or if there
be no such, almost constitutes a syllable itself, as veS-
rit, veS-t, al-t, set-fr. In the following pa-
ges, this semi-syllabk; r is designated by f, a character
CHANGE OF VOWELS. 9
not, however, found in Icelandic books, and the place
of which is often supplied by ur.
44. The principal accent always fells on the first
syllable in the word, asver-ald-ar-inn-ar.
The secondary accent in words of three and four
syllables generally falls on the penult, as Upp-
lend-ing-ar, vin-iitt-a,sva-ra-8i, and
not upon the last, except in compounds, where the
last word is a monosyllable, askonungsson.
2. CHANGE OF VOWELS.
45. The change of vowels is important to be at-
tended to, both in inflection, and the formation of de-
rivative words. Of these changes there are two
classes.
46. a^ o to in the first syllable of a word, when the
vowel of the final syllable becomes u by inflection, as
Nam. a s k a , Ace, 5 s k u .
This change sometimes takes place although the u
is no longer retained* as nom. sing^ b'lad, pi. blod;
j afn , fern, jofn .
47. to o, when the final syllable receives a, as
nom. 6 g n , gen, a g n a r ; the same change some-
times occurs before tV, as agnir, and in compounds
or derivatives, though the primitive termination has
been dropped, asjarSvegt, jarSneskf.
10
CHANGE or TOWXLS.
48. b ) Before final syllables beginning with t, j^
r, and sometimes, although these leltors are omitted,
A becomes e, as land, lendi; nafn, jiefni;
grof, gref^ sok.y ^eki*;
bjart, birti; djarft^ dirfist;
hjord, hix.djr; bjorn, birni;
regn, rignir; h vejfi,(hvirfill;
rad , rsedr; ina., nee ; "
raun, reynl; d,rjau.p, dreypi;
son, synir; of, yfir;
gu8, gySja; full, fylli;
bus, h^si; prCitt., pr^Si;
bj65a, bj^at; hlj68, hl^8i;
fljiiga, fl:^gi-; djupt, d;frpra;
— (B(8B:)klo, kloBr; hot, boetj; and
sometimes
o — e: hnot, h1let^; troSa, tre8^;
koma, kemi*; of, efra, efst.
49. In the most ancient dialect, short {^nd simple
vowels oecuired before ng*^ vjc.^ and were regulailjr
changed according to the /oregoing rules ; as Ian g,t,
longu^ lejs'gi^ but afterwards all vowels before
ng iBuid rik became diphthongs, and adopted a peculiar
transition, langt, laungu,leingi.
50. In some cases, the ehs^ige does not .take place
before t, though .thp vowel in Qther inflections of the
same root is changed ; leis pons* 1 a.p d^, dat. 1 pi p d i ;
pom. nafn, dat. nafni; so, f) anki.i and kap-
pi; though wes.?y ek J) ei^nkij ek Jceppist.
o
~-^
e;
ja
—
•
1 ;
• ••
JO-
—
•
i:
e
—
i:
a
—
ee;
au
—
*y
—
y:
u
—
y-
u
—
^^^
j6
—
i-
J"
—
i-
o
_
(b(b
CHANGE or T0WEI.8* 1^1
Tbe reason of this appeals tobe^ that in the cases al-
luded to, the proper terminal vowel is not % but e, and
accordingly, we often find in manuscripts lande,
n a fn e, f)anke, kappe.
51. In like manner, o is oftea found instead of u
at the end of words, especially where the first sylla-
ble has suffered no change ; ais e r o , v a r o , {> i n-
g o m « But regularly, in these endings, e and t, and
and u afe interchangeable.
&2. There are several transitions of vowels in the
verbs, which depend upon the peculiar forms of the
di^rent classes, and are therefore here omitted.
3. CHANGE OF CONSONAN'TS.
58. ndt becomes ^^, as b a 1 1 for bandty s a 1 1 for
sandt. ngJc fcfc, as s p r a k k for sprcmgk ;
ekkja for engkja.
54. nr — nriy as steinn for sieinr; seintf
for seinr ; s e i n n a for seinra.
Ir — //, as h 6 1 1 for h 6 1 r , s 86 1 1 i for s ae 1 r i .
55. V is dropped at the beginning of words before
^jWjy>''j8isver8,var8,ur8u, yrSi, orSit^
so, hverf, hvarf, hurfu, hyrfl, horfit;
rafigt, reidi. But with the ancients, v is oftenf
retained before vowels, as vur8u,vyr8i, vor8it.
\
PART II. INFLECTION OF WORDS.
1. NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE.
56. There are two principal divisions of nouns sub-
stantive, the open and the close. The former is sim-
ple and regular in its inflection, the latter more artifi-
cial and complex. The Open Division has but a
single Declension, the Close, two. Each Declension
has three modes of inflection, one for each of the
three genders. In all the Declensions, the inflection
of the neuter is the most simple.
57. As the inflection is not determined by the ybrm
of the noun alone, but depends upon the gender also,
a knowledge of the genders is indispensable. The
following are the most general rules.
Nouns substantive in dsBmi, indi, erni, are
neuter.
Allindomi*, iingi', ingi*, ingi, leikt,
skapt, nadi*, ari, audi, are masculine.
All in ung, ing, UB,d(d,t,) ska, sla,
atta, and most in an, ni, are feminine.
Compounds take the g^der of the last component
word. For instance Polinal and Poland^ pfz'
INFLECTION OV WOBDS. 13
kaland G^ermony, are neuter, Noregt (Nor-
vegt) Norway J masc. Dan^mork Denmark,
and Svipjdd Sweden, femimne^ but Sviariki
the realm of Sweden, is neuter ; H ei S ab oe r is
masc. Slesvik fern. Lundun London, neut.
pi. Uppsalir L^jdlyinasc. pf. Kantarabyrgi
Canterbury, neut. MikligarSt Constantinople,
masc. and E d i n a b o r g I^inburgh, fem. ; because
land, riki, byrgi, areneuter; vegf, beer,
sail*, gzvSi, masculine;, and mork, {>j68,
V i k , b o r g, feminine.*
58. It is difficult to give rules fi>r the formation of
the inflected cases, but it will assist the student to re-
member>
That the Ace. o{ muter nouns in both numbers,
and of feminines in the plural, is like the nom.
That the Gen. plural always ends in a, and the
Dat. plural in urn (om.)
59. THS OPKV DIVISION
embraces all nouns ending in a vowel, except those
in % and u>
*The best method of fixing the genderi in the memory in
Icelandic y as well ai in Danish, ondoabtedly is to commit them
with the definite artidcy hit, hinn, hin, which {h being
dropped) /o2/9i0i, and is umUd to the noan ; as neat, s k i p i t ,
i. e. s k i p - i t , t. e. skip hit, ike skip ; masc. k o n n n g r-
i n n, t. s. k o n 6 n gf-i n n , t. s. k on iin g^ h i n n , the king;
fem. drottningin, *• e. drottning-in, t. «. drott.
ning hin 9 thefiusn. (99) Trsms.
2
14 INFLECTION Or WORDS.
The primitiTO and proper termination of g e i 8 1 i , h o f .
d i n g i , and other nouni iu % clasaed with the first declension,
is in 0.
60. First Declension,
neuter. tnasc. fern.
Sing. Nom. auga, eye. geisli (e,) ray. tunga, tongue.
Ace. auga geisla tungu (o)
Dat. auga geisla tungu (o)
Gen. auga geisla tungu (o)
PI. Norn, augu (o) geislar tuogur (or)
Ace. augu (o) geisla tungur (or)
Dat. augum(om) geislum (om) tungum (om)
Gen. augna geisla tungna
61. If the vowel of the^r*^ syllable of the nom.
be Of it is changed to b, in all the cases where the
vowel of the Jinal syllable is u as
neut. raasc. fern.
Sing. N. hjarta^ heart, kappi, champion, saga, saga.
A. hjarta kappa sogu
D. hjarta kappa sogu
G. hjarta kappa sogu
PL N. hjortu kappar sogur
A. hjortu kappa sogur
D. hjortum koppum sogum
G. hjartna kappa sagna
But a in the penult of trisyllables is in the like cases
changed to M, as Nom. S. ha r pari, D. PL 1)6 r-
p yrum; N. S. lei kari, D. PL leikurum.
INFXiECTION OF WORDS* 15
62. Some masculioes, especially those in ingi^ insert
j in the final syllable in all the inflected cases, as
hofSingi, chieftain, illvirki, malefactor, vili, will.
hofSingja illvirkja vUja
hofSingja illvirkja vilja
hofSingja illvirkja vilja
hoWingjar illvirkjar viljar
hofSingja illvirkja vilja
hofSingjum illvirkjum viljum
hofSingja illvirkja vilja
63. Masculines in andi are irregular in the plural,
as b u an d i, which has also a contract form.
contract form.
buandi (e,) peasant. bondi (e)
biianda :l>to(||L
buanda b6nda
buanda bonda
biiendi* bcendi*, beendir
bdendi* boendr, baendi*
biiondum, endpm bondum, beendum
buanda, enda b6nda, bsenda
64. All present participles active, when used sub-
stantively to denote a personal agent, and which gen-
erally occur in the plural, and those used in the masc.
sing, to signify a quality, endowment, faculty, or
action, (like the English, a saying, the doing of a
thing, &c. ) as t a 1 a n d i , the JacuJty oj speedi, t o-
gandi, any thing tedums ; tildragandi, occa-
sion; are thus declined :
16 INFLECTION Or W0R1>8.
eigandi, possessor. so domaodi, judge.
eiganda elskandi, lover.
eiganda lesandi, reader.
eiganda ^soekjandi, plaintiff.
verjandi, defendant.
eigend^
eigendi*
eigendum (ondum)
eigenda (anda)
65. Herra and Sira^ which areused before the
baptismal names .of priests and provosts, are the only
masculines in a of this declension, and vary from
g e i s I i iQ the nominative only.
66. Some feminines, asililja, gySja, vara,
make the genitive plural like the nominative singular
in a, instead of na.
67. K o n a<, womany totfe^ makes the gen. pi.
k V e nn a ; k vinna is sometimes, in the early wri-
ters, unchanged in the gen. pi. but with the modems
it takes the same gen. pi. as kona, namely
k ve n na..
68. As examples for practice may serve
Iikeauga Iikegei«li liketdnga likekappi
eyra, ear dropi, drop d^fa, dove f^Iagi,/el2oio
idnga, lung 6ngi, youn^ one piiikf molehill nagli, nail
\\notiB.jbaUofyamhogi, bow grima, mask api, ape
bjuga, pudding risi giant villa, error asni, ass
akuggi, shade kTiga, ke{fer andi, spirit
IXFLEGTION OF WORDS. 17
like saga ~ like h o f d i n g i like v i I i
gata, street neningi, robber einheri, an appella^
flaska, fiask, freMngi, freeman tion of the God Thor
staka,y strophe, skin lejaingij freedman skipyeri, seaman
haka, chin eyskeggi, islander
skata, skate (fish)
69. THE CLOSE DIVISION
consists of nouns endmg in consonants^ or in % proper,
for as before observed (59) the masculines in i classed
with the first declension ought properly to end in e.
This division has two declensions ; onci the second
declensibn, embracing all nouns ending in a consonant,
or which end in i proper, whether simple as in m e r k i ,.
or diphthongal as in free (free) see (23). The
other, the third declension, consisting of those nouns
whose final syllable contains a distinct u.
70. Second Decknsion.
neuter masc. fern.
Sing. N. land, land htdXiiSr^swordrbladt rdr, journey
A. land brand €6t
D. landi (e) brandi (e) for
G. lands brands farar
Plu. N. lond brandar farir (ar)
A. lotid branda farir (ar)
D. londum brondum forum
G. landa branda fimi
71* If neither a nor o occur in the nom. there is
regulariy no change of vowel, as
skip, ship konungf, king eign, possession
skipum konungum eignum
2*
18 INFLECTION OF WOKBS.
But the inasc. noun dagt, besides the usual
changes, has another in the dative singular,
N. S. dag^ day N. PI. dagar
D. degi D. dogum
72. When the nom. in its root form ends in n or 2
preceded by a vowel, the masculine characteristic f ,
is often dropped, and the final consonant doubled, as
steinn [for stein f], haell [for h self], and so in
longer words, asdrottinn,lykill. The oblique
cases are, in general, regular, as ace, stein, h se 1 ,
drottin, lykil, but in monosyllables the f final
of the dat. sing, is often dropped, as hae 1 for haeli ,
hoi for h 6 1 i , her for h e r i , is for i s i .
If the final radical consonant be r or 5, usage varies,
sometimes the consonant being doubled rr^ ss, and
sometimes the characteristic rejected. It is however
most generally retained, as porr, herr, hauss,
iss, OSS, but hamar, kurteis.
If the n, If or $ final be preceded by another con-
sonant, the characteristic is dropped altogether, as
vagn, hrafn, fugly karl, h&ls, kross,
lax.
73. Dissyllables are contracted in their inflection,
by the elision of vowels, whenever the pronunciation
will allow it, as the neuter nouns
sumar, $ummer. hofiiS, Aeac?.
sumar hofuS
sumri hofSi
sumars hofuSs
INFLECTION OF WORDS. 19
sumur hofuS
sumur bofud
sumrum hofSum
sumra boiSa
So the masculine nouns
N. bsLm^LTy hammer, rock, drottinn, /ore?. lykilK^fcey.
D. hamri drottni ' / '
N. barorar drottnar lyklar
A. bamra
D. bomnim
6. bamra
74. Some admit an anomalous cbange of vowel in
the contracted forms as tbe neuter noun, m e g i n
megin, power, strength.
megin
magni
megins
megin, mogn
megin, mogn
mognum
magna
So masc. k e t i 11 , and fern, a I i n
ketill, kettle. alin, eU.
D. katli G. alnar
N. katlar N. Idnir
A. katla D. alnum
D. kotlum G. fJna
90 INFLECTION OF WOKDS.
75. To the contracts belong the masc. nouns
j o f u r r and f j 6 1 u r r , which retain b through-
out.
N. jofurr, king, rjotarr^ fetter.
D. jofii Qotri
PL N. jofrar fjotrar
The other similar nouns of all the genders had an-
ciently simple f (not ur or urr,) and are therefore not
to be regarded as contracts, as
neiit. masc. fern.
N. silft, silver. Mr,JieId^ fjotAy feather.
D. silfri akri G. QaSrar
PI. N. akrar QaSrir (ar)
D. fjodrum
G. QaSra
76. Neuter polysyllables in ad^ an^ and feminines
in an are not contracted.
neut. fern.
mannlikan^Atfrnan ifnag-e.skipan, arrangement, mess.
mannlikan skipan
mannlikani skipan
mannlikans skipanar (onar)
mannlikun (on) skipanir
mannlikun (on) skipanir
mannlikunum skipunum (onom)
mannlikana skipana
77. Some words of this declension insert j\ others
Vf before the final syllables consisting of, or beginning
with a vowel, (but not j before t, or v before u.)
INFLECTION OF WORDS.
21
78. The insertion of >v prevents the change of a
preceding d (or au) to. a ^or a) before the terminal
vowel a. (31) In the plural of feminines, the insert-
ed V requires .the anoient ending ar.
frcB (&B&j) seed, saungi*, song,
fitB saung
ficBTi saungvi
frees saungs
or, amno.
or
oru 0^'
orvar
fr(B
free
froevum (om)
fioBva
saungvar
saungva
saungum (om)
saungva
orvar
orvar
orum (om)
orva
79. If y be inserted, , the final syllable (ji) of the
dat. sing, of masc. nouns is dropped, and the plural
takes the endings N. sV, Ac. i; but in feminines the
ancient ar is retained, and the final syllable becomes
jar^ thus
neut. masc.
nes, pronumiory. dreingf, hoy.
nes dreing
nesi dreing
nes?
dreings
fern.
ben, toonnd.
ben
ben
benjar
nes dreingir benjar
nes dreingi .benjar
nesjum dreingjum benjum
nesja dreingja benja
80. There are many masculines having a single
consonant after a vowel and before f , which also have
8S INrLBCTION OF WORDS.
the dat. sidg. like the ace. and have the nom. pi. intr,
and the ace. pi. in t, without inserting the j; uid
there are also many feminineSy chiefly in tj^^ i&fig'j
and f (ov i,) which have ar in the plural without
the insertion of v or j^ as
dali*, valUy.. drottnmg, queen. ve\6t (veidi,) game.
dal drottning veiSi
dal drottningu vei6i
dais drottningar veiSar
dalir drottningar veiSar
dali drottningar veidar
dolum drottningum veiSum
dala drottnmga veiSa
but dali sometimes occurs in in the dative smgular,
and Herdalar is found in the plural. The fern,
b r u 8 i* makes brdSir in the plural.
81. Some resemble the third declension in the form
of the gen. sing, (making it in of) but in other res-
pects are declined like either
1.) brandf, 2.) dreingf, or 3.) dali.
Like b r a n d ^ are declined
hattf, krapt^y (kraftf,) grautf, skogf ,
V i n d {*, and in the old poetic dialect v e g i* (whence
the phrase alia vega);
Like d r e i n g i* ,
belgt, mergt, leggt, hryggt, verkf,
reykt) Iseki*, drykki* and boer, whence
boejar, boejum, bcBJa, with/ inserted, which
is strictly observed in all the best ancient works ;
INVLBCTION OW WOBBS.
98
Liike da It,
staSi*, sauSty bragj-, vegt,* rettt, vini*
(or vin,) hugr hlutt, munt (diffierence^)
and all in -n a 8 r , (-n u 8 r ) and -8 k a p r , which
however are seldom used in the plural.
82. Neuters in i and masculines in ir reject { be-
fore the endings -um, ^ar^ -a, untesB the preceding
consonant be ^ or X:, in which case i is chmiged to j,
instead of being rejected. Feminines in i proper are
indeclinable in the sing, but have ir in the plural, as
kvcBdi merki teknir eefi
kviedi merki leekni cefi
kvsedi merki tekni ssfi
kvsedis merkis beknisr ffifi
kvffidi
merki
laeknar
ffifir
kv8B8i
merki
Isekna
8B&
kv8B8um
merkjum
Iseknum
SBfum
kvHb8a;
merkja ;
tekna
sefa
Eyrir , a tongm of /anc!, makes in the pl.aurar,
aura, aurum, aura; eyri, a low sandy beachf
has eyrar in the gen. sing, and nom. pL Sa
h e 1 g i 9 sanctity f holi^dayt Sundayy makes h e 1 g ar
in the same cases.
83, Some of all the three genders have other ineg*
ularities; as the neuter noun l»ti, which ocesis
only in the plural and has dat. 1 itu m , gen. lata.
Some neuters become feminines in the plural^ as :
' II-.. I I ^ I I ■■■»»<■— ^a.——i^hMi»
* V e g ^ sometimeB has t eg u in the ace. pJ.
24 INTLSCTION OT WORDS.
Sing, limy bough PI. limar
tiJ. cheat talar
eing, JiM eingjar
mund, period of time mundir
f>usund, thousand f>(isuiidir
Some of thb class are declined throughout in both
genders. F r oe 6 i , knowledge^ is feminine in the
sing, and indeclinable like »fi , but in the pi. is neu-
ter and follows k v ae 8 i . (82) j .- '
84. Some neuters are found in the nom. and gen.
both with and without the final s, as e i n g and e in g i ,
full ting and fulltingi, sinn, time (Get,
mal) and s i n i| i ^ the lengthened form belongs td the
modem dialect, bui has often been intvoduced into
printed editions from modern copies of ancient manu-
scripts. ^
85. The masc. g u d> gody which wants f in the nom.
has the nom. pi. g u 8 i r ^- but g o 8 , w&ich signifies
a heathen god, has g o 8 in the plural ; I i k h a m t
or 1 i k a m ^ , which in' t&e singular usually takes the
form 1 i k a m i y and follows g e i ^1 i- (60), makes li -
k a m i r in the pi. and is inflected like d a 1 1 r (80).
A more numerous class of words occurs, with the ter-
mination i as well as f, but ikmking the common pi.
of both modes of inflection in 'Or^ as
Sing, kserleiki* or keerfeiki'/ove, PL kaerldkar &c.(xi-
keerleik k^rleika Py
sannleik^ or sannleiki sannleikar
The ending - 1 e i k i is common in the modem
dialect.
INriiKCTlON OT WOB0S. S5
Sometimes the change of form is accompanied with
a change of signiiGcation^ as
od<&fPoint(ofatDeap(m); oddi,jK>m^ (of land)
munnt, mouth ; munni, embouchure
karl> an old man; Karli, a proper name
So some of the irregulars, as
bragi*, a poem ; Bragi, a proper name
bugi*, humour J spirit ; hugi, mindy thought
hluti*, lotf thing ; hluti, portion
It also happens that words of these inflections
scMnetimes resemble each other without being related.
bol^ (=daU-) trunk ; boli, bull
h$i^f condition; hsL^, meadow
In some few cases, neuters of this declension assume
the i final and follow the first declension, as
&mak, omaki, troitble
mal, speech; {ormiliy preface \poem
verk, work ; verki, a literary work 9
land, landy country; landi, compatriot
hhy dwelling ; bui, fheigKbour
hofuS, head ; hofSi, promontory
norSi', the north ; NorSri, the name of a
[dwarf
86. The other principal masc. irregulars of this
declension are these ;
sk6r,«Aoe dorr, ip«ar (&{u) madi-, man ringi-,^ng*er
8k6 dor mann fmgi*
9kb dor manni fingri
skos dors manns fingb
3
skdar
derir
skua
deri
skom
donim
skua
darra
36 IIVFLKCTION or WORDB.
menn fmgi*
menn fingf
monnum fingrum
manna fingra
The modems contract s k 6 r in the pK thus ;
Nom. skor, ace. sko, dat. skom, gen. skoa.
87. The feminine sal, sotU, has s al u in the dat.
sing, s a 1 i r nom. and s a 1 n a gen. plural ; s a 1 u
sometimes occurs in the gen. sing, especially in com-
position, as s&luhjalp; grein makes the pi.
greinir*, andsometimesgreinar ; ey , island, has
e y j u or ey in the dat. and ey j a r in the plural ;
but e y a is now generally used in the sing, and is in-
flected according to the first declension.
Monosyllables in a are contracted, and the foUo^ir*
ing a or u in the inflected cases^ coalesces with the
a, as
brfc, eyebroio
a^ river
skra, lockj rescript, statute
brfi
a
skra [vine
bra
a
skra so. gja, chasm, ra»
brar
ta
skrar spa, prophecy
ra, she^'goaty
brar
ar
skrkr slk^bolt [sail'^
brar
ar
skraJ* [yard
bram
am
skram
bra, braa
a, aa
skra, skraa
Some derivatives with this ending are indeclinable
in the sing, with the ancients, as as j a, jpro^ection,
countenance.
INVLVOTION OF WORM.
27
88. The foUowbg may serve as examples for prac-
tice.
like land
ha£f sea
lamb, lamb
bla9, leaf
like brandf
hestf y hone
eld^, Jire
ddmtf judgment
like e i g n
dygS) virtue
ferSy voyagejounuy
8J6n, n^Af
axy ear C^eamJ brann>,/ottit<asfi mSkn, jiarifA
«ratB, looter
tjald, teitf
gnt, grass
glt»,aglass
like skip
likely kill
kaSally cable
jokully iceberg fgla'
biSill, suiior Icier
like 1 » k n i r
fdrn, offering
audii« desert
pifll, torture
ger6« aaisn
like f5r
bor9, tdbU
•triS, var •
mdlfflMO^vr/f
ba, dmeUing
hey, Aay
gler,^Zaef
vidir, willoto gjof, ^^
I>yrniry tkornt hook grdf| ditciA
reyiiir«;Rioimt'fi4tA 6x1, shouUUs^UuU
l^ttlr.9 re/t'^
miisir, loss
nupJir, meawre
|[j5rd) ^'rtA
mjoSm, hif
skomin, lAome
hoAi, harbour
like k Y 86 S 1
likedalit
like drottning
hral^y whale sigling, sailing
bol^, trunk djdrfbng, daring
liver, boiling-spring hdrmdng, misery
kliediy clothing
epli, Appl^
ennif forehead
viti, punishment staff, 5ta^
frelsi, /reedom I ftiif people
akkeri, anchor smidf, smttA, artificer
^i^it (the) good htLg^^ condition
eyrindi, business
28 IMFLCCTION or W0BO8.
likemerki . lik«drein(i likeefi
riki, realm aekkh,' sack gMifjoy
fylkif province tegg^, man elli, a^«
▼irki, entrenchmH |>Yeing^, shauiring ktiBtni,ChrisiUmihf
yi(^, military powt mildi, munificence
r^ttvisi , justice
heltnif petition
hlydni, obedience
like n e « like h a m a r r like ben
sk^r, elif jaSarr, border naudsyn, neee$Mitff
kyn, family morgun, morning fit, list
rif, rih aptan, evestng egg, egg
klyffpaek
nyt, nutf utiUty
like V e i 8 ( (▼eid])(fe.) like 5 r
ami, eleeve ddggfdew
myri, marsh stodi plaee
heidi, heath
lygi,K«
fasti, collar, fast
89. Tht Third Dedennan
embraces the remaining nouns, bemg those w hose
primitive ending contained u or v. This letter how-
ever has in many cases been dropped, or lost by coa-
lescence with other letters.
The neuters of this declension are few, and all end
in e (forev). The masculines have ar In the gen.,
and ir in the pi. ; the feminines ar or f in the gen.
and r in the plural. n
INFLICTION ar YTOXDB. 29
moic. fem.
tre,(for v611iir,/ieW fjordur, r6t,roo^ mork forest,
tre, trev) vol! rj6t6,[bay rot mork, [mark
tre, [tree vein fir8i rot mork
tres vallar QarSar rotar merki*
tre vellir firSir rcEtf raerkt
tre vollu fjorSu roeti* merkt
tijam voUam QorSum rotum morkum
tija valla QarSa rota marka
90. k n e is declined like tre, so hie and s p e ,
which however do not occur in the plural. About the
15th centurj, the Icelanders began to pronounce the e
in words of this class likeye^ whence the orthography
tre, tres, kne etc. which has been followed in
many good editions. T r j a m and t r j a the dat. and
gen. pi. of t r e are contracted for t r j a v u m , t r ja«-
va . The word fe cattle^ moneys personal property,
has f j ar (for f j a v a r ) . Mui v e , temple^ follows
land or skip.
91. The masculines are generally written with r
(for tfr), because it was not observed that the u m
the final syllable, as in the dat. pL was the occasion
of the in the first syllable (46). So h v a 1 i* has o,
because the r is separated fix)m the root merely by a
Shva, but k j o 1 u r has o, because the final syllable
contains u proper. In all the words of this class, the
aocusative plural has a double form ; in t, correspon-
ding with the vowel of the nom. pi. (as in the 2nd
3*
30 imrLBCTidN or wobbs.
dec.) as velli, firSi, and in u, corresponding
with the vowel of the dat. pi. The latter is the r^u-
lar ancient form. There are also many changes of
vowel in these words, though some admit no change.
N. sonur, (son) drkituTy dmught viSur, tree, tvood
A. son, [$on dratt viS
D. syni dratt <Lra?l'(i vidi
G. sonar drattar viSar
N. synir drasttir vidir
^ ( syni ( drsetti ( vi8i
' \ sonu \ drattu \ vifiu
D. sonum dtattum vifium
G. sona dratta vifia
The words f 6 X u r , fooi^ and vetfc, uinter v e 1 1 ,
are irregular.
fotur vett (for vetr-ur )
fot vett ( for vetr-u)
f(Bti vetri
(otar vetrar
f(£t^
vetr (for vetr-t)
foetr
vett (for vetr-t)
(otum
vetrum .
iota
vetra
92. The feminines of this declension have also ma-
ny vowel-changes ; some admit no change, and some
have a double inflection, one according to this, and one
according to the second declension.
INFLECTION OF Wa&08.
31
3d Dec.
^
2d Dec.
morkyforesty staung,j?o/e mork
mork [marJc staung mork
mork staung jnorku
merkr steingt markar
merkjr
merki*
morkum
marka
steingf
steingi*
staungum
stanga
xnarkir
markir
eiorkum
marka
stauDg
staung
staung
stangar
stangir
stangir
staungum
stapga
The vowel-change in slaung, steingt is in
fact the same as in mork, merki*, as the length-
ening of o to au and of e to e£ is merely the effect of
the ng which follows them (49). The principal
words which admit of this double inflection are s t r o n d ,
strand^ r on d , margin^ s pa u n g, iamina^ t a u n g,
forceps f h a u n k , skein.
93. In a single instance, the change of inflection
is attended with a change of signification, namely ;
ond pi. endK, duck^ ond pi. an dar jptnV,
ghost. Three of this class of words, strond,rond,
ond, always make the gen. sing, in ar ; so that
ond, ducky and ond, spirit ^ difler in inflection only
in the dat. sing, and nom. and ace. pi.
ond, duck ond, spirit
ond ond
ond ondu
andar andar
32 iNrLBCTioN or woeds.
endt
andir
endf
andir
ondum
onduiD
anda
anda
94. Some monosyllables terminadng in an accented
vowel (diphthong) are regular in their contractions,
when the ending begins with a vowel. If the final
vowel of the nom. be a, a or .it following coalesces
with it ; if o or 6, u alone coalesces ; as
ta, toe k\bf claw
6. tar (for taar) kloar
PL N. taer kloer
D. tarn (for taum) klom
6. kloa
a, ewcj has sr, and kii.^ cowy kyr, in the gen.
and in the pi. These forms (ser, kyr) in the modem
dialect are used for the nom. sing, also, so that these
words are alike in the nom. and gen. sing, and in the
nom. and ace. pi. In others, the r final of the pi. coa-
lesces with the preceding consonant, as b r (i n , eye-
brow, pi. br^nn; (Egilss. p. 306.) the modems
say br ^ n , or sometimes b r ^ r ; m (i s , mousey makes
the pi. mfss or mfs; dyrr or dyr, door open-
ing, occurs in the pi. only, and makes the dat. and gen.
durum, dura, or dyrum,dyra. Both br^n
and dyrr in the pi. are sometimes referred to the
neut. gender.
Still more irregular are bond, handy and nat
or n 6 1 1 , flight.
mriiBCTiOH or wobds.
88
hond
natt or nott
hoDd
natt
nott
hendi
natt
n&ttu
handar
nattar
nsetf" (noBtr)
hendf
nseti*
(noBtt)
hendi*
nsti*
(noetr)
hondum
nattum
nottum
handa ;
natta
notta
95. Nouns of this declension in d or t generally
make the gen. in ar^ but those in g or fc have the gen.
sing, like the nom. pi.
96. hind, hind^ and h n o t , hazelnut^ are thus
declined :
hind hnot
hind hnot
hind hnot
bindar hnotar
hindt
hindt
hmdum
hinda
hnett
hnetf
hnotum
hnota
In Ra8k*8 Anyisning till Islftndskan, Stockholm, 1818, where
the declensions are arranged upon a different principle, the
masculines which have the gen. in ar form a separate declen-
sion. According to this arrangement, the anomalous mascu-
lines mentioned in the text at (81) are classed with the mascu-
lines of the third declension, which regularly make the gen. in
or. The paradigms giren in the Anvisning are d r d 1 1 r (91)
Yollr (89 Tidr (91) and skjdldr, brag^, and belg^,
which are thus declined :
34
IMrUBCTIOH or W0BO6.
Bkjoldr, ifkieU
bragf , poe», autom belf^, lAn'n
skjold
brag
belg
skildi
brag
belg
skjaldar
bragar
belgjar
skildir
bragir
belgir
skjolda
bragi
belgi
skjoldum
brogam
belgjum
skjalda
braga
belgjA
like drdtt^
like vdllr
like vi(r
pkui, section
g51tr,ibocr
feia^, skin, toot
h&tt^ maitfur
vondr, broom
ti^ih, custom
mittf, atrengtk
, knotix.haU
W^, joints m^mhor
^xAib, tkread
borkr, hark
uaitAt smiUk^ artisan
kottr, eat
iiraih, UaA
like ikjdldr
lit^, colour
y.0^0^
like bragf
•jddf, iwrw
bjortr, stag
%^vw
kjolr, keel
matf , mean
like belgr
mjoftr, mead
t^tti, right, disk
s^s^
bjorn, hear
vini, friend
hryggf , l«B«*
bugf , iiitJi4
Ugg^, Ug
saudf , #Amjp
mnn^y dijferemce
drykkf , drink
lekf y irooA(
reykf,«moA«
All these nouns wbich make « ift the ace. pi. have alio ano-
ther ace. in t.
Those which insert 7 in the gen, sing, in effect insert it in all
the cases, the pi. belgir, drykkir, being pron. as if
written belgjir, drykkjir.
Some, as s j d r , (s j 6 r) sea, s n j i r , (s n j <S r) snow, insert
/ (or v). Thus sjiLr, gen. sjiLfar, pi. sjdfir; snjdr,
gen. snjiLfar, etc.; fiskf has in the gen. fiskjaror
fisks, pi. fiskar.
INTLBCTION OF W0BD8.
36
97. We may here notice certain words indicating
degrees of relationship, of different genders, and which
might be considered as constituung a separate declen-
sion, if they were not so few. They are
faSir m68ir broSir dottir
foSur moSur br&Sur dottur
foSur m&Sur broSur dottur
fodur m&dur br&Sur dottur
sysur
systur
systur
systur
feSr moeSr broeSr dcetr systr
fedr moeSr broeSr dcetr systr
feSrum moeSrum broeSruna dcetrum systrum
feSra mceSra broeSra doetra systra
faSir sometimes has feSt, and bs&Sir, broeSi*,
in the dat. sing.
98. Besides these, the ancient dialect has some pe-
culiar words of relationship, of different declensions,
signifying two persons, and therefore occurring in the
pi. only. If the persons are of different sexes, the word
is neuter, thus :
hjon, man and tvife feSgin, father 8f daughter
systkin, brother and sister moedgin, mother and son
hju, boy and girly or man feSgar, father and son
and wife. mcdiguT,motherfydaughter
To this class may be referred born, children^ the
only one which occurs in the sing. barn(=land);
f e d g a r is masculine, and m oe 8 g u r (= tungur )
gen. m oe d g n a, feminine. The others are all neuter.
36 INTLKCTION OF W0BB8.
99. DECLENSION WITH THE ABTICUB.
This consists merely in annexing the definite arti-
cle h i 1 9 h i n n , bin, to the noun, both noun
and article retaining their proper terminations with
litde change of form through all the inflections. As
the article is properly a pronoun, resembling the ad-
jective in its declension, it will be serviceable first to
exhibit its complete inflection.
neiUn masc. fern*
hit hipn bin
hit hinn bina
hinu binum binni
bms bins binnar
bin
binir
hinar
bin
bba
hinar
binum
binum
binum
binna
binna
binna
When annexed to the noun, the article altoayM loses
the A, and if the noun end in the short vowels a, i, or
u, the i also is dropped ; the i is likewise dropped af-
ter all plural endings in r.
100. The noun suffers no change in any of its ca-
ses, except in the dat. pL where the m final is drop-
ped for the sake of euphony, and as the noun then
consequently ends in u, the hi of the article is drop-
ped also (99). In the following paradigms, the arti-
cle is separated from the noun by a hyphen, in order
to exhibit more clearly the inflections of both, but in
INTLECTIOK Off WOBDS. 37
practice, tbe hyphen is omittedi add the article joined
immediately to the noun, thus
hj artat, i.e. hjarta-t i.e. hjarta hit the heart
an dinn i.e. andi-nn i. e. andi hinn, thespirit
gatan i. e.gata-ni. e. gatahin,tAe street
fajarta-t andi-nn gata-n
hjarta-t anda-nn gotu-na
hjarta-nu anda-num gotu-nni
hjarta-ns anda-ns gotu-nnar
hjortu-n andar-nir gotur-nar
hjortu-n anda-na gotur-nar
hjortu-num ondu-num gotu-num
hjartna-nna anda-nna gatna-nna
101. It is further to be observed that the masculines
of the second and third declension, which want i in the
dat sing, do not take the i of the article in the dat. thus
dreingf-inn, dat. dreing-num; dal^-
i n n , dat. d a 1 - n u m ; but those nouns of this class
which admit i final in the dative generally retain it
when declined with the article, as i s i n u m ^ rather
than isnum; stolinum, rather than s 1 6 1 n u m .
102. The following are examples of the second
declension.
skjp«it konungf-inn elgn-in
skip-it konung-mn eign-ina
skipi-nu konungi-num eign-mni
skips-bs konuQgs-ins eignar-innar
38 INFLECTION OF WORDS.
skip-in konuDgftr^air eignir-nar
skip-ID konunga-iA^ eighir-nar
skipu-num konungu-nuni' eignu-num
skipa-nna koniinga- ttaai eigna-nna
108.' Whenever f is followed by a vbwel, it pro-
perly los'es'its semi-syllabic character^ and id transfer-
red to the syllable following, thus
silf-rit, not silft-it i. e. silfur- it ^
ma!m-rinH," malmt-inn" malraup-inn,
fjoS-rin " fjo fit-in " fjo8ur-in,
but this rule is now observed in the neuter only.
104. All contract and* irregular forms remain un-
chBXiged; asdegi-num,katli-hum, salu-
nni,alnar-innar;^ retains its semi-syllabic char-
acter before n, as boendt-nir, fingt-na.
M a fi i* adds the pliable ir in the noni. pL and i in
the ace. before the article, thus mennir-nir (rarely
menninir), m e n n i - n a.
105. Monosyllabic nouns, ending in & long vowel
iit diphthong, retain the i of f he arficte, in those cases
where the word would 6therwise cofitinue a monosyl-
lable, as skra-in, n6tskra-n, ey-in, not
e y - n , tut reject it, when its retention would tiake
thenoun a trisyllable, as skra-na, not skra<^?iia(,
skra-nni, not skra-inni; ey-na, nt)f cfy-
ina, ey-nni, notey-inni; (if the dat. eyju
be used the definite form is e y j u n n i (87 ).
106. Feminines ending in simple vowels often Re-
ject the hi of the article, in ihe ace. sing, as f o r -
ISVLSCTIOK or WORDS. 39
na, for for-in.a; grof-na, for grof-ina
(Snorra Edda p. 138); reiS-na, for rei8-i na;
buS-na, for h u S p i n a (Snorra Edda ,p. 144).
Third Declension,
kne-it, the knee kjolr-inn, the Jceel bok-in, the book
kne-it kipl-kin bok-ina
kne-nu kili-Dum bok-inni
knes-ins kjalar-ins b6kar-innar
kne-in kilir-nir boekr-nar
kne-in kj6lu-«a bceki'-nar
knja-num kjolu-num boku-num
knja-nna kjala-nna boka-nna
107. The anomalous nouns f a S i r and b r 6 d i r
generally add s to the gen. sing, when doQlined with
the article, foSurs-ins, brodurs-ins.
108. The modern form treS, for tre-it, is
found in some good manuscripts.
109. The nouns of this declension retain all their
irregularities before the article, as m^snar, dyr-
nar, or neut. dyrrin, but br]^nnar is used
instead ofbr^^nnnar (Snorra Edda p. 50).
110. Names of persons and places do not receive
the article, except where a common noun has become
nomen proprium, as v i k - i n , (the bay), the bay of
Christiania in the J^orthem .piut of the Skagerrack,
L o g i* - i n n , (the water, sea) Lake Mselar.
The titles of books, as ,Njal a, £dda, Hako-
narmal, Grimnismal,6r&gas,Lo8br6-
40 INFLECTION Or WOBDS.
k a r k V i 8 a 9 are used without the article. So na-
tional appellations^ many of which occur in the plu-
ral only, as Danir, Sviar, Gautar, Irar,
Finnar , B j armar,*' but the corresponding ad-
jectives, which are often used instead of these nouns,
especially in the modem dialect, are declined with the
article like substantives, as I>^zkh-inn,danskf-
inn •
2. ADJECTIVES.
111. The inflections of the adjective considerably
resemble those of the nouns ; but by no means as
closely as in Greek and Latin, where these two clas-
ses of words are declined nearly alike.
The article, when used with the adjective, always
precedes it, and the adjective takes a peculiar defective
inflection, called the definite fortny corresponding, in
the three genders, to the first or open Division of
nouns, except in the plural, where all cases and gen-
ders alike terminate in u^ and the case is determined
by the context. When the adjective is used indefi-
* These rules are often disregarded in the later, and some-
times in the earlier Sagas ; thus we find E i n a r a n a , Ljdsvs.
30 ; O d d i n n , L)68vs. 31; Haraldanna, 6. Fmn, 443, 7.
Fms. 53; B reidvikingrinn, Eyrbyggja. 56; BreiS-
fy rdingarnir, Eyrb. 13; Gautunum, 3. Forn. S* N.
85; Svianna, 3. F. S. N. 99; Fi n n ur nar 2. F. N. S.
174 ; Austmadr, when used in a definite sense, generally
takes the article, Viga-GldmsS.c. 19; Landndma, 118; NjAla
54,60; LJ6BV8. 1. TVan.
flNFLECnON OF WORDS. 41
nitelyy or vKthout the article, it takes a totally different,
and very complete inflection, which is called the in-
definite form, and answers to the close Division of
nouns, and properly to the second declension, as no
adjective makes e in the nom. pi. neut. or u in the
ace. pi. masc, or^ in the nom. pj. fern.
112. It may assist the learner, to remember, that
the gen. sing, is alike in the neut. and masc. — The
nom. sing. fem. as in Latin, like the nom. pi. neut. —
the ace. fem. sing, like the ace. masc. pi. — the dat.
masc. sing, like the dat. pi. which is the same in all
the genders — and that the nom. and ace. of the neut.
in both numbers are alike, as are also the nom. and
ace. pi. fem.
113. The indefinite form is thus declined,
neiU,
masc.
fem.
spakt, toise
spakt
spok
spakt
spakan
spaka
spoku
spokum
spakri
spaks
spaks
spakrar
spok spakir spakar
spok spaka spakar
spokum spokum spokum
spakra spakra spakra
114. The definite form may always be readily
found, the nom. sing. neut. being like the ace. fem.
sing, of the indefinite form ; it is thus declined,
4*
42
INFLECTION Or W0BD8.
spaka
•spaki
spaka
spaka
spaka
spoku
spaka
.•^paka
spoku
spaka
spaka
spoku
spoku spoku spoku
spoku «poku spoku
spoku ^/o'^hnin spoku ^/v /''"'• spoku l/r-'iu-y:'.
spoku spoku spoku
The inflection of the singtilari as has been already
observed^ corresponds precistiy whh that of the open
Division of nouns ; the neuter ^like a u g a , the masc.
like g e i s 1 i , and the fern, likerit u n g a (60). Lake
spakt, spakl, spak, are declmed
ind;
def.
hagt
hagf
hog
haga, i, a
hvatt
hvat^
hvot
hvata, i, a
hart
hatdf
hord
.harOa, i, a
hvast
bvafis
hyoss
hvassa, i, a
snart
suar
anor
Boara, i, a
gjarnt
gjam
gjorn
gjarna^iya
ringt
r&og^
raung
rdnga, i, a
kr&nkt
krinkr
kraunk
krdnka, i,a
115.
The following may serve as examples :
bla-tt
blii-r
h\k
bla.
-a bla-i bla-a
bla-tt
bla-an
bla-a
bla-u
bla-um
bla-iri
bla-s (ss) Ua-s
(ss)
bla-rrar
INFLECTION or WOBOa. 43
Ua
bla-ir
blk-ar
t
bla
U&-a
bla-ar
bla-um
bla-um
bla-um
bla-nra
bla-rra
blii^rra
Id like manner are declined
(
hMtt
hrdr
hrd
jihr&a, i, a
frdtt
frdr
M
frda, i, a
frjdtt
frj6tt
^ fl-jd
frj6a, i, a
trdtt
triir
trd
^trda, i, a
hlytt
hlyr
hly
^lya, i, a
skffir-t
-
skasr
dksr
skser-t
skser-an
skeer-a
skser-u
i
iskaer-um
Skser-ri
skaer-s
skser-s
i^sr-rar
sksr
skser-ir
skeer-ar
skmr
skaer-a
skaer-ar
sksBr-um
skaer-um
skaer-um
skaer-ra
skaerria
skfBr-ra
Def. sksra
dcseri
^kser-a
So idrt
lir
idr
^sira, i, a
Bt6n
■USr
■USr
■tdra, 1, a
s6rt
tdr
86r
■(ira,i, a
•kirt
■kir
• 8klr
■kira, i, a
dyrt
dyr
dyr
dyra, i, a
bert
ber
ber
bera^i, a*
j^art
I>arr
{>urr
I>urra, i, a
kyrt
kyrr
kyrr
kyrra, i, a
116. Although the adjective
has but a single de
dension, several things are material to be observed ii
See (119).
44 iNrjLKCTioN or wouds*
the connection of the ending with the root-form. If
the final radical letter be d, preceded by a vowel or
diphthong, the 6 in the neuter coalesces with the
neuter characteristic i and forms the ending ^^ as g 1 a 1 1,
glaSf, glod; breitty breiSi*., breiO; in a
single instance, namely, gott, g68t,^68, the
accent is dropped ; but the d, if preceded by a conso-
nant, is dropped altogether in the neuter, as hart,
harSi*, hord; sagt^ sag St, sog.iS; baft,
hafSi-, hof8.
In dissyllables, the d is dropped, although preceded
by a vowel, askallat, kallaSr, kolluS^lagit,
lagidt, lagid, instead ofkalladt, lagiSt.
In like manner d after a consonant is dropped, as
vant,vandr, vond; selt, seldr, seld;
geymt, geymdt, geymd. But if there be
ddy one of them is dropped as gladt, gladdr,
glodd; breidt, breiddr, breidd; mcedt,
moeddi*, moBdd. If the root-form end in ^^, ano-
ther t is not added in the neut., but the neut. is like
the fem. assett,settr,sett;moett,moetti',
m oe 1 1 ; unless it be a case where these genders can be
distinguished by the vowel, change as latt, latt^,
1 o 1 1 . The neuters of words whose root-form ends
in tt are not distinguishable from those of other adjec-
tives ending in t simple, as
latt latt^ lott, and latt lati- lot
bvatt bvatt^ hvott and h vatt hvati* Jbvdt
INFLECTION OF WORDS.
45
Before any other consonant than t, as wdl as before
vowels, dy dy dd are retained as
Gen. glads
glads
gladrar
gods
gods
godrar
kalds (kalz)
kalds
kaldrar
kends (kenz)
kends
kendrar
Mgds
sagds
sagdrar
Jerds
leerds
Iierdrar
kallads
kallads
kalladrar
>
ritads
ritads
ritadrar
117. Those whose root-form ends in an accented
vowel double the neuter characteristic t, the r which
occurs in the dat. and gen. sing. fern, terminations ri
and rar, and the gen. pi. rOj and often the s final in
the neut. and masc. gen. sing, as
prdtt p^dr prd
Gen. prdss pr^oa prdrrar
Gen. pi. prdrra pr^rra prdrra
andssett, audflser, audss
mjott mjdr mj6
trdtt tr6r trd
nytt nyr ny
Those in a are in general contracted in the cases
where a and u follow, those vowels coalescing with
the a, as b 1 a for dat. neut. b 1 & u ; b 1 a n for ace.
masc. b 1 a a n , b 1 a m for dat. masc. sing, and dat. pi.
b I a u m ; likewise in the definite form, as nom. h i n n
graijbutacc. hinn grk, for hinn graa,dat. hinum
gra, gen. bins gra. The uncontracted forms of these
words belong to the modem dialect, and are hardly to
be found in aiiy ancient work of importance. The
46 INFLBCTION Or WOBDS.
ancients on the other band often inserted / (or v) to
avoid the contraction, as faktt, bar, ha, ace.
masc* hkfan for hkan, dat. hafum or hafom
(or b a m) for h &u m ; definite form b af a , h af i,
hafa. In like manner mjofa, mjofan, mjo-
fum , firom mjott, mjor, mj 6; def. form mjofa,
mjofi, mjofa. The adjective n ^ 1 1 , n;^r, ny,
inserts y before all the vowels excepting i*, as n ^ j u ,
n^jan, for n<ru, n^an, Stc.
1 16. Some adjectives insert j and v aftej tlie last
consonant, without any other change in the inflection,
thus corresponding to the nouns mentioned in (78 and
79,) as dokkt (dokt), dokkt, dokk; pi.
dokkvir, (docqvir) dokkvar, def. form
dokkva, dokkvi, dokkva.
The only one which jegularly inserts J is
mitt, midr, mid
mitt, midjan, midja
midju, miSjum, miSri, be.
The nom. pi. (which would regularly be mid, miSir,
raidjar,) does not occur, but the oblique cases
Ace. miQ, miSja, mtdjar
Dat. miSjum
Gen. midra
are found ; the definite form is wanting. In several
adjectives whose root- form ends ing or k, j is some-
times inserted before a and u, as
frcegt, fraegh fraeg
firsBgt, fnBg]an,orfr6Bgan, fi:8Bgja, or fireega.
INFLECTION OF WORDS. 47
So sekt
Ace. sekjan or sekan.
119. Monosyllables in r preceded by a long vowel,
or diphthong, are regular, as
bert ber-r ber
fer-t for-r for
but in modem Icelandic, the masc. characteristic r is
rejected, the pronunciation having changed, and the
masc. is now like the fem. in the nom.
But if the vowel be short, and the r doubled, then
one r is dropped in the neut. before t, and before the
endings beginning" with r, in order that three r may
not meet ; these woirds however retain rr in the nom.
fem., as the vowel would otherwise become long, and
vary from the root-vowel, as
I)urt, I)urr, {>urr
kyrt, kyrr, kyrr
Adjectives in s follow the same* nilesy thus
laust, lauss^ hms
with onre s itf the fem. becausie it is preceded by a
diphthong,- but
hvast, hvassy bvoss
with two 8 in the fem. because the towel b short.
Before the terminal syllables beginning with r, the s
generally remains unchanged^ bdt some(iiHies becomes
<«. Ib a single word in m the towel of the aeut* is
accented, namely vist, viss, viss^
190. But if the r final of the root*form be prece-
ded by a consonant, it beeomea semi-syllabic f ( not
48 UfFLBCTION or WOBOS.
wr) before t and t , and at the end of words, but sim-
ple r before a vowel or the endings -ri, -rary -rc^ in
wlucb latter case one r is rejected, because two r
cannot be pronounced after a consonant. All this
is exemplified in
fagk,
fagi-.
fdgi-
fagh,
fagran.
iagra
fogru,
fbgrum.
fagri (for fagrri) i
fagb,
fagrs,
fagrar (for fagrrar.)
fogt,
fagrir.
fagrar
fdgi-,
fagra,
fagrar
fbgrum,
fbgrum.
fbgrum
fagra,
fagra,
fagra (for fagrra)
Def. fagra.
fagri,
fagra
These forms occur in ancient as well as in modem
writers, as
ek bra k mik f ag r i mynd, Fms. 2. 187,
fagrar konu asjonu eodem. loco.
med V i t r a manna rkdi is a phrase of firequent
occurrence ; so
fylltist fagri von, Paradisarmissir, p. 167.
innu fagrar Do. 129«
InRask*! Anvisning till Islandskan, Stockholm 1818, an4
in many of the Copenhagen editions of Icelandic classics, the
adjectives of this class are spelled with ur final, instead of ae-
mi-sy liable i", and the same paradigm is there thus inflected,
fagor-t, . fagur iogor
fagur.t, ftgr.an, fagr-a
fbgr-n, , fbgr-uro, fagur-ri
iagnr-s, fagur.s, fagur-rar
INFLECTION OT WORDS*. 49
r6guT
fa§r-ir,.
fagr-ar
fogur
fagr-a,
fagr-ar
fogrum
fogruin,
fogrum
fagur-ra
fagur-ra^
fagur-ra
In like manner,
magurt (magf t), magur (mag()V mogur (mog()
, def. magra i a
vakurt,-
▼akor,
vokur,
vakra i a
dapurt,
dapar,
dopur,
dapra i a
digurt,
digur,
digur,
digra i a
lipurt,
li'pur,
lipur,
lipra r a
▼iturt,
vitur,
vitur,
¥itra i a
bitnrt,
bitur,
bitur,
bitra i a
131. In those whose characteristic i»-lr preceded
by a diphthong in monosyllables, and by any vowel in
dissyllables) the r of the dat. and ges. sing fern, and
of the gen pi. coalesces with the ly and Ir becomes
It, as
heilt heill beil
dat. fem. heilli , gen. heilLar,. gen.pl. heilla ;
gamalt, gamall, gomul
da.fe.gam alli,ge. gam all ar,ge. pi. gam alia;
So }>agalt or |»ogult 9 t>og>ull, f> ogu 1.
Before the terminations which begin with a vowel,
these adjectives are contracted, thus gamlan, gam-
la, gomlu, gamlum (def. form, g.amla,
gamli, gamla),for garmallan, gamalla be:
but heimil t oKheimuilt is not contracted. Th6
Ir in f o It , f o 1 r , f o 1 does not become //, because
this adjective b a monosyllable with a. simple vowel.
122. Two words drop the / before the neuter
5
so INPLECTION OF WOEIM.
characteristic t or d^ besides another irregularity in the
ace. masc. thus ;
litis, litill, litU
litis, litinn, (for litiln)/ litla
litlu, litium litilU &c.
The vowel, it will be observed, rejects the accent,
i^henever two consonants follow. The orthography
litis for li t i t is merely for the sake of euphony,
according to anile followed in many good manuscripts
of changing the neuter characteristic t to d when
the preceding syllable ends in ^, so r i t a S instead of
ritat, but bakat, not bak aS, &c.
The other adjective declined like litiS is
mikit, mikill, mikil
mikit, mikinn, mikla
123. In adjectives whose characteristic is n, prece-
ded by a diphthong in monosyllables, or by any vowel
in dissyllables, the n and r coalesce, and become
nn, as
vaent,
vaenn.
vsen
vfBnt,
vsnan,
vsnili
vaenu,
v«num.
vsnni (for vaenri)
vsns,
vtt^ns,
vsBnnar (for vsBnraf)
Gen. pi. V89nna (for veenra)
Dissyllables moreover are irregular in the aoc.
masc. and are contracted whenever the ending begins
with a vowel, as
INFLECTION OT WOB0S. 51
beiSit, beidinn, beiSin
heiditi beidina» beiSna
beidau, beidnunii heidinni
beidiDSi bei^iDSy beidionar
beiSin, beiSnir, beiSnar
beidin, beiSna, beidnar
beidnum, beiSnuniy beiSniun
beidinna, bei^inna, beidinna
Def. fpriQ, beidna, beiSni, beiSna
124* In like maimer are inflected all regulj^r parti-
ciples of tbe glose Division of verbs (those in wbicb
,the past time is monosyllabic), as
raSit, raSioni raSia
gefit, gefinn, gefin
tekity tekiim, >tekin fee.
as also several of tbe tbird class of tbe first Division
(tbose wbicb suffer a vowel-cbange in the first sylla-
ble), as
barit, barinn, barin.
Bat these endings are, by a change of pronuncia-
tion not unusual in the ancient Icelandic tongue, sub-
stituted for the primitive form "it J -tdr, -td,
which endmg often coalesces with tb0 final root-sylla-
ble, t being rejected, and tf changed to d (or ^, if tbe
charaeteristic be a hard consonihit), as
bart, 'bardi*, borS
tamt, -tamdi*, tomd
vvakt, rvaktt, vokt
6&
•nfriiBCTION 09* WOBM.
It has thus happened that in some of these words a
double or triple 'form occurs, of which the contracted
is the more ancient, and that in -tV, -tnn, ^tn, the mod-
em Icelandic ; in others, one of these forms is exclu-
sii'ely used. Those which have a double form gener-
ally take a mixed inflection for the ssLke of euphony,
as
vakit.
vdkinn,
Tikin
-vakit,
vakinn,
vakta
voktu,
voktum.
yakinni
vakins,
.vakins.
vakinnar
vakin.
vaktir,
vaktar
vakin.
vakta.
vaktar
voktum.
voktum.
voktum
vakinna.
vakinna,
•vakinna
De/./ormvakta, vakti, vakta
As instances of the use of the contract forms by
the ancients, may be cited k r a f t , Fms, 4, 122 and
176; fjakti, Fms. 2, 305.; but f) ak i 8 1 , Grim-
nism. 9 ; d u 1 1 , Islendingas. 2, 243 ; h u 1 d i* , Snor-
ra Edda, p. 136 ; ^ k i 1 1 , Fms. 6. 220. The mod-
em forms are krafit, f>akinn., dulit, hu-
linn, skill t.
125. There are several other adjectives, which are
contracted, as
audigt.
PI. au8ug.
malugr,
oflugr,
audgir, auSgar ;
PI. malgir;
PI. oflgir ; and the hke,
INTLECTION OF WOKDS. 53
but few or no irregulars. Heilagt, heilagr
h e i 1 o g generally changes ei to e in the contracted
cases, as pL beilog, helgir, helgar
Def.farm. helga, helgi, helga
1 1 1 is accented in the neuter ; thus
illt, illi-, ill ;
and the nn in s a n n coalesces in the neuter with t,
and becomes it ; thus,
satt, sanni*, sonn ;
a 1 Itt , alii*, oil wants the definite form, the
word itself not being used in an indefinite sense.
126. Compound adjectives in a are indeclinable, as
e i n s k i p a , Fms. 7. 123.
sundrskila, Fms. 11. 131.
but there are many which, with,ibe ancients, distin-
guished the gender in the nom. the masc. ending in i,
and the fern, in a, thus
sammoedri, Fms. 6, 50
sammoeSra, Fms. 7, 124
var hann forvitri, Heimsk. pref.
boo irar fbrvitra, Fms. 6, 56.
To this class belong orviti, Fms. 7. 158.
miiloSi, Fmreyingasaga, p. -38. fulltiSi,
Egilas. p. 185. '.?/y
Cbnijpartton ofAdjediiou*
127. mie comparative degree is generally formed
by subttitatiog the ending — ara^ ari^ art, for the defi-
nite ending— HI, t, a of the positive degree. The
6«
54 iNruBCTioN or wohds.
comparatiFe has but a single formof kflectioo, wheth-
er used definitely or indefinitely. The neuter and
masculine singular are inflected like the definite form
positive, but the feminine singular and all the genders in
the plural end m iy {the dat. pL rarely iavm); thus
def.pos. convp.
spak-a
spakara,
spakari,
spakari
spakara,
spakara.
spakari
spakara,
spakara,
spakari
spakara,
spakara,
spakari
spakari, ispakari, spakari
spakari, spakari, spakari
spakari ( sp5k- spakari, (spok* spakari (spok-
urum), urum), urum)
spakari, spakari, spakari
In like manner are inflected the active partoiplee ; as « 1 1 a n*
da, heyrandai &c. These forms have often a passive
signification, as d hitt er litanda, that is to be regarded;
^etta er f>iggjanda, this is to. be accepted* Rafns Fornal.
dars, I. 4d5.
128. The superlative degree is usually formed firom
the definite pos% by dropping- the a final and adding,
a»ty asitf ust. Tlie superlative is declined like the
positive, and has both the definite and indefinite fonns,
thus,
inde. spakast,' spakasti* spokust
spakast, spakastan, spakastt
spokustu, spokustum, apjakastoir
spakasts, spakusts, spakailmr
INTItBCTlOR or WOBJM.
56
spokust,
spakastir.
^pakastar
spokust,
spakasta>
spakastar
spokustum.
spokustuniy
^pokustum
spakastra.
spakastra,
spakastra
dtf. spakasta, spakasti, spakasta
spakasta, spakasta, spokustu,&c.
Adjectives contracted in the positive are contracted
in the comp. and sup. also^ whenever the ending be-
gins with a vowel; as au.dgara, audgari,
audgast, audgasti*, auSgust, &c.
139. In many words, the higher degrees assume a
shorter form, by rejecting the a final of the def. pos.
and addmg -ra^ ri, ra, in the con^p. and -sij 9t^y it, in
the sup. to the root, in its original form, or with such
vowel-change, as the ending requbres (48, 49) thus ;
comp. tup»
fegra,-i,-i fegtst,
l8egra,-i,-i leegst,
pos.
hit fagra,
— laga,
— Ifenga,
or langa,
leingra,-i,-i leingst,
lengra,-i,-i lengst,
''hit {>raangva, |)n^ngra,-i,-i t>reing8t,
or }>rongva, })rengra,-i,-i {>rengst,
feghti*, fegi^
kdgatty l»gst
-leingsti*, leingst
lengsti*, lengst
iti-
hit stora,
— toga,
— fMinna,
— djdpa,
— d^ra,
— vcena,
stoerra,-i,-i stoerst^
^ngra,.i,-i ^ngst,
}>ynnra,-i,-i t>ynn8t,
d^pra,H,-i d^pst,
d^rra,-l,-i dyrst,
v8Brtna,-i,-i vsenst,
— stt
•>
56 INTLECTION OP WORDS.
The adj. inj6tt, inj6r, mj6, slender, def. hit
mj of a. admits no vowel-change, though it has the
shorter ending ; m j 6 r r a , m j cms t Fms. 7, 264.
130. Some adjectives have both the longer and the
shorter forms, as
pos, comp. sup.
djupt, ( d^pra,-i,-i d^pst, — stt, — st
\ djdpara,-!,-! djupast, — stt, -^t
d^rt, ( d;^,-i,-i d^rst, — stt, — st
\ d^ra^-i,-! dyrast, — stt, A**st
The shorter forms generally ''belong to the ancient
dialect.
There are moreover se verdadjectives, which receive
the shorter form in the comp.<and*the longer in the
sup. as
seint, seinna^ sekiast
saelt, «88ella, sselast
n^tt, n^rra, n^ast
131. Others are entindy irragular in their compan-
son, as
JNM. C09Wp^ sup.
gott, hit g66a, betra, bezt-a
^}\ "'^1*^ I' verra, verst-a
rant, — vanda ) , '
mikit, — mikla, meira, mest*a
litis, -— litla, minna, minnst-a
mart, (margi* morg), fleira, flest
1* ^ 1 i eWm. ellst-a
gamalt, - gamla, J^^^^ ^,^,.^
IHrLCCTION or WOKM.
.57
Mart, margi*, morg does oQt occur tin the <def. form
except in the pi. and chiefly in modern writenii a9 h i.n ,m 6 r g u »
hinir fleiri, hinar flestu.
132. some adjectives formed 'firom prepositions or
adverbs want the positive, and ocour only in the
higher degrees, as
nyrSra,
eystra,
sySra,
vestra,
fremra,
eptra,
ytra,
innra,
efra,
neSra,
fjrrra,
sidara,
heldra,
seSra,
(firr)
(neer, n»rr) naest ;
Both fremra, and sifiara have a regular poi^i^
tive, but of different signification from the higher de^
grees, viz. the poetic adj. framt, Iramf, from,
excellent^ brave y and sitt, si Si*, srS, loWj hang^
ing dovm,
1 33. Adjectives which want the de. form have no forms
of comparison, as a lit (125), all in -t or -cr, (126),
and the participles, especially «the active in -andi.
(norSt)
(austt)
(suSt)
(vestt')
(fram)
(aptF)
(ut)
(inn)
(of)
(niSt)
(for)
(si8)
(hdd^)
(aSi-)
(fjarri)
(na)
nyfSst, norSast ;
austast;
•syCst (synnst) ;
'.vestast ;
fremst;
epzt, aptast ;
yzt;
innst ;
efst;
neSst ;
fyrst ;
sidast:;
hdzt;
sdst;
first;
58 iivruBOTioN or woiu>s.
But though tthey want ptoper fonus qf compariaoD,
they, are sometimes compared, as in other languagesi
by means of the adverbs,meir, mest, or heldf,
h e 1 z t ; m i nin,i' (mifii*)| m i n n s t (mmzt), or s i S h
8 i z t .
134. Jt may be proper to notice the principal ad-
verbsi by which > the degrees of comparison are quali-
fied, or their proper meaning enlarged or limited;
with the |ionVt«e are used vel, quit^^ (bift not too
much)y as V Crl h e i 1 1 , quite warm ; v e 1 m i k i t ,
quite larg^y harSla, nsstai mjok sya^very,
very much, as harSla litit, very little ; n ae s t a
m i k i t , very.muchy very large^ mjok s v a g 6 8 f ,
very good* b e 1 d f , rather too, a little too, as h e.l d.i".,
h e i t h, .rather too warm; h e 1 d t m i k i 11 , rathm'
too large, o'f, roo, as of kaldf 9 too cold, heldf
til, beJ/Zti, mikils til of, altogether too, 9£
held f til snemma, altogether too early. With
the comparative are used jafn, somewhat (more),
rather, Bs {>etta er jafn betra, this is (re-
ally) :somewhat better, m i k 1 u , mtuA, as mj k 1 u
f e g r a , -much fairer ; some other datives of pron.
and adj. are used adverbially in like manner, as e k-]ci
o 1 1 u b e t i* , not very much better ^ 1 a n g t u m ,
vei^ mMcA| as langt um eldra, verymticA.o^r.
The gen. pi. of adj. (sometimes with and some-
times without the substantive) is used to qualify the
superlative, as allra stoerst, gfeatest of all ;
so einna (unorum,) bs einna meS't., chiefs
all.
umMemwfow wobbs. S9
3. PRONOUNS.
135. The firsi and second persons of the personal
pronoan have a dual, as well as a plural.
The dual is generally used for the plural in the modem
dialect, and the proper plural employed onl]^ in the solemn
style.
The third pefson has a reflective , which is the same in both
numbers.
Ist per, sing. ^d per. aing. Zdptr. ref.nng.
mik (mig,> I>ik (frig,) «ik (eig)
mer (m^r^ I»er (t>^rO ser (s^r,)
min, I>in, sin.
dnal pU , dual pi. pU
vit (vidO ver (v^r.) fit (|)id,) t>er i^t,)
okki, 088, ykk^, ydf, sik (sig,)
okk^y 088, ykl«*> yW» «•>• (s^rO
okkar, yftr, ykkar, ydvar (ydar,) sin.
The third person wants the ntut. and the plural^
both of which are supplied by the def. pronoun (> a t ,
skj six J (137.) The third person is thus declined :
masc. fern.
hann, hon, (hun),
bann, hana,
h&num (om), henni,
bans, bennar.
V 136. Prom the genitives of the personal pronouns
are formed seven possessive pronouns ;
minn,
mm ;
(>inD,
t>iii;
sinDy
sm;
okkarr,
okkur ;
ykkarr^
ykkur ;
varr,
vac;
yfivarr,
ySur;
1 1 y and
Sitt y
60 mvLccTioN or woBbs.
from the 1 pers. sing, mitt,
2 " « |>itt,.
a " ret. sjtt,
1 <* dual.- okkart,
2 " " ykkart,
1 " pi,, vart,
2 " « ySvart,
The three first^T mitt, |> i 1 1 , and sitt, are
declined like the article hit, hinn, hin, (99)
except that they have double t {tt) in the neat, and
are accented in all' the cases where' i is followed by a
single n, as
mitt, minn, min.
Gen. mins; mins, rainnar, &c.
The four last are declined like the indef. form of ad-
jectives, excepting that in the ace. masc. they have n
instead of an, as o k k a r n (not okkran, ) v a r n (not
varan) &c. The three dissyllables are moreover conr
tracted like adjectives, as
Dat«okkru, okkrum, ok karri.
Instead of okkart, ykkart^ we often 6nd
ockat (okkat), ycfeat (ykkat).
Okkart, ykkart, and y 8 v a r t are now
disused, and the modem Icelanders employ in their
stead the gen. okkar, ykkar, ySar, in all
inflections.
H a n n , h u n , has no corresponding possessive
pronoun, its place being supplied by the gen. h a n s ,
h e n n a r , in the sing, and f> e i r r a (from |>at, sk,
INrLECTION or WOIIDS. 61
sii, ) in the plural. The ancieiit reciprocal was 8 j a 1 f t ,
sjalff, sjaify used with all the three persons,
like the English adfy selves. It is regular u» its in-
flectiony like the bdef. form of the adjectives. Ei g i t
(which makes eigit, eiginn, eigin, in the
nom. and ace. and e i g i n in all the other cases, in
all genders and both numbers,) may be regarded as a
possessive corresponding to sjklft.
137. The demonstrative pronouns are the irregular
|>at, 8 a, 8u (com. gen. s}.&), and its derivative
j>ettay j[>essi, f>essi, which are declined as
ibUows:
JMity sk, s(i (>etta, |>e8si, f>essi
{>at, |>ann,(>& f>etta, f>enna, f>essa
}>yi, f>eim, f>e]rri f>essu, |>essum, f>e8Bi (-arri)
j>ess, f>ess, |>eirrar j[>essa, }>e8Ba, f>e8sar(-arrar)
{>au, |>eir, {>iBr f>essi, |>e8sir t>essar
t^uiy {>a, |>asr t>essi, f>essa, f>e8sar
{>eim, |>eim |>eim |>essum, f)essum, t>essiim
}>eirra, f>eirra, j[>eirra |>essarra, f>essarra,I>essam
To this class may be referred the article h i t , h i n n ,
bin, (99) which often rejects the A, and is written
it, inn, in, and sometimes e t , e n n , en.
The same word is used as ademonst. pron. b opposi-
tion to f>etta, but in this case, the neuter has
double <, h i 1 1 , and seldom drops the A, or is writ-
ten with e.
Besides these, may be mentioned s a m t , sami*,
6
63 IKFLSCTION or W01UD8.
som, or in the definite fonn, Cwhich is now more
generally usedj,
sama, sami^ sama, the tame.
slikt, slikf, sUk ) j; #a 7-1.
f)vilikt, f)vaik^ f)vilik 5 '^'^^ ^^^ '*^^'
f>essligtj I>es8ligt, i>esslig > , .. ,..
svaddan f soddan^ 5 '"^^^^ ^^* '*'^^-
all regular, except svaddan, which is indeclina-
ble, and belongs to the modem dialect. The lour last
want the definite form.
138. The relative and interrogative pronouns^ be-
sides the indeclinable relative panicles e r (^obsolete
form esj or td)^ and s e m , who^ which^ where,
when, are the same, viz. . ■ •
hvart, hvarr, hvir, which (of two), and
hvert (hvort) hverr, hverj which (of many).
Both are declined like indef. adjectives, except that
hvart makes the ace. sing. masc. not in an, but in
n, h V a r n (not h varan), and hvert regularly in-
serts j before all endings beginning with a or u. So
ace. fern. sing, hverja^ dat. hverju, hver-
jum, hverri^ The ace. masc. sing, is generally
h V e r n , though hverjan is found in the poetic
dialect, but in the sense of each, every.
The personal h a n n is sometimes used as a rela-
tive, as (Rev. 22. 17) hverr hann {>yrstir, sa komi !
og hverr hann vill, sa meStaki vatn liisins, gefins I
We may also mention h v i 1 i k t , what sort ofl
139. It may be proper here to notice certain inter-
IKVLSCTION OF WORDS. 63
rogative particles, such as h v e r s u (bvorsu), h v e
(hvo), and the modern h v a t (hvaS), as h v e r s u
gamall maSi* ertu (en pix)} how old art thou 1
hvenaer kemr hann? when comes he (will he
come)! hvaS kostaSi f>at mikiS? how
much did it cost 7 H v a 8 a , what sort of? as h v a-
8a maSr er f>at, what sort of a man ishel
The ancient form was hvat manna? or hvat
(af ) monnum? of which latter expression (hvat
at) h V a .8 a is perhaps a corruption.
We meet also in the old northern toague with an
independent pronoun, generally used interrogatively.
n^ut. com. gen.
hvat,. hverr (hvarr),
hvat, ^ hvem (hvam),
hvi, hveim,
hvess, hvess,
but in ordinary language, the only cases used are the
nom. and ace. hvat, what^ as a pronoun^ and the
dat. hvi, why^ wherefore, as an adverb.
140. The indefinite pronouns are partly primitives,
pardy compounded of others (chiefly interrogatives).
The primitives are eitt, einn, ein, which is
sometimes used as an indefinite article, (Edoglish, a),
also for only, alone, the one. It is regularly declined
like veent (123) both in the def. and indef. forms,
except that nt become tt, and that the ace. sing. masc.
has both einn, and einan. Einan isadistribu-
tive corresponding to the Lat, singu/um, singularem.
64
INFLECTION OV W0BD8*
141. The irregular pronoun annat (aliudf al-
terum^ secundum) is thus (^clined, whether used defi-
nitely or indefinitely ;
annat,
annarr,
onnur,
annaty
annan.
a8ra,
oSni,
odrum.
annarri,
annars.
aimarsy
annamu
onnur, aSrir, aOrar,
onnur, aSra, aSrar,
oSrum, odnim, oSrum,
annaira^ annarra, annamiy
143. B » 8 i , both, is declined as follows :
beeSi, baSir^ baSar,
bsdi, bkSa, badar,
baSum, b&Sum, b&Sum,
beggja, beggja, beggja.
143. The principal compound and derivative pro-
nouns are
hv&rttveggja, hvarrtveggi, hvartveggja,
bothy each of the twOy (utrumque). This word is,
compounded of hv art (138), and tveggja two^
which is used only in composition, and is declined like
the def, form of the adj. Both the component parts
are inflected, thus ;
hYAntveggja, hYintreggi, hv&itveggja
hvArttveggjay hTArntyegija, hTAratveggjn
hYirutveggja, hvirumtveggja, hyArritveggju
hv^rstveggja, hv&rstveggja, hT&rrartyeggju
INFLECTION Or WORDS. 65
hvArtreggjo, hv&rirfveggja, hvArarfveggju,
hvArtveggju, hv^ratveggju, hvdrartveggju,
hvdramtyeggja(-um),hvalrumtveggju(-um)yhydrumtveggja(-uin)
hy&rratveggja, hv&rratveggju, hyftrratvcggju.
In modern Icelandic however, hvarutveggju
is generally used in all the cases.
Annathvart, annarrhvarr, onnurhvar,
one of two (alterutrum)y has a similar double inflec-'
tion, but occurs in the sing. only. In modem Icelan-
dic, the last member of this word has been confoun-
ded with h V e r t , and is declined accordingly with
j inserted, asodruhverjuforoSruhvaru &c.
We say also; hvart (or hvat) annat, hr&rr
annan, hvar aSra, &c. each others also
hvert annat, hverr annan, hver aSra,
or more properly, (with the latter word in the plural),
hvert onnur, hverr aSra, hver aSrar,
each other ; but in these cases the words are written
separately, and not as compounds.
Hvarigt, hvarigt, hvarig, (or hva-
r u g t &c.) neither of the iwo^ none of them^ is de-
clined like the indef. form of the adjective*
Sitthvat, or sitthvart, sinnhvarr,
s i n h V a r , each — his oum, is generally resolved into
its component members, the latter being inflected ac-
con£ng to the context, and sitt , which is generally
placed first, answering as the subject of the verb.
The form sitthvert, sinnhverr, sinbver,
is however more commoni as j>eir lita sinn i
66
INFLBCTION OF WOBDS.
liverja kit, they look each to his own
side,
Serhvat, or serhrert, each^ inflects the
latter member; hvateitt orhyerteitt, ecuJiy
regularly inflects both, as does also sumthvat, or
sumthvert^ somewhat , excepting that the nom.
sing. masc. is sumhverr.
144. Eitthvat, or eitthvert, einnh-
verr, einhver, some one, generally inflects the
latter member only, except in the nom. and ace. sing,
neut. though einhverris found in the masc. chief-
ly in the modem dialect.
145. Nokkut, anyy is compounded of the obso-
lete n a k , and hvert, hvat orhvart, ve or
va being generally contracted to u or o. This word
occurs in a great variety of forms, of which the follow-
ing may be considered the most ancient and regular.
nakkvarty uakkvarr, nokkur, ornokkor
nakkvart, nakkvarn, nakkvara, or nokkora
nokkurui nokkurumy nakkvarri
nakkyan, aakkyars, nakkTarrar
nokkur
nakkvarir,
nakkvarar
nokkur
nakkvara,
nakkvarar
nokkurundi
nokkuram,
nokkuram
nakkvarra,
nakkTara,
nakkvarra
The neuter (considered as compounded of n a k
and hvat) is sometimes written nakkvat, and
the dat. n o k k vi. But the vowel-change in the
first syllable of the nom. ( a to o) as well as the eon-
traction of ve, va, in the second, generally runs through
INFLECTION OF \WORDS. 67
all thQ inflections, thus n o k k u t., n o k k u r r ,
nokkur. Nokkut, no.kkurr^ nokkur of*
ten occurs, and in the modem dialect in the usual
fonn. The modems contract both the last forms when
the final syllable begins with a vowel, as dat. n o k k ju,
nokkrum, nokkujrri.
146. The negative pronoun ekki, noney no, is
compounded of e i 1 1, e i n n, e i n, and the negative
ending -gi, -lei. Ekki hasjmany irregular ,forms. 'The
ori^nal appears to be as follows.:
ekki (for eitJci)^ emgi, eingi
ekki, eingan (emgi), einga
eingu (einugi) eingum, eingri
' ^ — : — : — '
eingis, einkis or einskis, eingrar
eingi, eingir eingar
eingi, cinga eingar
eingum, eingum eingum
eingra, eingra eingra
The first syllable (eing) is often contracted to eng,
as ace. engan, enga, for eingan, einga,
and eng again changed to ong,as ongan,onga,
or with V inserted ongvan, ongva, dat. ongu ,
ongum, ongri, or even ongarri, and gen.
ongarrar; andfinally ong lengthened again to its
relative diphthong aung, as aungan, annga,
or aung van, aungva. But none of these chan-
ges, except the first, occur in the masc. and neut. gen.
angular, fog ong is iartoa d of e - ingigj aa d-onkis,
68 INVLBCTION OF W0BD8.
.a u n sk ws.» and the like are never Ibimd. In mod-
em Icelandic, the nom« of this word has become
-ekkert, eipginpy eingin, neut.pL eingin,
ibut the other endings remain unchanged,
Neitt, neinn, nein, none, no, used only
^with another negatiyCy as ekki sa ek neitt, J
«a«r noMtng*, is declined like eitt^ einn, ein^but
in the4ndef. form only.
Ma n ngii no one Xf^^fi^)9 is used only in poetry.
It makes manngi in the nom. and acc. and
m a n n s'k Is in the gen. sing, in which cases alone
it occurs.
147. The numeral and ordinal pronouns are
eitty einn, ein; fyrsta^ -i, -a;
tvan (tFo), tveir, tvsr ; aanat, annarr, onnur ;
|>i3ii, |)nr, pxjir ; |>ri8ja, f)ri8i, J)ri8ja ;
Qogufj O^rir, fj6rar; 'QorSa, -i, -a;
fimm ; fimta, -i, -a ;
sex ; ^tta, (sjotta);
sjau (sjo); 8Jaunda,8Jdnda(8JouQda);
&tta; atta (fcttunda);
niu ; niunda ;
tiu ; tiunda ;
ellifu ; ellifta ;
t61f; rt6tfta;
|>rettfcn ; 'i>rett&&da ;
Q6rtan ; Q6rtlaida ;
fimtan; fimtaada ,
•extim ; sexliaida ;
INFLSCTION OF WOHDS.
69
sautjan (seytjan):
atjan ;
nitjan ;
tuttugu ;
tuttugu ok eitt &c.;
f>ij&tiu ;
Qonitiu ;
fimtiu;
sextiu ;
sjautiu (sjotiu);
attatiu ;
mutki :
bundrad, ^tiu ;
sautjanda (seytjanda);
atjanda ;
Ditjanda ;
tuttugasta ;
' tuttugasta ok fyrsta &c.
|)ritugasta ;
fertugasta ;
fimtugasta ;
sextugasta ;
sjautugasta (sjotugasta);
attatugasta ;
nitugasta ;
hundradasta ;
bundraS ok tiu, ellifutiu ; hundradasta ok tiunda ;
h.oktuttugUjSt&rtbundraS; fa. ok tuttugasta ;
tvau hundruS ; &c. itvau hundraSasta ;
|>usund ; {>usuDdasta.
148. The four first numerals are decliued. For
eitt see (140J. The others are inflected as follows :
tvau, tveir, tvoBr, {iijd, }>rtr, I>rjar,
tvau, tvA, tvaer. ^ ^rj^* ^^i^* I>rjdr,
tyeim (ueimh), tveim (tYeiini^).{)rim [l)riiBr], I)rim [I)riinr,]
tveim (tveim^), I>rim [t>riiiirj
tvQggja, tveggja, tveggja ; I>riggja, I>nggja, I>riggja ;
ijoguTy Q^trir, fjorar,
flogur, i56ra, Qorar,
Q6rumy fjorum, fj6rufn,
^gurra, Qogurra, fjogurra ;
This form of the genitive if found in the earlier writera , aa
NjdlBe, P. 8. Fma. 7. 74, aa ia also the more modern form
fjogra.
70 INFLIBCTION OF W0BD8.
The proper ancient forms of these words are uncertain , be-
cause in manuscripts they are generally expressed in figures, or
numeral letters, and in the printed editions are spelled accord,
ing to the modern dialect. The difficulty is increased by the
uncertainty of the force of ok in tTSu, sjau, &c. The mo.
derns pronounce these words tyO| sjo, but the correspon.
donee of tTau, tveir, tvsr with I>auy I>eir, f>er
renders it probable that tvau is the genuine form, und so in.
deed it is usually spelled in manuscripts, when written at length.
So sautjdn (for sjautan) or seytj&n seems to show that
the diphthongal form sj au is the true one. The Anglo Saxon
8 e o f o n may be referred to as an evidence that s j a u U pro-
perly a contract of sjafu.
149. Instead of the endbg -tiu (f)r]atiu &c}, a
form in 'tigir, ^-tigi often occihs, as f>rjatigir,
|) r j a t i g i , which has no other inflection, for exam-
ple, |>rjatigi ok fimm arum. The latter
member of this form is obviously the noun t i g t
( tugr, togr, togf), decadcy pi. 1 1 g i r , as s e x t i g i r,
Sverriss. 230, and atta tigir, Hmsk. 3. 357.
HundraS is a regular noun (76). The ancients
counted by the great hundred^ (one hundred and
twenty ) , so that halft hundraS signified sixty.
The proper hundred, 100, is called sm k 1 1 small, or
tircett, decimal; the great hundred, 120, stort
greaty or tolfrodtt, duodecimaL pusund(or
f>ushundrad ) is irregular (83), and is used in the mod-
ern dialect as a ne^uter in both numbers, in apposition
with substantives.
When these words are used without the substantive,
both they and the numeral indicating the number of
hundreds or thousands are declined, as eitt hun-
IKVLECTION or WORDS. 71
draS er oflitit, one hundred is too few ; e i n u
hundradi, tvau hundr u 8, t v eggja hun-
d r a S a &c. ; but when they are used with the sub-
stantive, the Jirst numeral only is inflected (agreemg
with the substantive), and hundraS, f)usund
are put in the nominative, sing, or pL as the case may
be, as ekki faer maSf stora jorS fyrir
tvau hundruS dali, one cannot get much land
for 200 dollars ; aftveimf hundrud dolum
verdr rentan tolf dalir a ari, the inte-
rest of 200 dollars is tweloe dollars a year,
150. There is also a class corresponding to the Lat.
in -arium, -ariusj -aria ; they end partly in -tugt,
'tugi'y 'tug, (-togt or -togt &c.) and partly in -rcett,
-rcedfy -reed J thus ;
tvitugt, -tugt, tug ; attrcet, -roedr, -rceS ;
{>ritugt ; niroett ;
fertugt; tircett;
fimtugt ; ellifurcett ;
sextugt *, tolfroett ;
sjautagt (sjotugt);
To express the semi-decades, thase words are com-
pounded withh&lft, halff, half, used with
the full decade a&ove, as half|>ritugt , half-
fertogf, half signifying that one half decade,
5, is to be deducted from the whole number expres-
sed, or in other words that the last is but a half de-
cade, as hklffertogt (so. maSi*), thirty-five
years old^ halfkttrceSi', seventy-five years oldj
he.
72 IMFX.BCT10N or WOBD8.
4. VERBS.
151. The Icelandic verbs, like those of the Greek,
Latin, Swedish, and Danish languages, have two forms,
the Active and the Passive, with the usual four moods,
the Indicative, the Conditional, the Imperative, and
the InBnitive, in each. Two tenses only, the Pres-
ent, and the Past, can be expressed by inflection ; the
Present however is often used for the Future, -as in
Anglo-Saxon, and other languages.
The other tenses are expressed by periphrasis, with
the help of auxiliaries.
15S. This numerous class of words has two prin-
cipal Divisions fiiMiiilml nil ihr lirminal 'ijfllnhlfltn£
tte.- P »B t t e n s e , the open ending in a vowel, and the
dose ending in a consonant ; a fiirther characteristic
distinction is, that the open division becomes polysyl-
labic in the past tense, the close monosyllabic with a
change of vowel. The open Division is subdivided
into three classes ; the ^r^^ trisyllabic in the past,
the second dissyllabic, and me third dissyllabic with
vowel-change. The close division resolves itself first
into two conjugations. In the one, the vowel-change
extends itself to the past time in the Indie, and Cond.
moods only, the passive participle retaining the vowel
of the pres^it, (especially of the Cond. and Imp.
moods); in the other, the vowel-change occurs in the
passive participle also, though with some variation.
Each of these conjugations is again divided bto three
INFLECTION OV W0HD8. 73
classes, according to the different vowel-changes in the
past time.
153. The following table exhibits a synopsis of the
three conjugations and their several classes.
THE OPEN- DIVISION".
1. Conjugation.
present, past svpine,
1. cZoM .' ek etla, ntlada, etlat ;
9- — - heyri, heyrdaf* heyrt;
3. — - apyr, spuria, spurt;
THE CLOSE DIVISION.
2. Conjugation.
1. class : ek drep, Impsra. drep, drap, drepit )
fL — neOf, - rdd, r^, rdSit;
3. — dr^g) - clrag, drd, dregit;
3. Conjugation.
l.eiass: ekrenn, rann,ji{. runnum, rusnit;
9. — - lit, leit, - litum, litiS;
3. — - hydf baud,- buduony bo^it;
154. The indicative and conditional moods distinguish
the past and present tenses ; the imperative has the
present only. The derivative forms, the infinitive, ac-
tive participle, and passive participle, constitute simple
forms merely, except that the two last are declined
like adjectives. The supine is the neuter of the pas-
sive participle. The passive* usually ends in st^ or in
the most ancient dialect, in $1cj which is simply a con-
traction of the pronoun nXr, and as in the Slavonic lan-
guages, extends to all the persons ; thb form is there-t
fore also generally reflective or reciprocal, whereai^
the proper passive is most usually expressed by peri-
phnisis as in German or EngUsh.
7
74
IHFIiSOTlON OF WOBDS*
1. CLAM.
indie •
Pre$. Hng. 1. ek kalla,
3. j^ii kallar,
3, hann kallar,
fit 1. ▼erkoUuin,
3. I>er kallit (id),
3. I>eir kalla,
Past sing. l.ekkaHato(i),
2. ^ kalladir,
3. hann kalla&i,
pL 1. ▼erkoJluduniy
155. The open diYision ca 6rst
Active.
8. CLASa.
brenniy
brennir,
brannir,
brennnm,
brennit (id),
brenna,
brenda (i),
brendir,
brendi,
brendnm.
3. |>er kolludut (ud),brendut (od),
3. j^eir kolluSa, brendu^
3. CLAaa.
tel,
telr,
telr,
teljuniy
telit (id)
telja
talda(i},
taldir,
taldi,
tolduniy
t5]dut[o<^],
toldu,
Csndit,
Pr§s, sing* 1. ek kalla (i), brenna [i], telja [teli],
2. j^ii kallir, brennir, telir,
3. hann kalli, brenni, teli,
pi. I.yerkallim(k611nm)brennini [am], telim,
2. f>er kallit (id), brennit [id], telit [id] ,
3. I>eir kalli.
Past sing. I • ek kalladi , (a) ,
2. j[>6 kalladir,
3. hann kalladi,
brenni,
brendi [a],
brendir,
brendi,
teli,
teldi [a],
teldir,
teldi.
pi. 1. ver kalladim (kdlludum)^brendini [um], teldim,
2. I>er kalladit (kolludod), brendit [ud], teldit [od],
3. j^eir kalladi (kolludn), brendi [brendu], teldi [n],
Imptr. sin.2, kalla (-da), brenn [-du], t«1 [*da],
pi, 1. koUun (ver)
2. kallh $er),
Infinitive, at kalla,
Participle, kallanda (i)
9v^me. kallat ;
brennum, talji
brennit, telit,
brenna, telja,
brennanda [i], teljanda, [i],
brent ; talit [talt] -,
INVLECTION OV WOSD8.
76
CkxijugatioD.
Jt
'atstve.
1. OUL88.
9. CLAflB.
3. CLAI
indie^
Pr99. Hng, U kallatt,
brennitt,
telat,
2. kallut,
brenniat,
telst,
3. kallMt,
branniat,
telat,
pi, L kSUamit,
breiinumal.
teljumat,
S. kallizt,
brannizt,
telizt.
3. kallast,
brennaat,
teljaat,
PaH sing, 1. kalladiflty
brendiat.
taldiat,
d, kalladist,
brendiflt,
taldiat,
3. kalladiflt,
brendiat,
taldiat,
pi, 1. kdlludnmst,
brendamat,
toldumat,
2. kolladuzty
brenduzt,
tolduzt,
3. kdlla(o8t,
brenduM,
tolduat,
Condit .
Pres, wing. 1. kallist, brenniat, telist,
3. kalliflty brenniaty teliat,
3. kalliat, bremiiat, teli«tj
pi, l.kalIimBt(k5lIamat)breiiBimBt(uiiiBt)teIimit (jumit).
2. kallizt,
3. kallist,
Paai sing, 1. kalladist,
2. kalladist,
3. kalladiaty
brennizt,
bronnist,
brendist,
brendiflt,
brendiflt,
telizt,
teliflt
teldist,
teldiflt,
teldiflt,
pi, I.kalladimst,(kdllu9um8t),brendimflt(umat)teldiinflt (umat),
2. kalladizt (kolludazt), brendizt (uzt), teldizt, (uzt).
3. kalladist (kolludast),
tmptr* sin, 2. kallaat-u
pL 1. kollumat (ver)
2. kallizt (I>er),
Ii^ifAtive, at kallaat,
Part, pres. (kallandiflt),
Part, past, kaUat,
Supijufi, k^Uazt,
brendiflt (uflt^, teldiat (uat),
brenflt-u, telst-a
brennumaty teljumat,
brennizt, telizt,
brennaflt, teljast
(brennandiflt), (teljandist),
brent, talit, (talt),
brenzt,] talizt (talzt;.
76 INFLBCTION OV W0BD8.
156. In several of the personal endings, there is some uncer-
tainty. I have treated those forms as regular, which appear to
have the best foundation in the structure of the language. The
first person present sometimes admits the addition of r, thereby
becoming like the second and third persons, as ek kallar,
ek brennir, but the best and most fTe<|«ent usage, and the
contractions, kali ag, bren^nig, telk, for kallaek,
birenni ek, tel ek , hyggig or hykk, Fms. 7. 29.31.
for h y g g e k , and the like, show that the form in r is not
legitimate.
157. The first person past,-it is conceived, properly ends in a,
rather than in t, because the preceding syllables of the word al-
ways have the vowels wfit^ correspond^tothe ending a [and
which are then continued through the other persons], but nev-
er those which belongtothe ending t, except where they have
been introduced into the present with the final t of the first per-
son, [as b r e n n i from b r a n n ], and have been thence trans-
ferred to the other inflected forms of the word.
158. The first person present of the conditional is believed^
upon the same grounds, to end in a, more properly than in s ;
both forms have the authority of frequent usage ; but some good
manuscripts, as if by a particular dialect, constantly prefer -t.
The manuscript A^ for example, after which the 7 vol. of Fom-
mannasogur is printed, generally uses -t, but the much younger
parchment called Hrokkinskinna — a. Ck>ntractions like hug-
dak, Lodbrkv. 24. m u n a k , Snorra Edda 35. also argue for
the ending -a in these cases. The first person plural Condit,
present has on the contrary tm, partly by the rule of uniformity
with the endings in the second and third persons, and partly ac-
cording to the pretty regular usage of the ancients ; in the mo-
dern dialect, the first person cond. present corresponds entirely
with the first person Indie, present '^kollum, brennuDi,
te 1 j um ].
159. The first person cond. past also has sometimes -a for
-t, with the ancients, especially the poets ; but this seems more
anomalous, considering the vowel of the leading syllable, which
INFLECTION OF WORDS. 77
(except in the first class, where the Fast is trisyllabic), always
takes the vowel-change belonging to the ending .t, .lieyer that
which corresponds to -a. Of course the forms v e.k [) a e k ,
b SB I> a e k y Snorra Edda 97, forvekti ek^bsBdiek, are
not in accordance with analogy, unless we deduce the other
forms from the third person, whicji in that case ought perhaps
to be set in the place of the first, as in the oriental languages.
But in the plural, the endings of the fijrst person in -im, and the
second in -itj are strictly regular, though in the later manu-
scripts we find -urn, -u<, yet in all the verbs except .those of the
first class, with the vowel-change in the leading syllable which
the ending -t requires, as kollu^um, kolludnt, bron-
dum, brendut, teldum, teldut; the third person on
the contrary is found with the ending u, only in the modern
dialect, and more especially in that of the North of Iceland,
askolludu, brendu,teldu, though such forms, either
firom modern copies, erroneous r^adii^g of the abbreviations,
or negligence, many h^ve found their way into ancient works.
Even the first and second persons in -urn, -m£ are generally false,
where they occur in the sagas, especiaUy withthe Skalds, as vte-
rom. Hk. 1, 163, L. 5, where the only existing parchment (E)
hasvdrom in the indicative. T)iese observations apply to
all the conjugations.
160. It is observable that the Imperative in the
first and second persons pipral always corresponds
with the indicative, not the conditional, present, where-
as the third person in both numbers is supplied from
the conditional, as Njals Saga 67 ; k o 1 1 u m karl enn
skeggiausa ! and Sverrissaga 185 :
T y n o m Birkibemum !
b e r i Sverrir hlut verra !
161. In reflective verbs, we often find the ending
of the first person plural present and past, -umst, used
7*
78 INrLVCTION OF W0BD8.
for the first penon singular, as eigi ber j um st ek,
Fms. 6, 25. ek bugdumsty Snorra Edda 97.
162. The plural endings reject in the first person
•my in the second 't (6) when a pronoun immediately
follows. This is particularly the case in the imperative,
as megu ver, megu I>it, Njals Saga 17 ;
fo r u V e r ! f a r i |> e r ! and sometimes even when
the pronoun is omitted. But this rule is often disre-
garded in many good ancient manuscripts.
163. The substitution of d final for ^in the supine,
and the second person plural, where the penult ends
in t, is for the sake of euphony merely, ( 122.)
164. The jvrti class is very regular; those verbs
wijich have not a in the leading syllable, of course,
admit no vowel-change, as ekskipa, verski-
pum, ek skipada, ver^skipudum; even
those which in the ground forms have o do not change
it to a, though the u in the ending (which would seem
to have occasioned the introduction of o into the lead-
ing syllable), be dropped, and the terminal vowel be
flr, as ekfjotra, ver fj Strum, ekfjotra-
8a, verfjotruSum, fjotrat.
165. The following may serve as examples of the
first class for practice.
|>j6Da, serve etla, intend syndga, sin
njosna, reconnoitre kostti cost tiSka, pratiee, use
heiJAj lay waste kasta, ea«< blakta, lotnROto
skoda, viev) h<Sta, threaten veroda, protect
tala, talk Muma, saw hugea, think
hata, hate fafna, gather aagla, haggle
baka, hake tanna, ajlrm lakra, triMe
ri ta, write fofna, sleep hlj6ta,«l(f r a sound
INTLBCTION OF W0B08.
79
166. The iecond dan has some irregularities resul-
ting, for the most part, from dropping the characterise
tic]vowel ('i)f in the past, and in the passive partici-
ple, before the terminal syllable,the initial consonant
ci which is thus brought in contact with the final con-
sonam of the root.
If this be doubled in the roof, one is geneii^ly re-
jected by the ancionts, as
bygt, — g», — g«;
hn jkt, — ktt, — -kt ;
kipi> —pit, — pt ;
kenty — ndj, — d ;
■temt, — dt| — d;
hvest, — tr, — t;
167. The ending is also further influenced by the
final consonant of the root; it becomes -ta after jp, ^,
Tcj «, ; -da after &, 6 (which is then changed to cZ),
fiighfai gTi, wi; 'da after/, gj r, or any vowel ; but
loses t after it^ br t preceded by any other consonant,
d after nd and the like, 6 after rd, as
byggi,
bygja.
hnykki,
hnykta,
kippi,
kipta,
kenni.
kenda.
steromi,
stemda,
hvessi,
hyesta,
«teypi,
steypta.
Bteypt,
-pt*,
-pt;
veiti,
veitta.
veitt,
-^ttt,
— ttj
krceki.
krcBkta,
krcBkt,
— ktt,
-kt;
laeai,
IfBita,
lest,
-Btt,
— »t;
kembi,
kembda,
kembt,
— bdt,
— bd;
reifti,
reidda
reidt,
— ddf.
— dd;
efli,
eflda.
eflt,
— Idt,
-Id;
nefbif
nefnda«
neibty
— ndt,
— ^nd;
fl«mi.
flsmda,
flemt,
— indt,
— md;
deyfi,
deyfl^a.
deyft,
— 1»,
.-(15;
vigi,
vig&a,
vigt,
-gtt,
~g«;
Iflsri,
Isrda,
Isrt,
— r«f,
-r8;
I>j&i>
I>jd8a,
l^j^d.
-^h
""^ »
80 IMTLBCTION OF WOBDB.
iiitti.
hitta,
bitt.
— ttt,
— tt;
venti,
YIBlllB,
vftnt,
-tf,
— t;
heimti,
heimta.
heimt,
-tt,
— t;
sendi,
senda.
sent,
— dt,
— — U )
virdi,
virjia,
vlrt,
-«*,
"•"O »
168. Those which hare Igy ng take Igdcy ngda in
some old manuscripts ; in other verv good ones, Igda,
ngda; as fylgda, tengda, Fms. 7. — ^lliose
which have Z, n, take partly -da, and partly -ta^ as
felli, fellda ( felda^) ; ipsli, mslta;
syni, s^nda; raenii raenta.
169. Those, whose 6nal consonant is g or Jc, even
if preceded by another .consonant, do not always re-
ject the characteristic ,t^ but change it toj, and retain
it before the endings jci and u, as; byggi, ver
byggjum, peXr byggj^, at byggja,
byggjanda; so ver h,nyk'kjum, krcek-
j u m , V 1 g j u m ; . elc f y 1 g i , y e r f y 1 g j u m ;
ek syrgi, ver syrgjum; ek teingi, ver
teingjum; ek fylki, ver fylkjum; ek
merki, ver merkjum; ek t>einki, ver
}>einkjum.
1 70. The inflected forms of the second class admit
no vowel-change, because the first person (by reason
of the characteristic -i) has already undergone a vow*
exchange, which is continued through the other forms,
without regard to any subsequent change of termi-
nation. With certain words however this is not the
case ; and it seems the proper characteristic of these
should be e (not i), but as they have other irregulari-
INFI«ECTION OF WOEDS,
81
ties also, little would be gained by treating them as a
distinct class. The most important are
dugi, at duga, dugda, Cond, dygdi, dugat .
vaki.
— vaka,
kaupi,
— kaupa,
f>oli,
— |)ola,
|»ori,
— Jjora,
uni,
—ana,
▼ari,
— vara,
trdi.
— trija.
ne,
— nd,
U (lj«),
.-Ijd,
vakta,
keypia,
I)olda,
I)orda,
Qnda,
Tarda or va- — i,
tr69a, [rada, -r-trydi,
nAda, — naBdi,
~.vekti, vakit,.]nn,.in;
— key.pti , keypt, -tr, -t ;
— I)yldi, I)olat ;
|>orat ;
UDat;
varat ;
trdat;
nit;
— tyr&i,
— yndi,
Idfta, — l^di,
171. To these irregulars may be referred the aux-
iliary h ef i , have^ which is inflected as ioUows ;
IndieaHve Conditu>ndl» ImperativB.
PresMng. 1« hefi(-ir) hata (i),
2, hefir, hafir, haf-du,
3, hefir, hafi,
pL l,iidfiiiii,
hafiin,
kofitin,
2, hafit,
haai,
hafid,
3, hafa,
hafi,
Past sing, 1, ]iaf)5a,
heftiW,
Ir{fin, at hafa.
2, hafSir,
kaf5ir.
part^ act, hafanda, i.
3, hafdi,
hef^Ji,
fupine ^ ) haft -f^iha
part, pat, y hof^.
pL l,hoi9aip,
hefSim,
2. hoOJut,
hef^it,
3, hof^u,
hefdi,
172. The yowel^hange sometimes occurs in the
present, as
1 vaki,
nae,
veld.
2 vakir,
naer,
veldt,
3 vakir,
nser.
v^ldt.
82
INrLECTION or WORDS.
1 Y5kniii, Bim [for oinni], TfiMum,
9 Yakit, \ nAit, valdit,
3 vaka, ii4 [for nda], Talda.
The last verb v e 1 d is extremely irregular, making
the past olli (J&msvs. 143)| coDditional ylli,
supine v a 1 d i t (Jbms. 145), modem form o 1 1 a t,
infinitive valda, modem form olla* The su*
pine of 1 i f i is li f a t . In other respects this verb
corresponds to the others whose final consonant is /^
though 1 i f i n n is found in the poets,
173. jnie third dasi is monosyllabic in the pres-
ent singular, but its original characteristic ending (as
in other instances, where this ending has been drop-
ped) was probably v. It inserts y before all the final
syllables in the present which be^ with a or u, as
t e 1 j u m ; In the past, like the second class, it makes
JOy -dla, or -da, but / and n are more regularly fol-
lowed by 'da ; the passive participle has sometimes
the contracted form, and sometimes the mixed (124).
The past and passive participjie have properly but ^o
vowel-changes, viz. e to a, and y to u, as appears by
the following examples.
let,
vek,
kve6,
vel,
ven,
tern,
kref.
at glepja,
— letja,
— vekJA,
— -kveftja,
— 'velja,
— yenja,
— temja,
— krefja,
— lejgja,
glapta,
latta,
vakta,
kvaddi,,
▼alda,
▼and|L,
tamditt
krafl^,
lagda,
glepti,
letti,
yekti^
kTc^ddi,
Y^ddi,
.v^di,
temdi,
krefSi,
legdi,
glapit [glapt];
latt;
vakit [124];
kvadt ;
▼alit;
va^it;
tamit:
krafit [kraft];
i[Iagit3 lagt;
imruBcnoN or woeds. 83
ber,
atbeija*
bai9a.
b^rfti,
barit[btft];
flyt.
— fly^a.
fluttot
flytti.
flutt;
lyk.
— lykja,
lukta.
iykti.
lukt;
l>ys.
— tysja.
j^uBta,
tysti.
I>ast;
ryfc
— rydja,
rudda.
ryddi.
rudt;
hyl.
— liylja,
hulda,
hyldi.
[holtjhttlit;
styn,
-itynja,
stunda,
styndi,
[8tant]8tunit;
rym.
— rymja.
rumdai
rymdi,
rumt;
tygg.
— tyggja,
tugia,
tyg«i,
tuggit:
«py'>
— epyrja.
epurda,
spyrfti,
•purt;
ly.
— lyja,
Idda,
iy8i.
liiit [Idd];
174- The verb h ^
rgg» hu
i g 8 a is regular except
in the supine, which is hu
gat.
The following
five admit
no vowel-change.
set.
at setja.
setta.
setti.
sett ;
•el,
— selja,
Bel da,
eeldi,
66h ;
Bkii,
•^-ekilja.
•kilda.
skildi.
[Bkilt] Bkjlit
tU,
— vilja.
vilda.
vildi,
viljat;
fly.
-flyja.
flyfta.
flydi,
flyit;
With the ancients
vil ha
s erenera
lly vill (for
vUr) in the second and third persons, sometimes v i 1 1-
t u or V i 1 1 , which is the more modem form, in the
second, and often v i I d u for v i I j a in the infinitive.
These five are irregular in the present.
■egi, atBegja, aagSa, aegdi, aagt:
P^Pt — i>egja, ^ag^ |>egdi, I>agat;
I>ykki, — i>yk)ga, (idtta, jKBtti, I>6tt}
yrki. -yrkj.. {^^^ H'^;.^ |;;|,j.;
Boeki, — Boekja, 8<5tta, Boetti, adtt
When {>ykki is used impersonally, it generally
makes {> y k k i (f> i k k i ) in the third person singular
for |) y k k i r .
84
INFLBCTIOir or WOKD8.
.i
ann,
kinn,
maiit
man,
mun,
skal,
Jjarf,
mAf
knd.
▼eit,
nnna,
kunna,
roundag^
_Bkyldu, >
skttia, y
— I>iirfa,
— «>eiga,
—mega,
^knega,
—vita.
ynni,
kynni,
mjrndi,
C myndi,
\ mandi,
skyldi,
tyrfti,
mtdf
mflBtti,
kneBtti,
vftsi,
nnt;
kunnat ;
mnnat ;
[iwinltJi^];
[tMMting]:
^urft;
Att;
mAtl;
[ko4u];
▼ita5.
175. About a dozen verbs, otherwise irregular, also
resemble the third class in the past, but in the present
are like the past of the close division, as ;
at unna,
— kunna,,
— mu^na,
— ^mundu, > ^„« j.
■kylda,-
I>urfla,
Ana,
mdtta^
knAtla^
vifsa,
A more regular v^b; u'nni/ unta, ynti,
unt, should not be confounded wkh ann. For
kn& we sometinr(^ find I n a i , k'tfaSa, kn&8.
176tf The peculiarities of the present iiji. these verbs
are chiefly these. The first and third persons are
alike, and the second person endkiifi -^, (or it, if the
characteristic of the verb be -^, wliich however is the
case only with the single word v e i t ); the second
person plural has m some words -u^, in others -iV;
the third person plural hfs most frequently -^ (o)
with the ancients, but -a, with the modems, as
1, kann, skal, A, ' rnU
3,kant, tkalt, Au, reizt,
9,kami, ikal, A, Teit,
1, kunnum,
■kulam,
eignm.
▼hum.
3, kannit.
skalut,
eignt [it],
▼itie [nd];
3 kunna,
■kultt,
aiga [a].
▼ita [o].
IRTLECTIOIT OF W0BD8.
85
177. The close or more artificial Division.
Second Conjugation
' 1. CLASS*
Indie.
Pr69» sing, 1. gef,
2. gefir,
3. gefr,
pL I. gefum,
2. gefit (id),
3. gefa,
Past ring, 1. gaf,
2, gaft,
3. gaf,
pi, 1. gifam'i
2. gdfut (uef),* '
3. gdfu, ' •
Pres,ring, 1. gefa (i),
2. gefir,
3. gefi,
pi, 1. gefim (um),
2. gefit (i&),
3. gefi,
Past ring, 1, geefi (a),
2. gsefir,
3. gsefi,
pi, 1. gaefim [um],
2. g8efit[ud],
3. gsefi [u],
Imperat. > ^ ^ j.^ j
prss,sing, 5 ® 1.-V J»
pZ. 1. gefum,
2. gefit,
If^nitive at gefa,
Participle gefanda, i,
^ptne. gefit.
8
2. CLASS.
l8Bt,
Isetr,
Isetr,
Idtam,
Utid,
Idta,
l^t,
I^t,
l^t,
I^tiim,
• l^tu«,
l^tu,
Idta p]i ^
Idtir,
Idti,
Idtim [um],
ldU«, •*
IdU,
lai [a],
Ifetir,
l^ti,
I^tim [um],
]aid[ud],
l^ti [u],
Idt [tu],
Idtum,
Idta,
Idtanda, i,
Idtid.
3. CLASS,
fer,
ferr [r8],
ferr,
forum,
farit [19],
fara,
f6r,
fort,
for,
forum,
f6rut [ud],
f6ru,
fara [i],
farir,
fari,
farim [forum],
farit [ift],
fari,
fceri [a],
fcerir,
fceri,
fcerim [um],
foerit [u8],
foeri [u],
far [-9u],
forum,
farit [id] y
fara,
faranda, i^
farit.
86
INFLECTION OT WOftDS.
Th ird Conjugation.
1. CLAM.
2. GLASS.
3. CLAW.
Indie .
Pres.sing, 1. brenn,
«riPi
Skyt,
2. brennr,
gnpr.
skytr,
3. brennr,
gripr.
ikytr,
pU 1* brennum,
gripum,
8kj(5tum«
2. brennit (19),
gripil (i8),
ftkj'dtid.
3. brenna,
gripa,
skjdta,
Past sing, 1. brann,
greip,
skaut.
2. brant,
greipt,
Aauzt,
i, brann.
grejp.
skaut.
pU 1. brunnum,
gripum,
skutum,
si. brunnat (u$),
griput (uj),
skutuS,
3. brunitu,
g"PU,
tkutu,
C n <2 1 < .
•
Pres.sing, 1. brenna (i),
gripa [i],
skjdfa (i),
2. brennir.
•grlpir.
skjdtif,
3. brenni,
gripi,
skjdti.
pi, 1. brennim (um),
gripim (um),
skjdtim (um), i
2. brennit (id),
gripit(i8), .
skj6ti2f,
3. brenni,
gripi,
skjdti,
Past sing, l.brynni(a),
g"P'»
skyti [a].
Si. brynnir.
gnpir.
skytir,
3. brynni.
g"pi.
skyti.
pi, 1. brynnim (um),
gripim (um).
skytim [um],
2. brynnit (ud),
gripif (ud),
skytid [ud].
3. brynni (u),
g"pi Wf
skyti [u].
;rSrj2'>-»'
grip,
skj6t,
J9Z. 1. bronnam,
gripum,
skjdtum,
2. brennit.
gripit,
skjdtid.
Infinitive, at brenna,
gripa,
skj6ta,
Participle, brennanda, i,
gripanda, i,
skjdtanda, i,
Supine, brunnit.
gripit.
skotit.
INFLECTION OF WORDS. 87
178. The Passive Voice is formed, as in the open
divbion, from the active, by the addition of st, before
which r final is dropped; but d^ ty which are also drop-
pedy take z instead of s^ as
Singular gripst, gripst, gripst,*
— IsBzt, Isezt, leB^t^
Plural grlpumst, gripizt, grfpa»t;
— Idtumst, Idtizc, Idtast.
Neuters as b r e o n do not admit tbe passive fojrm.
179. A peculiarity of the inflection of the present in thje
close division is that where the characteristic is s, the second
and third petsons singular do not take r, but the second receives
I, and the third becomes like the first, as
efcles, I>{ilest, hann 1 e s , past las, supine 1 e s i t ;
— b 1 8B 8 , — b 1 SB s t , — b lees, — bl^s, — bldsit,
— r is, — ^rist, — ris, — reis, — risit;
— ^f r f s , — f r yst, — Irys; — fraus, — frosit.
This rule probably belongs to the modern dialect only, and
not to the ancient tongue, where the ending in these words
was doubtless r, which coalesced with s, thus making ss ; as
ek eys, {lueyss (Lokaglepsa 4), hann e y s s ; ver a u s u m ,
past j 6 s , sup. a u s i t ; — «-v e x , — v e x not vext [8n. Edda.
114]. — vex; — voxum, v6x or 6x, — vaxit.
The modern dialect also generairy extends this rule to verbs
with the characteristic r, as e g f e r , |> {i f e r d > hann f e r,
intead of ek fer, })tiferr, hann ferr, which latter
form alone occurs in ancient writers.
180. The first class of the second corrugation
eontains several irreguUrs, as
88 IHTLBCTION OW W0BB8.
ek trod.
attroda,
trad,
tr&dam,
rtr»di.
trodit;
— >kem,
-^oma,
kTam,
) kvAmnm,
kvsBmx
, komit ;
-*ef.
— aofa,
■▼af,
■▼dfum,
svefi,
aofit;
—get,
— geta,
gat,
gdtum,
gaeti,
getid ;
—get,
— geta,
gat.
gdtum,
geti,
getadj
— et,
—eta,
it.
Mum,
ceti,
•tid;
— veg,
— vega,
vA.
-gum,
vaegi.
vegit ;
— liggi
— liggja,
u.
-gum,
Isgi,
legit ;
--I>igg,
— |)iggja,
I)A,
-gum,
I)ffgi,
I>egit;
— se.
— 8ji,
8d,
-m,
8Ci,
e^t[i^];
Instead of kvani, kvamum, kvasmi, we
often find kom, komuniy ksemi. We find
also, though rarely, in the singular of the past v ag,
lag, f>ag forva, Ik, pk. The second peison
is V a 1 1 (Njalssaga 203), not v a g t . The modem
form of the past is v o . S e is contracted whenever
u follows a, as in the present ve r sj & m Hmsk« 1
163. and in the past j^er sa8, Njalss. 8. The
passive participle inserts j before e, or takes the ac*
cent, thus
neut. 8 6 1 [or aed], ma. ad n n, Fms, 5,249, or sd d r , /e. s 6 n .
181. To this class belongs the auxiliary ek em :
indicative Conditional Imper ative,
Pres. sin. ek em [er], se, veri,
pii ert, ser [sert, aerd], ver-tu CverirJ,
hann er, se, veri,
pi. ver erum, sem [seum], verum,
f)er erut [a&], se9 (aeuti), verit (iti),
f>eir eru, se (seu), veri (a,]
Past sin, ek var, vteri [a],- Infin. at vera,
pii vart, veerir, Part, veranda, i,
hann var, vieri, Sup. verit.
INFLECTION OF WOBDS.
89
nem, at nema, nam,
bregd, -bregda, brd,
ber, - bera, bar,
sker, - skera, skar,
steJ, - stela, stal,
pL ver rdrum rvorum]%v8Brim [am],
I)or v4rut [vorudj, veerit [u&],
I>eirydru fvoru], vaeri [uj,
When the form vorum is used in the past pi.
the o is sometimes accented, vorum.
1 82. Some take an irregular , vowel-change in the
supine, as
ndmom, naemi, numit ;
brugdum, brygdi, brtigdit ;
bdrum, baBri, borit ;
skdrum, sknri, skorit ;
stdlum, BtaBli, stolit ;
fel, tela, J ^^^j^ ^^,^^^^ ^^j^j^^ J
183. The Second class has few irregulars. The
most important are
h4t, -um, -i, heitid;
h^t, -um, -i, heitidi
h^kk, b^ngum, -i, hingit ;
gekk, gengum, -i, gengit j
f<^kk,fengom, -i, fengit.
184. Certain verbs anomalous in the formation of
the past may be referred to this class.
ny, nda, nera, -rum, -ri, ndit ;
any, Bti6a, sneraCNj.95), -rum ,.ri, 8n6it ;
ros, r6a, rera, -rum, -ri, r6it :
groe, groa, grera, -rum, -ri, grdit
The form of the past resembles that in the first
congjugation, making the second person n e r i r ,
third n e r i &c. In the ancient dial^t we find o or
ey, and in the modern, e, for e in the past, as (ancient)
snora, greyra, for dnera, grera, and (mo-
dern) nera for nera be. The verb r s 8 ,
8*
belt, at heita,
beiti, — heita,
hdagi, — hdnga,
geing, -gdnga,
fae, ~ fk,
90 INTLBCTION Or WORDS.
r e 8 , which is regular with the ancients, makes the
past re S i , in the modem dialect*
185, In the third chui^ the following variations
from the normal form are noticeable.
8ver,
sverja,
'7 -'-^-w»..
•<Srum|
Boeri,
> svarit ;
atend,
standa,
Bt6if,
•una,
BtOBdi,
■taSit;
ele,
sl&,
■16,
"gum,
•IcBgi,
•legit ;
flae.
fli,
fll6,
gum,
flcegi,
flegit ;
hlas,
hlaeja,
hid.
-gum,
hlcBgi,
hlegit ;
dey,
deyja,
dd,
•gum,
doegi,
d^t.
m>
spyja,
spjd.
^m.
-"F
8p6it ;
We find also, though rarely., the past singular s 1 6 g ,
f 1 6 g , log, dog; the omission of g in the plural,
and conditional past, is more frequent, as s 1 6 u m ,
dou, hlc»i(Fms.2, 152)^
186. The following take an entirely irregular form
in the plural of the indie, past, and in the conditional
6x, uxum, yxi, vazit;
j6k, jukum, jyki, aukit :
jda, juaum, jysi, Ruait:
hlj6p, hlupuma blypi, hlaupit;
bj6, bjuggum, bjyggi, bdit ;
hj6, bjuggum, bjyggi, boggvit
We find also 6 x um, h 1 j 6 p u m , but these foims
are clearly not genuine, for we cannot say in the con-
ditional oexi, hljcepi, but only yxi, hlypi,
which require in the indicative plural uxum, hlu-
p um.
187. The first doss of the third conjugation has
abo several irregulars, as
past, as
vex,
vajca,
eyk,
auka,
e>8,
au8a,
hieyp,
hlaupa,
by.
b<ia,
hogg.
hoggva,
IHrLEOTtON or WORDS.
91
finn.
finna.
bind,
binda,
▼ind,
viDda,
sting,
atinga.
spring,
aprioga,
geld.
gjalda.
skelf.
skj&Ifa,
hverf,
hverfa,
iyndi, fundit ;
,bjjrn4i, bundit;
ynd), undit;
atyngi, fitdngit;
•pf^ngi, sprdngit \
gjrldi, goldit {
skjUi, skolfit ;
hyrfi, horfit ;
fann, fbadam,
batt. bupdi^n.,
vatt, unduin,
«takk, stdngum,
aprakk, aprdngam,
gait, galdum,
skalf, skulfum,
hvarf, hurfum,
These last, with the exception of the accented a in
s k j a 1 f a , conform to the auxiliary verb
ek verJ, at verda, v^rd, urjum, yrSI, orjit.
Most regular verbs have o in the first syllable of the
supine ; and those only take u which have n after the
vowel. So drekk, drakk, drukkit, because
kk is here used instead of nk or ngJc, (53)
188. The second class of the third conjugation is
in general very regular ; but all in ^tgf besides the reg-
ular form ending in -eig in the past, have another in
Cf (g being dropped), according to the second cla^s
of the second conjugation, which, at least with the
modems, occurs also in the plural, and in the condi-
tional past, thus :
.«g. a«ga. {'^^^ :««-. a;l «'«•*-
so also vik, vikja, veik or vek (Paradism.
218).
189. TTie third class is also very regular; a few
verbs of this class have b in the past, by reason of a
double (of course pronounced hard) consonant follow-
ing ; and some with ng after the vowel take u in the
first syllable of the supine (167). These ought no
doubt to be reckoned among those, which in conse-
92 IHf fiKOTION or W01IO8.
quence of a bard consonant take 6 in the past^ but the
lengthening of all the vowels before ng (49) generally
changes the o to au, thus :
wSkkf fokkva, Bdkk» sakkam, sykki, sokkit;
■tokk, «t6kkra, itdkk. ttukkamt stjrkki, stokkit;
hrokkt hrokkva, hrokk, hrukkum, hrykki, hrokkit;
iiyng, syngja, aaang, ■Angdm, ayn^y adD^t;
ayng, syogva, lODg, sungum, ayngi, aungU;
So also sl^ngi slaung, (Helgakv. Hundb.
1. v. 33), slungit; and prfngy {^raung,
|>r{iDgity which, however, are obsolete poetic
words.
Auxiliary Verbs.
190. As the Icelandic verbs are capable of expres-
sing by proper inflection the present and the past only,
all the other relations of time are denoted by periphra-
s^y through the help of auxiliary verbs, of which there
are many.
The future is expressed by the infinitive with man
or m u n , and s k a 1 . The former implies a predic-
tion merely, the latter an assurance or pledge, thus :
viS varum fceddir a einni natt, ok m a n skamt verSa
milli dauSa okkars. We two were bom the same
nighty and there will be but a short interval be*
tween our deaths ; ek 3 k a 1 {>at gera, I will do so.^
- - - - — - - - I . ,1 . , — — — _i
* Tke auxiliary man appears to correspond Yery nearly to
skaU when used with the first person, and will with the second
and third, in English, and implies an opinion, expectation, or
prediction. It generally refers to a Aiture time, but where it is
merely expreasive of an opinion , as ^ii m a n t vera feigr madr,
iimscTioN or wouds. 93
Man and skal refer to a portion of time not yet
commenced, and their past tenses m u n d a and
s k 7 1 d a sustain the same relation to them, as the
English would and should to the present tenses will
and shall, thus : bversu f>eir broeSr m u n d u svara,
how the brothers would answer ; en hann svaraSi f>vi,
at hann s k y 1 d i herSa i bl&8i Sigihssona, and he
repUedj that he would harden [his sword] in the
blood of the sons of Sigfiss. The infinitives vera
(181) and verSa (187) are generally understood
after man and skal,. (these infinitives are used
almost indifferently, though vera properly refers to
the portion of time already commenced and now pas-
sing, and V e r S a to that now beginning) thus : f>at
man rettara, that must [be] better; skulu ok
talin nofn f>eirra, their names also shall [be] enur
Njdla 41, you must be a doomed (Scotich^fey) man, it is notne.
eessarilr future. Indeed wiU is used in Scotland in precisely
the flsme manner. The foUowing are examples of the ordina-
ry use of man. ^viat (>i man ek hafa rei^i Gunnars, for
then I shaUijtcur the lorath of Gunnarr; {)d mantu drepinn
▼era, then will you he slain ; hver man hefna ? who will
avenge it, 8 k al expresses 1) a determination or promise, like
the English will with the first person, orS) an assurance, threat
exhortation, or command, like the English shall with the second
and third persons, as en t>6 skal ek eggja fodur minn ok
broedr Slc, hut J will urge (egg on) my father and brothers ^e.
fid skal ek nd, segir hon, launa f>er kinnhestinn, <A6n / K>tU
pay you now for the blow an the cheek, said she /n6 skaltu
Gnnnari fylgja, now follow Gunnarr! pU skalt ok finna
Tyrfing, ok skal hann 8«flja I>er sok &c., find Tyrfing, and
he shall trarisfer to you a claim 4^. Tran,
94 IVrLSOTtON ov wobjm.
meraitd. In the ttme manner are formed all pas^ves
future with the participle instead of the .infinitive,
vera or verfia being understood, thus: {>es^ar-
fasiua mun tekin, ok kveyktr vi8 eldr, this hay-
stack will [be] taken^ andjire [be] kindled with it.
The auxiliary s k a 1 is often used impersonally with
the infinitive active where modem languages generally
use the infinitive passive, maSr (French on) being
understood, thus : j[>a skyldi brenna alia dauSa
menn, alors tous les marts devaient itre brulisy or
alors [m] devait brider tws Us morts^ then all the
dead were to be burnt; n(i skal nefna sonu
NjUs, now shall the sons of NjaU be named; f>ik
skal utbera, you shall be carried out.
191. Hefi (171) and em (181) form the per-
fect, and (with their past tenses hafSa and var)
pluperfect, hefi being generally used with actives,
and e m with passives, and some few neuters, thus :
f>u he fir mildk mist, you have lost much;
ok er fegit or Sit hjarta mitt, my heart is re*
joicedr Tbe participle, when used with hefi,
often agrees with the aoun in gender and ease, as er
f>eir hofSu feldaa hofiTrngja liSsins, when they
had slain the leader of the army. H ef i is also
used with the supine passiye .(reciprocal or reflective),
as er |>eir hofSu viStalazt, when they had
talked together; f>at heiir umbreyzt siSan,
that has changed since ;nix hefi ek k o m i z t
at raun urn, I have now found it out* We may also say,
nh em ek kominn at sum um |>at.
iNVLScnoN or wobbs.
95
Vera used with at and the infinitive of other
verbs indicates continued action at a definite dme,
whether present or past, as ek em at skrifa, i
am writings jesuisapresecrire; ek var at skrifa,
/ W4ts vfritingf fitais apres ecrire.
^192. Time just absolutely completed is expressed
by the verb e m with buinn, as ek er buinn
at skrifa, i have done writing ;ek var buinn
at skrifa, I had done writing.
193. Vera and ver^ta, with man, skal
and h e f i , are thus inflected ;
Indie, ek man vera,
— skal vera,
— munda vera,
— akylda vera,
— hefi verit,
— hafl^a verit,
Cond, -*• muna (i) vera, ^
— skala (i vera,
— myndi (aj vera,
— akyldi (a) vera,
— hafa (i) verit,
— hefSi (a) verit,
. i^/in, at munda vera,
— fkyldu vera,
— hafa verit,
P«ft. hafandi verit,
ek man verda,
•— skal verda,
— • munda verda,
— skylda verda,
— befi ordit,
, — em ordinn,
«— halBa ordity
— var ordinn,
— muna (i) verda,
— skula (i) verda,
— myndi <a) ver^a,
— akyldi (a) verda^
— hafa (i) ordit,
•^ le ordinn,
— hefji (a) orjit,
— vaari (a) ordinn,
at mundu verda,
— skyldu verda,
— hafa ordit,
— vera ordinn,
hafandi ordit,
verandi ordinn.
^ S^4 .ijJ^^^^-^^t.
96 nrriiECTioir or wobdi.
The compound participles occur very seldom, as
hafandi and verandi are not much used.
194. The compound passive is inflected as follows:
Indicative*
ek em (er) kalladr, talinn, drepinn,
— var kalladr, talinn, —
— man [verda] kalladr, talinn, —
— munda [rerda] kalla^, talinn, -^
— hefi verit kalladr, talinn, —
— haf^a verit kalladr, talinn, -.
Conditienalt
— Be kalladr, talinn, *-
— Yceri (a) kalla^r, talinn, .—
— muna (i)[verda] kalla9r, talinn, — •
— myndi(a)[verda] kallaftri talinn, —
— hafa (i) verit kalladr, talinn, —
— hef^i (a) verit kalladr, talinn.
Infinitive ,
at vera kalladr , talinn,
— mundu [verda] kalla^r, talinn, .«
— hafa verit kalladr, talinn,
In practice^ the compound forms are not often ar-
ranged as in the foregoing tables, but they are usually
transposed, and separated by other words for the sake
of euphony, especially where three verbs would oth-
erwise occur in succession, thus: ok hefi ek
aldri fyrr klegity siSanficc. Ihavenev^
er laughed before^ 5tnc6, &c.
195. The simple passive in -si admits the com-
pound tenses, with a reflective or reciprocal signifi-
cation.*
^l^heae forms appear to have aooMtimea a proper ptMive
•ignification, aa fist mun annat, Njila, 125, something
ii«rjUECTioif or words. 97
With the It^n, ek man kallatt, teljast,
— munda kallast, teljast,
WUk the Supine ... hefi kailazt, talizt,
.— hafda kailazt, talizt, &c,
1 96. Besides the above, many other verbs are oc-
casionally used as auxiliaries, thus: er nu f>at
se8, at ver getum f>& eigi meS vap-
num sdtta, it is now manifest, that we cannot
overcome them (get themnot overcome) by
weapons ; e k a, f> u a 1 1 a t , I ought, you ought,
(infin, eiga); ek tek at, Ibegin; ek mk, I
may or can, (infin. mega) &c.
197. Im personals are used 1) when the subject is
entirely indefinite, as f>at f>rumar, it thunders ;
f>at dagar, it dawns ; or 2) they become in a
manner personal, as in Latin, the subject taking an ob-
lique case, sometimes the accusative, asmiklangar,
Hong; mik j)yrstir, Ithirst; and sometimes
the dative, as raer ofb^Sr, I shudder. The
passive voice is used with the dative in the same way,
as mer heyrist, I hear ; mer skilst, I
understand; mer leiSist, Iamweary,je m^en-
nuie. Some passives are used both with the indefinite
j[) a t and the dative, as pRt tokst honom f>6,
it succeeded vnth him (or he succeeded), neverthe^
less,
else will be found ; cigi munifdstslikr kostr,3.
Forn. S. N. 73, no such match can he found ; so the phrases a t
Idta ei k6gast, at Idta ei skiraat [309] where they
are reflective also. Tran.
9
96
mmMcnov ow ik^kdi.
198. Deponents, which are not numerous in Ice-
landic, generally belong to the open division, as e k a n-
dast, I die, or am dying ; ek dirfist, Ivei^
ture*
5. ADVERBS.
199. Advefbs, wlueh are otherwise indeolinahle,
often admit a species of inflection in the degcees of
comparison^ making the comparative in -ar, and the
superlative in ^ast ; some have shorter forms in -r,
-^ty as
opti^en.
OpiWTf
optast ;
tin frequently f
tidar,
tidast ;
vida widely,
vidar.
xitiaBt ;
TkOitT 'NartkimrMyf
ii&ftStr,
tiorOast ;
■kamt sharUy,
iknmr.
akemat ;
Uingi long.
leingr.
leingit.
200. Some are i
irregdar^ or defective,
as
vel toellf
betr.
bezt ;
ilia tUy,
verr,
verst ;
mjok muehf
meir.
mest;
litt liUie,
minnr (mi^r),
ixiinnst ;
gjarna wUUnglyj
hfildr.
helzt ;
ixi toithtnU,
utar,
yzi;
inni toithin.
innar,
innst ;
uppi above.
ofar(efra),
ofant (eftt);
nidri below.
nedar,
nedat.
The neuters of the positive and comparative de-
grees of adjectives are also often used adverbially ;
and sometimes double forms, of different significations,
INFLECTION Or WORDS. 99
occur, as utar , farther ovi (towards the door, but
still in the room), ytra vnihoui\ leingr and
9 k e m r used onlj of ^'fite, leingra, skemra,
of space.
289403
PART III. FORIHATION OF WORDS.
901. New words are fortned, 1 ) by Derivatiani
whereby either <the significitioii of the primitive is
changed, modified, enlarged or resfticted, or the word
is transferred to a different ch^', as from a verb to a
noun, and the like; and 2), by Campositum, where-
by two or more primitives or derivatives coalesce in
the formation of a new word expressive of a simple
idea, and as it were lose their own individuality and
independence of signification.
1. DERIVATION.
202. The change of signification by derivation is
usqally effected by prefixing certain inseparable parti-
cles ; the change of the class, either by vowel-change,
or by affixing certain terminal syllables, according to
the ending required by the rules of inflection.
Prefixes.
The following prefixes imply negation or contra^.
203. 6- (English unr) which has 1 ) a negative
force, as 6 k u n n r , unknown ; 6 k u n n u g r , t^-
norant; oboSinn, unbidden; 2) it changes the
FOEMATIOK Or WORDS. 101
signification of the word to its opposite, especially with
nouns and verbs, as omak, drouUe; ofriSr,
war.
204. mis- has sometimes the negative power of
o, as missattr, at variance j unreconciled^ besides
which it has two peculiar significations ; 1) a differ-
ence or inequality, as m i s s 1 6 r , unequally large ;
m i s 1 a n g i r , of unequal iength; m i s d a u S i , the
deaih of two persons a| different times; and S) a
mistake or error, as m i s m se 1 i , lapsus lingute; m i s-
m i n n i , lapsus' memoritB ; m i s g r i p., mistake;
misbruka, to misuse,
205. van- implies 1) 4he idea of a want, as
vanfser, not strong enough; vanheilsa, /eeife
health; 2) of something wrong or idle, as v a n g a ,
Tiegligence; vanfyJgi, inefficient aid; vanvirSa,
to dishonour.
206. V a r - an ancient inseparable particle of the
same signification, as v a r g e.f i n , badly married.
207. tor- denotes difficulty, as torsottr, diffi^
cult of attack; torfeinginn, difficult of attain-
ment,
208. for- properly an ancient preposition, the
original of fy rir, before, and of the same significa-
tion, which 1 ) it retains in derivatives, as f o r f a 8 i r ,
forefather; f o r s p a r , gifted with foresight; f o r -
m al i , preface; it implies also 2) the idea of some-
thing unpleasant or unlucky, as forbienir, curses;
forsending, a dangerous mission; and 3) it is
9*
102 roBMATioir or wokdb.
often without any apparent fofce, asforbetra, to
improve; foreySa, to lay watte*
209. er- (or or-) signifies 1) a privation or sep-
aration, as 6 r v en ta , to be void of hope, to da*
pair; ormagna, exhauited; orvita, insane; Z)
an extreme, or high degree, as o rl i t i 1 1 , very tmaU;
ormjor, very slender; ox i k\m\ix , very poor; m
this latter sense, or is little used except with adjeo
tives which imply negation or want*
Other prefixes express extension or limitation in
time, space, or degree, thus ;
210. a 1- contracted from the adjective a 1 1 r (aU),
denotes the highest possible, entirely unlimited de-
degree, as; alvitr, allvfisey omniscient ; almiit-
I u g r , almighty »
211. all- of the same origin, is of a very difibrent
signification. It corresponds nearly to the English
very, as allgoSr, very good; allvitr, very
ufise; a livid a, very generally.
212. of- (too, too much), 9Af of at, gluttony,
(toomuch eating); ofmikill, toolarge; ofga-
mall, too old.
f r - denotes a very high degree, but is used chief-
ly with adjectives implying negation or defect, as
ofrlitill very small; ofrungr, very young.
afar- has the same signification, though its use
is not confined to negatives, as afarreiSr, very
wroth ; a f a r y r 8 i , threats, (great words).
213. fjol- correspcHids to the Grerman viel,
VCttMATION or WOBDS. 103
Ang. Sax. feala, muck, many. The Icelandic
comp. fleira, morty and sup. flest, most^zxe
derived from f j o 1 , which however occurs only as a
prefix, thus; f j 5 1 m e n n r , popuhtu ; f j o 1 b y g g*
d r y thicJcly peopled ; f j o 1 y r S a , to speak in a
proUx manner.
The adjective fA r, (ftw^ is ased as the opposite of t j o 1 , in
compoaitioiiy thus, f 4 m e n n r , not popuUma, thinly peopled ;
fdkunndtta, ignorance.
The Icelanders have many participles and adverbs of increase,
and exaggeration, which though independent words, are used
in connection with adjectives, other adverbs &e, as g e y s i
bagligr, immensely skilful i f u r d u ilia, extremely ill ; b i s - .
na velf very well; but dd-litiU, vtry smaU; sdr-kdljTr, "^-
bitter cold ; spdn-njr, span-new ;* are compounds of
d d 1 1 , vehement^ s d r t , difficult ^ hard, (sore) s p d n n , chip,
shaving, splinter,
214. si- (continual^ unbro'ken)^ as s i f e 1 1 a , an
vadbroken series ; s i f e 1 d r, continuous ; s i f>y r s t i r,
ahvays thirsty ; s i occurs as an independent word
in the phrase s i o k se , forever and aye.
*Span-new, though explained by Johnson funder spick- and-
spanj, occurs in the list of unintelligible words at the end of
the common editions of Chancer. It is still in frequent use in
New England. The English and Icelandic adjectives are no
donbt from the same root, and derive their signification from
the new and bright appearance of a fresh splinter or shaving.
Spdn-nyr is translated in Swedish by n a g e 1 n y, (Ger.
man nagel-neu), nail-new, which corresponds to the English
spiek (spike;. Splitterny occurs in Danish, though not
fonnd in the Dictionaries, and splinter-new is not unfrequently
heard in New-England. Tran.
104 VOftMATION or WOBDB.
515. sjald- ($Momj rare), as sjaldseSr,
rarely $een.
516. gagn- (through, thorough), as gagn-
s 8B r , tran$par€nt ; g a g -n 1 as r 6 r , thoroughly
learned.
Some particles indicate the jelation of different ob-
jects, thus
317. sam- (together), sam^eSra, [chUdrenof
the] same father ; sammoeSr.a, [children of the]
same mother; samborinn^ [<^ild of the] same
parents; sampinast, to sympathise.
The opposite idea is expressed by s u n d r , (asunder)^ and
8 e r (se/f) in composition, as Bundrnioedri,of different mo-
thers ; 8 ^ r is often taken in a bad sense , as a.^ r ▼ i t r , self-
gufficient ; s^rplssgni, eeljishnese,
218. and- and dnd-(^ag'otW^ as andviSri,
head-wind ; andstreymis^ upstream, against the
current.
219. auS- (easily) zs, auSkendr, readily
recognised ; auSfeinginn, easily attained,
220. f r u m - (first, primitive), as f r u m m 6 8 i V,
original mother (Eve ); f r u m g e 1 4n n , first bom ;
f r u m r i t , original (of a booTc).
221. endr- (again), as endrgetning, re-
generation ; endrlifgay^o restiscitate.
222. einka- (sole, single, only), as einka-
I e y f i , privilege ; einkahondluni monopoly ;
e i n k a m k 1 ; tete a tete.
FORMATION OF WORl>S. 105
Terminal iyllabUs of tvhstantivts.
The endings of substantives are very numerous, and
many of them are significant ; among these are
293. bfai, A} y gg\y( cm inhabitant) as F j6nbui,
an inhabitant of Funtn; JaSarbyggi, aninhab*
itmt ofXddtm.
224. -veri, (generally in the plural verjar)
has the same signification, as Romverjar, Ro-
mam ; the national appellations in warn, oarii, which
occur in the hi^ory of the middle ages, are probably
the Latinized form of this ending.
225. s m i d r , properly an independent word, is
much used as an ending, and corresponds to the En^^
glish mafcer, skosmidr, ihoemaJcer; skip asm 18 r,«
shipwright ; jarnsmi8r> blacksmith.
226. -lingr is a diminutive ending, as boek*
lingr) a little book; yrm.lingr, a littleworm;
it nlso forms patronymics, as Knytlingar, dt-^
scendanti of Canute.
227. -ki (masculine) has the same signification
and use, as s v e i n k i , a little boy.
223. - k a is the corresponding feminine.
229. - n e y t i (fellowship) as f o r u n e y t i , trch
veiling company.
230. - n a u t r (companion) asforunautr, trar
veiling companion.
237. -> 1 e y s i , from the adjectives in - 1 a us (-less)
as s a k 1 e y s i , (from s a k 1 a u s , innocent,) scotice,
sackless) innocence jguSleysi, atheism, ungod^
liness.
106 FOKMATION OF WORDS.
232. -frosSi, wigaify'mg knowledge^ is the gen-
eral termination of the names of the sciences, as gu 6-
froeSi, theology; stjornufrcsSiy oitronamjf;
sklarfrceSi, ptyckology ; nfcttdrufrceSi,
phtfsieal science.
233. - s p e k i (from s p ak t , wise) is of the same
signification, and use, as 1 o g s p e k i , juritprudence.
Terminal iyllabUs of aJ^ectives.
The principal significant endings of acQecttves^ are
these :
234. -samt, (-samr, -som) is expressive of
inclination or quality, as friSsamr, peaceable;
nytsamr, useful; vinnusamr, industrious.
235. -lat (-I&tr, -Ikt) same signification, as
{)akklatr, thankful; rfettlatr, equitable.
236. -ligt (-ligr, •lig) denotes 1) likeness
(Eng. -{y adj.) as hofSingligt, princely ; h e r-
m a n n 1 i g t , warlike ; riddaraligt, knightly.
2) practicability or possibility, like the English -6fe,
as geingiligt, j7a#«aUe; byggiligt , habitable;
jotruanligt, incredible; 6bcetanligt, irre^
parable.
237. -ott (-6ttr, -6tt) is the usual ending of
adjectives which describe the external form of objects,
as kringlott, circular; hnott6tt, spherical,
288. -raent (-rsenn, -r»n) generally termi-
nates adjectives expressive of the course of the winds,
currents, &c. as norrsnt , austrsent, vest-
rORMATIOK OF IfOKIKS. 107
rffint, from the North, Eastj Sotdh, West; fj all-
re n t , Jrom the mountains,
239. -leitt (-leitr, -leit), from lita, ^ojce,
is the usual ending of adjectives descriptiire of the
outward appearance, especially the colour or complex-
ion, of objects, as raudleitt, red, sandy; grioen-
leitt, greenish; h a 1 e i 1 1 , mtyestic.
840. -vcent (-raenn, -vcen) from van, hope
or expectation, as banvsnt, deadly, mortal ;
skaSvsnt, mischievous ; o r v se n t , not to be
expected*
241. We may here notice a peculiar class of parti-
cipial adjectives sometimes active, sometimes passive
in their signification. Of these the following are ex-
amples; drsep-t, drsep-r, drsep, that maybe
kitted; n se m - 1 , that readily takes, contagious ;
a-feng-t, operating suddenly upon (the head),
intoxicating ; al-geng-t, current (of money),
from geng, gekk, gengum ; f oe r - 1 , passable, from
far, for; upp-tsek-t, liable to confiscation, from
tek, t6k; au8-fyn-t, easily found, Fms. 7. 356;
? y 1 ^ ' S y I d r 9 Sy 1'^ 9 ^^ ^^ P^y^ ^'^^ payable,
or fit to be given inpayment, fix)m geld, galt^ guldum;
dreif-t, that is ^j^rearZ, from drif, dreif ; lang-
leit-t, long ' looking ; from lit, leit : fleyg-t,
able to fly, from fl^g, flaug ; n e y t - 1 , that cart be
enjoyed, from n^t, naut.
Terminal syllables of adverbs.
242. Adverbs are usually formed from adjectives.
108 FoaMATioK or words.
by rejecting the cfaaracteristic "tj and addbg -a, as
hofSingligt adj. hofdingliga, adv. in a
princely manner ^ nytsamliga, vsefMy.
243. -i 9 IS the common ending of adverbs derived
from substantives, as jafnsiSis; side by side;
ardegis, early (in the day); innbyrSis,
mutiLaHy; utbyrSis, overboard.
244. -an denotes motion froniy as heiman,
from hom^e ; heSan, hence; utan, in (from
without) ; n e 9 a n 9 up (from below) ; o f a n , dawn
{from above).
Verbs*
245. By a change of form, verbs sometimes assume
a causative, and often a transitive signification, instead
of a neuter, thus s v 8a f i , put to sleep ^ from sef,
svaf, svaium; felli, Jell, from fell, fell-um (the
primitive form, modem iell*um), s cb r i , adjure, ad*
minister an oath, from sver, sor ; b r e n n i , consume,
from brenn, brann ; r e i s i , raise, from ris, reis ;
f 1 e y g i , fling, from fl^g, flaug ; h e n g i , hang up,
from hangi, bekk, hengum (primitive form, modem
hekk, hengum); f oe r i , move, carry, from fer, for-um;
drei fi , spread, diffuse, from drif, dreif.
2. COMPOSITION.
Composition of substantives.
246. Substantives are compounded with each other,
and with adjectives, and sometimes, though rarely,
with verbs.
FORMATION OF WORDS. 109
The first member in the compound word undergoes
no change but the loss of the characteristic, if it have
one, as vagn-slod, wheeUtracky rvij s 6 1 -ski n,
ivaahinej k a 1 f - s k i n n ^ calf-skin ; m i d - s u m -
a r , mid-summer; sma-fenaSr, small cattle.
247. If however the adjective be the first member,
it sometimes retains both its characteristic and its in*
flection, throughout, as nom, heilagrdomr, (or
helgidomr), ace. helgandom, a relic;
nom. M i k I i g a r 8 r 9 ace. M i k 1 a g a r 8 ,
Constantinople ; nom. f>ri8jipartr, ace.
f>ri8japarty third part.
248. If the vowel of the first member be b (chan-
geable by inflection), it is always changed to a, as
mjaddrekka,* mead-howl; jar8eldr, subter^
ranean fire, volcanic eruption ; hand-taka,
to arrest f to make prisoner.
249. The first member is often put in the genitive,
where it stands in the relation of object, possessor
&c. to the last as r i k i s s t j 6 r n , government ;
f68 urb r68ir, uncle (father's brother)^ s&lar-
fall, sunset; stoekkunargler, microscope;
vagnasmi8r, wheel-tcright (waggon^maker),
250. Instead of the long genitives in -ar, the shor-
ter form in -« is often used in composition, thus ;
nom. Magnus gen. Magnus-ar, but Mag-
nusson;so Sigur8sson, and the like. If a
compound word, the first member of which is a dis-
*^— '^-^— — ' — ^i^.^— ^— «— »— ^— »— — fc
*Mjo(dr«kka ocean in Egilmca e. 46. TWm.
10
110 FOKMATION OT WORDS.
syllable or trisyllable, be re-compounded, the first
member is usually contracted to a monosyllable, in the
new compound, thus SvarfaSardalr isa valley
in Iceland, which derives its appellation firom a per-
son named SvarfaSr, gen. SvarfaSar; the
history of the inhabitants of this valley is called
S varfdeelasaga.
Can^HHon of AJ^ectives.
251. In the composition of Adjectives, the first
member usually suffers the same changes, as in that
of substantives. When both members are adjectives,
the first always qualifies the last, which is the leading
word in the compound, as storgjofull, very
liberal, lauslyndr, Jickle minded.
In many instances, the last member is a substantive,
assuming the form and office of an adjective in com-
position only ; as f> r i h o f 8 a 8 r , three headed ;
1 a n g o r 8 r , prolix ; rangeygSr, squint-eyed ;
fagrheerSr, fair-haired ; s k a m m 1 i f r , short-
lived.
252. In such cases the adjective is sometimes put
last, as h als 1 an gr , long-necked; ^d a u n s se t r|,
sweet-scented ; vara|>ykkr, thick-lipped; n e f -
m i k i 1 1 , large-nosed. When the compound is of
a substantive with a participle, the participle is always
last, as alvorugelin, sersiously disposed ; o 1 -
j u k e n 8 r, oleaginous; jarnsleginn, iron-bound .
253. In some compounds the first member admits
rORMATlON OF WORDS. Ill
of comparison^ as hattvirdandi, hsestvirS-
a n d i y highly ^ most highly honored; I i t i I v oe g r ,
insignijicant ; mi nnstvcBgr, most imignificanU
Composition of Verbs.
254. Substantives are sometimes compounded with
verbsy as krossfesta, to crucify; halshoggva,
to behead; adjectives more rarely, as rangsnua,
to pervert ; kunngjora, to make known; but
verbs are very seldom compounded with each other,
though such cases occur, as brennimerkj a, to
brand.
255. The compounds of adverbs and prepositions
with verbs are very numerous, as a f r a 8 a , to dis-
Buade; utreka, to drive out; fraskilja, to
distinguish, or separate,
A peculiar species of composition occurs both in Icelandic
and Anglo.Sazon, where the members do not properly coalesce,
so as to form a word expressive of an entire idea, but, by a rule
of construction, the preposition is taken from the substantive
(if the substantive bo expressed)} and attached to the verb,
which in this case is usually at the end of the period, thus
Sverrir kon6ngr hafDi vi^s^t I>essi snoru, er I>eir aetlaSi hann
i'Toida. King Sverrir had perceived the snare, which they dc"
signed to catch him in; kiaedi er jarl hafSi i-farit, the clothes the
jarl had worn (gone in).
Certain other substantives and adjectives of indeterminate
signification are proper compounds or derivatives, as (gddr)
▼ eftrdagr, a day when the weather (is good)', (11 tit) mat*
land, land producing (little) foods (iHa) limaftr, of
(iU proportioned) limbs \ (vel) ettadr, of (good) family.
If these words be used without qualifying adverb or adjective,
they are generally taken in a good and positive tense*
1 13 FORMATION OF WORDS.
Wardi frequently med in coitgfosiHon.
256. It may be serviceable to notice a few of tbe
words most often used in composition for the purpose
of qualification or limitation, as well as some others of
frequent occurrence.
257. h o f u 8- is used in the same manner as the
corresponding word head in English, as hofuSeing-
ill, archangel; hofuSprestr, high-prieit.
258. |) j 6 8- (people) expresses greatness or ex-
cellence, asf>j68skald,on eminent bard; {> j 6 8-
spekingr, a great philosopher; j[>j68gata,
pvilic highway; {>j6dkonungr, king of a
great nation.
259. St or- (great) occurs in innumerable com-
pounds as a word of increase or exaggeration, as
s 1 6 r e i g n , extensive possessions ; stormenni,
chieftain^ distinguished man; storrikr, verypow-
er/u/; St 6 raudigr, very rich; stormikill,
very large.
^ 260. sma- (smktt, small) forms diminutives
both substantive and adjective, as^smakvlkindi,
small animals ; s m a m e y , a little girl ; s m a -
k o n u n g r , roiielety a petty prince,
261. m i k i 1 - and m a r g - are used in com-
position in the same sense as s t 6 r - and 1 i t i 1-,
and fa - as sma-, though they do not occur so fre-
quently, thus m i k i 1 m e n n i , eminent man ;
litilmenni, iusignifcant person; margvitr,
variously learned ; f a v i t r , of small attainments.
rOKMATION OF WORDS. 113
5262. n ^ - (n ^ 1 1 , new) corresponds to the Eng*
lish new- in composition as net^-iom, thus n ^ k j o -*
r i n n , newly^hoieny elect ; n ^ m ffi I i , new rumor ^
news.
263. g 6 8 -* (good)^ g 6 8 ▼ e r k , goodwarJcs;
g 6 5 f ii s s 9 benevolent ; goSfregr, of good
Jame.
264. ill- (evil^ ill), i 1 1 g j 5 r 8 , evU work ;
illmenniy a had man ; i 1 1 g r e s i , weede,
pernicious plants ; i 1 1 f u s s , mischievous, evil-
minded.
The foregoing are used for the most part, though
not uniformly, as the first member of the compound.
The following form terminal syllables.
265. - m a 8 r , attached to genitives, signifies 1),
a man of a certain character, as gafuma8r, a
*'*^'^ ^f (g^^^O S^fi^y ^ genius ; m8elskuma8r,
a speaker, an eloquent man ; gle8ima8r, a cheer-
Jul man ; ]f>r6ttama8r, on athletic or expert
man ; 2) the relations, occupation, or situation of the
man, as f>j 6nustuma8r, z, servant ; litunar-
m a 8 r , a dyer ; bo8sma8r,a guest ; m 6 1 s -
to8uma8r, an opponent; fjandma8r, an
enemy ;konungsma8r, a royalist, which last
is not to be confounded with konungma8r, a
royal personage; 3) a particular countryman, as
Asiumenn, Asiatics; Trojumenn, Trcgans;
Parisarma8r, a Parisian ; Strasborgar-
m a 8 r , a Strasburger ; borgarma8r, resident
lO*
1 14 VOKMATION or WORDS.
of a dtyy citizen; landsmaSr, lanzmaSr,
a nativey (generally in opposition to vikingar),
which is not to be wuipouude d with 1 an d i , o fel-
low countryman. *'*••<> — ^* '^
266. -k o n a forms feminines corresponding to the
masculines in ma 8 r, as t>j6nustukona, «
waiting^maid.
267. -land; names of countries are generally
compounded with -land, * r i k i , or the like, as
Indialand, iidia; Jorsalaland , Palestine;
Polinaland, Poland; Valland, Italy (and with
the ancientSy often JVance) ; Serkland, Barbary
(the country of the Saracens). The words -h eimr,
-riki, and -veldi are generally compounded with
the genitive plural of the national appellative of the
people, as Frankariki, the kingdom of the
French ; but -land usually with a contract, which
perhaps may be the singular of the appellative, thus
S ]^ r 1 a n d , Syria ; Grikkland, Greece ;
Frakkland, France; Skotland, Scotland.
268. - b org is commonly used with the names of
cities, thus Trojuborg, Troy (the city of Troy);
Kartagoborg, Carthage ; Jorsalaborg,
(often J&rsalir), Jerusalem; Atenuborg,
Athens.
269. -efni, 1) with titles of rank, office, rela-
tion be, denotes a person having right or expectan-
cy to such rank 8(c, as konungsefni, heir ap-
parent y crovm-prince ; biskupsefni^ one des-
tined to a bishopric, or a bishop elect but not conse-
rORMATIOir OF WORDS. 115
cr<Ued ; prestsefni, o candidate for orders;
konarefni, intended wife ; 2 ) with other words,
the object or subject of the actidn, pasiiony or sensa^
tian indicated by such words, as hlktursefni, a
subject of laughter ; sorgarefni, a subject of
grief.
. 270. -list forms the names of the arts or applied
sciences, as m a 1 a r a 1 i s t , the art of painting. At
present, -konst or kunst (contracted from kun-
n u 8 1 a) is frequently used instead of * 1 i s t .
271. -korn forms diminutives, as profkorn,
a sample; stundarkorn, a moment; piltkorn,
a little boy.
272. -fullr, (English ->i)ashjatruarfullr,
superstitious ; lotningarfullr, reverential ;
m i k i 1 1 and - r i k r are used in the same manner.
273. -laus (English -^m) forms negative adjec-
tives, as sacklaus, innocent ^ guiltless^ (sacJcless);
V a p n I a u s , unarmed^ (weaponless); these adjec*-
tives are often used adverbially in the neuter, as f> a
var konungalaust, there was then an interreg-
num; pk var pafalaust, the papal throne was
vacant.
274. -gjarn denotes disposition, inclination, or
desire, as metnadargjarn, desirous of distinc-
tion, ambitious of honour; drottunargjarn,
ambitious ofhommr^ aspiring ; n a m g j a r n , docile^
teachable; fegjarn, avaricious; j[>r8e tugj arn,
quarrelsome.
116 FORMATIOir OF WOKDS.
275. It would be tedious to enumerate other words
whicli form large classes of compoundsy and we may
dismiss this subject by remarking, that, extensive and
unrestricted as the freedom of composition is, it is a
general rule, that in compound substantives, the lead-
ing member shall be placed lastj the structure of the
language not admitting such compounds as i«'4ro4ro1a(ULo(.
PART IV. SYNTAX.
General Observations *
276. The genuine Icelandic syntax is characterized
by simplicity, force and regularity; long, complex,
and involved periods seldom occur, but instead of such,
we find short distinct propositions, usually connected
by ok or enn (and or hU). Thus in Njalssaga,
t6k hon f>a upp skikkjuna, Flosanaut,
ok i f>eirri hafSi Hoskuldr veginn
verit, ok hafSi hon j)ar varSveitt i
b 1 6 8 i t a 1 1 1 , then she took up the dress, the gift
of Flosif and in that (dress), HosJculdr had been
JcUled, and she had preserved all the blood upon it.
So the following passage from Sverrir's saga, E y s -
teinn erkibiskup hafSi f>at sumar komit
vestan afEinglandi snemma, ok hafSi
verit f)rja vetr i Etnglandi frastoli
sinum, ok f>a scettist erkibiskup viS
Sverri konung,ok for hann um suraarit
nordr til st6Is sins, Archbishop Eysteinn had
come home from England, early that summer, and
had been in England, absent from his diocess, three
] 18 SYNTAX.
yearSf and then the Archbishop was reconciled to
King Sverriff and he went Northward to his diocess
the same summer.
277. Nevertheless the construction is freer than in
the more modem languages, inasmuch as the numer-
ous and distinctly characterized cases, genders and
other forms render it easy to discover the relations be-
tween the words which compose the period, in what-
ever order they may be placed. The leading word
therefore may always occupy the place where it wdl
produce the best effect. Many of the usual periphrases
of modem languages are thus avoided, and the con-
stmction is thereby rendered more concise and forci-
ble; thus, sagt er f>ar ok fra dauda hvers
f>eirra ok legstad; it is ttiere related concern*
ing both the death and burial-place of each
of them, Fari peirl apt r munu peir koma,
let them go I they will come back. Manninn
skapadi gud seinast, Qod created man last.
The most scrupulous observance of the numerous in*
flections is required both in writing and speaking, as they
must always correspond, according to the relations of
the words in the period, as in Latin and Greek, and
perhaps even more rigidly, for we find no such excep*
tions as in Greek and the oriental tongues, where the
verb and its nominative are sometimes of different
numbers,''^thus Hafaldf saga hius h&rfagra,
^Constructions like the followiag are not however of very
rare occurrence. f>eir f& ddramegin undir eyjun*
SYNTAX. 119
the saga of Harold the fair^haired ; here the sub-
stantive, the article, and the adjective must all be in
tbe genitive. So, Saga 01af« konung^ ens
(bins) helgaHaraldss on ar, the sagdof King
St, Olaf the son of Harald, where the substantive, the
title, the article, the adjective and the patronymic are
all in like manner in the genitive.
278. To avoid the monotonous uniformity of end-
ing in words in immediate succession, which this rule
would otherwise occasion, it is usual to separate words
in the same relation, by interposing some words of dif-
ferent ending, as goit verk ok astsamt, a
good and friendly act. Fair muna lastalat^
sir Ufa eSa glapa (subaudi 4ausir)yfew
wiU live vnthout reproach or crime. This practice
moreover is extended to almost all cases of words even
of different form and relations, which in the natural
■ ■' ' '■ I'' ■' '■ ' ■ ■' ■
ni, at skip Idgu 9 saman; f>eir ak at pat var
V i k i n g a 8 k i p , 3 F. S. N. 92. they discovered nine ships ly-
ing together on the other side of the island ; they perceived thatfjit
was {they were) piratical vessels, f>at voru stiSdliross,
okmed 4 merhryssi, 3F. S. N. 130. f> a t v o r n
brcedr tveir, 3F.S.N.241. £nl>atvar Tjosnir
ok Gellir, 3 F. S. N. 327. If there be two nominatWes,
of different numbers, connected by the conjunction o k , the
most emphatic asuaUy precedes and governs the verb, and the
other, with the conjunction, is put at the end of the sentence.
Thus NjAll var dti ok synir bans, Njala 98, Njall
and his sons were withoiU, Gunnarrridrtil f>(ngs ok
synir Njdls, Nj. 100. Gunnarr and the sons of JQall
ride to the Thing. Tran,
120 SYNTAX.
order belong together, as hvad kostar f>ad
mikidi (bvat kostar j[>at mikit), how much does it
cost? hvad ertu gatnaJU how old are you?
sva v&ru f>ar Ijon stdr semuxar, ttiere
were lions there as large as oxen.
279. Another remarkable peculiarity of the ancient
style is the frequent change of persons, or the substi*
tution of oratio directa for oratio ohliqaa^ in the same
sentence, when the writer arrives at the mostemphat*
ic portion of the discourse, which he is reporting ; thus,
f>asdgdu£sirnir at Aann mundi skjott
slita mjott silkiband, er hann hafSi
fyrr brotit stora jarnfjotra; ^^en ef
pu fser eigi f>etta band slitit, {>& sku-
lu ver leysa piJc^*^ then the Gods said thai
he (the mythological wolf, Fenris) wovM easily
break a slender silken cord, as he had already burst
heavy iron fetters ; ^* and if thou canst not break
this cord, then we will untie thee,^^
280. The usual order of arrangement of the words
in a sentence is very simple and natural ; the subject,
with its qualifying words, is placed first, then the verb
with its adverbs, and lastly, the object with its qualifi-
cations ; thus, Sverrir konungr | samnaS i
nil samanjollu lidi sinu, IRng Soerrir
now brought all his forces together.
Substantives.
281. Titles, or names ol rank and (^ce, usually
SYNTAX. 121
follow the proper name, as Sverrir konungr^
Eirikr jarl, Ari prestr, but Herra^Si-
ra, Fru, Madama, Frauken, and Jung-*
fru, words of etiquette or compliment, are placed
before the name.
282. Grenitives and possessive pronouns generally
follow their nouns, though in modem times they are
more frequently placed before. Perhaps the true rule
is to place them before^ when they are emphatic, but
ajiery in all other cases, as gerdu f>at fyrir
Aennar sakir! do that for her sake ! Br6dir
Aan« varkominn adr,Aw brother had aU
ready arrived*
5283. Such phrases as a 'piece of paper ^ a bit of
bread, a barrel of floury a handful of raisins, and
the like, are usually expressed in Icelandic by a spe-
cies of compound, the 6rst member of which is the
name of the substance or material in the genitive, and
the last, the word of quantity or measure, thus : p a p-
pirsblad, a sheet of paper; kokubita, a bit
of caTce, &c., but sometimes the construction is the
same as in English, as einn hnefi af korenn-
u m ,, a handful of currants,
284. Substantives descriptive of circumstances or
accidents are put in the dative, without the preposi*
tion; thus; hann het Ormr rettu nafni,
he was calledOrmr by his right name. H v a t h e i*
tir j>at odrum ordumi how is that eocpress^
ed in other words 7 If they denote qualities^ they
11
9
\
12S SYNTAX.
are used in the ganitive, as h a n n }>&tti miJcill"
ar nattikru vera, he appeared to be (a man)
of superior mind.
285. Substantives signifying prolongation of time
or distance are put in the accusative, as ko nun gr.
la f>ar ha I fan manud, the king lay there
half a month; j[>eir dvoldust f>ar litla
hrid f they remained there a short time. The oof-
ly exception to this rule is the phrase, h a n n f 6 r
ferdar sinnar, he went his way.
286. But if such substantives be used merely to
qualify a comparative, preposition, or adverb, they are
generally put in the dative, as A a Ifum maniLdi
seinna, half a month later ; 290 art«m eptir
N 6 a f 1 6 8 , 290 years after Noah's flood.
287. Substantives denoting the means, instrument, or
manner, and the like, are put tn the dative, as berja
grj oti i h e 1 , to stone to death (put to death by
stoning); var f>at eidum bundit, it uhis
confirmed by oaths.
Adjectives.
283. Both the definite and indefinite forms of the
adjective may be used as vocatives, thus : g u S m i n n
godr , good God ! Jon litli, little John ! but
if both substantive and adjective be in the definite
form, the phrase has a general and collective meaning,
as go da barn it, the good child, or good chiU
dren.
289m When adjectives are used as substantives, they
SYNTAX. 123
generally take the indefinite form, as d a n s k i r, (the)
Danes; islenzkir, (the) Icelanders] f> e i r g j o r-
du allt |>at tilt viS hann sem f)eim
vkv m<>guligt, they did him aU tiie harm they
could.
290. When an adjective or pronoun "belongs to two
substantives, one of which is masouline., and the oiher
fenrinine, it is put in the neuter, even if one or both
the substantives be understood, as enn er j[>au
( Ghimr ok Loptasna) v o r u b u i n , and when they
(Orimr and Loptima) were ready.
291 . Descriptive adjectives govern the dative, as
litill vextif small of stature. Words which
qualify or enlarge the comparative are also put in the
dative, as hverjum manni haerri, taller than
any (other) man; hv err i Jconu fegri^^ir-
est of women-; ot er Ǥi- f^ii^r^ jit^i Ijo tari.,
at af er ein tain, and thai foot is the more
deformed for this, that one toe is gone ; peim m u n
(heldr) sem, sp ynvch (the more) as. Instead
of !> V i and |> e i i^ m u p , the particle a t is of-
ten used with the comparative, as, e i n g i m a 8 r
mun £irik kalla.a^ meim ko n.iin g, |)&
at hann drepi einn bondason, no man
will esteem Erik thfi m/ore a king, for having put to
death the son of a peasant.
There are besides many othqr adjectives which
govern the dative, though they can hardly be brought
within (M^y general rule, thus: v^nv pessu slarfi,
] 24 STHTAX.
accustomed to stuJi labour ; reiSr einuMf an-
gry with one; f e g i n n pvi^ rejoiced thereat.
292. The superlative takes the genitive, thus :
Hann var allra manna vitrastr, hetoas
the wisest of men; hun var allra kvenna
f r i d Q s 1 9 she was the fairest of toom^n»
293. Adjectives expressive of time or space take
the genitive, as halfrar annarar alnar
langr, one and a half ell long; priggja
pumlunga har, three inches high ; {>rjatiu
ar a gamall, thirty years old.
Many other adjectives take the genitive, though
not easily to be embraced in any general rule, as
verdr or verdugr ills dauda, worthy of
an evil death; f)a urdu j[)eir pess varir,
then they became aware of this.
Pronouns.
294. The plural or dual of the personal pronoun is
gennerally used alone, where other languages employ
the singular with and, as Eyjolfr var opt viS
skip um sumarit, ok attu peir Hrei-
8ar mart saman i vinfeingi, Eyjolfrwas
often at the ship during the summer, and he and
Hreidar had much friendly intercourse ; e i n k a
gripi vil ek |)er gefa, er ver hofum
mikinn trunaS a-haft fraendr, I vnU
give you one article, on which I and my relatives
have placed great reliance ;vinkttaokkar Ha-
konar konungs, the friendship between m e
a ?i rf King HaJcon,; f.undr «4r Bagla, a
meeting httween me and the Baglar.. s k i 1 d u
peir jarl med vinattu, he and the Jarl
separated in friendship. If however there be no
antecedent substantive tn which the pronoun can re-
fer, the plural pronoun with a singular substantive
corresponds very nearly to the Greek 6* nfgij as peir
S i g u r d r , Sigurd and jkis followers; peir k o -
n u n g r , the Jcing and his suite.
295. Hann and hon are always personal, sk,
sii, always demonstrative. I>at, sa, su, however
is often made to supply the place of the indefinite
article of modem languages, when used before a rela-
tive, thus hann var girflr sver8i|)vi,er
bann kallaSi Lang, hewasgirt with a swordy
which he called Long ; Heidrekr barSist
viSkonungj&anner Humli het, Heid-
rekjought with a king, who was named (hight)
HumK ; me6 p eim hmtti , semv^rf&um
e k k i s k i 1 i t , in a manner, which we cannot com-
prehend.
096. Mutual or reciprocal actbn is generally ex-
pressed by the simple passive verb, instead of the ac-
tive with the pronoun hvart-annat; thus e r
f>eir voru bunir, hlaupast |>eir at,
when they were ready, they sprang at each other ;
P^ramus ok Tisbe J>au untust i ar, Py-
ramus and Thisbe loved each other, in ancient times.
297. The dative of the personal pronoun is used
11*
126 SYNTAX.
instead of the possessive pronoun, with the names of
the parts or members of the human body, as fell
akarn nokkut i hofut merl did an acorn
fall on my head! leysti hann bond B.ffd"
turn seVy lie loosened the bonds from his feet;
f>6r61fr fell Iram a ycB^r koningiy Tho-
rolf fell at the kings feet.
298. The genitive of the personal is often used
instead of the possessive pronoun, as f>at stendr
i sjalfra vor valdiy it is in our o%m power.
299, Although the proper definite article is hit,
yet f> a t often occurs instead of it, and sometimes
both are used, for the sake of greater precision. Hit
is used before adjectives, which then assume the d^-
nite form, as h i t g a m 1 a « the old ; h i n n ii n.g t ,
the young ; h i n v le n a « the fair^ and the same
lule prevails, though a substantive follow, as hit
gamla skip, the old ship ; hinn iingt
madr, theyaungman; hver er sii bin vaena
m e r ? who is that pretty girll If the substantive
take the definite form, the article being affixed, the
adjective may also assume the same form, as u n g u
s t u 1 k u nn , the young girls^ or it may be preceded
by the article as hinn iingt madr » nn, the
young man, or lastly it may be indefinite, as heil agr
pafinn, the holy pope* After genitives, posses-
sive pronouns, and present participles, the adjective is
put in the indefiniie form, as efla vort egiS
SYNTAX. 137
ogannarrasannarligt g&gn, to promote
our ovm and others true good,
300. Partitives generally take the genitive, as e k
V e i t e i gi h V ar t n okkur v^r mundi. I
know not whether any of us would ; hv er peirra,
which of them. In such case, the partitive, if it par-
take of the character of an adjective, is often put in
the neuter singular, Vismart maena, many men;
fait manna, /eii; men; hvat if>r6tta mun-
tu vilja birta fyrir oss, what feat will you
show us.
The partitive is often put in apposition, or agrees
with its substantive, as heimamenn Skalla-
grims f6ru margir^ many oj SkaUagrims
domestics went ; Jesus utsendi tvo sin a
larisv eina, Jesus sent out two of his disciples ;
eitt bi^t saklausasta ok spakasta difr^
one of the most harmless and sagacious animals ;
^eir letu eingan med lifi brott-
komast, f>ann er a karfanum var,
they suffered none to escape vdth life, who was on
board the vessel.
801. The numerals as far as 29 agree with their
substantives, whettjer declinable or indeclinable, as
j>rir islenzkir menn, three Icelanders;
fimtan boendf, fifteen peasants; but 30
and the higher tens govern the genitive, as f> r j a -
t i g i s k i p a , thirty ships ; sextigi h ei^
6 ingj a y sixty heathen ; t i ui i g i manna ^
128 sYirTAX.
one hundred men. The reason of this appears to be
that the latter member of these compound numerals
( t i u t i g i , ten decades ; f> r j a t i g i , three
decades) is a substantive.
302. In phrases of alternation, as every second,
every third, &c. the (Ordinal is placed first, as a n -
nat, J)ri8ja,fj6r8ahv6rt ar, every
other f thirdy fourth year. In like manner with the
article, at hvilahinn^joune^ahvern
dag, to rest etery seventh day ; it t inn da
h V e r t a r , every tenth year.
Verbs.
303. The verb, particulaiiy in the past tense, fre*
quently precedes its subject, though the sentence be
not interrogative ; this is especially the ease where
the proposition is dependant upon or connected with
a previous one, thus ;f>a var sagt f>raelu-
num til um j[>etta kaup, then the puT"
cha^e was communicated to the slaves ; v a r u i
}>essu f)a margir hofdingjar, ma-
ny chieftains were then active m ifc. ; r i d a
f>eir nil heim, now they ride homewards.
304. Adverbs belonging to a verb, precede the
substantive, and are placed as near the verb as may
be, thus hanu vatt upp segl, he furled
(rolled up) the sail ; hann h^ratt /ram
s k i p i , he shoved the ship forwards ; the same
mie applies to prepositions which stand for adverbs.
8XNTAX. 1S9
as f>a rendu at skipin Olafs, then
the ships of Olaf ran doton upon (the enemy) ;
ID a t V 8B I i s e m f> e n a til at feita
fn e 6 f u g I a , food which serves to fatten fowls
with. In these phrases the preposition is not to be
referred to the substantive, as the force of the sen-
tence would thereby be destroyed. If it be an after-
clause where the verb stands last, the preposition is
compounded with, or united to the verb, as s n a r a n,
er j[)eir sBtluSu hann i-veida,
the trap they meant to cdtch him in. The same con-
struction is also often used where the verb does not
stand last, as at meiSa folk, eri-eru
kastalanum, to maim the people who are
in the castle.
If neither verb nor preposition have any object in
the sentence, the preposition precedes the verb, as o k
{>ordi{>a einginn amoti at msela, and
none then dared to speak to the contrary.
305. In narration the present and the past are fre-
quently interchanged in the same sentence, as p 6 r
steig fram o8rum foeti at {)ar erSkrym-
ir la, ok li/str i hofud honum; enn
Skr(^mir vaknar,ok spyrr hvert laufs-
b 1 a 8 f e 1 1 i , Thor took a step Jorwards to the
spot where Skrymir lay, and smites him in the head,
(with his hammer): and Skrymir awakes and tn-
quires whether a leaf fell.
306. The verb sometimes agrees with the predi-
130 iTRTAX.
cate, instead of the subject, if the predicate intervene
between them, as |>ar erenn sa stadr er
Hi minbjdfg heita, there is also a city there^
called the Heavenly tower; Hann a f>ar riki
er prtidv ang ar heita, he rules the reidm
caUed Tkrudvcmg.
307. The active participle in -*a n d a , ^-a n d i sup-
plies also the office of the future participle passive,
thus corresponding not only to the Latin present part,
in -aru, 'cns, but to the future part, pass, in -^ndvm,
^endum^ both in form and signification. Thus r arl a
er truanda, it is scarcely to be believed; at
beiSa oss f)es8 eins,er ver megom veita
f>er, ok OSS se eigi ogeranda, to ask of us
that only, which we can grant you, and which is net
impracticable by m.
[The precise force of this expression cannot be givea in En.
glish, without a tedious circumlocution, as (Sgeranda in this
instance, implies rather moral than physical impracticability.]
308. The present conditional, which also supplies
the place of the dptative, often gives great force and
conciseness of expression, as minnumst a f>at,
led us bear that in mind ; afklsedumst f)essum
ham, let us lay aside this shape.
309- The passive voice is 1) reflective, as Ingi
konungr frelsadist (i. e. frelsadi sik)
med flotta, Jcing Ingi saved himself by flight ;
hann let ei kugast(i. e. kuga sik) at taka
V i S k r i s t n{i , he would not be compelled to adopt
STITTAX* 131
CStriitianity ; at lata eigi skirast (i. e. skira
sik), not io submit to be baptized; 2) reciprocal,
aser I>eir yoro buDir,hlaupast |>eir at,
when they were ready ^ they sprang at (each other).
The proper passive is usually expressed by periphrasis,
as {>a var flutt i vist ok onnur faung, ^A^n
food and other stores were carried in; ok var |> a
gjor sasttin, and then peace was made.
310. The accusative with the infinitive is a very
conimon forni of construction in Icelandic ; thus,
}>er kvadut solina faraskjotar, dixis*
tis solem celerius procederey you said the sun moved
more swiftly; sogdu Ring kouung da u 8 an,
scud that King Ring was dead. If the accusative
be a personal pronoun, referring to the subject^ it is
understood, and the verb put in the passive form,
thus ek sagSist (i. e. sagdi mik) ekki trua
|> y i , J declared I did not believe it; hann kve-
9 s t (i. e. kveSr sik) Gestr heita, he said he
was called Quest ; hann lezt (let sik ) m u n d u ,
he said that he would, h is observable that if any
adjective or other declinable word belong to the onnit-
ted accusative, it is put in the nominative, as f>eir
ky adust alltr til f>ess buntr , they said
they were all ready ;f>eirkyadust |)vifeg-
ntr verda, they said they should he pleased with
it.
311. The Gr«ek double genitive, and the Latin
duo ablativi, are expressed in Icelandic by two da-
132 SXIITAX.
lives with the preposition at, as at f>vi gjorvu,
hoc facto; at endaSum sjukcidminum,
the disease being removed,
312. The infinitive with at is not often immedi-
ately preceded by a preposition, but |> a t in the case
required by the preposition is generally interposed,
thus; eg get eigi betr utmalad {>etta,
enn me6 pvi at segja, I cannot caress this
better than by saying ; ekvil gefa honum
ov\o{ xW pes s at fara heim ti I Skotlands,
The roost general rules of the government of verbs
are the following.
313. Most active verbs which have an immediate
and direct object govern the accusative, as s 1 a to
strike^ d r e p a to kill fyc^
314. Many verbs, which express motion in the
object, but not in the subject, take the dative, as
s n u a to turn, k a s t a to throw, d r e i f a to scat-
ter ; Gunn bltt skaut ut drum at {>eim,
Crunnarr shot arrows at them ; ok kastar ha-
num a vollina, and throws him to the ground.
The verbs k o m a and fara, when used ac*
tively, take the same regimen, as hann kom
A sum opt i vand r se 6 i , Ae often brought
the Gods into difficulty ; ok kom hann
sk i I di fyfir sik,, and he thrust his
shield before him ; ef ban ferr minum
radum fram, if he follows my advice. So,
many verbs, which signify to guide, change, destroy,
SYNTAX. 133
assist, protect &c. take the dative, as s t ;^ r a
s Jc ip i y to steer a ship ; b r e g S a b {t i ^ to
change (one^s) residence. Some of these verbs gov-
ern the accusative with a different signification, as
hann sJcaut dru til mannsins, he shoian
arrow at the man; but skjottu manninn
{>ann hinn mikla, shoot that large man,
315. Verbs signifying to desire, wish, and the like,
govern the genitive, and often the accusative of the
person with the genitive of the thing, as b i S j a
TconUy to asJc a .woman (inmarriage) ; biSja
einn noJcJcursj to ask anything of one ; spyr-
ja hann rada, to aslc counsel of him ; at afla
fjar^ to acquire wealth ; leita rada, to seek
counseh
If the person indicated by the substantive be not
the proper object of the verb, but one for whom
something is asked, it is put in the dative, thus ;
bidja einn friSar, to sue to one for peace;
butbidja einum friSar, to sue for peace for
one. The verb fa , when used in the sense of to
take to wifey also governs the genitive, as hann
fekk {>eirrar konu er p&run het hetook
a wife named Thorun.
316. When the verbs which govern the dative are
used in the passive, they become impersonal, and re-
tain the object m the dative, instead of changing it
into the subject as in most modem languages, thus :
(active) at safna liti, to collect forces ; (pas-
12
134 STKTAi:.
five) var f>ii lidi safnat, forces were then
collected; bregSa sverSi, to draw a stiord;
Tyrfingr vard raanns bani, hvern tima
er honum var bfugfiit, (the sword) Tyr'
fing was the death of a mauj every time U was
drawn; aJcrinum hafdi skipt verit, the
field had been divided ; handklseSit brann
ei {>6tt pv% veri i eld kastat, thefiap-
kin burned not though it were cost into the fire,*
These verbs also ofteo become impersonal without a
change of voice, as slitr nil yeizlu I>essari,
the entertainment is now finished; skaut^upp.
likuQum, the corpse was thrown up; ok l^kr
her sogunniy and here ends the fiotrative. In
like mannqr, man; verbs which govern the accusative
are used as impersonals active, as {>vi haerra
sem reykinn lagSi i loptit upp, the
higher the smoke rose in the air ; hann gerSi
Jo Ivan i andliti, he became pale in the face.
317. The present conditional is ol'ten used without
the conjunction, if the ellipsis can be supplied by if]
in case that, &c. as si |>at sva, pk leet ek
{> a t vara, (if) that le sOy then let it pass; vili
hann ekki meS goSu, pk komSu til
* A Biinilar construction prevails with verbs which govern
the genitivtt ; thus: (active) e f h a n n synjar I>6r mceg-
ft a r , if he refuse you this aUiance^ 3 Forn. S. N, 74 ; (passivr^)
mor mundi synjat konunnar the lady would he de*
med me 3 F. S. N. 73. T^n,
SYNTAX. 135
m i n y (if) he will not readily^ then came to me ;
komi hann limedan eg er burtu, (if)
he came, while I am away. The past conditional
18 also used in much the sarae manner^ and the differ-
ence appears to be, that the past is used when there
18 little expectation that the event supposed will hap-
pen, thus: i7ieri{>atsva, {>kv»ri {>at
8 o k s e r , (if) that should be so, there would be
eamething in it ; JoBmi hzua amedan eger
burtu (sera ek|ci mun verSa), (if) he
should come whiles 1 cm away (which will hardly
take place). This form of expression is used in very
formal requests in epistolary qonununication, as m se 1 1 i
eg sjit linu fra ydr uin I>etta mal, {if)
I might see a line from you on this subject; v i 1 d u 8
f>er gera svo vel, {>ii vseri eg y8r
inikit skuldbundinn, would you do so mutckj
1 should be much obliged to you.
Tho particles p o , f> 6 1 1 , although^ and s v a ,
utf so thaty as ^Iso a ^, after verbs which do not im-
port absolute certainty, always govern the condition-
al ; thus : enn pb sva veri, though it "dt so;
hann vek ser viS, svo {>u saeir {>at
b 6 1 r he gave place, so that you might see it better.
Particles,
318. Verbs signifying a journey, whether by land
or water, or a short suy at any particular place, are
generally accompanied by an adverb indicating the di-
rection or point of compass^ thus: Gunnhildi
136 STITTAX.
gerdi ferS sina sudr til Romaborgar,
Gunnhilda made a journey southwardly to the city
of Rome; Eriingr var J>a i Viki nn i oti^rr,
Erling was then eastward in Vigen. Sometimes the
name of the place whence, or whither, is omitted, and
the adverb alone expressed, as f>egar hann kom
a u s t r , when he arrived in the East,
319. A remarkable eonsti^iction is the use of an
affirmative answer to a negative proposition, where
the party replying designs to assent to or confirm the
negation, as pb f>ikki mer mikit undir,
at f>er rjiifit eigi {>essa ssett. Sva
munu ver pk gjora, segir Skarph^dinn,
It appears to me very important ^ that you do not vio"
late this compromise. We mil (not) do so then, re-
plies Skarphedinn; Ley fa mun ek, ef |>er
prettiS hann i ongu. peir kvadust
sva gera mundu, / shall approve it, if you
deceive him in nothing. They replied, they would
(not) do so. ^
320. The following prepositions govern the accusa-
tive only:
am (of), about, over; umfram, besides, beyond;
amhTerfie, round ahovi ; • franiyfir, besides, over ;
i gegnvLnif through ; framundir, towards, about.
The same case follows many compounds of u m , as
u t u m , out through, over; innum, yfirum,i
k ri n g u m (i kringum, or kringum), around, about;
so those which express relative situation, as fyrir
SYNTAX. 187
tiorSan, North of; fyrir sunnan, South
^of; likewise, fyrir ofan, fyrir neSan, fyrir
utan, fyrir innan, and fyrir handan
ana, ontht other side of the river. In the ancient
poetic dialect, u m and o f sometimes take the da-
tive.
321 . The following govern only the dative :
af, o/, about ; hja, loithj by^ (Fr. ehexj;
fri, from ; dsa m t, together toith ;
or, yr, ar, or, out of; gagnvart, over against ;
VLndMi y away from ; m6t, k ro6ti, i m6ti, against.
Also compounds of some of them, as iit af, upp
fra, fram or, a undan, framhja, i gegn,
against; k hendr, against ('in hostility); til
h a n d a , for^ for the advantage of So likewise
the adverbs nser, or nserri, fjarri.
332. The genitive alone is governed by these :
til, to; milium, & milli, d medal, between;
An, on toiihouty (sans); i stad, instead of',
utan, u)iihoutj{dehors)', aakir (fyrir sakir), "^for tht sake, on
inn^Ti, wihin ; sokum, ^account or by
auk, besides \ vegna, ^reason of.
Also by the compounds ofmegin, as baSum
m e g i n , on both sides; oSrum megin, hinum
m e gi n, on ihaty the other side; {>essummegin,
on this side; 51 1 u m m e g i n , on all sides ; these
words are very frequently written as proper com-
pounds, thus: batumegini otrumegin,
hinumegin &c.
12*
138 SYNTAX.
323. The following govern both the accusative and
dative :
. kf on, upofif at ; eptir, after, according to -,
i, to, at, in; fyrir,/or;
med, toith ; undir, und^r ;
vid, hy, toward, %bith, at ; yfir, over ;
also many words usually written and considered as
compounds of the above, but which perhaps ought to
be separated, as upp a, ut i, fram me 8, i sta-
Sinn fyrir, inn undir, ut yfir; but some of
these are occasionally true compounds, as h v i b o n
abbadist uppa arfasatuna, Vfhy she abused
the haystack 7
The general rule of regimen of these prepositions is
that they govern the accusative, when they signify
motion to a place, but the dative, when rest in a
place.
324. The preposition a t governs three cases, the
accusative, dative, and genitive. With the accusative
it signifies after, but this construction is obsolete.
With the dative, to, whether the object be a person, a
place, or the material to which any thing is changed,
as {>egar f>eir komu at bonum, when they
came to him, verSa aS si eini , to be transformed
to stone ; the time when is also put in the dative with
this preposition, as at s u m r i , next summer; with
the genitive, a t signifies with, at the house of(chez),
as at Bj ar n ar, at Bjorn's house, chez BJom.
325. Instead of putting the name of an estate, place,
SYNTAX. 139
or country in apposition with the subject, the Iceland-
ers often use the dative with a preposition, as s a
boer het a Steini, that estate was called Stene;
hann gjorSi bii at b.cE {)eim er at Tjorn
heitir, he established his residence at the estate
called T^orn; p^r er hei;tir i Danmorku,
in the realm called Denmark..
ELLIPSIS.
326. A word is often understood, where it is so fre-
quent or familiar as to be readily supplied, thus
k o s t r , condition, alternative^ resource, is very gen-
erally omitted, as o k e r s a [subaudi k o s t r] til
at sigla undan, the only alternative is to sail
away; sa mun n(i grasnstr, at segja satt,
it is now the best (course) to speak the truth.
327. The third person of verbs is often used with-
out a nominative, where the subject is unknown, un-
important, or easily understood, thus : sva segir i
y 1 u s p a [sub. s k a 1 d i t], thus says [the bard] in
Volu^spa; sem her s egi r [5t£6. hofu ndri nn,
skaldit], as [the author, the poet], here says.
The unimportant pronouns f> a t , s a , s ii , and
hann, h o n , are often omitted, both as subjects and
as objects, when the substantive, whose place they
should supply has been lately expressed, thus si S a n
140 SYNTAX.
sneid Karkr hofuS af jarii, ok hlj6p i
brott meS [tub. pRt], afterwards Karkr euiaff
the JarV$ head, and ran off toith (it); s i d a n let
Olafr koniingr leiSa bann i brott, ok
boggva hofuS af (mb. honum) , afterwardt
king Olaf ordered him to be led dtway and beheaded.
328. The verb most frequently understood is
vera, thus, AstriSr sagSi Gliimi at naut-
afjoldi Sigmundar v»ri kominn i tun,
<<enn ek hefi eigi fraleik til at reka ("mi.
bann) i brott, enn verkmenn (sub. eru)
at vinnu." Astridr told Glum that a herd of
SSgmund^s cattle had broken into the fields " and I
have not activity enough to drive them out^ and the
Insurers (are) at work;**^
*The Icelandic aboande in sinking pecaUariiies of ezprei.
•ion and style, anomalous constructions, and idiomatic pfara.
ses. The following are some of the most important of those
not noticed in the text.
1. The best ancient writers avoid the use of strong, positive
or sweeping language, and usually approve or condemn in mild,
and sometimes even equivocal terms. Thus, of a man whose
loss was universally regretted, they say, hann var mo rgum
manni harmJaudi, his death totis lamented by many, of an ac-
tion generally condemned, sumam |>6tti t>Bt niftingsverk, soiki s
thought it a ban action ; so, • n m i r munu mela, somt (for
§vtry one) will say. An atrocious crime it ofteil merely chtf^
acterized as 8t6rvirki, a great action, or s 1 6 r m ae I i
a great affair.
2. A question is seldom answered by a direct simple nega-
tivs or affirmative, but the reply is commonly, especially with
SYNTAX. 141
the earlier writers, more or less periphrastical. Thus : vartn
d fiing8kdlaf>ingi r var ek vist, iVere you prestrU at Thingskala-
Thing f certainly I was, Hefir I>6 tekit Njdisisonu til f>in i
evil er Tist, segir Kdri, Vilta selja mer frain Njdissona ? f>at
▼il ek eigi. Havt you taken the sons of Njall under your pro-
tedian f certainly so, says Kari, Will you deliver up to me the
99ns of JQall 9 That vnU I not.
3. Instead of a simple personal pronoun or substantive, a
remarkable periphrasis is oAen employed, as {>ar scm ek em,
(where I am) for e k , m i k or m e r , as the case may be ;
par Bern per erut, for f> e r &e. So, {> d n g a t man sn6it van-
draedum sem synir minir eru, misfortune will hefal my
sanSf Njdia 113. eiga meira traust undir afli sinu ok v&pnum,
heldr enn f>ar sem er {>6rr okOdinn,to confide in
his own strength and weapons^ rather than in Thor and Odin.
Lazdaela 174. Her er Olafr TryggYason,/afit Olaf
Tryggvason, Hmsk. 1. 287.
4. Time is generally reckoned by winters (Tetr), and the
year is divided into two seasons fmisseri), winter and stimmer
(samar), though v o r and h a u s t (spring and autum) often
occur. The date of an occurrence is fixed by its distance from
the beginning of the season; thus: (future) pk er Qorar vikur
cru af sumri, toAen four weelcs of the summer are (elapsfd).
Laxd. 308. (past) f>i er X vikur voru af sumri, when ten
weeks of the summer were (elapsed) . NjAIa 163. (cond.) er III
vikur V s r i af vetri eda manadr, when three weeks, or a month,
of the winter should be (elapsed) NjAla 141. Instead of this
form of expression, we sometimes find at fyrstu, fj6rdu, X du
viku sumars, in the first, fourth, tenth week of the summer.
Sometimes the time is computed from the beginning of the
next semestre, as I)d er X vikur eru til vetrar, ten we«iks
before winter. Laxd. 106.
5. The number of the suite, attendants or associates of con-
spicuous personages is gonorally expressed by the ace. sing,
m a n n , with the preposition met or v i d , and the ordinal
of the next higher number. Thus : reid f>6rdr me 9 Xllta
142 SfMTAX.
in a n n . Thordr rods loitk eleven eompanions. hexd^ 136.
loiitaad of this conitraction, however, we often find the fol-
lowing! nil riSr Kjartan »udr ok t>eir III saman, mne Kjartan
rides Southwardly, toith two eompaniojis, or Kjartan and kit
eompanionst three in all, now ride Southwardly, Laxd. 220.
6. As the English colonists in Canada and elsewhere use
outf and homej the former to designate the colony, the latter,
England, so the IceUodem employ i^ t and utan (out and in)
in reference to Iceland and Norway (or Denmark), at k o m a
dt (to eome out) signifying to arrive in Iceland, at fara
utan (to go in), to sail for the utother sowntry. TVon.
PARTT. PROSODY.
329. The verses of the ancients Skalds may be
xv^ferred to three principal classes, according to the three
species of rhyme, which constitute the main formal
characteristic of the poetry of the North. The Skal-
die poems are all divided into stanzas or strophes
(visa, s t a k a), usually of eight lines or single ver-
ses. Four verses accordingly make a semi-stanza, or
bemistrophe ( v i s u h e 1 m i n g r), and the half of
this again a distich, couplet, or quarter-strophe (vi-
s u f j 6 r 8 u n g r) ; the single verses (visuorS)
are generally short ; the longest contain but four feet,
and have never a caesura or pause,
330. The two verses constituting a couplet are al-
ways connected by literal-rhyme, or alliteration,
which consists simply in this, that three emphatic
words in the couplet have the same initial letter
(1 j 6 8 s t a f r ). One of these words must be found
in the first part of the second verse ; its initial ( h o •
fu8stafr) is considered as the leading-'letter, and
governs the other two, which must be found in the
first verse, and may he styled auxiliaries (s t u 8 1 a r).
In the shorter measures, a single auxiliary often suf*
144 PROSODY.
fices. If the leading-letter be double like spy st Sfc.
the auxiliaries should correspond ; but il it be a vow-
el or diphthong, it is considered more elegant to vary
the auxiliaries, thus :
Stendr j^ngantyra
Uttsinn moMa
fair i SkvaBey
^unnanvordri.
331. The word whose initial is the leading-letter is
not always required to be the very first in the verse,
but in short verses it is often preceded by some un-
accented particle, which serves to complete the con-
nection, and is called the complement (malfylling).
thus :
Br6dnrfundo (ter Bjarnar
or brj^njo fara,
where or is a complement, and
8v4 belt !>& sverd
or aiklings hendi
vddir vafadar,
■em i ratn of^bryg^i,
where or in the second^ and s e m i in the fourth
verse are complements.
332. Line-rhyme (bending) is the occurrence
in the same verse of two accented syllables (usually
one at the beginning, the other at the end), which
have either the same vowels and consonants (a 8 a 1 -
bending, fuH-rhyme), or the same consonants
with different vowels (skothending, half-rhymef
or assonance) ; these two species of rhyme are gen-
erally so distributed, that the^rt^ verse in every coup-
SXNTAX. 145
let has a half-rhTme^ and the second a full-rhyme ;
thus,
heldr er vannt, enn ek vUdA
v«^ ^inn, kondngr ! 5e^ja.
Here held- and v i 1 d - form the half-rhyme, and
V e g and s e g - the full-rhyme.
333. Final rhyme corresponds to that in other lan-
guages« It is generally, though not uniformly, mon-
osyllabic, and those verses only which are connected
by alliteration rhyme with each other, thus :
Katla ftlkk i knerri setr,
kaopmeDn sdta i Noreg vetr,
gnranar bjuggu Grenlaods far,
gekk Yitn l>dngat sem farmann var.
Ferdast vill hAn flaustri i,
fannann t6k ei skjdtt d f>Ti ;
stjrimanni stoltar- fljod
Bteypti i kjoltu miklum 8J6d.
334. Syllabic quantity is not much regarded, as al-
most any syllable may be long, and foot-measure is
entirely unknown.
335. Co/Zo^ta/oene, (forny rSalag, Star-
k a 8 a r 1 a g), the freest and oldest measure, has reg-
ularly four syllables, all long, but generally two ac-
cented, or more emphatic. These are often preceded
or followed by some short syllables, not regarded as
belonging to the measure.
FomyrSalag admits of literal-rhyme only, por-
laksson has adopted this measure in his celebrated
translation oi Paradise Lost, and the two first stanza*^
of that work are as follows :
13
] 46 STNTAX.
Um fyrsta manna t>artil annarr einn,
felda hlySni sSri maSr,
ok atlystlng aptr fer
af epli for()odnu, oss vidreista,
hvadan 6v8Bgr ok afrekar nyan
upp kom dau5ii Oas til handa
Edens inissir, fullseeluatad
ok allt bol manna; fogrum sigri ;
All the poems in the poetic JEdda are ia this measure.
336. Heroic ver$e (d r 6 1 1 k v ae 8 i) has gener-
ally both line-rhyme and alliteration, with regular ver-
ses each of six long syllables, or three spondees, the
two first of which however may be changed for dac-
tyls ( the amphibrach sometimes, though riirely, occurs
instead ) ; the following stanza is an example of
dro ttkvse 8i:
Samira NjorSr enn nordar
naddregns hvotom t>egni
(ver getum bill at bolva)
bUmcerar skse fo^ra :
rid er I>at, er rekr d Rakna
rymleiS flota breidan
(gripoiri tcr i grelpar
gunnbord !) Haraldr sunnafn !
Most of the verses cited in the sagas are of this meas-
tire.
It deserves to be remarked^ that we sometimes, es-
pecially in the oldest verses of this class without line-
rhyme, find a syllable before the leading-letter, which
is not to be regarded as a complement, but is required
to make out the number of syllables belonging to the
measure, thus :
8TNTAX. 147
s^ttadu I Arafn i | Aausti -« w <w>
of Aras- | solli j gjaila ; — —
We cannot read of hrae- solli, as in ordinary
conversation, but all the four syllables must be pro-
nounced long.
837. Popular-verse ( runhenda) consists of
regular verses, and has both final-rhyme and allitera-
tion. The short popular-verse in four syllables has
often a syllable belonging properly to the measure, be-
fore the leading-letter, as v 1 8 in the second line of
the following hemi-strophe.
Nd er hersia faefnd
Tid hilmi efnd,
gengr dlfr ok orn
of ynglings born.
A single superfluous short syllable often occurs in this
measure.
338. There are numerous varieties of all these
. measures differing more or less from the normal forms,
but it does not come within the plan of this work to
describe or enumerate them. We shall notice only
L i 1 j u 1 a g , a species of drottkvseQi, which
derives its name from L il j a (the lily), la catholic
ode in hqnour of the Virgin Mary, composed in this
measure, by Eysteinn, an Icelandic ecclesiastic, in the
14th century. The introductory stjanza of this cele-
brated poem is as follows :
Almdttugr gud allr^ st^tta,
yfirbjodandi eingla ok t>j6da.
ei t>urfaadi stadi n^ atundir,
148 SYNTAX.
ttad haldtndi i kyrrUiksvaldi ;
•enn veraadi 6ti ok inni,
uppiok nidri ok I>er i midju,
lof 8^ (>^r uin aldr ok aefi,
eining sonn i f>rennain greinum !
Almighty God of all beings !
who reignest over angels and men,
independent of space and timej
abiding in the realm of tranquillity ;
at once existing both without and within,
above and below, and in the midst ,
praise be to thee through time and eternity ,
true unity in three branches !
339. The skaldic poems are of various lengths ;
usually of 30 or 40, sometimes of 50 or 60, and m
a very few instances, of 100 stanzas. With the ex-
ception of the Edda, which consists of a cyclus or
series of rhapsodies, these poems are always indepen-
dent and complete in themselves. They are either
epic or lyric, and neither dramatic nor didactic verses
occur.
The general name for ao entire poetic work is
k V SB d i ; popular ballads, most of which are transla-
ted from the Danish and of little value, are called
fornkvaeSi; magical incantations are styled g al d r ,
and verses of scandal or personal satire n i d .
Eulogistic poems are of two kinds, f 1 o k k r , a
short complimentary song, like a poetical epistle, gen-
erally addressed to Jarls, or noblemen, and d r a p a ,
a more extended and finished piece, dedicated to, or
SYNTAX. 149
recited in hoDOur of Kings^ and sometimes chanted in
praise of the Gods.
340. The ancient measures^ especially f o r n y r d-
alag and runhenda, with many of modern
invention or foreign origin, are still in use, and alliter-
ation is observed alike in all.
13*
APPENDIX I.
Many of the principal points of difference between
the ancient and modern dialects have been noticed in
the foregoing pages, but it may be serviceable to indi-
cate them somewhat more particulaily in this place.
1. THE ANCIENT AND POETIC DIALECT.
341. In the early writers and especially the poets
we often find
for t/, in the oblique forms, as tungo, tungor,
tungom, kollom, kollodom, kolloSot,
k o 1 1 o d o &c.
ce for €e, where the root has o, as b os li from boly
b ce r instead of b 86 r , from h&a^ bjo. It b also
sometimes incorrectly substituted for au and a in
words whose root has a,
<s for e, and ^ for ei, as eef, veela, seiga,
dsei la.
cyforo,as gey r a, eyx, eyrindi, gleyggr
&c.
au for dy and sometimes o for o, (3)
ang, eng, ing, ong, dng for ang, eing, ing, iing,
aungy and eyng, as g a n g a for ganga^ 1 e n g i ,
hringr, konongr &c.
DIALECTS. 151
o for vdy as o r r , on, o r o , k o 8 o for vdrVy
van, vdro, Tcvdiu.
IX, y for ve, ve, as o n d u r S r , o n d u g i , d o g-
ur8r, kykr, kykvindi, tysvar, for ond-
verdr, bndvegiy dagverdrj Tcvikr, Tcvikindi^ tvisvar ;
also yrkja for virkja.
o for a, as o for a (a river), b or o for bjaro, f ora
for fam.
a, <B for ja,j6 diS seer for s/ar, 8J6r; snser for
siyar, snjor ; r ae f r for rjqfr ; s 1 ae f u for sljdfu ;
slaB forum fox sljofari; XddtS or te8 for (/ad.
e for 0, and vice versa ; as n e q v i for nokkvi, k e r i t
for kjorit; i g o g n o m for igegiwm ; k o m r for
kemr ; o f r i , o f s t r for efri, efstr,
342. Among the consonants, h is often dropped
before the bard consonants, as lutr, lj6p,ringr,
n i f r , for hluir, &c., but before j and v, it is never
lost.
c is often used for k, according to theAnglo SaxoD
orthography, as cristr, cor, scip,fecc, oc,
mic.
e frequently supplied the place of y, as earn,
sealfr, earl, be orn, for jam, 5/a//r,yarZ,^oni.
d is used for nn, as v i S a for vinna, b r e 8 r ,
fidr, &c.
t for d at the end of words, as hofut, koHut.
p for/ before hard consonants, as ellepti, t61-
pti, porolpsson.
152 DIALECTS.
p appears to have been used as an abbreviation for
dd, and z for 55, as n a f> - g o f u g r for nadd-gofugr;
Gizur, {>jazi| bleza, and the like. There
are many variations of single words, which can be
brought under no general rule, asglikt, glikligt
for Ukty likligt ; g n o g a for noga ; 5 U ii n g i s for
oldungis ; s k i 1 1 i n g r for sTcildingr ; v ae 1 1 a for
vanta; G i r k i r for Grtkkir.
343. Some peculiarities of inflection occur. Thus
the vowel change of a to before the terminal vowel
u is sometimes neglected, as skjaldo for sJgoldu,
and in the sing, skjald, skjaldi; herjadu
for herjudu.
344. In the second person plural of the personal
pronoun, i t , i 8 and e r are used for pit, pid and
per.
345. Instead of vdrt the ancient skalds use a dif-
ferent word osso, ossom, OSS a, pi. ossir, in
all the cases the final syllable of which begins with a
vowel.
346. The pronoun petia makes dat. neut. f> v i s a ;
masc. nom. f>ersi, dat f>veima.
347. The ancient es for er often coalesces with
other words, thus sas, siis, I>ars, hvars for
sa er, s^ er, &c.
348. The negative ending -gt, or after hard conso-
nants 'Jci, 13 affixed to many words, but never to verbs,
as hittki, f>atki, hvargi (gen. hvarkis),
for hvorugr, sjalfgi fern, (non ipsa), svagi.
DIALECTS. 153
»
Masculine substantives with -gi drop f, as Ulfgi,
Loptki, vsettki and vettugi , whence the
gen. y e ttugis .
349. The following variations occur in the auxiliary
vera ; es for er, third person pi. ' r o for ero after r
or a vowel, past vas, infin. vesa, cond. sjii for
te.
350. The composition or rather coalescence of the
first and second persons with the verb in the singular
is of very frequent occurrence with the ancients, thus
e m k for c«i cfc, v a s k for var ek, h y c k for hygg
eJCy draptu, fortu and the like. In the same
way the accusative of the first and third personal pro-
nouns mic, mik) sic, sik, the vowel i being rejected
(mCy 8Cy)y RTS uuitcd with passive and deponent verbs,
both with the accusative and the dative signification,
as s u e r o m c 1 i c k for 5^ er mer liJcny Lokaglepsa
35 ; this construction is most frequent with the depo*
nent, and of course with an active signification, as e c
6 u m c , I am afraid ; e c s j a m c , 1 see, and has
the plural form. We find also the simple first person
plural in urn, and the common passive in vmsy umz,
umst instead of this construction, as b j 6 d u m , Ibid
(ordinarily we bid); ek SBtlums, I purpose ;
holludumz, {> 6 ttu m , &c. The ending sc (for
tic, sik) was extended to nil the persons, because its
origin was overlooked, after the vowel was lost, and
MC had become changed to z or st ; for this is the ori-
gin of the passive in t^, thus lata eggjasc (eggja
/
154 DIALECTS.
sik> GggJASt); hann lagSisc (lagSi sik,
lagSist) •
351. The verbs, as well as the pronouns, have a
proper negative ending, namely aty (a, when followed
by a word beginning with a consonant, as s amir a
N j o r d r , and tj when preceded by a vowel, which
however is often dropped, as v e r d i t ) . This endu-
ing is attached to all the inflections except the second
person plural in d, t,. In the two first persons singu-
lar, it is superadded to the personal pronoun in coa-
lescence (350), in which case the pronoun is generally
repeated, either as an independent word, or in some
new combination, thus em- k - at (am I not)j I
amnoty but more fiequently emkat ek, emkat-
tak, or emka-k; ert- a t- tu , you are no^;
e r - a t , he it not ; e r u m - a , we are not ; e r u - 1,
they are not ; and in the imperfect v a r c a e c ,
var-attu, var-at, varom-a, varo-t.
The third person plural seldom takes the negative
iTorm, where it would thereby resemble other inflec-*
tions of a positive signification.
The following are examples of the negative ending.
Ist. p. kveSkat ec, sitca-ac, munca ec, B6ka ec, I>ori-g-a ek,
2d. P. skallatu, I){i s^rat, manattu,
3d. P, ver9rat, hnigra, flygra, samir.a,
Pref. eond» at ek stodvigact
at pi\ kveljat, at l)U kveSir-a,
skriSi-a, renpi-a, rerdit,
ata]]ir munut,
DIALECTS. 155
P^9t mundi-g-a ek, hug^attae,
\ix skyldira, mieltira,
nAdit, raudit aic,
^ordu-t, f6ro-9,
ImperaHve kjos-at-tu, grdtattu, f>egiattu,
aegit.a«
The infinitives and participles do not admit this
fonn.
362. The negative inseparable particle 6 is often
written ^ by theancients,as iiheilly uvitr, uger-.
a Q d i.
353. In the syntax of the ancient and poetic dia«
lect| we remark frequent ellipses of particles, pronouns
and other short words, thus
hir$ eigi I>ii (mb* u m )
Hogna reidi.
gengo I>eir (sith^ t i I) fagra
Freyjo t6na.
354. The prepositions ep/tV and undir in ancient
writings, and in Runic inscriptions, often assume the
form e p t and u n d. Of and u m are used indiffe-
rently, and often with verbs, or other words, as mere
expletive or emphatic particles, without other distinct
signification. They are both used as prepositions
with the dative, and appear in this case to signify
over. Instead of ^yrtr, we find for, fur, and
before a consonant f y r i. For ur , are used y r ,
or, for med m e 8 r , and v i 8 r for vii.
355. We may also notice the old poetic conjunc-
tions allz, ineumuch asj si8r, ihat-not (Lat.fie)
with the conditional ; h e 1 d r , that (Lat. ut) with
156 DIALECTS.
the cond* ; s i z t , inasmuch as^ since. Negation is
often expressed bj n e before the verb, as at per
msBla ne mega 8*
356. The poetical inversions are too numerous and
anomalous to be specified or classed. We will barely
advert to the frequent arrangement, where the con-
junction o k , with the words that follow it, is placed
before that member of the period to which o k con-
nects them, thus
bdra yxn oc ^tta
enDDi-tdng], l>ar er g^ngu
fyrif vin-eyjar vidri
vall-ranf, fjogur haufut.
The construction here is ;
jxn b&ra tjogur hofuS (haufut) ok dtta enni-t6ngl f>ar er geingn
fyrir vin-eyjar viSri vallrauf. 1 The oxen bore four heads and
eight eyes (iiienWy^ forehead-moons), when they teaUted brfore
(drew) the dear island* s wide domain.
356. Besides these grammatical peculiarities, the
skaldic dialect difiers widely in its vocabulary from
the prosaic* The difference consists partly in proper
poetic words (okend heiti), and partly in peri-
phrastical expressions (k e n n i n g a r), taken some-
times from nature, and sometimes from the ancient
northern and Germanic mythology and history. The
best sources of instruction on this point are Skalda,
Olafsens Nordiske Digtekonst^ the glossaries to
Njahy and the Poetic Edda, the resolution of the
verses in Egils Saga, KormaVs Saga^ Rafh's edition
of Krkkumal, the sixth vol. of the Copenhagen edit-
BIALECTS. 157
ion of Heimskringla, the twelfth vol. of Fommanna
Sogur, and the notes to the Latin Translation of
the last mentioned work.
2. THE MODERN DIALECT.
357. The modem Icelandic has never very essen-
tially deviated from the ancient tongue, and though
the orthography had been in some measure corrupted,
• and many Danicisms, both in grammar and in the vo-
cabulary, had been introduced, it has been in a good
degree restored to its pristine simplicity and purity, by
the extirpation of these barbarisms, within the last
half century.
358. The principal orthographical corruptions are
the following, viz.
The use of e i g for eg when followed by i, as
deigi dat. ofdagr, f>eigja, seigja &c.
Double vowels instead of the accented (diphthon-
gal) ones^ as, foor, saa, sijda, for /or, ^a,
sida. ■
t6 for e, as h i e r , g j e f a for A e r, g efa .
ur for semi-syllabic r(f), as maSur, goSur,
for madr, gddr .
d for d, as bid j a, vid, for bid j a, vi 6 ,
hi for j/Z, as t a b 1 a for t afl a .
^.and cA:^ for A:^, as a g t or a c k t , for akt.
ft for ptf za e f t i r , a f t u r , for eptir, aptr,
14
158 DIALECTS,
359, Some cMthographical changes are to be con-
sidered as improvements, for example ;
The substituuon of o for ati, av ; the rejection of
certain double letters, as vildi for villdi; the
use of; and « (consonants) before vowels, instead of
i and i* ; the restoration of « in the gen. and st in
passives, in many cases where z was used instead of
them, retaining z only for tSy ds, **, to, where t, d,
d, it, are entirely silent, as In the second person plu-
ral passive, and in passive supines.
359. The principal variaOons in inflection have
been already noticed in their proper places, but we
may add, that words in ir of the second declension
(32) are now thus inflected,
N. teknir teknirar
A. teknir teknira
D. teknir teknirum
G. teknirs teknira ;
but this ending is often changed into ari, as Icek-
oari, pl. laknarar, dat. Ifieknurum.
The substantive f6tur (91) often makes the
plural in the feminine form f oe t r n a r .
Some masculine substantives have dropped the r
final, as Fridrek, Hinrik, IsfjorS; also
(in poetry), 1 of 8iing, dogling ; and mann
is used for maSr. Feminines, especially those m
ing, make u in the accusative as weU as m the
dative, as gyllingu-na, meyju-na, but the
genuine old forms gylling-ina, mey-na,
may still be used.
DIALSCTS. 1 59
t in neuters, and generally where it does not be-
long to the root-form, but is a characteristic ending
merely, and is preceded by a simple (unaccented)
vowel or e, has become 6 (not df), as h u s i d, f> a 8,
h ya d , f e 8 &c. When it is radical, as in fat, nety
f% ^ , or is preceded by a consonant or a diphthongal
vowel, as hverty marty fatty Ijott, ut and the like,
it remsdns unchanged. The old form of the preposi-
tion a t is however retained in certain compounds as
athygli, atkvaedi, atvinna, atorka.
k and c have become g in the personal pronouns,
as eg,mig, f>ig,sig. ok has been changed
to o g , amd ngdk to m j o g . After a vowel, and
at the beginning of sentences, the firat person nom. is
generally pronounced eg* (jeg).
Instead of pennOy pettOy f) e n n a n and f> e 1 1 a 8
are now used, and sometimes f) a u g for f> a u • The
present of hafa is often written eg hef, f)u, hann
h efr.
360. In the formation of words, the modem Ice-
landers have borrowed from other languages the fol-
lowing prefixes,
£e-, as bessdkja, ari-, asanmerkning, for-,
as f o r g y 1 1 a ; and these endings,
'heit, as velborinheit, -istiy as j u r i s t i ,
-ferdugty as si8fer 5ugt, -era, as traktera*
361. All good writers now endeavour to substitute
genuine old words, or words newly formed according
to the genius of the language, for the Danicisms and
160
DIALECTS.
Other innovations which the modems have introduced,
thus:
for vigtugt the J now lay mikilvaBgt, weigkiff^
sl4itning
bdkpryekjmri •
anmerkning
reformera -
hemekja - -
behalda - •
forgylla - -
juristi - •
teolog - .
- dlyktani end^
- pre&tari, fitter,
- athugagrein, obsenatUmf
• endrbsBta^to reform^
■ 8Bkja heiniyto visits
. h a ] d a , (0 retotn,
. gylla, togUdf
la.ga.m A tr f jurist^ [gian.
- ga^frsdiimadr, tAeoZo-
APPENDIX II.
THE RUNIC ALPHABET.
362. The art of writing was known in the North,
long before the introduction of Christianity ; the cha-
acters then used by the Northmen are called Runes
(rii n, pi. runir., runar); they were originally
sixteen in number, and their figures, names and pow-
ers will be found in the table at the end of the appen-
dix.
363. These characters, being by the simplicity of
their forms better adapted for monumental, and other
inscriptions on stone or wood, than the monkish letters
(commonly called Gothic or black-letter) , continued
in use for that purpose long after the North was
christianized. In the mean time, their number was
increased by the addition of the dotted Runes (stung-
n a r r u n i r), and afterwards by four newly invented
characters, which never occur in ancient inscriptions,
and are therefore altogether spurious.
364. In the early Runic orthography, letters were
never doubled ; the words were separated by one,
and occasionally by two points, and the characters
sometimes read from left to iright, sometimes from right
163 RUVIC ALPHABET.
to lefty and sometimes again they were arranged verti-
cally. Besides the common Runes^ there were nu-
merous varieties or modifications of them, among the
principal of which were the Hehing-runes and Beg^
gars^runes. The former consisted of side-sirokes of
the ordinary Runes, the central or perpendicular stroke
being omitted; the latter designation was applied
when the perpendicular stroke was extended to a
sufficient length to receive the sid^ strokes of many
single runes arranged vertically.
Among the best treatises on the Runes may be
mentioned Liljegren's Run-Lara, Stockholm, 1832,
Liljegren's Run-Urkunder, Stockholm, 1833 (printed
sbo as an appendix to the 3 vol. of the Svenskt
Diplomatarium) and many essays by Finn Magnusen
in the Nordisk Tidsskrift for Oldkyndighed, and other
periodicals.
RUNIC ALPHABBf.
The ancient Runes (hinar fornu Ruoir).
GHARA0TSB8. POWSE. NAHSS.
FN F - FTeyTftethegodFreyr; goodsyCat"
t\ U, V, Y (ir storyn^ spark [thy
^ I> (Th) |)6rr, |)ujp8 the God Thor; giant
4 ^ O, (a) 08inn,&s the God Odin; mouth of
il R, - reiS carriageytbunderboU [a river
Y KyG, kaun - (a) iot7
% H, (g) hagl - hail
h 1^ N, - nauS - fetters^ wantj necessity
I I, J, (e) iS - ice
^ + pA .-ar - - year, harvest
i h S, Z s61 (knesol) sun
It T, D T:^r, t^r the God Tyr ; buU
t By P bjarkan birch-cone
h L - logr - watery liquid
Y M - maSr - - man
>k t(ur),(y)^r, aur - bow, money
Dotted Runes (stung nar Runir)
r - . - G
♦ ♦ . - - E
1 . . . D
- - P
♦i ^\
<" L
-'Ut- 6 t944
' ~-*<H^.
■'. J~- ,'"
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